THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
EIGHTH
NINTH
TENTH
ELEVENTH
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volume!, 1788—1771.
< 777 — 178 +-
1788—1797.
1801—1810.
i8ij —1817.
1813—1824.
1830—1842.
x8j3—1860.
1873—1889.
190*—>903.
volume!, 1910—1911.
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in all countries subscribing to the
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by
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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF '
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XII
GICHTEL to HARMONIUM
Cambridge:
at the University Press
1910
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Fetter Lane, London, E.C.
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INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THE VOLUME SO SIGNED.
a. a, a*
A. C. Se.
A. F. P.
A. Go.*
A. G. B *
A. H.-S.
A. He.
A. H.S.
A. J. G.
A. J.H.
A.L.
A. H. (X
A.N.
A. He.
A.S.C.
A. By.
Arthur Alcock Rambaut, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Kadcliffe observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin
and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897.
Albert Charles Seward, M.A., F.R.S. •
Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel-! Gymnospenm.
College, Cambridge. President of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, 1910. [
Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S, t
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the Univorsityl _ . . .
of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901,1'*™*®""
Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Crammer; &c. I
Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. /Grynaeus, Simon;
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \ Hastier. *
| Grant, Robert.
Hon. Archibald Graeme Bell, M.Inst.C.E. f
Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member of Executive-! Guiana,
and Legislative Councils, Inst-C.E. {
Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, C.I.E. f
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. | Gllaa ; Ha m a dan .
Arthur Hervey. (
Formerly Musical Critic to Morning Post and Vanity Fair. Author of M ester s\ Gounod.
of French Music; French Music in the XIX. Century. (
Rev. A. H. Sayce, D.D. /_
See the biographical article, Sayce, A. H. ^Grammar J Gygel.
Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College,
Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore
educational Service.
Alfred James Uifkins.
Formerly Member ni Council and Hon. Curator of Royal ColleRC of Music. Member I '
of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1883; of the Vienna-! Harmonium (in pdfCU
Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Musical Instruments ; 1
A Description and History of the Pianoforte; Ac. *
Haggal (in part).
Andrew Lang.
See the biographical article, Lang, Andrew.
Agnes Mary Clerke.
See the biographical article, Clerke, A. M.
| Camay, Edmund.
{ Halley; Hansen.
Alfred Newton, F.R.S.
See the biograpliical article, Newton, Alfred.
Goatsaeker; Godwit;
Gelden-aye;
Goidflneh; Goose;
Gos-Hawk; Graekle;
■j Grebe; Greenflnoh;
Greeaahank; Grosbeak, ;*"
Groiue; Guacharo; Guan;
Guillemot; Guinea-Fowl;
.Gull; Hammer-Kop.
Alexander Nesbitt, F.S.A.
Author of the Introduction to A
Kensington Museum.
Descriptive Catalogue
of
the Glass Vessels in South
f Glass : History of
| Manufacture (in part).
Aims Summerly Cole, C.B. (
Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author of Ancient) Gold and Silver Thread.
Needle Point and Pillow Lace; Embroidery and Lace; Ornament tie European Siihs; &c. (
Arthur Symons. /Goneourt, De;
See the biographical article, Symons, A. LHardy, T homas.
vi
A. W. H.*
A. W.R
A. W. W.
C.F. A.
C. Gr.
C. H*
C. H. C.
C. H. Ha.
C. J.L.
C.L.*
C.L.K.
C. M.
C. ML
C. M. W.
C.K.
C. R.B.
C. We.
C. W. E.
D. *C. Ta.
D. F. T.
D.G.H.
D. H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Arthur William Holland. /Godfrey of Viterbo;
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ Golden BoD ; HabSbUTg.'
Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.
Pnisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopedia of the
Lame of England,
ADOhetHDS William Ward, LL.D., Litt.D.
See {hedMogntphical article, Ward, A. W.
Charles Francis Atkinson.
Formerly Scholar ol Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, nt City of London (Royal
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
Charles Gross, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. (1857-1909).
Professor ol History at Harvard University, 1888-1909. Author of The Gild
Merchant-, Sources and Literature of English History-, ttc.
Sir C. Hoi.rovd.
See the biographical article, Holroyd, Sir C.
Charles H. Coote.
Formerly of Map Department, British Museum.
Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History m Columbia University, New York City. Member
of the American Historical Association.
Sir Charles James Lyall, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.)
Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Oftiee. Fellow of King's College,
London. Secretary to Government ol India in Home Department, 1889-1894.
Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations
of Ancient Arabic Poetry, &c.
Charles Lai-worth, M.Sc., I.L.D., iLR.S., F.G.S.
Prolussor ol Geology and Physiography in the University of Birmingham. Editor
of Monograph on British Graptolites, Falaoontographical Socioty, 1900-1908.
Charles Lethbridce Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V.
Editor of Chronicles of London, and Stow’s Survey of London.
Carl Theodor Mirbt, D.Th.
Professor ol Church Hisuiry in the University of Marburg. Author of Publieistik
iw Zcitalter Gregor VII .; Quellen sur Geschichte dcs 1 ’apstthums; &c.
Chedomille Mijatovich.
Senator of the Kingdom of Scrvia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-.
potentiary of the King ol Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900 and 1902-
1903.
I Ground Rent;
| Handwriting.
| Greene, Robert.
j Grand Alllandb, War of the
j Grant, Olyoea S. ( in part) ;
(Great Rebellion.
jouds.
{Haden, Sir F. C.
| Hakluyt (in part).
I Gregory: Popes, VIII. to
| XII.; Gulbert.
jllamiia.
Graptolites.
Glendower, Owen;
Gloucester, Humphrey,
Duke of;
Haliam, Bishop;
Hardyng, John.
Gregory VII.
Gundullcb.
Sir Charles Moore Watson, K.C.M.G., C.B. (
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-lnsm-ctor-General of Fortifications, 1896-1902. '• Gordon, General.
Served under General Gordon in the Soudan, 1874-1875. I
Christian Pitster, D.-es-L.
Profeasor at the Sorbonnc, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author-
of Etudes sur Ic ri'gnc de Robert fc Pieux.
Gregory, St, of Tours;
Gunther of Schwarzburg.
CharBes Raymond Beazlev, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. I
Professor ol Modern History in the University ol Birmingham. Formerly Fellow I Qojpgj • Hakluyt
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 1 .. ’ , 1
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of V*" r"’)•
Henry the Navigator-, The Dawn of Modern Geography, &c. (
Cecil Weatherly. f Graffito
Formerly Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Charles William Eliot.
See the biographical article, Eliot, C. W.
Rev. Duncan Crookes Tovey, M.A.
Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray, &c.
| Gray, Asa.
|Gray, Thomas.
Donald Francis Tovey. |_
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The- j GlUOk; HandeL
Goldberg Variations, and analysis of many other classical works. I
David George Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, r888; Naucratis, 1899 and
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905: Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens,
1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
HaUearaanus.
David Hannay.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
rery-r 6 !tS; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c.
Author of Short History of Royal Navy,'
Gondomar, Count;
Grand Alliance, War
thei Naval Operations-,
Quieten; Hamilton, Emma.
D.LLT.
%
D. Mn.
D.B.W.
E. A. F.
E. A.J.
E.B.*
E. Br.
E.C. B.
E. C. Sp.
E. F. G.
E. F. S. 0.
E. G.
E. H. P.
E.J. P.
Ed. M.
E. M. W.
E. 0.*
E. Pr.
E.R
E. S. G.
F. 0.0.
F. O.V B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Daniel Lleufer Thomas.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln’s Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and
Rhondda.
Rev. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A.
• Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive
, Congregational Ideals; &c.
Gkmofguuiiln; Gower.
Glas, John;
GUaUm.
Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart¬
ment of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International and.
Otiicier dc l’lnstruction PubUquo of France. Joint-editor of new volumes (roth
edition) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia -, Egypt and the Egyptian
Question; The Web of Empire; &c.
Glen; Gorchakov.
Edward Augustus Freeman, LL.D.
Sac the biographical article, Freeman, E. A.
|oothi (in part)*
E. Alfred Jones.
Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England; Illustrated Catalogue•
of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of The Royal,
Plate at Windsor Castle; &c.
Golden Roae (in pari).
Ernest Charles Francois Babelon.
Professor at the College de France. Keeper of tho Department of Medals and
Antiquities at the Bibliotlihquc Nationalc. Member of the AcadAmie des Inscrip¬
tions et Belles Lcttres, Pans. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of'
Descriptions historiques des monnaies de la rtpublique romaine; TraiUs des monnaies
grecques el romaines; Catalogue des camtes de la bibliolhique nationals.
Hadrumetum.
Ernest Barker, M.A. f
Fellow ami Lecturer in Modern History at St John’s College, Oxford. Formerly-! Godfrey Of Bouillon.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. I
Rt. Rev. Edward Cutiibert Butler, O.S.B., M.A., D.Litt. (Dublin). [ Gilbert of Somprlnghaiu,
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausaic History of Falladius St;
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. [Gnndmotttines ; Groot
Rev. Edward Clarke Spicer, M.A. f
New College, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, igoo. ^GlUOler.
Edwin Francis Gay, Ph.L). r
Professor of Economics and Dean of the Graduate School of Business Administration,-! HnilMAtlO League.
Harvard University. |
Lady Dilke.
See the biographical article, Dilke, Sir C. W., Bart.
Edmund Gosse, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Gossr., E. W.
Edward Henry Palmer, M.A. «
See the biographical article, Palmer, E. H.
| Greuze.
| Gnome.
-| Hafiz.
Edward John Payne, M.A. (1844-1904). /
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of the Select Works of J o-j «i._|
Burke. Author of History of European Colonies; History of the New World called] vn ei *“U MU
America; The Colonies, in the “British Citizen” Series; &c.
Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon), LL.D. (Chicago). \
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte -! GotHiei.
des Alterthums; Geschichte des Men Acgyptens; Die Israehlen mid ihre Nachbarstdmme. ( 4
Rev. Edward Mewburn Walker, M.A. /Greece : History, Ancient'
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian ol (Jucen’s College, Oxford. \ to Jgf 6 B.c.
Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children’s Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late-
Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author
of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
Goitre; Haemorrhoids.
Edgar Prestage. /
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester.
Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Common-J Goee, Damlko De ;
dador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal] Gonzaga.
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters of a
Portuguese Nun; Aeurara's Chronicle of Guinea; Sic. (
Lord Ixjchee of Gowrie (Edmund Robertson), P.C., LL.D., K.C. f
Civil Lord of the Admiralty, 1892-1895. Secretary to the Admiralty, 1903-1908.-! Ha I lam, Henry.
M.P. for Dundee, 1883-1908. Fellow oi Carpus Christi College, Oxford. I
Edwin Stephen Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S. (
Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichiau Demonstrator of] HaplodlOL
Comparative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford,
Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; See.
Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A.
Fallow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.
j Gregory the morning tor.
{Gotti (in part).
vii
Yin
F.G.S.
F. H. D.
F. H. H.
F. J. H.
F.N.
F.B.C.
T. S. P.
F. W. R.*
G. A. Gr.
G.C.BL
G. C. W.
G.F. Z.
G. G.
G. Sn.
G. S. C.
G. W. E. R.
G. W. T.
H. A. de C.
H. B. Wo.
H.CH.
H. Do.
H. G. EL
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
p q Stephens
' Formerly Art Critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Arttosat Heim; Georee Crush-j r.iw m.
shank-. Mammals of W. M already; French and Flemish Pictures', Sir E. Landseer -1
T. C. Hook, R.A.; &c.
Rev. Frederick Homes Dudden, D.D.
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Theology, Lincoln College, Oxford.
Gregory the Great, his Place in History and Thought-, &c.
Franklin IIenrv Hooper.
Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary.
Francis John Haverfield, M.A., I.L.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenosc College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on
Roman History, esjiecially Roman Britain; Ac.
£;{«
Author of j Gregory L ,
{Hancock, Winfield Soott
Graham’* Dyke.
/
^Greenland.
|goU Coait
Member
off
Hamilton, Alexander.
Fridtjof Nansen.
See the biographical article, Nansf.n, Fridtjof.
Frank R. Cana.
Author of .Sold* Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
Francis Samuel Philbrick, A.M., B.Sc.
Formerly Scholar and Resident Fellow of Harvard University.
American Historical Association.
Frederick William Rudi.er, I.S.O., F.G.S. <
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1903.! GyPeUHlHaematite.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. J
Gkorce Abraham Grierson, C.I.E., Ph.D., D.Litt. (Dublin). f
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of
India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President-! Gujarati and Rajasthani,
of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author
of The Languages of India; Ac. (
George Campbell Macaulay, M.A.
Lecturer m English in the University of Cambridge, Formerly Professor of English I. . .
Language and Literature in the University of Wales. Editor of the Works of John «onn.
Gower; Ac.
George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. (
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard j
Cosway, R.A.; George Englehearl; Portrait Drawings; Ac. Editor of new edition of j'*™ 00 * *“
Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. V
George Frederick Zimmer, A.M.Tnst.C.E. f Gtmmrlm.
Author of Mechanical Handling of Material. I uranaxiSe.
Sir A!.fred George Greenhill, M.A., F.R.S. [
Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnanco College, Woolwich. Examiner
in the University of Wales. Member of the Aeronautical Committee. Author! GyFMCOpa and GyrOltat.
on Notes on Dynamics; Hydrostatics; Differs,ntial^nd Integral Calculus, with Applied- j
<io»s; Ac. I
Grant Showerman, A.M., Pn.D.
Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J
Institute of America. Member of American Philological Association. Author 1 '
With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; Ac.
Sir George Sydenham Clarke, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S. {
Governor of Bombay. Author of Imperial Defence; Russia's Great Sea Power ;! Greco-Turklsh War, 1897.
The Last Great Naval War; Ac. (
Rt. Hon. George William Erskinf, Russell, P.C., M.A., I.L.D. I
Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 1894-1895; for India, 1892-) fii a j m t gmM ui tf
1894. M.P. for Aylesbury, 1880-1885; for North Bods., 1892-1895. Author off w**** 1 ™*! **• ““
Life of W. E. Gladstone; Collections and Recollections; Ac. I
Rev. Griffiths Whf,f.i,er Thatcher, M.A., Tl.D. (H&jjl Khalifa; Hamadhanl,
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.VV. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old j HanflSnl; Hammad
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. [ ar-Bawlya ; Hari ri.
/«
Gnat Mother o( the Gods.
Henry Anselm de Colyar, K.C.
V
Guarantee.
Author of The Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety; Ac.
Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S. f
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. Preai- J Haldlnger, W. K.
dent, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908, 1
[Gosohen, lit Viscount;
Hugh Chisholm, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ) College, Oxford. Editor of tl» nth edition ef{
tlie Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor oi the 10th edition.
Granville, 2nd Earl;
Hamilton, Alexander
(in past);
lHareourt, Sir William.
Hippolyte Df.lehaye, S. J. f
Assistant in the compilation of the BoUandist publications 1 Analecta Bollanditnal GUM, St f Hagiology.
and Aota sanctorum. (
Horatio Gordon Hutchinson. f
Amateur Golf Champion, 1880-1887. Author of Hints on Golf ; Golf (Badcrintont GoB.
Library!; Booh of Golf and Golfers; Ac. I
H. 1. P.
H. Lb.
H.L.H.
H.M.C.
H. M, Wo.
H.B.
H. Sw.
H. S.-K.
H. W. C. D.
H. W. R.*
LA.
J. A. F. M.
J. A. H.
J. A.S.
J. BL
J.Bl
J. D.B.
J.E.S.*
J. FI.*
J. G. C. A.
J.G.R.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
Gfaw.
Hannonle Aialjila.
Gynaeoology.
Author of Studies on Anglo-iootbM : Gothic Language,
oifr.
Harry Tamm Powell, F.C.S.
Of Messrs James Powell A Sons, Whitefriars Glass Works, London. Member of
Committee of six appointed by Board of Education to prepare the scheme for there--
arrangement of the Art Collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Author
ct Glass Making; Ac.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. _ „
* Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and
Assistant -Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Coundl Of Royal'
Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical]
Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; Ac.
•Harriet L. Hennessy, L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I., M.D. (Brux.)
Hector Monro Chadwick, M.A.
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge.
Saxon Institutions.
Harold Mel lor Woodcock, D.Sc.
Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow oil nracarintf s HaamolDOridjR.
University College, London. Author of Haemofiagellates in Sir E. Ray Lankee- j ** ’ ~
tor's Treatise of Zoology, and of various scientific papers. I
Henry Reeve, D.C.L.
See the biographical article, Reeve, Henev.
Henry Sweet, M_A., Ph.D., LL.D. , -
University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of Munich,! vnlulfl, J. L. t.,
Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English Sounds since I Grimm, Wilhelm CarL
the EarHist Period; A Handbook of Phonetics; Ac. t
Sir Henry Seton-Karr, C.M.G., M.A. foun.
M.P. for St. Helen’s, 1885-1906. Author ol My Sporting Holidays; Ac. \
Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. /Gilbert, FoUot; ^
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of AH Souls College, Oxford,-! Gloucester, Robert, Earl Ol l
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [Qroneteete.
Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson, M.A. f
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior KennicottScholar,!
Oxford University, 1901. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline |
Anthropology (in Mansfield College Essays); &c. t
Israel Abrahams, M.A. [Greets ; Habdala ;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President,! u.m,!,, . Jfg]gy|;
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author oi A Short History of Jewish Litera- j (
tore; Jewish Life m the Middle Ages.
|ctibot (in part).
Habakkuk.
[ Haptara; Harlti.
John Alexander Fuller Maitland, M.A., F.S.A. [
Musical Critic of The Times. Author of Life, of Schumann; The Musician's Pilgrim-) n Pov . «• Qaoree
age; Masters of German Music; English Music in the Nineteenth Century; The Age | ' *
of Each and Handel. Editor of new edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music; &c. I
Author ofte U, !? rl0d;
Greensand.
f Graduation.
John Allen Howe, B.Sc.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum cf Practical Geology, London.
The Geology of Building Stones.
John Addington Symonds, LL.D. -fGumrinl.
See the biographical article, Symonds, J. A. ‘
James Blyth, M.A., LL.D.
Formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy, Glasgow and WeBt of Scotland Technical-, *>
College. Editor of Ferguson's Electricity. I*
James Bartlett.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., King's College,. qi.,i h
L ondon. Member of Society oi Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity
Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities.
James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. C® 1 *"* 5 Gu f! a f hy Snd
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe.! atstory . Modem,
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of I Greek Literature l ID.
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. I Modem.
John Edwin Sandys, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D.
Public Orator in thB University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, Cam-,
bridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical Scholar¬
ship; Ac.
John Fisks.
See the biographical article, Fisks, J.
John George Clark Anderson, M.A. f
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College. tGorolMH.
Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. I
John George Robertson, M.A., Ph.D.
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Author 1
History of German Literature; Schiller after a Century; &c. Editor of the Modern |
Language Journal,
John Henry_Freebe, M.A. jOimaatai; OratUn;
Greek Law.
{©Rant, Ulysses &
:-f,
Goeths; GrlBpanar.
Foamerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
IHadtMB (in part).
J.X.V.
X
J.E.B.
J.H.P.
J. HLR.
I. L W.
J. M.M.
J. 5. F.
I T. Be.
J. T. S.*
K. G. J.
K. Kr.
K. S.
L. D.*
L.F.D.
L. F. V.-H.
L. J.S.
L. R.F.
M. .
ka
M. H.S.
H. Je¬
ll. M.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
John Henry Hessels, M.A.
Author of Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation.
John Henry Poynting, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of PIiv sics «ui *1 Deiiii of the Faculty of Science in the University of Sir'
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Joint-author of Text-
Book of Physics. - t
John Holland Rose, M.A., Lm.D. c . . f
lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate.) n „, lr —
Author of Life of Napoleon Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European )
Nations ; The Life of Pitt; &c. '
{ Gloss; Gtttsnberg.
Gravitation ,(in part),
Hiss Jessie Laidlay Weston.
Author ot Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory.
/Grail, The Holy;
\Guenevere.
John Mai.coi,m Mitchell. I urini._
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer m Classics, East London-; Hamilton, SIT William,
College (University ol ixindon). Joint-editor of Grate's History of Greece. [ Bftrt. (it! part)', Harem.
John Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S.
J X _I_a... a-Lx, I'.... l..„;.,„l C
[Glauconite; Gneiss;
Fetrograplier to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin-J n nn ite : Granullte :
burgh University. Weill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsbyj, ’
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
I Gravel; Gnisen; Greywaeke.
J.
Gobi.
John T. Bealby.
Joint author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical [ t
Magasine. Translator of Sven Hcdin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet', &c. 1
. _ _ T> _ [Golden Sow (in part);
James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D. J Goliad •
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. |GuilOt'(f» part)
Kingsley Garland Jayne.
Sometime Scholar ol Wadham College, Oxford.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors .
Mattliow Arnold Prizeman, 1903.-! Goa.
■I-
Karl Krumbachf.r.
See the biographical article, KRUMBACHER, Carl.
Miss Kathleen Schlesinger.
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology.
Orchestra; Ac.
Author of The Instruments of the
/Greek Literature:
l II. Byzantine.
Glockenspiel; Gong;
Guitar; Guitar Fiddle;
Guila; Harmonica;
Harmonlehord;
Harmonium (in part).
{Gregory: Popes, IL-VL
Louis Duciiesne.
See the biographical article, Duchesne, L. M. O.
Lewis Foreman Day, F.S.A. (1845-1909). [
Formerly Vice-President of the Society of Arts. Past Master of the Art Worker*’-! Glass, Stained.
Gild. Author of Windows, a booh about Stained Glass; Sec. I
Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. (1859-1907). *■ [
Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London. Author) jj-.- .. .
of Kwers and Canals; Harbours and Hocks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con-j
struct ion; &c. I
Leonard James Spencer, M.A. [Goniometer; Gfithlte ;
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar I r-mnhlta j, ar A ■
ol Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harknesff Scholar. Editor of the | ” F I ’
Mineralogicut Magazine. (Groonockite.
Lewis Richard Farnell, M.A., Litt.D.
Feljpw and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford; University Lecturer in Classical
Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Author of Cults of the
Greek States; Evolution of Religion.
Lord Macaulay.
See the biographical article, Macaulay, T. B. M., Baron.
Moses Gaster, Ph.D. [
Chief Rabbi ol the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, iBqK, iBgq, igoo. Ilcliester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine-. Gipsies,
Literature, 188(1 and 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, |
Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c. (
Marion H. Spielmann, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter¬
national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-
British Exhibition, London. Author of Ilistorv of "Punch"; British Portrait
Painting to the opening of the Nineteenth Century ; Works of G. p. Watts, R.A.;
British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day ; Henrietta Rouner; &c.
Morris Jastrow, Jun., Ph.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; Sec.
Max Arthur Macauuffe.
Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of The Sikh Religion, its Gurus.] r-rmnth
Sacred Writings and Authors; Sec. Editor of Life ot Guru Nanak, in the Punjabi*
language.
Greek Religion.
{Goldsmith, Oliver.
Gilbert, Alfred
Greenaway, Kate.
Author of lyesh, Eple of;;
«a{*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
M. H. T.
%
M.O.B.C.
M.P.
M.P.*
O. Ba.
P. A.
P. A. A.
P. C. Y.
P.G.
P. Gl.
P.G.K.
P. G. T.
P. La.
P. McC.
B. A. W.
R. A. EL B.
r.cu.
R.J.1L
H.L.*
R. H. B.
Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A.
Fellow ud Tutor oi Oriel College, Oxford.
University Lecturer in Epigraphy.-! Gythkun.
( Greece: History:
Rumtitorltiin* ; AD>
Hannibal.
forotius.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspaju, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University.
• ham University, 1905-1908.
Mark Pattison.
Sec the biographical article, Pattison, Manx.
•Leon Jacques Maxime Prinet. (
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archivos. Auxiliary of the Institute! GOUffler ; HVMDlt
of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). (
Oswald Barron, F.S.A. 1
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the! Girdle. ,
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. [
Paul Daniel Alphandery. f
Professor of the History of Dogma, Roole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonnc,! Gonsalo de Beroeo.
Paris. Author of Les lilies morales dies les htttrodoxes lattnes au dibut du XIII' slide. (
Philip A. Ashworth, M.A., Doc. Juris.
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H.R. von Gncist's History
of the English Constitution.
Gnebt.
Gunpowder Plot;
Halifax, 1st Marquees of;
Hamilton, 1st Duke oL
Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
Percy Gardner, M.A. t
See the biographical article, Gardner, Percy. 1 Greek Art.
Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. ,
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J Greek Lugnate ;
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo -1 H
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. I
Paul George Konody.
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist A Hah , Frans
list.- I
f Hamilton, Sir William
\ Rowan.
■are i_nuc 01 me uoserver ana me uauy Matt, formerly Editor
Author of The Art of Walter Crane ; Velasques, Life and Work: &c.
Peter Guthrie Tait, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Tait, Peter Guthrie.
Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly (_ - ,
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian I “ r ® #0 * : Geology,
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser’s Comparative Geology. |
Primrose McConnell, F.G.S. r
Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer: &c. j® 1 ** 1 OmOML
Colonel Robert Alexander Wahab, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. (
Formerly H. M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary I H-limitation. Served with TirahJ
Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission I
Pamirs, 1895. (,
Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A. !.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora-! :
tion Fund. (G
Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb, LL.D., D.C.L. fGreek Literatim •
See the biographical article, Jehu, Sir R. C. | j Ancient
f Cowrie) 3rd Earl of;
Gratton, Henry;
Green Ribbon Clnb; *
Gymntstles;
Hareourt, 1st Vbeoant;
v Hardwloke, 1st Earl 0 1
Richard Lydekker, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 1 . ollltton .
Member of the Staff of the G«.logical Survey of India. 1874-1882. Author of I o, VBtod ’ .
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of] i? 1 *'',, , 1 * —■
all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. (Gorilla; Hamster; Han.
Gilead; Gilgali
1 Goshen.
Ronald John McNeill, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St lames's
Gasette, London.
Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian Bntish Museum, 1883-1909. Author oi Scandinavia, the.
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513—1QOC ; The First Romanovs J
1613-1723; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from labaS
to r/6p; tec. ' ror;
H. 8. T.
Ralph Stockman Tarr.
Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University.
Golltiuln, Boris, Dmitry
and Vasily;
Golovin, Count;
Gdlovkin, Count;
Gortx, Baron von;
GriffenfeMt, Count;
Gustav us I., and IV.
GyHenstJerna;
Hall, C. C.
| Grand Canyon.
• •
XU
B. Wa.
8.A.C.
S.BL
8. C.
StC.
S. N.
••T.Al
T. A.J.
T.Ba.
T. E.»
T.F.G
T. H. H*
T. K
T.Se.
V. H. 8.
W. A. B. 0.
W. A. t.
W. Bo.
W.Bu.
w.r.c.
W.G.M.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Editor of The Elegies of\ Gnat Amrimlng.
jHaDgrtmuon.*
j Giorgione; Giotto.
Madame.
•j Gravitation (in pari),
[ Girgenti; Gnatia;
Corresponding Member Grottllwrata:
Richard Webster, A.M. (Princeton).
Formerly Fellow m Clauios, Princeton University.
Maximianus; &c.
Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.
Editor lor Palestine Exploration Fond. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew andj n|jju, n
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip -1
lions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament
History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
SlGFUS Bl.oNDAL.
Librarian of the University of Copenhagen.
Sidney Colvin, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Colvin, Sidney.
Viscount St. Cyrf-s.
See the biographical article, Iddesleigh, ist Earl of.
Simon Newcomb, LL.D., D.Sc.
See the biographical article, Newcomb, Simon.
Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt., F.S.A.
Director of the British School ol Archaeology at Rome.
ol the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar "of Christf
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo- 1
graphy of the Roman Camfmgna; die. \
Thomas Athol Joyce, M.A. f
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec., Royals Hamltlc Races (I,).
Anthropological Institute. i
Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P. i
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council I
ol tlie Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems' 1 v " uouu “*
of International Practice and Diplomacy; Ax. M.P. tor Blackburn, 1910. I
Thomas Erskine Holland, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D.
Fellow ol the British Academy. Fellow of A 11 Souls College, Oxford. Professor I
of International Law in the University of Oxford. 1874-1910. Bencher of Lincoln's^' n-n William EL
Inn. Author ol Studies in International Law, The Elements of Jurisprudence ;| ’
Alberta Gcnlihr, dc jure belli; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties in a Maritime
War; &c.
Theodore Freylinc.iiuysen Collier, Ph.D. I Gragory: Popes,
Assistant Professor ol History, Williams College, Willi amstown, Mass., U.S.A. ^ XIII. — XV»
Sir Thomas IIungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S. (
Colonel in tlie Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 189B-J Gllglt J
1898. Gold Medallist, K.G.S. (London) 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Persu-| Harl-Rud.
Beiuch Boundary, 1890. Author of The Indian borderland, The Gates of India; &c. I
Grumentum; Gubblo;
Hadrla; Halaesa.
Hadrian (in pari).
Gilbert, Sir W. S.
Thomas Kirkup, M.A., LL.D.
Author ol An Inquiry into Socialism; Printer of Socialism ; &e.
Thomas Seccombe, M.A. [
Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. I
Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant Editor of Dictionary of\ 1
National Biographv,iH<)i-igoi. Author of The Age of Johnson', &c.; Joint-author
of The Bookman History of English Literature. L
Rev. Vincent Henry Stanton, M.A., D.D. . r
Ely Professor ol Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of Ely and Fellow J
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author ol The Gospels as Historical Documents; 1 “
The Jewish and the Christian Messiahs ; &e. I
Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern), [Gtojus ’^
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxlord. Prolessor of English History, St David's| nailBinsieitt ,
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphint; The Range of\ GltlSS® J Grenoble ;
the Todt; Guide to Gn'ndelwald ; Guide to Switzerland ; The Alps in Nature and in | Grindelwald J Grisons;
History, &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. I Gruner, G. S.; Gruyere.
Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. /Girondists; Goethe:
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,-j Descendants of ;
Oxford. Author of Modem Europe ; &c. (Greek Independence, War of.
Wilhelm Bousset, D.Th.
Professor ol New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen.
Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend ; &c.
Author ol | Gnosticism.
William Burnside. M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
ITofessor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Hon. Fellow
Pembroke College, Cambridge. Author of The Theory of Groups of Finite Order.
ofji
Groups, Thaary ol.
William FeildEn Ceaies, M.A. (
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College,! HklWUI Corpus;
London. Author of Grates on Statute Law. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading] Hanging.
(igrd edition). 1
Walter George McMillan, F.C.S., M.I.M.F.. (d. 1904).
Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers and Lecturer on Metal¬
lurgy, Mason College, Birmingham. Author erf A Treatise on Electro-Metallurgy.
joraplrito (tVt part),
W. Ha
W.H.B*.
W. H. F.*
W. J. F.
W. MoD.
W.M.B.
W.M.R.
W.P.A.
W. P.R
W. R
W.Bi.
W. Bn.
W.B.D
W. B. E. H.
W. B. S.
W. B. S. B.
W. W. B.*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
Rev. WittiAM Hunt, M.A., Litt.D. t
President oi Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of History of English ]„
Church, S97-S906] The Church of England in the Middle Ages-, Political History of\ *
England 1J60-1S0/. I
William Henry Bennett, M.A., D.D., D.Lirr. (Cantab.). r
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. J . Ham.
* Formerly Follow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 *
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets', &c. 1
William Henry Fairbrother, M.A. [
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of Philosophy -j until] Thomas H1U.
* of Thomas Hill Green , l
William Justice Ford (d. 1904). (
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. Head Master of Loaraingtonj Grace, W> G.
College. I
William McDougall, M.A. (
Roader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Author of A Primer 1 Hallucination.
of Physiological Psychology, An Introduction to Social Psychology, &c. (.
W. Max Muller, Ph.D.
Professor of Exegesis in the R.E. Seminary, Philadelphia.
Europa nach den Aegptischcn Denkmdlem; &c.
William Michael Rossetti.
See tile biographical article, Rossbiti, Dante G.
Author of Asien und
(Hamltio Bacas 1
| II. Languages ,
/ Giullo Bomano; Gouoll;
\Guido Beni.
Lieut.-Coi.onel William Patrick Anderson, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. (
Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the j Great Lakes.
Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. (,
Hon. William Pf.mber Reeves.
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education; Labour and Justice, New
Zealand, 1891-189O. Author of The Long White Cloud : a History of New Zealand ;
&c.
Grey, Sir George.
Whitf.law Reid, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Reid, Whitelaw.
[Greeley, Horace.
William Ridgeway, M.A., D.Sc. /
Professor oi Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brcreton Reader in Classics. I
Fellow oi Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow oi the British Academy.-! Hallstatt.
President of Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908, President of Anthropological
Section, British Association, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece, &c. J
W. Rosenhain, D.Sc.
Superintendent of the Metallurgical Department, National Physical Laboratory, (Glass [in pan),
Wyndham Rowland Dunstan, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Director of (he Imperial Ills' ilLite. President of the International Association of r „ p. r .u.
Tropical Agriculture. Member of the Advisory Committee for Tropical Agriculture,! Guua-rcrcoa.
Colonial Office.
William Richard Eaton Hodgkinson, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.C.S.
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentm-
Hodgkinson’s Practical Chemistry &c.
(Gun Cotton
[Gunpowder.
William Robertson Smith, LL.D.
Sue the biographical article, Smith, William Robertson.
William Ralston Siieddf.n-R ai.ston, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of l’rinted Hooks, British Museum.
Folk Tales; &c.
[ Haggal (in part).
Author of Russian/ Gogol.
William Walter Rockwell, D.Ph. -foreinrv XVL
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New york.\ ur " orjl A ""
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Gliding.
Goat.
Grlqualand East and
Gwalior.
Ginger.
Gold.
West.
Haddingtonshire,
ftironde.
Goldbeating.
Guanches.
Hair.
GladlatoA.
Gotland.
Guards.
Haiti.
Glasgow.
Gourd.
Guatemala.
Halo.
Glastonbury.
Government.
Guelphi and Ghibeliines.
Hamburg.
Gloucestershire.
Grain Trade.
Guiaeum.
Hamlet.
Glove. .
Granada.
Guillotine.
Hampshire.
Glucose.
Grasses.
Guise, House of.
Hampton Hoadl
Glue.
Glycerin,
Groat Salt Lake.
Gum.
Hanover.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XII
X
GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG (1638-1710), German mystic,
fwas bom at Regensburg, where his father was a member of
fsenate, on the 14th of March 1638. Having acquired at school
'nan acquaintance with Greek, Hebrew, Syriac and even Arabic,
me proceeded to Strassburg to studv theology ; but finding
the theological prelections of J. S. Schmidt and P. J. Spener
■j distasteful, he entered the faculty of law. He was admitted
'■ an advocate, first at Spires, und then at Regensburg ; but
t having become acquainted with the baron J ustinianus von
’ Welte (1621-1668), a Hungarian nobleman who cherished
schemes for the reunion of Christendom and the conversion
of the world, and having himself become acquainted with
another world in dreams and visions, he abandoned all interest
’ in his profession, and became an energetic promoter of the
“ Christerbaulichc Jcsusgesellschaft" or Christian Edification
. Society of Jesus. The movement in its beginnings provoked at
least no active hostility ; but when Gichtel began to attack the
teaching of the Lutheran clergy and church, especially upon the
fundamental doctrine of justification by faith, he exposed him-
self to a prosecution which resulted in sentence of banishment
and confiscation (1665). After many months of wandering and
; occasionally romantic adventure, he reached Holland in January
i 1667, and settled at Zwolle, where he co-operated with Friedrich
Breckling (1629-1711), who shared his views and aspirations,
j Having become involved in the troubles of this friend, Gichtel,
{after a period of imprisonment, was banished for a term of year'
{from Zwoll", but finally in 1668 found a home in Amsterdam
{where he made the acquaintance of Antoinette Bourignoi
j(»6r6-i68o), and in a state of poverty (which, however, neve
pecame destitution) lived out his strange life of visions am
{day-dreams, of prophecy and prayer. He became an arden
Jdisciplecif Jakob Boehme, whose works he published in 168:
{(Amsterdam, 2 gpls.); but before the time of his death, on th<
mst of January 1710, he had attracted to himself a small banc
pf followers known as Gichtelians or Brethren of the Angels, whc
propagated certain views at which he had arrived independently
®f Boehme. Seeking ever to hear the authoritative voice ol
God within them, and endeavouring to attain to a life altogcthei
free from carnal desires, like that of “ the angels in heaven, whc
neither marry nor are given in marriage,” they claimed tc
exercise a priesthood “ after the order of Melchizedek,” appeasing
the wrath of God, and ransqpiing the souls of the lost by sufferings
endured vicariously aftor.the example of Christ. While, however,
Boehme “ desired to remain a faithful son of the Church,” the
Gichtelians became Separatists (cf. J. A. Domer, History of
Protestant Theology, ii. p. 185).
Gichtels correspondence was published without his knowledge
by Gottfried Arnold, a disciple, in 17m (2 vols.), and again in 1708
(3 vols.). ft has been frequently reprinted under the title Theosophia
practica. The seventh volume of the Berlin edition (1788) contains
a notice of Gichtel s life. See also G. C. A. von Harless, Jahob
tiohmt und du r Alchimisten (1870, 2nd ed. 1882); article in All-
genuine dcutschc Biographic.
GILDINGS, JOSHUA REED(i79s-i86>4), American statesman,
prominent in the anti-slavery conflict, was barn at Tioga Point,
now Athens, Bradford county, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of.
October 1795. In 1806 his parents removed to Ashtabula
county, Ohio, then sparsely settled and almost a wilderness.
The son worked on his father's farm, and, though he received
no systematic education, devoted much time to- study and
reading. For several years after 1814 he was a school teacher,
but in February 1821 he was admitted to the Ohio bar and soon
obtained a large practice, particularly in criminal cases. From
1831 to 1837 he was in partnership with Benjamin F. Wade,
lie served in the lower house of the state legislature in 1826-182%*
and from December 1838 until March 1859 was a member of
the national House of Representatives, first as a Whig, .then
as a Free-soiler, and finally as a Republican. Recognizing that
slavery was a state institution, with which the Federal govern¬
ment had no authority to interfere, he contended that slavery
could only exist by a specific state enactment, that therefore ,
slavery in the District of Columbia and in the Territories was un¬
lawful and should be abolislied, that the coastwise slave-trade in
vessels flying the national flag, like the international slave-trade,
should be rigidly suppressed, and that Congress had no poweMc
pass any act which in any way could be construed as a recognition
of slavery as a national institution. His attitude in the so-called
“Creole Case” attracted particular attention. In 4841 some
slaves who were being carried in the brig “ Creole ” from
Hampton Roads, Virginia, to New Orleans, revolted, killed; the
captain, gained possession of the vessel, and soon afterwards
entered the British port of Nassau. Thereupon, .according, to
British law, they became free. The minority who.had taken an
active part in the revolt were arrested on a charge of murder,,
and the others were liberated. Efforts were made by the United
States government to recover the slaves, Daniel Webster, then
secretary of state, asserting that on an American ship they were
under the jurisdiction of the United States and that they were
legally property. On the 21st of March 1842, before the case
xn. 1
GIDEON—GIERS
was settfcd, Giddings introduced in the House of Representatives
a series of resolutions, in Which he asserted that “ in resuming
their natural rights of personal liberty ” the slaves “violated no
law of the United States.” For offering these resolutions Giddings
was attacked with rancour, and was formally censured by the
House. Thereupon he resigned, appealed to his constituents,
and was immediately re-elected by a large majority. In
1859 he was apt renominated, and retired from Congress after
a continuous servioa of rhore than twenty years. From 1861
until his death, at Montreal, on the 27th of May 1864, he
was U.S. consul-general in Canada. Giddings published a series
of political essays signed “ I’acificus ” (1843); Speeches in
Congress (1853); The Exiles »/ Florida (1858); and a History
oj the Rebellion : Its Authors and Causes (1864).
See The l.ijc of Joshua It. Giddtn/s (Chicago, iHyj), by his son-in-
law, George Washington Julian (1817-1800), a Free-soil leader and a
representative in Congress in !8.)o 1851, a Republican representative
in Congress in 1801-1871, a Liberal Republican in the campaign ot
1871, and aftei wards a 1 lemocrat.
GIDEON (in Hebrew, perhaps “ hewer ” or “ warrior ”),
liberator, reformer and “ judge ” of Israel, was the son of Joash,
of the Manassite elan of Abiezer, and had his home at Ophrah
near Shechem. His name occurs in Heb. xi. 32, in a list of those
who became heroes by faith; but, except in Judges vi.-viii.,
is not to be met with elsewhere in the Old Testament. He lived
at a time when the nomad trilx's of the south and east made
inroads upon Israel, destroying all that they could not carry
away. Two accounts of his deeds arc preserved (see Judges).
According to one (Judges vi. 11-24) Yuhwch appeared under
the holy tree which was in the possession of J oash and summoned
Gideon to undertake, in dependence on supernatural direction
and help, the work of liberating his country from its long oppres¬
sion, and, in token that he accepted the mission, he erected in
Ophrah an altar which he called “ Yahweh-Shalom ” (Yahweh
is peace). According to another account (vi. 25-32) Gideon was
a great reformer who was commanded by Yahweh to destroy
the altar of Baal belonging to his father and the ashlrah or
sacred post by its side. The townsmen discovered the sacrilege
and demanded his death. His father, who, as guardian of the
sacred place, was priest of Baal, enjoined the men not to take
up Baal’s quarrel, for “ if Baal be a god, let him contend (rib) for
himself.” Hence Gideon received the name Jerubhaal.' From
this latter name appearing regularly in the older narrative
(cf. ix.), and from the varying usage in vi.-viii., it has been held
that stories of two distimit heroes (Gideon and Jerubhaal) have
been fused in the complicated account which follows. 11
The great gathering of the Midianites and their allies on the
north side of the plain of Jezreet; the general muster first of
•“Abiezer, then of all Manasseh, and lastly of the neighbouring
tribes of Asher, Zebulun and Naphtali; the signs by which the
wavering faith of Gideon was steadied; the methods by which
an unwieldy mob was reduced to a small but trusty band of
energetic and determined men ; and the stratagem by which
rfhe vast army of Midian was surprised and routed by the handful
of Israelites descending from “ above Kndor,” are indicated
fully in the narratives, and need not be detailed here. The
difficulties in the account of the subsequent flight of the Midian¬
ites appear to have arisen from the composite character of
the narratives, and there are signs that in one of them Gideon
was aooompanied only by his own clansmen (vi. 34). So, when
the Midianites are put to flight, according to one representation,
the Ephraimites are called out to intercept them, and the two
chiefs, Orth ( 4I raven ”) and Zefib ("wolf”), in making for the
fords of the Jordan, are slain at “ the raven's rock ” and “ the
wolfs press * respectively. A* the sequel of this we are told
that the Ephraimites quarrelled with Gideon because their
assistance fad not been invoked earlier, and their anger was
1 " Baal contends" (or Jeru-boal, “Baal founds," cf. Jrru-el),
but artificially explained in the narrative to mean “ let Baal contend
against him,” or " let Baal contend for himself,” v. 31. In 2 Sam.
xi. zi he Is called. Jerubbesheth, in accordance with the custom
explained in the article Baal.
’ See, on this, Chryne, Enry. Bib. col. 1719 seq.; Ed. Meyer ,Die
JtraeliUM, pp. 482 seq.
only appeased by his tactful reply (viii. 1-3; contrast xii. 1-6).
The other narrative speaks of the pursuit of the Midianite chiefs
Zebah and Zalmunna 8 across the northern end of Jordaff, past
Succoth and Penuel to the unidentified place Ifarfcor. Having
taken relentless vengeance on the men of' Penuel and Succoth,
who had shown a - timid neutrality when the patriotic struggle
was at its crisis, Gideon puts the two chiefs to death to avenge
his brothers whom they had killed at Tabor. 4 The overthrow
of Midian (cf. Is. ix. 4, x. 26; Ps. lxxxiii. 9-12) induced “ Israel ”
to offer Gideon the kingdom. It was refusefi—out of religious
scruples (viii. 22 seq.; cf. 1 Sam. viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12,17,19), and
the ephod idol which he set up at Ophrah in commemoration
of the victory was regarded by a later editor (v. 27) as a cause
of apostasy to thg people and a snare to Gideon and hi* house ;
see, however, Ephod. Gideon's achievements .would naturally
give him a more than merely local authority, and after his death
the attempt was made by one uf his sons to set himself up as
chief (see Abimelech).
Sec further Jaws, section 1 ; ami the literature to the book of
Judges. (S. A. C.)
GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED ANDREAS (1820-1881),
German zoologist and palaeontologist, was bom on the 13th of
September 1820 at Quedlinburg in Saxony, and educated at
the university of Halle, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1845. In
1858 he became professor of zoology and director of the museum
in the university of Halle. He died at Ilalle on the 14th of
November 1881. His chief publications were Paldocoologie
(1846); Fauna der Vorwelt (1847-1856); Deulschlands Petre-
facten (1852); Odontographie (1855); Lehrbuek der Zoologic
(1857); Thesaurus vrmlhologiae (1872-1877).
GIEN, a town of central France, capitul of an arrondissement
in the department of Loiret, situated on the right bank of the
Loire, 39 m. E.S.E. of Orleans by rail. Pop. (1906) 6325. Gien
is a picturesque and interesting town and has many curious old
houses. The Loire is here crossed by a stone bridge of twelve
arches, built by Anne de Beaujeu, daughter of Louis XI., about
the end of the 15th century. Near it stands a statue of Ver-
cingetorix. The principal building is the old castle used as a
law-court, constructed of brick and stone arranged in geometrical
patterns, and built in 1494 by Anne de Beaujeu. The church
of St Pierre possesses a square tower dating from the end of the
15th century. Porcelain is manufactured.
GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE (1820-1895), Russian
statesman, was bora on the 21st of May 1820. Like his pre¬
decessor, Prince Gorchakov, he was educated at the lyceum of
Tsarskoye Selo, near St Petersburg, but his career was much less
rapid, because be had no influential protectors, and was handi¬
capped by being a Protestant of Teutonic origin. At the age
of eighteen he entered the service of the Eastern department
of the ministry of foreign affairs, and spent more than twenty
years in subordinate posts, chiefly in south-eastern Europe,
until he was promoted in 1863 to the post of minister pleni¬
potentiary in Persia, Here he remained for six years, and,
after serving as a minister in Switzerland and Sweden, he was
appointed in 1875 director of the Eastern department and
assistant minister for foreign affairs under Prince Gorchakov,
whose niece he had married. No sooner had he entered on his
new duties than his great capacity for arduous work was put
to a severe test. Besides events in central Asia, to which be
had to devote much attention, the Herzegovinian insurrection
had broken out, and he could perceive from secret official papers
that the incident had far-reaching ramifications unknown to
the general public. Soon this became apparent to all the world.
While the Austrian officials in Dalmatia, with hardly a pretence
of concealment, were assisting the insurgents, Russian volunteers
were flocking to Servia with the connivance of the Russian and
Austrian governments, and General Ignatiev, as ambassador in
1 The names are vocalised to suggest the fanciful interpretations
" victim " and " protection withheld."
4 As the account of this has been lost and the narrative is concerned
not with the plain of Jezreel but rathe,- with Shechem, it has been
inferred that the episode implies the existence of a distinct story
wherein Gideon's pursuit is snch an act of vengeance.
GIESEBRfiCHT*—GIEJSBUJR
Constantinople, was urging his government to take advantage
of the palpable weakness of Turkey for bringing about a radical
sbfetttnot the Eastern question. Prince Gorchakov did not want
a radical solution 'involving a great European war, but he was too
fond Of ephemeral popularity to stem the current of popular
excitement. Alexander II., personally averse from war, was
not insensible to the*patriotic enthusiasm, and baited between
two opinions. M. de Giera was one of the few who gauged the
situation accurately'. As ah official and a man of non-Russian
extraction he hacUto be extremely reticent, but to his intimate
friends he condemned severely the ignorance and light-hearted
recklessness of those around him. The event justified his sombre
previsions, but did not cure the recklessness of the so-called
patriots. .They wished to defy Europe in order to maintain
intact the treaty of San Stefano, and again M. de Giers found
himself in an unpopular minority. He had to remain in the back¬
ground, but all the influence he possessed was thrown into the
scale of peace. His views, energetically supported by Count
Shuvalov, flhally prevailed, and the European congress assembled
at Berlin. He was not present at the congress, and consequently
escaped the popular odium for’ the concessions which Russia
had to make to Great Britain and Austria. From that time he
was practically minister of foreign affairs, for Prince Gorchakov
was no longer capable of continued intellectual exertion, and
ljved mostly abroad. On the death of Alexander II. in 1881 it
was generally expected that M. de Giers would lie dismissed
as deficient in Russian nationalist feeling, for Alexander III.
was credited with strong anti-German Slavophil tendencies.
In reality the young tsur had no intention of embarking on wild
political adventures, and was fully determined not to let his hand
be forced by men less cautious than himself. What he wanted
was a minister of foreign affairs who would be at once vigilant
and prudent, active and obedient, and who would relieve him
from the trouble and worry of routine work while allowing him
to control the main lines, and occasionally the details, of the
national policy. M. de Giers was exactly what he wanted,
and accordingly the tsar not only appointed him minister of
foreign affairs on the retirement of I’nnce Gorchakov in 1882,
but retained him to the end of his reign in 1894. In accordance
with the desire of his august master, M. de Giers followed system¬
atically a pacific policy. Accepting as a fait accompli the existence
of the triple alliance, created by Bismarck for the purpose of
resisting any aggressive action on the part of Russia and France,
he sought to establish more friendly relations with the cabinets
of Berlin, Vienna and Rome. To the advances of the French
government he at first turned a deaf ear, hut when the rapproche¬
ment between the two countries was effected with little or no
co-operation on his part, he utilized it for restraining France and
promoting Russian interests. He died on the 26th of January
1895, soon after the accession of Nicholas II. (p, m W)
GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VOR (1814-1889), German
historian, was a son of Karl Giesebrecht (d. 1832), and a nephew
of the poet Ludwig Giesebrecht (1792-1873).» Born in Berlin
on the 5th of March 1814, he studied under Leopold von Ranke,
and his first important work, Geschiehte Ottos 11 ., was contributed
to Ranke’s Jdhrbiicher dcs deutschen Reichs tinier dent sSchsisehen
flausr (Berlin, 1837-1840). In 1841 he published his Jahrbiicher
dcs Klostcrs Altaich, a reconstruction of the lost A males Alta-
henses, a medieval source of which fragments only were known
to be extant, and these were obscured in other Chronicles. The
brilliance of this performance was shown in 1867, when a copy
of the original Chronicle was found, and it was seen that Giese-
brecht’s text was substantially correct. In the meantime he had
been appointed Oberlehrer in the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium
in Berlin; had paid a visit to Italy, and as a result of his re¬
searches there, had published De lilterarum studiis apud halos
pritnis medit aehi seculis (Berlin, 1845), a study upon the survival
of culture in Italian cities during the middle ages, and also
several critical essays upon the sources for the early history of
the popes. In 1851 appeared his transtetion of the Historiae
of Gregory Of Tours, whiA is the standard German translation.
Four yean later appeared the first volume of his great work.
$
Geechidtte .for deutschen K(usersett, the fifth volume which
was published in 188&. This work was the first in which the
results of the scientific roethodsof research were thrown open to
the world at large. Largeness of style and brilliance of portrayal
were joined to an absolute mastery of the sources in a way
hitherto unachieved by any German historian. Vet later
German historians have severely criticized his glorification of
the imperial era with its Italian entanglements, in which the
interests of 'Germany were sacrificed for idle .glory. Gieeebrecht’s
history, however, appeared when the new German empire, was
in the making, and became [popular owing both to its patriotic
tone and its intrinsic merits. In 1857 he went to Kbnigsberg as
professor ordinarius, and in tS(a succeeded H. von Sybel as
professor of history in the university of Munich. The Bavarian
government honoured him in various ways, and he died at Munich
on the 17th of December 1889. l n addition to the works already
mentioned, Giesebrecht published a good monograph on Arnold
of Brescia (Munich, 1873), a collection of essays under the title
Deutsche Reden (Munich, 1871), and was an active member
of the group of scholars who took over the direction of the
Monumenta Germattiae historica in 1875, In 1895 B. von
Simson added a sixth volume to the Geschiehte for dtutschm
Kaiscneit, thus bringing the work down to the death of the
emperor Frederick 1. in 1190.
See S. Riezler, GedOchtnisrede auf Wilhelm von Giesebrecht (Munich,
1891); and Lord Acton in the English Historical Review, voL v.
(London, 1890).
GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG (1792-1854), German
writer on church history, was bom on the 3rd of March 1792 at
Petershagen, near Minden, where his father, Georg Christof
Friedrich, was preacher. In his tenth year he entered the
orphanage at Halle, whence he duly passed to the university,
his studies being interrupted, however, from October 1813 till
the peace of 1815 by a period of military service, during which
he was enrolled as a volunteer in a regiment of chasseurs. On
the conclusion of peace (1815) he returned to Halle, and, having
in 1817 taken his degree in philosophy, he in the same year
became assistant head master ( Conrector ) in the Minden gym¬
nasium, and in 1818 was appointed director of the gymnasium
at Cleves. Here he published his earliest work (ttestoriscli-
krilischer Versuch tiber die Entstehmg u. die friihesten Sckicksale
der schrijtlichen Evangeliert), a treatise which had considerable
influence on subsequent investigations as to the origin of the
gospels. In T819 Gieseler was appointed a professor ordinarius
in theology in the newly founded university of Bonn, where,
besides lecturing on church history, he made important con¬
tributions to the literature of that subject in Ernst Rosenmulier’s
Repertorium, K. F. Staudlin and H. G. Tschimer’s Arehiv,
and in various university “ prograftns." The first part of tWP
first volume of his well-known Church History appeared in 11824,
In 1831 he accepted a call to GdttingenVs successor to J. G.
Planck. He lectured on church history, the history of dogma,and
dogmatic theology. In 1837 he was appointed a Conststorial-
rath, and shortly afterwards was created a knight of the Gueiphfe
order. He died on the 8th of July 1854. The fourth and fifth
volumes of the Kirchengeschichte, embracing the period sub¬
sequent to 1814, were published posthumously in 1855 by E. R.
Rcdepenning (1810-1883); and they were followed In 1856 by
a Dogmengeschichte, which is sometimes reckoned as the sixth
volume of the Church History. Among church historians
Gieseler continues to hold a high place. Less vivid and pictur¬
esque in style than Karl Hase, conspicuously deficient in
Neander’s deep and sympathetic insight into the more spiritual
forces by which church life is pervaded, he excels these and all
other contemporaries in the fulness and accuracy of his informa¬
tion. His Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, with its copious
references to original authorities, is of great value to the student:
“ Gieseler wished that each age should speak for itself, since
only by this means can the peculiarity of its ideas be fully
appreciated ” (Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology, p. 284).
The work, which has passed through several editions imGermany,
'has partially appeared also in two English translations. That
GIESSEN—GIFFORD, K. S.
published in New York (Text Book of
t vols.) brines the work down to the peace of Westphalia, while
that published in “ Clark’s Theological Library ” (Compendium
of Ecclesiastical History, Edinburgh, 5 vols ) clos “ w , th j“, t
beginning of the Reformation. Gieseler was not only a devoted
student but also an energetic man of business. He frequently
held the office of pro-rector of the university, and did much
useful work as a member of several of its committees.
GIESSEN, a- town of Germany, capital of the province of
Upper Hesse, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is situated
in a beautiful and fruitful valley at the confluence of the Wieseck
with the Lahn, 41 m. N.N.W. of Frankfort-on-Main on the
railway to Cassel, and at the junction of important lines to
Cologne and Coblenz. Pop. (1885) >8,836; (> 9 ° 5 ) * 9 ;> 49 - In
the old part of the town the streets are narrow and irregular.
Besides the university, the principal buildings are the Stadt-
kirche, the provincial government offices, comprising a portion
of the old castle dating from the 12th century, the arsenal (now
barracks) and the town-hall (containing an historical collection).
The university, founded in 1607 by Louis V., landgrave of Hesse,
has a large and valuable library, a botanic garden, an observatory,
medical schools, a museum of natural history, a chemical
laboratory which was directed by Justus von Liebig, professor
here from 1824 to 1852. and an agricultural college. The
industries include the manufacture of woollen and cotton cloth
of various kinds, machines, leather, candles, tobacco and beer.
Giessen, the name of which is probably derived from the streams
which pour (gtlessen) their waters here into the Ialm, was formed
in the 12th century out of the villages Setters, Aster and
Kroppach, for whose protection Count William of Gleiberg built
the castle of Giessen. Through marriage the town came, in i 203,
into the possession of the count palatine, Rudolph of Tubingen,
who sold it in 1265 to the landgrave Henry of Hesse. It was
surrounded with fortifications in 1530, which were demolished
in 1547, but rebuilt in 15(10. In 1805 they were finally pulled
down, and their site converted into promenades.
See U. Huchnei, h'ubrev jut Giessen unil ties Lahntal (1891); and
A us (.ics^cus Vergangenlieit (1885).
GIFFARD, GODFREY (c. 1235-1302), chancellor of England
and bishop of Worcester, was u son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton,
Wiltshire. Having entered the church he speedily obtained
valuable preferments owing to the influence of his brother
Walter, who became chancellor of England in 1265. In 1266
Godfrey became chancellor of the exchequer, succeeding Walter
as chancellor of England when, in the same year, the latter was
made archbishop of York. In 1268 he was chosen bishop of
Worcester, resigning the chancellorship shortly afterwards;
• and both before and after 1279, when he inherited the valuable
property of his brother the archbishop, he was employed on
public business by EdwaTd 1 . His main energies, however,
were devoted to the affairs of his see. He had one long dispute
with the monks of Worcester, another with the abbot of West-
.luinster, and was vigilant in guarding his material interests.
The bishop died on the 26th of January 1302, and was buried
in his cathedral. Giffard, although inclined to nepotism, was
a benefactor to his cathedral, and completed and fortified the
episcopal castle at Hartlebury.
* ~Sei- W. Thomas, Survey of Worcester Cathedral ; Episcopal Registers ;
Register of Bishop Godfrey Giffard, edited by J. W. WiUis-Bund
(Oxford, 1898-181x9); and the Annals of Worcester in the Annales
monastic 1, vot. iv , edited by H. Tt. I.uard (London, 1869).
GIFFARD, WALTER (d. 1279), chancellor of England and
archbishop of York, was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton,
Wiltshire, and after serving as canon and archdeacon of Wells,
was chosen bishop of Bath and Wells in May 1264. In August
1265 Henry III. appointed him chancellor of England, and he
was one of the arbitrators who drew up the dictum de Kenilworth
in >266. Later'in this year Pope Clement IV. named him arch¬
bishop of York, and having resigned the chancellorship he was
an able and diligent ruler of his see, although in spite of his
great wealth he wq| frequently in pecuniary difficulties. When
Henry III. died in November 1272 the archbishopric of Canter-
bury was vacant, and consequently the great seal was delivered
to the archbishop of York, who was the chief of the three regents
who successfully governed the kingdom until the return of
Edward I. in August 1274. Having again acted in this capacity
during the king’s absence in 1275, Giffard died in April 1279,
and was buried in his cathedral.
See FastiEboracenses, edited by J. Raine (London, 1863). Giffard’s
Register from 1266 to 1279 has been edited for the Surtees Society by
W, Brown.
GIFFARD, WILLIAM (d. 1129), bishop ot Winchester, was
chancellor of William II. and received his see, in succession to
Bishop Walkelin,from Henry I.(1100). He was one of the bishops
elect whom Anselm refused to consecrate (1101) as having been
nominated and invested by the lay power. During the investi¬
tures dispute Giffard was on friendly terms with Anselm, and
drew upon himself a sentence of banishment through declining
to accept consecration from the archbishop of York (1103). He
was, however, one of the bishops who pressed Anselm, in 1106,
to give way to the king. He was consecrated after the settle¬
ment of 1107. He became a close friend of Anselm, aided the
first Cistercians to settle in England, and restored Winchester
cathedral with great magnificence.
See Eadmer, Historia novorum, edited by M. Rule (London,
1884); and S. H. Cass, Bishops of Winchester (London, 1827).
GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT (1837-1910), British statistician and
economist, was bom at Strathaven, Lanarkshire. He entered
a solicitor’s office in Glasgow, and while in that city attended
courses at the university. He drifted into journalism, and after
working for the Stirling Journal he went to London in 1862 and
joined the staff of the Globe. He also assisted Mr John (afterwards
Lord) Morley, when the latter edited the Fortnightly Review.
In 1868 he became Walter Bagehot’s assistant-editor on the
Economist ; and his services were also secured in 1873 as city-
editor of the Daily News, and later of The Times. His high
reputation as a financial journalist and statistician, gained in
these years, led to his appointment in 1876 as head of the
statistical department in the Board of Trade, and subsequently
he became assistant secretary (1882) and finally controller-
general (1892), retiring in 1897. In connexion with his position
as chief statistical adviser to the government, he was constantly
employed in drawing up reports, giving evidence before commis¬
sions of inquiry, and acting as a government auditor, besides
publishing a number of important essays on financial subjects.
His principal publications were Essays on Finance (1879 and
1884), The Progress of the Working Classes (1884), The Growth
■Of Capital (1890), The Case against Bimetallism (1892), and
Economic Inquiries and Studies (1904). He was president of the
Statistical Society (1882-1884); and after being made a C.B.
in 1891 was created K.C.B- in 1895. In 1892 he was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society. Sir Robert Giffen continued in
later years to take a leading part in all public controversies
connected with, finance and taxation, and his high authority
and practical experience were universally recognized. He died
somewhat suddenly in Scotland on the 12th of April 1910.
GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN (1840-1905), American marine
and landscape painter, was born on Naushon Island, Massa¬
chusetts, on the 23rd of December 1840. He studied art with
the Dutch marine painter Albert van Beest, who had a studio
in New Bedford, and in 1864 he opened a studio for himself in
Boston, subsequently settling in New York, where he wfcs elected
an associate of the National Academy of Design in J867 and an
academician in 1878. He was also a charter member of the
American Water Colour Socie y and the Society of American
Artists. From 1878 until 1896 he was teacher of painting
and chief master of the Woman’s Art School of Cooper
Union, New York, and from 1896 until his death he was director.
Gifford painted longshore views, sand dunes and landscapes
generally x with charm and poetry. He was an etcher of consider¬
able reputation, a member of the Society of American Etchers,
and an honorary member of the Society of Painter-Etchers of
London. He died in New York on the 13th of January’ > 9 ° 5 -
GIFFORD/ S.
GIFFORD, SANDFORD R0UH80N (1823-1880), American
landscape painter, was born at Greenfield, New York, on the 10th
of J uly 1823. He studied (1842-1845) at Brown University, then
went to New York, and entered the art schools of the National
Academy of 'Design, of which organization he was elected an
associate in 1851, and an academician in 1854. Subsequently
he studied in Paris and Rome. He was one of the best known
of the Hudson River school group, though it was at Lake George
that he found most of his themes. In his day he enjoyed an
enormous popularity, and his canvases are in many well-known
American collections. He died in New Y ork City on the 29th of
August 1880.
GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826), English publicist and man
of letters, was bom at Ashburton, Devon, in April 1756. His
father was a glazier of indifferent character, and before he
was thirteen William had lost both parents. The business was
seized by his godfather, on whom William and his brother, a
child of two, became entirely dependent. For about three
months William was allowed to remuin at the free school of the
town. He was then put to follow the plough, but after a day’s
trial he proved unequal to the task, and was sent to sea with the
Brixham fishermen. After a year at sea his godfather, driven
by the opinion of the townsfolk, put the boy to school once more.
He made rapid progress, especially in mathematics, and began
to assist the master. In 1772 he was apprenticed to a shoemaker,
and when he wished to pursue his mathematical studies, he was
obliged to work his problems with an awl on beaten leather.
By the kindness of an Ashburton surgeon, William Cooksley,
a subscription was raised to enable him to return to school.
Ultimately he proceeded in his twenty-third year to Oxford,
where he was appointed a Bible clerk in Exeter College. Leaving
the university shortly after graduation in 1782,he found a generous
patron in the first Earl Grosvenor, who undertook to provide
for him, and sent him on two prolonged continental tours in the
capacity of tutor to his son, Lord Belgrave. Settling in London,
Gifford published in 1794 his first work, a clever satirical piece,
after Persius, entitled the Baviad, aimed at a coterie of second-
rate writers at Florence, then popularly known as the Della
Cruscans, of which Mrs Piozzi was the leader. A second satire
of a similar description, the Maeviad, directed against the corrup¬
tions of the drama, appeared in 1795. About this time Gifford
became acquainted with Canning, with whose help he in August
1797 originated a weekly newspaper of Conservative politics
entitled the Anti-Jacobin, which, however, in the following
year ceased to be published. An English version of Juvenal,
on which he had been for many years engaged, appeared in 1802 ;
to this an autobiographical notice of the translator, reproduced
in NichoPs Illustrations of Literature, was prefixed. Two years
afterwards Gifford published an annotated edition of the plays
of Massinger; and in 1809, when the Quarterly Review was
projected, he was made editor. The success which attended the
Quarterly from the outset was due in no small degree to the
ability and tact with which Gifford discharged his editorial
duties. He took, however, considerable liberties with the
articles he inserted, and Southey, who was one of his regular
contributors, said that Gifford looked on authors as Izaak
Walton did on worms. His bitter opposition to Radicals and
his onslaughts on new writers, conspicuous among which was
the article on Keats’s Endymion, called forth Hazlitt’s Letter
to W. Oifford in 1819. His connexion with the Review continued
until within abfrnt two years of his death, which took place in
London on the 31st of December 1826. Besides numerous
contributions to the Quarterly during the last fifteen years of his
life, he wrote a metrical translation of Persius, which appeared
in 1821. Gifford also edited the dramas of Ben Jonson In 1816,
and his edition of Ford appeared posthumously in 1827. His
notes on Shirley were incorporated in Dyce’s edition in 1833.
His political services were acknowledged by the appointments
of commissioner of the lottery and paymaster of the gentle¬
man pensioners. He lgft a considerable fortune, the bulk
of which went to the son of his first benefactor, William
Cooksley.
R.-^OIGLIO 3
GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das
Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch
geven, Ger. geben; in 0 . Eng. the word appears with initial y,
the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence), a
general English term for a present or thing bestowed, w. an
alienation of property otherwise than for a legal consideration,
although in law it is often used to signify alienation with or
without consideration. By analogy the terms “gift” and
“ gifted ” are also used to signify the natural endowment of
some special ability, or a miraculous power, in a person, as being
not acquired in the ordinary way. The legal effect of a gratuit¬
ous gift only need be considered here. Formerly in English
law property in land could be conveyed by one person to Mother
by a verbal gift of the estate accompanied by delivery of posses¬
sion. The Statute of Frauds required all such conveyances to
be in writing, and a later statute (8 & 9 Viet. c. 106) requires
them to be by deed. Personal property may "be effectually
transferred from one person to another by a simple verbal gift
accompanied by delivery. If A delivers a chattel to B, saying
or signifying that he does so by way of gift, the property passes,
and the chattel belongs to B. But unless the actual thing is
bodily handed over to the donee, the mere verbal expression of
the donor's desire or intention has no legal effect whatever.
The persons are in the position of parties to an agreement which
is void as being without consideration. When the nature of
the thing is such that it cannot be bodily handed over, it will
be sufficient to put the donee in such a position as to enable him
to deal with it as the owner. For example, when goods are in a
warehouse, the delivery of the key will make a verbal gift of
them effectual; but it seems that part delivery of goods which
are capable of actual delivery will not validate a verbal gift of
the part undelivered. So when goods are in the possession of a
warehouseman, the handing over of a delivery order might, by
special custom (but not otherwise, it appears), be sufficient to
pass the property in the goods, although delivery of a bill of
lading for goods at sea is equivalent to an actual delivery of the
goods themselves.
GIFU (ImaIzumi), a city of Japan, capital of the ken (govern¬
ment) of Central Nippon, which comprises the two provinces
of Mino and Hida. Pop. about 41,000. It lies E. by N. of Lake *
Biwa, on the Centra) railway, on a tributary of the river Kiso,
which flows to the Bay of Miya Uro. Manufactures of silk and
paper goods are carried on. The ken has an area of about
4000 sq. m, and is thickly peopled, the population exceeding
1,000,000. The whole district is subject to frequent earthquakes.
GIG, apparently an onomatopoeic word for any light whirling
object, and so used of a top, as in Shakespeare’s Love's Labour ’s
Lost, v, i. 70 (“ Goe whip thy gigge ”), or of a revolving l ure
made of feathers for snuring birds. The word is now chiefly
used of a light two-wheeled cart or carriage for one horse, and
of a narrow, light, ship’s boat for oars or sails, and also of a
clinker-built rowing-boat used for rowing on the Thames.
“ Gig ” is further applied, in mining, to a wooden chamber qr
box divided in the centre and used to draw miners up and dowfl
a pit or shaft, and to a textile machine, the “ gig-mill ” or *
“ gigging machine,” which raises the nap on cloth by means
of teazels. A “ gig ” or “ fish-gig ” (properly “ fiz-gig,” possibly
an adaptation of Span, fisga, harpoon) is an instrumept
used for spearing fish.
QIGLIO (anc. Igilium), an island of Italy, off the S.W. coast
of Italy, in the province of Grosseto, 11 m. to the W. of Monte
Argentario, the nearest point on the coast. It measures about
5 m. by 3 and its highest point is 1634 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) 2062. It is partly composed of granite, which was
quarried here by the Romans, and is still used; the island is
fertile, and produces wine and fruit, the cultivation of which has '
taken the place of the forests of which Rutilius spoke (Itin. i.
325, “eminus Igilii silvosa cacumina miror”). Julius Cofesar
mentions its sailors in the fleet of Domitius Ahenobarbus. In
RutiliuB's time it served as a place of refuge from the barbarian
invaders. Charlemagne gave it to the abbey of Tre Fontane at
Rome. In the 14th century it belonged to Pisa, then to Florence,
$
gijOn-^gilbart
then, titer being seized by the Spanish fleet, it was ceiled to
Antonio Piccoiomini, nephew of Pius II. In 1558 it was
sold to the wife of Coeimo I. of Florence.
See Archduke Ludwig Salvator, Die Intel Gigteo (Prague, *900).
CUdll, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo;
on the Bay of Biscay, and at the terminus of railways non
AviMs, Oviedo and Langreo. Pop. (1900) 47 < 544 - The older
parts of Gij6n, which are partly enclosed by ancient walls,
occupy the upper slopes of a peninsular headland, Santa Catalina
Point; while its more modem suburbs extend along the shore
to Cape Torres, on the west, and Cape San Lorenzo, on the east.
These suburbs contain the town-hall, theatre, markets, and a
bull-ring with seats for u,ooo spectators. Few of the buildings
of G»j6n are noteworthy for any architectural merit, except
perhaps the 15th-century parish church of San Pedro, which
has a triple row of aisles on each side, the palace of the mar¬
quesses of Revillajigedo (or Revilla Gigedo), and the Asturian
Institute or Jovellanos Institute. The last named has a very
fine collection of drawings by Spanish and other artists, a good
library and classes for instruction in seamanship, mathematics
and languages. It was founded in 1797 by the poet and states¬
man Caspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744-1811). Jovellanos,
a native of Gij6n, is buried in San Pedro.
The Bay of Gijon is the most important roadstead on the'
Spanish coast between Feirol and Santander. Its first quay
was constructed by means of a. grant from Charles V. in 1552-
1554; and its arsenal, added in the reign of Philip II. (1556-
1598), was used in 1588 as a repairing station for the surviving
ships of the Invincible Armada. A new quay was built in
1766-1768, and extended in 1859; the haThour was further
improved in 1864, and after 1892, when the Musel harbour of
refuge was created at the extremity of the bay. It was, how¬
ever, the establishment of railway communication in 1884 which
brought the town its modem prosperity, by rendering it the chief
port of shipment for the products of Langreo and other mining
centres in Oviedo. A rapid commercial development followed.
Besides large tobacco, glass and porcelain factories, Gijon
possesses iron foundries and petroleum refineries; white its
minor industries include fisheries, and' the manufacture of pre¬
served foods, soap, chocolate, candles and liqueurs. In 1903
the harbour accommodated 2189 vessels of 358,375 tons. In
the same year the imports, consisting chiefly of machinery, iron,
wood and food-stuffs, were valued at £660,889; while the
exports, comprising zinc, copper, iron and other minerals, with
fish, nuts and farm produce, were valued at £100,941.
Gij6n is usually identified with the Gigio of the Romans, which,
however, occupied the site of the adjoining suburb of Cima
.de Villa. Early in the 8th century Gijon was captured and
strengthened by the Moors, who used the stones of the Roman
city for their fortifications, but were expelled by King Belay 0
(720-737). In 844 Gijdn successfully resisted a Norman raid ; in
1395 it was burned down; but thenceforward it gradually rose
tp commercial importance.
0 QILAN (Ghilan, Guilan), one of the three small but important
' Caspian provinces of Persia, lying along the south-western shore
of the Caspian Sea between 48° 50' and 50° 30' E. with a breadth
varying from 15 to 50 m. It has an area of about sdoo
sq. m, and a population of about 250,000. It is separated from
Russia by the little river Astara, which flows into the Caspian,
and bounded W. by Azerbaijan, S. by Kazvin and E. by Maaan-
daran. The greater portion of the province is a lowland region
extending inland from the sea to the base of the mountains of the
Elburz range and, though the Sefid Rud (White river), which is
called Kizil Uzain in its upper course and has its principal
sources in the hills of Persian Kurdistan, is the only river of any
siae, the province is abundantly watered by many streams
and an exceptionally great rainfall (in some years 50 in.).
The vegetation is very much, like that at southern Europe,
but in consequence of die great humidity and the mild climate
ahnaat tropically luxuriant, and the forests from the shore of
the sea up to an altitude of nearly 5000 .ft on the mountain
slopes .facing the tea are as dense as an Indian jungle. The
prevailing types of trees an the Mk;<mefde, l trombHro, batch
ash and rim. The box tree comes to rare perfection, but in
aonsequence of indiscriminate cutting for export duringVany
years, is now becoming scarce. Of fruit trees the apple, pear,
plum, cherry, medlar, pomegranate, fig, quince, as well as two
kinds of vine, grow wild; oranges, sweet and bitter,, and other
Aiurantiaceae thrive well in gardens and plantations; The fauna
also is well represented, but tigers which once were frequently
seen are now very scarce; panther, hyena, jackal, wild boar,
deer (Cermes moral) are common; pheasant'woodcock, ducks,
teal, geese and various waterfowl abound; the fisheries are very
productive and are leased to a Russian firm. The ordinary
cattle of the province is the small humped kind, Bos imlieus,
and forms an article of export to Russia, the humps, smoked,
being much in demand as a delicacy. Rice of a kind not much
appreciated in Persia, but much esteemed in G.lan and Russia,
is largely cultivated and a quantity valued at about £120,000
was exported to Russia during 1904-1905. Tea plantations,
with seeds and plants from Assam, Ceylon and the Himalayas,
were started in the early part of 1900 on the slopes of the hills
south of Resht at an altitude of about >000 ft. The results were
excellent and very good tea was produced in 1904 and 1905,
but the Persian government gave no support and the enterprise
was neglected. The olive thrives well at Rudb&r and Manjil
in the Sefld Rud valley and the oil extracted from it by a Pro¬
vencal for some years until 1896, when he was murdered, was of
very good quality and found a ready market at Baku. Since
then the oil has been, as before, only used for the manufacture of
soap. Tobacco from Turkish seed, cultivated since 1875, grows
well, and a considerable quantity of it is exported. The most
valuable produce of the province is silk. In i 860 it was valued
at £743,000 and about two-thirds of it was exported. The silk¬
worm disease appeared in 1864 and the crops decreased in con¬
sequence until 1893 when the value of the silk exported was no
more than £6500. Since then there has been a steady improve¬
ment, and in 1905-1906 the value of the produce was estimated
at £300,000 and that of the quantity exported at £200,000.
The eggs of the silk-worms, formerly obtained from Japan, are
now imported principally from Brusa by Greeks under French
protection and from France.
There is only one good road, in the province, that from Enzeli
to Kazvin by way of Resht; in other parts communication is
by narrow and frequently impassable lanes through the thick
forest, or by intricate pathways through the dense undergrowth.
The province is divided into the following administrative
districts: Resht (with the capital and its immediate neighbour¬
hood), Fumen (with Tulom and Mesula, where are iron mines),
Gesker, Tulish .(with Shandarman, Kerganrud, Asalim, Gil-
Dulab, Talish-Dulab), Enzeli (the port of Resht), Sheft, Manjil
(with Rahmetabad and Araarlu), Lahijan (with Langarud,
Rudsar and Ranehkub), Dilman and Lashtnisha. The revenue
derived from taxes and customs is about £80/100. The crown
lands have been much neglected and the revenue from them
amounts to hardly £3000 per annum. The value of the exports
and imports from and into Gil&n, much of them in transit, is
dose upon £2,000,000.
Gliin was an independent khanate until 1567 when Khan
Ahmed, the last of the Kargia dynasty, which had reigned
205 years, was deposed by Tahmasp L, the second Saiawid shah
of Persia (15*4-1576). It was occupied by a Russian dorce in
the early part of 1723; andTahmajpIII., the tenth Safawid shah
(1722-1731), then without a throne and his country occupied
by the A^hans, ceded it, together with Mazandaran and Astara-
bad, to Peter the Great by a treaty of the lath of September of
the same year. Russian troops remained in Gil&n until 1734,
when they were compelled to evacuate it.
The derivation of the name Gian from the modern Persian
word pi meaning mud (hence “ land of mud ”) is incorrect.
It probably means “ land of the Gil,” an ancient tribe which
classical writers mention as the Griae.. (A. H.-S.)
aiUART, JAMBS WILLIAM (1794-1863), English writer on
banking, was bom in London on the 21st of March 1794. From
GILBERT, ALFRED^—GILBERT, SIR H- 7
1813 to 1835 hewa* derk in aLondon bank. After a two years'
residence in Birmingham, be was appointed manager of the
Kilkeqp; branch ofthe Provincial Bank of Ireland, and in 18*9
be eras promoted to the Waterford tnanch. In 1834 he became
manager of the London and Westminster Bank; and he did much
to develop die system of joint-stock banking* On more than
ene occasion he Tendered valuable services to the joint-stock
banks by his evidence before committees of the House of
Commons; and, on the renewal of the bank charter in 1844,
he procured the jpsertion of a clause granting to joint-stock
banks the power of suing by their public officer, and also the
right of accepting bills at less than six months’ date. In 1846 he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He died in London on
the 8th of August 1863. The Gilbert lectures on banking at
King's College ore called after him.
The following are his principal works on banking, most of which
have passed through mure than ohc edition : Practical Treatise on
Banking (1827); The History and Principles of Banking (1834);
The History of Banking in America (1837); Lectures on the History
and Principles of Ancient Commerce (1847) 1 Logic for the Million
(1851); and Logic of Banking (1837).
GILBERT, ALFRED (1854- ), British sculptor and
goldsmith, bom in London, was the boo of Alfred Gilbert,
musician. He received his education mainly in Paris (ftcole
des Beaux-Arts, under Cavelier), and studied in Rome and
Florence where the significance of the Renaissance made a
lasting impression upon him and his art. He also worked in
the studio of Sir J. Edgar Boehm, R.A. His first work of
importance was the charming group of the “ Mother and Child,”
then “ The Kiss of Victory,” followed by “ Perseus Arming ”
(1883), produced directly under the influence of the Florentine
masterpieces he had studied. Its success was great, and Lord
Leighton forthwith commissioned “ Icarus," which was ex¬
hibited at the Royal Academy in 1884, along with a remarkable
“ Study of a Head,” and was received with general applause.
Then followed “ The Enchanted Chair,” which, along with many
other works deemed by the artist incomplete or unworthy of
his powers, was ultimately broken by the sculptor’s own hand.
The next year Mr Gilbert was occupied with the Shaftesbury
Memorial Fountain, in Piccadilly, London, a work of great
originality and beauty, yet shorn of some of the intended effect
through restrictions put upon the artist. In 1888 was produced
the statue of H.M, Queen Victoria, set up at Winchester, in its
main design and in the details of its ornamentation the most
remarkable work of its kind produced in Great Britain, and
perhaps, it may be added, in any other country in modem times.
Other statues of great beauty, at once novel in treatment and
fine in design, are those set up to Lord Reay in Bombay, and
John Howard at Bedford (1898), the highly original pedestal
of which did much to direct into a better channel what are
apt to be the eccentricities of what is called the “ New Art ”
School. The sculptor rose to the full height of his powers m his
“ Memorial to the Duke of Clarence,” and hiB fast developing
fancy and imagination, which are the main characteristics of ail
his work, are seen in his “ Memorial Candelabrum to Ix>rd Arthur
Russell ” and “ Memorial Font to the son of the 4th Marquess of
Bath.” Gilbert’s sense of decoration is paramount in all he does,
and although in addition to the work already cited he pro¬
duced busts of extraordinary excellence of Cyril Flower, John
R. Clayton (since broken up by the artist—the fate of much of
his admirable work), G. F. Watts, Sir Henry Tate, Sir George
BirdwoSd, Sir Richard Owen, Sir George ©rove and various
others, it is onffiis goldsmithery that the artist would rest his
reputation; on his mayoral chain for Preston, the epergne for
Queen Victoria, the figurines of “ Victory " (a statuette designed
for the orb in the hand of the Winchester statue), “,St Michael ’’
and “ St George,” as well as -smaller objects such as seals, keys
and the like. -Mr Gilbert was chosen associate of the Royal
Academy in 188% full member in 1893 (resigned 1909), mid
professor of sculpture (afterwards resigned) in 1900. In 1889 he
won the Grand‘Pri* at the Paris International Exhibition. He
wiscreated a member af the Victorian Order m 1897. (See
Scowma.)
See TheUfe and Week of A Iftti Wheel, tf- 4 ., M.vkf., D.CX.M
Joseph Hatteo {AH Journal Office, 1903). .
GILBERT, AEN (1801-4904), American! actress, was bom at
Rochdale, Lancashire, on the out of October i8ti, her maiden
name being Hartley. At fifteen eh* was * popil at the
ballet school connected, with the Haymwrbet theatre, conducted
by Paul Taglioni, and became a dancer on the stege. In 1846
she married Geprse H. Gilbert (d. 1866), a performer in the
company of which she -was a member. Together they fitted
many engagements-in English theatres, moving to America in
1849. Mrs Gilbert's first success in a speaking part was in 1857
as Wichavenda in Brougham’s Pocahontas. In 1869 die joined
Daly’s company, playing for many years wives to James Lewis's
husbands, and old women’s parts, in which she had.no equal.
Mrs Gilbert held a unique position on the American stage, on
account of the admiration, esteem and Affection which.she
enjoyed bath in front and behind the footlights. She died at
Chicago on the and of December 1904.
Six- Mrs Gilbert's Stage Reminiscences (1901).
GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843- ), American geologist,
was bom at Rochester, N.Y., on the 6th of May 1843. In 1869
he was attached to the Geological Survey of Ohio and in
1879 he became a member of the United States Geological
Survey, being engaged on parts of the Rocky Mountains, in
Nevada, Utah, California and Arizona. He is distinguished
for his researches on mountain-structure and on the great lakes,
as weD as on glacial phenomena, recent earth movements, and
on topographic features generally. IBs report on the Geology
of the Henry Mountains (1877), in which the volcanic structure
known as a laocolite was first described; his History of the
Niagara River (1891) and Lake Bonneville (1890—the first of
the Monographs issued by the United States Geological Survey)
are specially important. He was awarded the Wollaston medal
by the Geological Society of London in 1900.
GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c . 1539-1583), English soldier,
navigator and pioneer colonist in America, was the second son of
Otho Gilbert, of Compton, near Dartmouth, Devon, and step¬
brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was educated at Eton and
Oxford ; intended for the law; introduced at court by Raleigh’s
aunt, Catherine Ashley, and appointed (July 1566) captain in
the army of Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. In April 1366
he had already joined with Antony Jenkinson in a petition
to Elizabeth Tor the discovery of the North-East Passage; in
November following he presented an independent petition for the
"discovering of a passage by the north to go to Cataia.” In
October 1569 he became governor of Munster; on the lit of
January 1570 he was knighted ; in 1571 he was returned M.P.
for Plymouth; in 157* he campaigned in the Netherlands
against Spain without much succ<ps; from 1573 to 1578 hfc,
lived in retirement at Limehouse, devoting himself especially
to the advocacy of a North-West Passages(ms famous Discount
on this subject was published in 1576). Gilbert’s arguments,
widely circulated even before 1575, were apparently of,weight
in promoting the Frobisher enterprises of 1576-1578. On the
nth of June 1578, Sir Humphrey obtained his long-coveted
charter for North-Western discovery and colonization, authoriz¬
ing him, his heirs and assigns, to discover, occupy and possess
such remote “ heathen lands not actually possessed of any
Christian prince or people, as should seem good to him or them.”
Disposing not only of his patrimony but also of the estates in
Kent which he had through his wife, daughter of John Aucher
of Ollerden, he fitted out an expedition which left Dartmouth
on the 33rd of September 1578, and returned in May 1379,
having accomplished nothing. In 1579 Gilbert aided the
government in Ireland; and in 1583, after many struggles—
illustrated by his appeal to Walsmgham on the nth <of July
1582, for the payment of moneys due to him from government,
and by his agreement with the Southampton venturers—he
succeeded in equipping another fleet for “ western Planting.”
On the nth of June 1583, he sailed from Plymouth with five
ships and the queen’s blessing ; on the 13th of July the “ Ark
Raleigh,” built and manned at his brother’s expense, deserted
$ GILBERT, JU—GILBERT, MARIE ! i
the fleet; \» the 30th of July he was off the north coast of
Ntwfouhdland; on the yd of August he arrived off the present
St John’s, end selected this site as the centre of his operations;
on the 5th of August he began the plantation of the first English
colony in North America. Proceeding southwards with three
vessels, exploring and prospecting, he lost the largest near Cape
Breton (29th of August); immediately after (31st of August)
he started to return to England with the “ Golden Hind ” and
the “ Squirrel," of forty and ten tons respectively. Obstinately
refusing to leave the “ frigate ’’ and sail in his “ great ship,”
he shared the former’s fate in a tempest off the Azores. “ Monday
the 9th of September,” reports Hayes, the captain of the “ Hind,”
“ the frigate was near cast away,... yet at that time recovered;
and, giving forth signs of joy, the general, sitting abaft with a
book in his hand, cried out unto us in the ‘Hind,’ 'We are as
near to heaven by sea as by land.’... The same Monday night,
about twelve, the frigate being ahead of us in the 'Golden
Hind,’ suddenly her lights were out, ... in that moment the
frigate was devoured and swallowed up of the sea.”
See Hakluyt, Principal Navigations (1399), vol. lii. pp. 133-181 ;
Gilbert's Viscount of a Discovery for a New Passage to Cataia, pub¬
lished by George Gascoigne in 1576, with additions, probably
without Gilbert's autliority ; Hooker's Supplement to Holiasheda
Irish Chronicle; Roger Williams, The Actions of the Low Countries
(1618); State Papers, Domestic (1577-1383); Wood’s Athenae .
Oxonientes; North British Review, No. 43; Fox Bourne’s English
Seamen under the Tudors ; Carlos Siafter, Sir H. Gylberte ana Ms
Enterprise (Boston, 1903), with all important documents. Gilbert's
interesting writings on the need of a university for London, anticipat¬
ing in many ways not only the modem London University but also
the British Museum library and its compulsory sustenance through
the provisions of the Copyright Act, have been printed by Fumivall
( Queen Elisabeth's Achademy) in the Early English Text Society
Publications, extra series, No. viii.
GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889), American actor, whose real
name was Gibbs, was bom in Boston, Massachusetts, on the
27th of February 1810, and made his first appearance there
as Jaffier in Venice Preserved. He soon found that his true vein
was in comedy, particularly in old-men parts. When in London
in 1847 he was well received both by press and public, and played
with Macready. He was the leading actor at Wallack’s from
1861-1888. He died on the 17th of June 1889.
See William Winter’s Life of John Gilbert (New York, 1890),
GILBERT, BIR JOHN (1*17-1897), English painter and
illustrator, one of the eight children of George Felix Gilbert,
a member of a Derbyshire family, was bom at Blackheath on
the 21st of July 1817. He went to school there, and even in
childhood displayed an extraordinary fondness for drawing and
painting. Nevertheless, his father's lack of means compelled
him to accept employment for the boy in the office of Messrs
iiiekson & Bell, estate agents, in Charlotte Row, London.
Yielding, however, to his natural bent, his parents agreed that
he should take .up art^n his own way, which included but little
advice from others, his only teacher being Haydon's pupil, George
ljunce, the fruit painter. This artist gave him brief instructions
in tbe'use of colour. In 1836 Gilbert appeared in public for
me first time. This was at the gallery of the Society of British
* Artists, where he sent drawings, the subjects of which were
characteristic, being “The Arrest of Lord Hastings,” from
Shakespeare, and “ Abbot Boniface,” from The Monastery of
Scott “ Inez de Castro ” was in the same gallery in the next
year; it was the first of a long series of works in the same
medium, representing similar themes, and was accompanied,
from 1837, by a still greater number of works in oil which were
exhibited at the British Institution. These included “ Ikon
Quixote giving advice to Sancho Panza,” 1841 ; “ Brunette
and Phillis,” from The Spectator, 1844 ; “ The King’s Artillery
at Marston Moor,” i860; and “ Don Quixote comes back for
the last time to his Home and KSmily,” r867. In that year the
Institution was finally closed. Gilbert exhibited at the Royal
Academy from ^838; -beginning with the “ Portrait of a Gentle¬
man,” and continuing, except between 1851 and 1867, till his
death to exhibit there many of his best and more ambitious
works. These included such capital instances as “Holbein
painting the Portrait of Anne Boleyrt,” “ Don Quixote!* ffirft
Interview with the Duke and Duchess,” 184s, “ Charlemagne
visiting the Schools,” 1846. “ Touchstone and Ike Shepherd, ”
and “ Rembrandt,” a very fine piece, were both there in 1867;
and in 1873 " Naseby,” one of his finest and most picturesque
designs, was also at the Royal Academy. Gilbert was elected
A.R.A. 29th January 1872, and R.A. 29th June 1876. Besides
these mostly large end powerful works, tire artist’s true arena
of display was undoubtedly the gallery of the Old Water Colour
Society, to which from 1852, when he was eketed an Associate
exhibitor, till he died forty-five years later, he contributed not
fewer than 270 drawings, most of them admirable because of the
largeness of their style, massive coloration, broad chiaroscuro,
and .the surpassing vigour of their designs. These qualities
induced the leading critics to claim for him opportunities for
painting mural pictures of great historic themes as decorations of
national buildings. “ The Trumpeter,” “ The Standard-Bearer,”
“ Richard II. resigning his Crown ” (now at Liverpool), “ The
Drug Bazaar at Constantinople,” “ The Merchant of Venice ”
and “ The Turkish Water-Carrier ” are but examples of that
wealth of art which added to the attractions of the gallery in
Pall Mall. There Gilbert was elected a full Member in 1855,
and president of the Society in 1871, shortly after which he was
knighted. As an illustrator of books, magazines and periodicals
of every kind he was most prolific. To the success of the
Illustrated London News his designs lent powerful aid, and he
was eminently serviceable in illustrating the Shakespeare of Mr
Howard Staunton. He died on the 6th of October 1897.
(F. G. S.)
GILBERT, S» JOSEPH HENRY (1817 t 1901), English
chemist, was born at Hull on the 1st of August 1817. He
studied chemistry first at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson;
then at University College, London, in the laboratory of A. T.
Thomson (1778-1849), the professor of medical jurisprudence,
also attending Thomas Graham’s lectures; and finally at Giessen
under Liebig. On his return to England from Germany he
acted for a year or so as assistant to his old master A. T. Thomson
at University College, and in 1843, after spending a short time in
the study of calico dyeing and printing near Manchester, accepted
the directorship of the chemical laboratory at the famous
experimental station established by Sir J. B. Lawes at
Rotharasted, near St Albans, for the systematic and scientific
study of agriculture. This position he held for fifty-feight years,
until his death on the 23rd of December 1901. The work which
he carried out during that long period in collaboration with
Lawes was of a most comprehensive character, involving the
application of many brandies of science, such as chemistry,
meteorology, botany, animal and vegetable physiology, and
geology; and its influence in improving the methods of practical
agriculture extended all over the civUized world. Gilbert was
chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in i860, and in 1867 was
awarded a royal medal jointly with Lawes. In 1880 he presided
over the Chemical Section of the British Association at its
meeting at Swansea, and in 1882 he was president of the London
Chemical Society, of which he had been a member almost from
its foundation in 1841. For six years from 1884 he filled the
Sibthorpian chair of rural economy at Oxford, and he was also
an honorary professor at the Royal Agricultural College, Ciren¬
cester. He was knighted in 1893, the year in which the jubilee
of the Rothamsted experiments was celebrated.
GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES EUZA.ROSANNA (“Lou
Montsz ”1 (i8i8~i86r), dancer and adventuress, the daughter
of a British army officer, was born at Limerick, Ireland, in 1818.
Her father dying in India when she was seven years old, and her
mother manying again, the child was sent to Europe to be
educated, subsequently joining her mother at Bath. In 1837
she made a runaway match with a Captain Janies of the Indian
army, and accompanied him to India. In 1842 she returned
to England, and shortly afterwards her husband obtained a
decree msi for divorce. She then studied dancing, making an
unsuccessful first appearance at Her Majesty’s theatre, London,
in 1843, billed as “ Lola Montez, Spanish dancer.” Subsequently
GILBERT, N. J. ? U-UXLBERT, SIR W. S.
the appeared with considerable success in Germany, Poland and
Russia. Thence she went to Paris, and in 1847 appeared at
Munich, where she became the mistress of theokl kins of Bavaria,
Ludwig I.; she was naturalised, created eomtesse de Landsield,
and given an income of jfzooo a year. She seen proved herself
the real ruler of Bavaria, adopting a liberal and anti-Jesuit
policy. Her political opponents proved, however, too strong
for her, and in 1848 she was banished. In 1849 she came to
England, and in the same year was married to George Heald, a
young officer in the Guards. Her husband's guardian instituted
a prosecution for bigamy against her on the ground that her
divorce from Captain James had not been made absolute, and
she fled with Heald to Spain. In 1851 she appeared at the
Broadway theatre, New York, and in the following year at
the Walnut Street theatre, Philadelphia. In 1853 Heald was
drowned at Lisbon, and in the same year she married the
proprietor of a San Francisco newspaper, but did not live long
with him. Subsequently she appeared in Australia, but returned,
in 1857, to act in America, and to lecture on gallantry. Her
health having broken down, she devoted the rest of her life to
visiting the outcasts of her own sex in New York, where,
stricken with paralysis, she died on the 17th of January 1861.
See E. B. D’Auveigne, Lota Montes (New York, 1909).
GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751-1780), French
poet, was born at Fontenay-le-Chfiteau in Lorraine in 1751.
Having completed his education at the college of Dole, he
devoted himself for a time to a half-scholastic, half-literary life
at Nancy, but in 1774 he found his way to the capital. As an
opponent of the Encyclopaedists and a panegyrist of Louis
XV., he received considerable pensions. He died in Paris on
the 12th of November 1780 from the results of a fall from his
horse. The satiric force of one or two of his pieces, as Mon
Apologie (1778) and Le Dix-huitieme Siicle (1775), would alone
be sufficient to preserve his reputation, which has been further
increased by modem writers, who, like Alfred de Vigny in his
SleUo (chaps. 7-13), considered him a victim to the spite of his
philosophic opponents. His best-known verses are the Ode
imitce de plusieurs psatunes, usually entitled Adieux a la vie.
Among his other works may be mentioned Los Families it Darius
•t d'Lcridame, histoiro per sane (1770), Le Carnaval des auteurs
( 1773 )) Odes nouvelles el putriotiques (1775). Gilbert's CEuvres
computes were first published in 1788, and they have Since been
edited by Mastrella (Paris, 1823), by Charles Nodier (1817 or 1823).
and by M. de Lescuro (1882).
GILBERT (or Gylberde), WILLIAM (1544-1603), the most
distinguished man of science in England during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, and the father of electric and magnetic science,
was a member of an ancient Suffolk family, long resident in
Clare, and was born on the 24th of May 1544 at Colchester,
where his father, Hierome Gilhert, became recorder. Educated
at Colchester school, he entered St John’s College, Cambridge,
in 1558, and after taking the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in due
course, graduated M.D. in 1569, in which year he was elected
a senior fellow of his college. Soon afterwards he left Cambridge,
and after spending three years in Italy and other parts of Europe,
settled in 1573 m London, where he practised as a physician with
“ great success and applause.” He was admitted to the College
of Physicians probably about 1576, and from 1581 to 1590 was
one of the censors. In 1587 he became treasurer, holding the
office till 1592, and in 1589 he was one of the committee appointed
to superintend the preparation of the Pharmacopoeia Lendtnensis
which the college in that year decided to issue* but which did not
actually appear tin 1618. In 1597 he was again chosen treasurer,
becoming at the same time consiiiarius, and in 1599 he succeeded
to the presidency. Two years later he was appointed physician
to Queen Elizabeth, with the usual emolument of £too a year.
After this time,be seems to have removed to the court, vacating
his residence, Wingfield House, which was on Peter's Hill,
between Upper Twines Street and Little Knightrider Street,
and dose to thehouse of the College of Physicians. On the death
of the queen in 1803 he mas reappointed by her successor; but
he dkl not long enjoy the honour, for he died, probably of the
plague, on the 30th of November (10th of December, N.S.)
9
1603, either in London or in Colchester. He was buried in the
latter town, ih the chancel of Holy Trinity church, where a
monument was erected to his memory. To the College of
Physicians he left his books, globes, instruments and minerals,
but they wen destroyed in die great fire of London.
Gilbert’s principal work is his treatise on magnetism, entitled
De magnete, magneticisque cvrporibus, el de mugno magneto
tellure (London, *600 5 later editions—Stettin, »6o8, 1633;
Frankfort, 1629,1638). This work) which embodied the results
of many years’ research, was distinguished by its strict adherence
to the scientific method of investigation by experiment, and by
tite originality of its matter, containing, as it does, an account
of the author’s experiments on magnets and magnetical bodies
and on electrical attractions,: and also bis .great conception that
the earth is nothing but a large magnet, and that it is this which
explains, not only the direction of the magnetic needle north and
south, but also the variation and dipping or indination of the
needle. Gilbert’s is therefore not merely the first, but the moot
important, systematic contribution to the sciences of electricity
and magnetism. A posthumous work of Gilbert’s was edited
by his brother, also called William, from two MSS. in the posses¬
sion of Sir William Boswell; its title is De mtmdo nostro
sublunari philosaphia nova (Amsterdam, *651)1 He is the
reputed inventor besides of two instruments to enable sailors
“ to find out the latitude without seeing of sun, moon or stars,"
an account of which is given in Thomas Blondeviilc’s Theariques
of the Planets (London, 1602). He was also the first advocate
of Copernican views in England, and he oonduded that the fixed
stars are not all at the same distance from the earth.
It is a matter of great regret for the historian of chemistry
that Gilbert left nothing on that branch of science, to which he
was deeply devoted, “ attaining to great exactness therein.” So
at least says Thomas Fuller, who in his Worthies of England pro¬
phesied truly how he would be afterwards known : “ Mahomet’s
tomb at Mecca,” he says, “ is said strangely to haug up,
attracted by some invisible loadstone; but the memory of this
doctor will never fall to the ground, which, his incomparable
book De magneto will support to eternity."
An English translation of the De magneto was published by P. F.»
Mottelay in 1893, and another, with notes by S. P. Thompson, was
issued by the Gilbert Club of London in 1900.
GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM 8CHWENK (1836- ), English
playwright and humorist, son of William Gilbert (a descendant
of Sir Humphrey Gilbert), was bom in London on the 18th of
November 1836. His father was the author of a number of novels,
the best-known of which were Shirley Hall Asylum (1863) and
Dr Austin’s Guests (1866). Several of these novels—-which were
characterized by a singular acuteness and lucidity of style, by
a dry, subacid humour, by a fund of humanitarian feeling and by
a considerable medical knowledge, especially in regard to the
psychology of lunatici and monomaniacs—were illustrated by
his son, who developed a talent for whimsical draughtsmanship.
W. S. Gilbert was educated at Boulogne, at Ealing and at Kingls
College, graduating B.A. from the university of London in 1856. •
The termination of the Crimean War was fatal to his project of
competing for a commission in the Royal Artillery, but he
obtained a post in the education department of the privy council
office (1857-1861). Disliking the routine work, he lift the Civil
Service, entered the Inner Temple, was called to the bar in
November 1864, and joined the northern circuit. His practice
was inconsiderable, and his military and legal ambitions were
eventually satisfied by a captaincy in'tile volunteers and appoint¬
ment as a magistrate for Middlesex (June 1891). In 1801 the
comic journal Fun was started by H. J. Byron, and Gilbert
became from the first a valued contributor. Failing to obtain an
entrie to Punch, he continued sending excellent comic verse
to Pun, with humorous illustrations, the work of his own pen,
over the signature of “ Bab,” A collection of these lyrics, ih
which deft craftsmanship unites a titillating satire on the
deceptiveness of appearances with the irrepressible nonsense
of a Lewis Carroll, was issued separately in 1869 under the title
of Bab Ballads, and was followed by More Bab Balladt. The
xn. t a
10 GILBERT DE
two oollec&ms and Songs of a Savoyard were united m a volume
issued in 1898, with many new illustrations. The best of the
okl cuts, such as those depicting the “ Bishop of Rum-ti-Foo ”
and tiw “ Discontented Sugar Broker/’ were preserved intact.
While remaining a staunch supporter of Fun, Gilbert was soon
immersed in other journalistic work, and his position as dramatic
critic to the Illustrated Times turned his attention to the stage.
He had not to wait long for an opportunity. Early in December
1866 T. W. Robertson was asked by Miss Herbert, lessee of the St
James’s theatre, to find some one who could turn out a bright
Christmas piece in a fortnight, and suggested Gilbert; the latter
promptly produced Dulcamara, a burlesque of L’Eltsire <f amort,
written in ten days, rehearsed in a week, and duly performed at
Christmas. He sold the piece outright for £30, a piece of rashness
which he had cause to regret, for it turned out a commercial
success. In 1870 he was commissioned by Bucks tone to write a
1 blank verse fairy comedy, based upon Le Palais de la v'riU,
the novel by Madame de Genlis. The result was The Palace
of Truth, a fairy drama, poor in structure but clever in workman¬
ship, which served the purpose of Mr and Mrs Kendal in 1870
at the Haymarket. This was followed in 1871 by Pygmalion
and Galatea, another three-act “ mythological comedy,” a clever
and effective but artificial piece. Another fairy comedy, The
Wicked World, written for Buckstone and the Kendals, was
followed in March 1873 by a burlesque version, in collaboration
with Gilbert 4 Beckett, entitled The Happy Land. Gilbert’s
next dramatic ventures inclined more to the conventional
pattern, combining sentiment and a cynical humour in a manner
strongly reminiscent of his father’s style. Of these pieces,
Sweethearts was given at the Prince of Wales’s theatre, 7 th
Novemher 1874; Tom Cobh at the St James’s, 24th April
1875 ; Broken Hearts at the Court, 9th December 1875 ; Dan’l
Druce (a drama in darker vein, suggested to some extent by
Silas Mamer) at the Haymarket, 11th September 1876; and
Engaged at the Haymarket, 3rd October 1877. The first and
last of these proved decidedly popular. Gretchen, a verse drama
in four acts, appeared in 1879. A one-act piece, called Comedy
and Tragedy, was produced at the Lyceum, 36th January 1884.
-Two dramatic trifles of later date were Foggerty’s Fairy and
Rozenkrantz and Guildenslem, a travesty of Hamlet, performed
at the Vaudeville in June 1891. Several of these dramas were
based upon short stories by Gilbert; a number of which had
appeared from time to time in the Christmas numbers of various
periodicals. The best of them have been collected in the volume
entitled Foggerty’s Fairy, and other Stories. In the autumn of
1871 Gilbert commenced his memorable collaboration (which
lasted over twenty years) with Sir Arthur Sullivan. The first
two comic operas, Thespis; or The Gods grown Old (36th
September 1871).and Trial by Jury (Royalty, 25th March 1875)
were merely essays. Like one or two of their successors, they
were, as regards plot, little more than extended “ Bab Ballads.”
Later (especially m the Yeomen of the Guard), much more elabora¬
tion was attempted. The next piece was produced at the Opera
• Comique (17th November 1877) as The Sorcerer. At the same
theatre were successfully given H.M.S. Pinafore (25th May
1878!, The Pirates of Penzance; or The Slave of Duty (3rd April
1880), and Patience; or. Bunt home’s Bride (23rd April 1881). In
October 1881 the successful Patience was removed to a new
theatre, the Savoy, specially built for the Gilbert and Sullivan
operas by Richard D’Oyly Carte. Patience was followed, on
35th November 1882, by lolanthe ; or The Peer and the Peri ;
and then came, on 5th January 1884, Princess Ida; or
Castle Adamant, a re-cast of a charming and witty fantasia
which Gilbert had written some yean previously, and had then
described as a “ respectful perversion of Mr Tennyson’s exquisite
poem.” The impulse reached'Its fullest development in the
operas that followed next in order— Tke Mikado; or The Town
of Titipu (14th March 1885); Ruddigore (sand January 1887);
The Y00men of the Guard (3rd October 1888); and The Gondoliers
(7 th December 1889). After the appearance of The Gondoliers
a coothese ocourretLbetween the composer and librettist, owing
to Gilbert's considering that Sullivan had not supported him in
LA PORRlsE
a business disagreement with D’Oyly Carte. But the estrange¬
ment was only temporary. Gilbert wrote several more librettos,
and of these Utopia Limited (1893) and the exceptionally dfitty
Grand Duke (1896) were written in conjunction With Sullivan.
As a 00010- of metre Gilbert had shown himself consummate,
as a dealer in quips and paradoxes and ludicrous dilemmas,
unrivalled. Even, for the music of the operas he deserves some
credit, for the rhythms were frequently his own (as in “ I have a
Song to Sing, O ”), and the metres were in many cases invented
by himself. One or two of his librettos, such a/that of Patience,
are virtually flawless. Enthusiasts are divided only as to the
comparative merit of the operas. Princess Ida and Patience
are m some respects the daintiest. There is a genuine vein of
poetry in The Yeomen of the Guard. Some of the drollest songs
are in Pinafore and Ruddigore. The Gondoliers shows the most
charming lightness of touch, while with the general public The
Mikado proved the favourite. The enduring popularity of the
Gilbert and Sullivan operas was abundantly proved by later
revivals. Among the birthday honours in June J907 Gilbert was
given a knighthood. In 1909 his Fallen Fairies (music by
Edward German) was produced at the Savoy. (T. Ss.)
GILBERT BE LA MBHEE, frequently known as Gilbertus
Porretanus or Pictaviensis (1070-1154), scholastic logician and
theologian, was born at Poitiers. He was educated under
Bernard of Chartres and Anselm of Laon. After teaching for
about twenty years in Chartres, he lectured on dialectics and
theology jn Paris (from U37), and in 1141 returned to Poitiers,
being elected bishop in this following year. His heterodox
opinions regarding the doctrine of the Trinity drew upon bis
works the condemnation of the church. The synod.of Reims
in 1148 procured papal sanction for four propositions opposed
to certain of Gilbert’s tenets, and his works were condemned
until they should be corrected in accordance with the principles
of the church. Gilbert seems to have submitted quietly to this
judgment; he yielded assent to the four propositions, and
remained on friendly terms with his antagonists till his death
on the 4th of September 1154. Gilbert is almost the only
logician of the 13th century who is quoted by the greater
scholastics of the succeeding age. His chief logical work, the
treatise De sex principiis, was regarded with a reverence almost
equal to that paid to Aristotle, and furnished matter for numerous
commentators, amongst them Albertus Magnus. Owing to the
lame of this work, he is mentioned by Dante as the M agister
sex principiorum. The treatise itself is a discussion of the
Aristotelian categories, specially of the six subordinate modes.
Gilbert distinguishes in the ten categories two classes, one
essential, the other derivative. Essential or inhering (Jormae
inkaerentes) in the objects themselves are only substance, quantity,
quality and relation in tbe stricter sense of that term. The
remaining six, when, whert, action, passion, position and habit,
are relative and subordinate (Jormae assistentes). This suggestion
has some internet, but is of no great value, either in logic or in
the theory of knowledge. More important in the history of
scholasticism are tbe theological consequences to which Gilbert’s
realism led him. In the commentary on the treatise De Trinitate
(erroneously attributed to Boetius) he proceeds from the
metaphysical notion that pure or abstract being is prior in nature
to that which is. This pure being is God, and must be distin¬
guished from the triune God as known to us. God is incompre¬
hensible, and the categories cannot be applied to determine his
existence. In God there is no distinction or difference, whereas
in all substances or things there is duality, arising from the
element of matter. Between pure being and substances stand
tbe ideas or forms, which subsist, though they are not substances.
These forms, when materialised, are called format substantiates
or formae nativae; they are the essences of tilings, and in them¬
selves have no relation to the accidents of tilings. Things are
temporal, the ideas perpetual, God eternal. The pure form
of existence, that by which God is God, must be distin¬
guished from the three persons who $re God by participation
m this form. The form or essence is one, the persons or
substances three. It was this distinction between Deitas or
GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM^-GILBEY it
Oivinitas and Dow that led to the condemnation of Gilbert's
doctrine.
1 % sex prindpiis and commentary on the De Trinitate in Miens,
Patrolngia Latina, bsiv, 1255 and clxxxviii., 1237 '• •*« aUo AbW
Berthaud, Gilbert ie la Porrie (Poitiers, 1892); B. Hauriau,
De la pkilosopkie scolastique, pp. 294-318; R. Schmid’s article
" Gilbert Porretanaa" in Hsrzog-Hauck, Retdencyk. f. protest.
Tkeol. (vol. 6, 1899); Prantl, Gesckichte d. Logik, ii. 213; Bach,
Dogmengesckichts, ii. 133; article Scholasticism.
GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST, founder of the Gilbertines,
the only religious order of English origin, was bom at Sempring-
ham in Lincolnshire, c. 1083-1089. He was educated in France^
and ordained in 1123, being presented by his father to the living
of Sempringham. About 1135 he established there a convent for
nuns; and to perform the heavy work and cultivate the fields
he formed a number of labourers into a society of lay brothers
attached to the convent. Similar establishments were founded
elsewhere, and in 1147 Gilbert tried to get them incorporated in
the Cistercian order. Failing in this, he proceeded to form
communities of priests and clerics to perform the spiritual
ministrations needed by the nuns. The women lived according
to the Benedictine rule as interpreted by the Cistercians; the
men according to the rule of St Augustine, and were canons
regular. The special constitutions of the order were largely
taken from those of the Premonstratensian canons and of the
Cistercians. Like Fontevrault (y.e.) it was a double order, the
communities of men and women living side by side; but, though
the property all belonged to the nuns, the superior of the canons
was the head of the whole establishment, and the general superior
was a canon, called “ Master of Sempringham.” The general
chapter was a mixed assembly composed of two canons and two
nuns from each house; the nuns nad to travel to the chapter
in closed carts. The office was celebrated together in the church,
a high stone screen separating the two choirs of canons and nuns.
The order received papal approbation in 1148. By Gilbert’s
death (1189) there were nine double monasteries and four of
canons only, containing about 700 canons and 1000 nuns in all.
At the dissolution there were some 25 monasteries, whereof 4
ranked among the greater monasteries (see list in F. A. Gasquet’s
English Monastic Life). The order never spread beyond England.
The habit of the Gilbertines was black, with a white cloak.
See Bollandists’ Acta Sanctorum (4th of Feb.); William Dugdale,
Monasticon (1846); Helyot, Hist, des nrdres religieux (1714),
ii. c. 29. The best modem account is St Gilbert of Sempringham,
and the Gilbertines, by Rose Graham (1901). The art. in Dictionary
0/ National Biography gives abundant information on St Gilbert,
but is unsatisfactory on the order, as it might easily convey the
impression that the canons and nuns lived together, whereas they
were most carefully separated ; and altogether undue prominence is
given to a single scandal. Miss Graham declares that the reputation
of the order was good until the end, (E. C. B.)
GILBERT FOLIOT (d. 1187), bishop of Hereford, and of
London, is first mentioned as a monk of Quny, whence he was
called in 1136 to plead the cause of the empress Matilda against
Stephen at the Roman court. Shortly afterwards he became
prior of Cluny ; then prior of Abbeville, a house dependent upon
Cluny. In 1139 he was elected abbot of Gloucester. The
appointment was confirmed by Stephen, and from the ecclesi¬
astical point of view was unexceptionable. But the new abbot
proved himself a valuable ally of the empress, and her ablest
controversialist. Gilbert’s reputation grew rapidly. He was
respected at Rome; and he acted as the representative of the
primage, Theobald, in the supervision of the Welsh church. In
1148, on being nominated by the pope to the see of Hereford,
Gilbert with characteristic wariness sought confirmation both
from Henry of Anjou and from Stephen. But he was an
Angevin-at heart, and after 1154 was treated by Henry 1 , 1 . with
every mark of consideration. He was Becket’s rival for the
primacy, and the only bishop who protested against the king’s
choice. BecWet, with rare forbearance, endeavoured to win his
friendship by procuring for him the see «f London (1163). But
Gilbert evaded the customary profession of obedience to the
primate^ and apparently aspired to make his see independent
of Canterbury, On the questions raised by the Constitutions
•f Clarendon he sided with the king, whose confessor he had now
become. He; urged Bucket to yield, and, when this Vd vice was
rejected, encouraged his fellow-bishops to repudiate the authority
of the archbishop. In the years of controversy which followed
Becket’s flight the king depended much upon the bishop’s
skill as a disputant and diplomatist. Gilbert was twice excom¬
municated by Becket, but both on these and on other occasions
he showed gnat dexterity in detaching the pope from the cause
of the exile. To him it was chiefly due that Henry avoided an
open conflict with Rome of the kind which John afterwards
provoked. Gilbert was one of the bishop whose excommunica¬
tion in 1170 provoked the king’s knights to murder Becket;
but he cannot be reproached with any share in the crime. His
later years were uneventful, though he enjoyed great influence
with the king and among his fellow-bishops.’ Scholarly, dignified,
ascetic in his private life, devoted to the'service of the Church,
he was nevertheless more respected than loved. His nature was
cold; he made few friends; and the taint of a calculating*
ambition runs through his whole career. He died in the spring
of 1187.
See Gilbert’s Letters, cd. J. A. Giles (Oxford, 1843) ; Materials
for the History of Thomas Becket, ed. j. C. Robertson (Rolfs series,
1873-1883); and Miss K. Norgate’s England under Ike Angevin
Kings (1887). (H. W. C. D.)
GILBERT (Kinosmill) ISLANDS, an extensive archipelago
belonging to Great Britain in the mid-western Pacific Ocean,
lying N. and S. of the equator, and between 170° and 180® E.
There are sixteen islands, all coral reefs or atolls, extending in
crescent form over about five degrees of latitude. The principal
is Taputenea or Drummond Island. The soil, mostly of coral
sand, is productive of little else than the coco-nut palm, and the
chief source of food supply is the sea. The population of these
islands presents a remarkable phenomenon ; in spite of adverse
conditions of environment and complete barbarism it is exceed¬
ingly dense, in strong contradistinction to that of many other
more favoured islands. The land area of the group is only 166 m.,
yet the population is about 30,000. The Gilbert islanders are
a dark and coarse type of the Polynesian race, and show signs
of much crossing. They are tall and stout, with an average height
of 5 ft. 8 in., and are of a vigorous, energetic temperament
They are nearly always naked, but wear a conical hat of pandanus
leaf. In war they have an armour of plaited coco-nut fibres.
They are fierce fighters, their chief weapon being a sword armed
with sharks’ teeth. Their canoes are well made of coco-nut wood
boards sewn neatly together and fastened on frames. British
and American missionary work has been prosecuted with some
success. The large population led to the introduction of natives
from these islands into Hawaii as labourers in 1878-1884, but
they were not found satisfactory. The islands were discovered
by John Byron in 1765 (one of them bearing his name); Captains
Gilbert and Marshall visited them in, 1788; and they were
annexed by Great Britain in 1892.
GILBEY, SIB WALTER, ist Baht. (1831- ) English
wine-merchant, was bom at Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire,
in 1831. His father, the owner and frequently the driver of {he
daily coach between Bishop Stortford and London, died when
he was eleven years old, and young Gilhey was shortly afterwards
placed in the office of an estate agent at Tring, subsequently
obtaining a clerkship in a firm of parliamentary agents in London.
On the outbreak of the Crimean War, Walter Gilbey and his
younger brother, Alfred, volunteered for civilian service at the
front, and were employed at a convalescent hospital on the
Dardanelles. Returning to London on the declaration of peace,
Walter and Alfred Gilbey, on the advice of their eldest brother,
Henry Gilbey, a wholesale wine-merchant, started in the retail
wine and spirit trade. The heavy duty then levied by the
British government on French, Portuguese and Spanish wines
was prohibitive of a sale among the English middle classes, and
especially lower middle classes, whose usual alcoholic beverage
was accordingly beer. Heniy Gilbey was of opinion that these
classes would gladly drink wine if they could get it at a moderate
price, and by his advice Walter and Alfred determined to push
the sales of colonial, and particularly of Cape, wines, wi which
GILDAS—<rILD£RSLEEVB
the duty Was comparatively light Backed by capital obtained
through Henry Gilbey, th«y accordingly opened in 1857 a small
retail business in a basement in Oxford Street, London. The
Csss wines proved popular, and within three yeas* the brothers
ha- 20,000 customers on their books. The creation of the
off-licence system by Mr Gladstone, then chancellor of the
exchequer, in i860, followed by the large reduction in the duty
on French wines effected by the commercial treaty between
England and. France in 1861, revolutionized their trade and
laid the foundation of their fortunes. Three provincial grocers,
who had been granted the new off-licence, applied to be appointed
the Gilbeys' agents in their respective districts, and many
similar applications followed. These were granted, and before
very long a leading local grocer was acting as the firm’s agents
in every district in England. The grocer who dealt in the
Gilbeys’ wines and spirits was not allowed to sell those of any
. other firm, and the Gilbeys in return handed over to him all
‘ their existing customers in his district. This arrangement was
of mutual advantage, and the Gilbeys’ business increased so
rapidly that in 1864 Henry Gilbey abandoned his own under¬
taking to join his brothers. In 1867 the three brothers secured
the old Pantheon theatre and concert hall in Oxford Street for
their headquarters. In 1875 the firm purchased a large claret-
producing estate in M£d6c, on the banks of the Gironde, and
became also the proprietors of two large whisky-distilleries in
Scotland. In 1893 the business was converted, for family
reasons, into a private limited liability company, of which Walter
Gilbey, who in the same year was created a baronet, was chair¬
man. Sir Walter Gilbey also became well known as a breeder
of shire homes, and he did much to improve the breed of English
homes (other than race-homes) generally, and wrote extensively
on the subject. He became president of the Shire Home Society,
of the Hackney Home Society, and of the Hunters’ Improve¬
ment Society, and he was the founder and chairman of the
London Cart Home Parade Society. He was alto a practical
agriculturist, and president of the Royal Agricultural Society.
GILDAS, or Gildus (c. 516-570), the earliest of British
historians (see Celt : Literature, “ Welsh ”), suraamed by some
Sapiens, and by others Badonicus, seems to have been bom in
the year 51-6. Regarding him little certain is known, beyond
some isolated particulars that may be gathered from hints
dropped in the course of his work. Two short treatises exist,
purporting to be lives of Gildas, and ascribed respectively to the
nth and i*th centuries ; but the writers of both are believed to
have confounded two, if not more, persons that had borne the
name. It is from an incidental remark of his own, namely, that
the year of the siege of Mount Badon—one of the battles fought
between the Saxons and the Britons—was also the year of his
own nativity, that the date of his birth has been derived ; the
place, however, is not mentioned. His assertion that be was
moved to undertake his task mainly by “ zeal for God’s house and
for His holy law,” and the very free use he has made of quotations
from the Bible, leave scarcely a doubt that he was an ecclesiastic
of‘some order or other. In addition, we leam that he went
i broad, probably to France, in his thirty-fourth year, where,
after io yearn of hesitation and preparation, he composed, about
560^ the work bearing his name. His materials, he teds us,
were ocMectsd from foreign rather than native sources, the
latter of which had been put beyond his reach by circumstances.
The Cambrian Annals give 570 as the year of his death.
The writings of Gildas have come down to us under the title
of Gildae Sapientis de cxttdie Britamiae liber querulus. Though
at fust written consecutively, the work is now usually divided
into three portions,—a preface, the history proper, and an
epistle,—'the last, which is largely made up of passages and
texts of Scripture brought together for the purpose of condemning
the vices of his countrymen and their ruins, being the least
important, though by fir the longest of the three. In the second
he passes in brim review the history of Britain from its invasion
by die Romans till his own tunes. Among other matters refer¬
ence is made to the introduction of Christianity in the reign of
Tiberius4 theperse^jtion under Diocletian; die spread of the
Ariaa heresy; lie election of Maximus aa emperor by the legions
in Britain, and his subsequent death at Aquileia; the incursions
of the Piets and Scots into the southern part of the island f the
temporary assistance rendered to the harassed Britons by the
Romans; the final abandonment of the island by the latter;
the coming of the Saxons and their reception by Guortigern
(Vortigern); and, finally, the conflicts between the Britons, led
by a noble Roman, Ambrosius AureHanus, and the new invaders.
Unfortunately, on almost every point on which he touches, the
statements of Gildas are vague and obscure. With ope excep¬
tion already alluded to, no dates are given, and events are not
always taken up in the order of their occurrence. These faults
are of less importance during the period when Greek and Roman
writers notice the affairs of Britain ; but they become more
serious when, as is the case from nearly the beginning of the 5th
century to the date of his death, Gildas’s brief narrative is our
only authority for most of what passes current as the history of
our island during those years. Thus it is on his sole, though in
this instance perhaps trustworthy, testimony that the famous
letter rests, said to have been sent to Rome in 446 by the despair¬
ing Britons, commencingTo Agitius (Aetius), consul for
the third time, the groans of the Britons.”
GSdas's treatise was first published in 1525 by Polydore Vergil,
tamt with Daily avowed alterations and omissions. In 1568 John
Josseline, secretary to Archbishop Parker, issued a new edition of it
more in conformity with manuscript authority; and in 1691 a
still more carefully revised edition appeared at Oxford by Thomas
Gale. It was frequently reprinted on the Continent during the
16th century, and once or twice since. The next English edition,
described by Potthost as sditio pessima, was that published by the
English Historical Society in 1838, and edited by the Rev. J. Steven¬
son. The text of Gildas founded on Gale's edition collated with
two other MSS., with elaborate introductions, is included in the
Mmomenta historica Britannic*, edited by Pctru! and Sharpe
(London, 1848). Another edition is in A. W. Haildan and W.
Stubbs, Councils and Bccles. Documents relating to Great Britain
(Oxford, 1869) ; the latest edition is that by Theodor Mommsen in
Monum. Germ. hist. auct. antiq. xiii. (Chronica min. iii.), 1894.
GILDER, BICHARD WATSON (1844-1909), American editor
and poet, was bom in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 8th of
February 1844, a brother of William Henry Gilder (1838-1900),
the Arctic explorer. * He was educated at Bellevue Seminary,
an institution conducted by his father, the Rev. William Henry
Gilder (1818-1864), in Flushing, Long Island. After three years
(1865-1868) on the Newark, New Jersey, Daily Advertiser, he
founded, with Newton Crane, the Newark Morning Register. In
1869 he became editor of Hours at Home, and in 1870 assistant
editor of Scribner's Monthly (eleven years later re-named The
Century Magazine), of which he became editor in 1881. He was
one of the founders of the Free Art League, of the International
Copyright League, and of the Authors’ Club; was chairman of
the New York Tenement House Commission in 1894; end was a
prominent member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters,
of the Council of the National Civil Service Reform League, and
of the executive committee of the Citizens’ Union of New York
City. His poems, which are essentially lyrical, have been collected
in various volumes, including Five Books of Song (1894), In
Palestine and other Poems ( 1898), Poems and Inscriptions (1901),
and In the Heights (1905). A complete edition of his poems was
published in 1908. He also edited "Sonnets from the Portuguese”
and other Poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning; “One Word
More ” and other Poems by Robert Brooming (1905). He died in
New York on the 18th of November 1909. His wife, Helena
de Kay, a grand-daughter of Joseph Rodman Drake, assisted,
with Saint Gaudens and others, in founding the Society of
American Artists, now merged in the National Academy,
and the Art Students’ League of New York. She translated
Scmsier's Biography of Millet, and painted, before her marriage
in 1874, studies in flowers and ideal heads, much admired for
their feeling and delicate colouring.
OIUMBULEEVE, BAML LAMNEAU (1831- ), American
classical scholar, was bom in Charleston, South Carolina, on the
ajrd of October 1831, son of Benjamin (jUder»le«veJi79i-i875),
a Presbyterian evangelist, and editor of the Charleston Christian
Observer in 18*6-1845, of the Richmond (Va.) Watchman and
GILDING *3
Obsmier -iff 1845-1856, and of The Central Presbyterian in lSjft-
1860. The son gtaduated at Princeton in 1849, studied under
Prawt in Berlin, under Friedrich Ritschl at Bonn and under
Schneidewm at Gfittingen, where he received his doctor’s degree
in 1853. From i8<j6 to 1876 he was professor Of Greek in the
University of Virginia, holding the chair of Latin also in I861-
1866; and in i876*he became professor of Greek in the newly
founded JOhns Hopkins University. In 1880 The American
Journal of Philology, a C|uarterly published by the Tohns Hopkins
University, was established under his editorial charge, and 'his
strong personality was expressed in the department of the Journal
headed “ Brief Report ” or “ Lanx Satura,” and in the earliest
years of its publication every petty detail was in his hands.
His style in it, as elsewhere, is in striking contrast to that of the
typical classical scholar, and accords with his conviction that the
true aim of scholarship is “that which is.” He published a
Latin Grammar (1867; revised with the co-operation of Gonzalez
B. Lodge, 1894 and 1899) and a Latin Series for use in secondary
schools (1875), both marked by lucidity of order and mastery of
grammatical theory and methods. His edition of Persius (1875)
is of great value. But his bent was rather toward Greek than
Latin. His special interest in Christian Greek was partly the
cause of his editing in 1877 The Apologies of Justin Martyr,
“ which ” (to use his own words) “ I used unblushingly us a
repository for my syntactical formulae.” GilderSleeve’s studies
under Franz had no doubt quickened his interest in Greek
syntax, and’his logic, untrammelled by previous categories, and
ms marvellous sympathy with the language were displayed in
this most unlikely of places. His Syntax of Classic Greek (Part 1 .,
1900, with C. W. E. Miller) collects these formulae. Gildersleeve
edited in 1885 The Olympian and Pythian Odes of Pindar, with
a brilliant and valuable introduction. His views on the function
of grammar were summarized in a paper on The Spiritual Rights
of Minute Research delivered at Bryn Mawr on the 16th of June
1895. His collected contributions to literary periodicals appeared
in 1890 under the title Essays and Studies Educational and
Literary.
GILDING, the art of spreading gold, either by mechanical
or by chemical means, over the surface of a body for the purpose
of ornament. The art of gilding was known to the ancients.
According to ’Herodotus, the Egyptians were accustomed to gild
wood and metals; and gilding by means of gold plates is frequently
mentioned in the Old Testament. Pliny informs us that the first
gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction of Carthage, under
the censorship of Lucius Mummius, when the Romans began to
gild the ceilings of their temples and palaces, the Capitol being the
first place on which this enrichment was bestowed. But he adds
that luxury advanced on them so rapidly that in a little time you
might see all, even private and poor persons, gild the walls, vaults,
and other parts of their dwellings. Owing to the comparative
thickness of the gold-leaf used in ancient gilding, the traces of it
which yet remain are remarkably brilliant and solid. Gilding
has in all times occupied an important place in the ornamental
arts of Oriental countries ; and the native processes pursued in
India at the present day may be taken as typical of the arts as
practised from the earliest periods. For the gilding of copper,
employed in the decoration of temple domes and other large
works, the following is an outline of the processes employed.
The metal surface is thoroughly scraped, cleaned and polished,and
next ^eated in a fire sufficiently to remove any traces of grease or
other impurity which may remain from the operation of polishing.
It is then dipped in an acid solution prepared from dried unripe
apricots, and rubbed with pumice or brick powder. Next, the
surface js rubbed over with mercury which forms a superficial
amalgam With the copper, after which it is left some hours in clean
water, again washed with the add sdlution, ahd dried. It is
now ready for receiving the gold, which is laid on in leaf, and, on
adhering, assumes a grey appearance from combining with the
mercury, but onthe application of heat the’latter metal volatilizes,
leaving the gbMa dull greyish hue. The colour is brought up
by means dr tubbing uvfth agate bumrihers. The weight of
mercury used fa this process is double that of the gold laid on,
and the thickness of the giidfeg is regulatodby the'dmimstancw
or necessities Of,the case. For the gilding of iron‘Or steel, the
surface is first scratched over with chequered lines, than washed
in a hat solution of green apricots, dried and heated just short
of rod-heat. The gold-leaf is then laid on, and rubbed in with
agate burnishers, when it adheres by catching into theprepared
scratched surface.
Modem gilding is applied to numerous and diverse surfaces
and by various distinct processes, so that the art is prosecuted
in many ways, and is part Of widely different ornamental and
useful arts. It forms an important and essential part of frame-
making (see Carving and Gilding) ; it is largely employed
in connexion with cabinet-work, decorative painting and house
ornamentation; and it also bulks hugely 4h'bookbinding and
ornamental leather work. Further, gudfag is much employed
for coating baser metals, as in button-making,, in the gilt toy trade,
in electro-gilt reproductions and in electro-pfating; and it is
also a characteristic feature in the decoration of pottery, porcelain
and glass. The various processes fall under one or other of two
heads—mechanical gilding and gilding by chemical agency.
Mechanical Gilding embraces all the operations by which gold-
leaf is prepared (see Golcbeatinc), and the several processes
by which it is mechanically attached to the Surfaces It is intended
to cover. It thus embraces the burnish or water-gliding and the
oil-gilding of the carver and gilder, and the gilding opeKtidRS of
the house decorator, the sign-painter, the bookbinder, the paper-
stainer and several others. Polished iron, steel and other metals
are gilt mechanically by applying gold-leaf to the metallic surface
at a temperature -just under red-heat, pressing the leaf on with a
burnisher and reheating, when additional loaf -may be laid on.
The process is completed by cold burnishing.
Chemical Gilding embraces those processes in which the gold
used is at some stage in a state of chemical combination. Of these
the following are the principal:—
Cold Gilding. —In this process the gold is obtained in a state of
extremely fine division, and applied by mechanical means. Cold
gilding on silver is performed by a solution of gold in aqua-regia,
applied by dipping a linen rag into the solution, burning It, and
rubbing the black and heavy ashes on the Bilver with the Anger
or a piece of leather or cork. Wet gilding is effected by mains of
a dilute solution of chloride of gold with twice its quantity of ether.
The liquids are agitated and allowed to rest, when the other separates
and floats on the surface of the acid. The Whole mixture Is -then
poured into a funnel with a small aperture, and allowed to rest
for some time, when the acid is run off and far ether separated^
The ether will be found to have taken up all the gold from the acid,
and may be used for gilding iron or steel, for which purpose the
metal is polished with the finest emery and spirits of wine. The
ether is then applied with a small brush, and as it evaporates it
deposits the gold, which can now be heatsd and polished. For
small delicate figures a pen or a fine brush may be used far,laying
on the ether solution. Tire-gilding or Wash-gilding is a process by
which an amalgam &f gold is applied to metallic surfaces, the mercury
being subsequently volatilised, leaving a film of gold or an amalgam
containing from 13 to 16 % of mercury. In the preparation of-the
amalgam the gold must first be reduced to thin plates or grains,
which are heated red hot, and thrown into mercury previously heated,
till it begins to smoke. Upon stirring the mercury with an iron
rod, the gold totally disappears. The proportion of mercury to
gold is generally as six or eight to one. Whim the amalgam is
cold it is squeezed through chamois leather for the purpose of
separating the superfluous mercury ; the gold, with about tfiiice
its weight of mercury, remains behind, forming a yellowish silvery
mass of the consistence of butter. When the meta! to be gilt is
wrought or chased, it ought to be covered with mercury before
the amalgam is applied, that this may be more easily spread ; but
when the surface of the metal is plain, the amalgam may be applied
to it direct. When no such preparation is applied, the surface to be
gilded is simply bitten and cleaned with nitric acid. A deposit of
mercury is obtained on a metallic surface by means of “ quicksilver
water, a solution oi nitrate of mercury,—the nitric acid attacking
the metal to which it is applied, and thus leaving a film of free
metallic mercury. The amalgam being equally Spread over the
prepared Surface of the metal, the mercury is then subUmed by a
heat just sufficient for that purpose ; for, If it is too great, -part of
the gold may be driven off, or it may run together and leave some
of the surface of the metal bare. When the mercury has evaporated,
which is known by the surface having entirely become of a diill
•ydlow colour, the metal must undergo other operations, by which the
fine gold colour is given to it. First, the gilded surface is tubbed
with a -scratch brush of brass wire, uni il its surface be smooth ; them
it is covered over with a composition called " gilding wax," and
again exposed to the fire until the wax is burnt off. This wax Is
composed of beeswax mixed with some of the fdltowing substances,
GILDS
viz., nd ochr#, verdigrio, copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax. By
this operation the colour of the gilding is heightened; and the
effect teems to be produced by a perfect dissipation of some mercury
remaining after the former operation. The dissipation is well
effected by this equable application of heat. The gilt surfaoe is then
.covered over with nitre, alum or other salts, ground together, and
mixed up into a paste with water or weak ammonia. The piece of
metal thus covered is exposed to a certain degree of heat, and then
quenched in water. By this method its colour is further improved
and brought nearer to that of gold, probably by removing any
particles of copper that may have been on the gilt surface. This
process, when skilfully carried out, produces gilding of great solidity
and beauty ; but owing to the exposure of the workmen to mercurial
fumes, it is very unhealthy, and further there is much loss of mercury.
Numerous contrivances have been introduced to obviate these serious
evils. Gilt brass buttons used for uniforms are gilt by this process,
and there is an act of parliament (1796) yet uurepealed which pre¬
scribes 5 grains of gold as the smallest quantity that may be used
for the gilding of 12 dozen of buttons 1 in. in diameter.
( Hiding of Pottery and Porcelain -The quantity of gold consumed
for these purposes is very large. The gold used is dissolved in aqiia-
regia, ana the acid is driven off by heat, or the gold msy be precipi¬
tated by means of sulphate of iron. In this pulverulent state the
gold is mixed with ,*,th of its weight of oxide of bismuth, together
with a small quantity of borax and gum water. The mixture is
applied to the articles with u camel's hair pencil, and after passing
through the Are the gold is of a dingy colour, but the lustre is brought
out by burnishing with agate and bloodstone, and afterwards
cleaning with vinegar 01 white-lead.
GILDS, or Guilds. Medieval gilds were voluntary associations
formed for the mutual aid and protection of their members.
Among the gildsmen there was a strong spirit of fraternal co¬
operation or Christian brotherhood, with a mixture of worldly
and religious ideals—the support of the body and the salvation of
the soul. Early meanings of the root gild or geld were expiation,
penalty, sacrifice or worship, feast or banquet, and contribution
• or payment; it is difficult to determine which is the earliest
meaning, and we are not certain whether the gildsmen were
originally those who contributed to a common fund or those who
worshipped or feasted together. Their fraternities or societies
may be divided into three classes: religious or benevolent,
merchant and craft gilds. The last two categories, which do not
become prominent anywhere in Europe until the 12th century,
had, like all gilds, a religious tinge, but their aims were primarily
worldly, and their functions were mainly of an economic character.
*“ 1. Origin .—Various theories have been advanced concerning
the origin of gilds. Some writers regard them as a continuation of
the Roman collegia and sodalitates, but there is little evidence to
prove the unbroken continuity of existence of the Roman and
Germanic fraternities. A more widely accepted theory derives
gilds wholly or in part from the early Germanic or Scandinavian
sacrificial banquets. Much influence is ascribed to this heathen
element by Lujo Brentano, Karl Hegel, W. E. Wilda and other
suiters. This view does not seem to be tenable, for the old
sacrificial carousals lack two of the essential elements of the gilds,
namely corporative solidarity or permanent association and the
spirit of Christian brotherhood. Dr Max Pappenheim has
ascribed the origin of Germanic gilds to the northern “ foster-
brqtherhood ” or “ sworn-brotherhood,” which was an artificial
bdhd of union between two or more persons. After intermingling
their blood in the earth and performing other peculiar ceremonies,
the two contracting parties with grasped hands swore to avenge
any injury done to either of them. The objections to this
theory are fully stated by Hegel {Stddte und Gilden, i. 250-253).
The foster-brotherhood seems to have been unknown to the
Fianks and the Anglo-Saxons, the nations in which medieval
cilds first appear; and hence Dr Pappenheim’s conclusions,
if tenable at all, apply only to Denmark or Scandinavia.
No theory on this subject can be satisfactory which wholly
ignores the influence of the Christian church. Imbued with the
idea of the brotherhood of man, the church naturally fostered
the early growth of gilds and tried to make them displace the
old heathen banquets. The work of the church was, however,
directive rather t)na creative. Gilds were a natural manifesta¬
tion of the associative spirit which is inherent in mankind. The
same needs produce in different ages associations which have
striking resemblances, but those of each age have peculiarities
which indicate a spontaneous growth. It is not necessary, to
seek the germ of gilds in any antecedent age or institution.
When the old kin-bond eg maegth was beginning to weakpn or
dissolve, and the state did not yet afford adequate protection to
its citizens, individuals naturally united for mutual help.
Gilds are first mentioned in the Carolingian capitularies of
779 and 789, and in the enactments made by*the synod of Nantes
early in the 9th century, the text of which has been preserved
in the ecclesiastical ordinances of Hincmar of Rheims (a.d. 852).
The capitularies of 805 and 821 also contain vague references
to sworn unions of some sort, and a capitulary of 884 prohibits
villeins from forming associations “ vulgarly called gilds ”
against those who have despoiled them. The Carolingians
evidently regarded such “ conjurations ” as “ conspirations ”
dangerous to the state. The gilds of Norway, Denmark and
Sweden are first mentioned in the nth, 12th and 14th centuries
respectively ; those of France and the Netherlands in the
nth.
Many writers believe that the earliest references to gilds come
from England. The laws of Ine speak of gegildan who help each
other pay the wergeld, but it is not entirely certain that they
were members of gild fraternities in the later sense. These are
more clearly referred to in England in the second half of the
9th century, though we have little information concerning
them before the nth century. To the first half of that century
belong the statutes of the fraternities of Cambridge, Abbotsbury
and Exeter. They are important because they form the oldest
body of gild ordinances extant in Europe. The thanes’ gild at
Cambridge afforded help in blood-feuds, and provided for the
payment of the mergeld in case a member killed any one. The
religious element was more prominent in Orcy’s gild at Abbots¬
bury and in the fraternity at Exeter ; their ordinances exhibit
much solicitude for the salvation of the brethren’s souls. The
Exeter gild also gave assistance when property was destroyed
by fire. Prayers for the dead, attendance at funerals of gildsmen,
periodical banquets, the solemn entrance oath, fines for neglect
of duty and for improper conduct, contributions to a common
purse, mutual assistance in distress, periodical meetings in the
gildhall,—in short, all the characteristic features of the later
gilds already appear in the statutes of these Anglo-Saxon
fraternities. Some continental writers, in dealing with the
origin of municipal government throughout western Europe,
have, however, ascribed too much importance to the Anglo-Saxon
gilds, exaggerating their prevalence and contending that they
form the germ of medieval municipal government. This view
rests almost entirely on conjecture; there is no good evidence
to- show that there was any organic connexion between gilds
and municipal government in England before the coming of the
Normans. It should also be noted that there is no trace of the
existence of either craft or merchant gilds in England before
the Norman Conquest. Commerce and industry were not yet
sufficiently developed to call for the creation of such associations.
2. Religious Gilds after the Norman Conquest. —Though we
have not much information concerning the religious gilds in
the 12th century, they doubtless flourished under the Anglo-
Norman kings, and we know that they were numerous, especially
in the boroughs, from the 13th century onward. In 1388
parliament ordered that every sheriff in England should call
upon the masters and wardens of all gilds and brotherhoods
to send to the king’s council in Chancery, before the 2nd of
February 1389, full returns regarding their foundation, Ordin¬
ances and property. Many of these returns were edited by
J, Toulmin Smith (: 1816-1860), and they throw much light on the
functions of the gilds. Their ordinances are similar to those of
the above-mentioned Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Each member
took an oath of admission, paid an entrance-fee, and made a
small annual contribution to the common fund. The brethren
were aided in old age, sickness and poverty, often also in cases
of loss by robbery, shipwreck and conflagration; for example,
any member of the gild of St Catherine, Aldersgate, was to be
assisted if he “ fall mto poverty or be .injured through age, or
through fire or water, thieves or sickness.” Alms were often
GILDS
*5
given even to non-gikLamen; lights were supported at certain
alter*; {easts and processions were held periodically; the
funerals of brethren were attended; and masses for the dead
weil provided from the oommon purse or from special contribu¬
tions made by the gildsmen. Some of the religious gilds
supported' schools, or helped to maintain roads, bridges and
town-walls, or evea came, in course of time, to be closely con¬
nected with the government of the borough ; but, as a rule,
they were simply private societies with a limited sphere of
activity. They are important because they played a prominent
role in the socfcl life of England, especially as eleemosynary
institutions, down to the time of their suppression in 1547.
Religious gilds, closely resembling those of England, also
flourished on the continent during the middle ages.
3. The Gild Merchant.—The merchant and craft fraternities
are particularly interesting to students of economic and municipal
history. The gild merchanf came into existence in England
soon after the Norman Conquest, as a result of the increasing
importance of trade, and it may have been transplanted from
Normandy. Until clearer evidence of foreign influence is found,
it may, however, be safer to regard it simply as a new application
of the old gild principle, though this new application may have
been stimulated by continental example. The evidence seems
to indicate the pre-existence of the gild merchant in Normandy,
but it is not mentioned anywhere on the continent before the
nth century. It spread rapidly in England, and from the
reign of John onward we have evidence of its existence in many
English boroughs. But in some prominent towns, notably
London, Colchester, Norwich and the Cinque Ports, it seems
never to have been adopted. In fact it played a more conspicuous
role in the small boroughs than in the large ones. It was regarded
bv the townsmen as one of their most important privileges.
Its chief function was to regulate the trade monopoly conveyed
to the borough by the royal grant of gilda mercatoria. A grant
of this sort implied that the gildsmen had the right to trade
freely in the town, and to impose payments and restrictions
upon others who desired to exercise that privilege. The ordin¬
ances of a gild merchant thus aim to protect the brethren from
the commercial competition of strangers or _ non-gildsmen.
More freedom of trade was allowed at all times in the selling of
wares by wholesale, and also in retail dealings during the time
of markets and fairs. The ordinances were enforced by an
alderman with the assistance of two or more deputies, or by one
or two masters, wardens or keepers. The Morwensfeches were
periodical meetings at which the brethren feasted, revised their
ordinances, admitted new members, elected officers and trans¬
acted other business.
It has often been asserted that the gild merchant and the
borough were identical, and that the former was the basis of the
whole municipal constitution. But recent research has dis¬
credited this theory both in England and on the continent.
Much evidence has been produced to show that gild and borough,
gildsmen and burgesses, were originally distinct conceptions,
and that they continued to be discriminated in most towns
throughout the middle ages. Admission to the gild was not
restricted to burgesses ; nor did the brethren form an aristocratic
body, having control over the whole municipal polity. No good
evidence has, moreover, been advanced to prove that this or
any other kind of gild was the germ of the municipal constitution.
On the other hand, the gild merchant was certainly an official
organ or department of the borough administration, and it
exerted Considerable influence upon the economic and corporative
growth of the English municipalities.
Historians have expressed divergent views regarding the
early relations of the craftsmen and their fraternities to the gild
merchant. One of the main questions in dispute is whether
artisans were excluded from the gdd merchant. Many of them
seem to ha ve beeo admitted to membership. They were regarded
as merchants, for they bought raw material and sold the manu¬
factured commodity ; no sharp line of demarcation was drawn
between the two dUM\in the isth and 13th centuries. Separate
societies of craftsmen were formed in England soon after the
gild merchant came into existence j but at first (they were few
in number. The gild merchant did not givu birth! to craft
fraternities or have anything^ to do with'Mint origin; nor did
it delegate hi authority to them. In fact, there seams to have
been little or bo organic connexion between the two classes of
gilds. As has already been intimated, however, many artisans
probably belonged both to their own Oaft fraternity and to the gild
merchant, and the latter, owing to its great power in the town,
may have exercised some, sort of supervision over the craftsmen
and their societies. When the king bestowed upon the tanners
or weavers or any other body of artisans the right to have a
gild, they secured the monopoly of working and trading in their
branch of industry. Thus with every creation of a craft fraternity
the gild merchant was weakened and its sphere of activity was
diminished, though the new bodies were, .subsidiary to the older
and larger fraternity. The greater the commercial and industrial
prosperity of a town, the more rapid was the multiplication of
craft gilds, which was a natural result of the ever-increasing^
division of labour. The old gild merchant remained longest
intact and powerful in the smaller boroughs, in which, owing
to the predominance of agriculture, few or no craft gilds wete
formed. In some of the larger towns the crafts were prominent
already in the 13th century, but they became much mope pro¬
minent in the first half of the 14th century. Their increase in
number and power was particularly rapid in the time of Edward
III., whose reign marks an era of industrial progress. Many
master craftsmen now became wealthy employers of labour,
dealing extensively in the wares which they produced. The class
of dealers or merchants, as distinguished from trading artisans,
also greatly increased and established separate fraternities.
When these various unions of dealers and of craftsmen embraced
all the trades and branches of production in the town, little or
no vitality remained in the old gild merchant; it ceased to have
an independent sphere of activity. The tendency was for the
single organisation, with a general monopoly of trade, to be
replaced by a number of separate organisations representing
the various trades and handicrafts. In short, the function of
guarding and supervising the trade monopoly split up into
various fragments, the aggregate of the crafts superseding the
old general gild merchant. This transference of the authority
of the latter to a number of distinct bodies and the oonsequeflP
disintegration of the old organization was a gradual spontaneous
movement, —a process of slow displacement, or natural growth
and decay, due to the play of economic forces,—which, generally
speaking, may be assigned to the 14th and 15th centuries, the
very period in which the craft gilds attained the zenith of their
power. While in most towns the same and the old organization
of the gild merchant thus disappeared and the institution was
displaced by the aggregate of the crafts towards the close of the
middle ages, in some places it'survived long after the ijth
century either as a religious fraternity, shorn of its old functions,
or as a periodical feast, or as a vague term applied to the whole
municipal corporation.
On the continent of Europe the medieval gild merch&nt played
a less important r 61 e than in England. In Germany, France
and the Netherlands it occupies a less prominent place in tlfe
town (barters and in the municipal polity, and often corresponds
to the later fraternities of English dealers established either to
carry on foreign commerce or to regulate a particular part of die
local trade monopoly.
4. Craft Gilds.—A craft gild usually comprised all the artisans
in a single branch of industry in a particular town. Such a
fraternity was commonly called a “ mistery ” or “ company ”
in the 15th and 16th centuries, though the old termgild ”
was not yet obsolete. “ Gild ’’ was also a common designation
in north Germany, while tlie corresponding term in south
Germany was Zunft, and in France metier. These societies are
not clearly visible in England or on the continent before the early
part of the isth century. With the expansion of trade .and
industry the number of artisans increased, and 'they handed
together for mutual protection. Some German writers have
maintained that these craft organizations emanated from
GILDS
16
manorial group! of workmen, but strong arguments have been
advanced against the validity of this theory (notably by F.
Keutgen). It is unnecessary to elaborate any profound theory
regarding the origin of the craft gilds. The union of men of the
same occupation was a natural tendency of tire age. In the
13th contrary the trade of England continued to expand and
the number of craft gilds increased. In tire 14th century they
were fully developed and in a flourishing condition ; by that time
each branch of industry in every large town had its gild. The
development of these societies was even more rapid on the con¬
tinent than in England.
Their organization and aims were in general the same through¬
out western Europe. Officers, commonly called wardens in
England, were elected by the members, and their chief function
was to supervise the quality of the wares produced, so as to
secure good and honest workmanship. Therefore, ordinances
were made regulating the hours of labour and the terms of
, admission to the gild, including apprenticeship. Other ordin¬
ances required members to make periodical payments to a
common fund, and to participate in certain common religious
observances, festivities and pageants. But the regulation of
industry was always paramount to social and religious aims;
the chief object of the craft gild was to supervise the processes
of manufacture and to control the monopoly of working and
dealing in a particular branch of industry.
We have already called attention to the gradual displacement
of the gild merchant by the craft organizations. The relations
of the former to the. latter must now be considered more in
detail. There was at no time a general struggle in England
between the gild merchant and the craft gilds, though in a few
towns there seems to have been some friction between merchants
• and artisans. There is no exact parallel in England to the conflict
between these two classes in Scotland in the 16th century, or to
the great continental revolution of the 13th and 14th centuries,
by which the crafts threw off the yoke of patrician government
and secured more independence in the management of their own
affairs and more participation in the civic administration. The
main causes of these conflicts on the continent were the monopoly
of power by the patricians, acts of violence committed by them,
their bad management of the finances and their partisan admini-
■Slration of justice. In some towns the victory of the artisans
in the 14th century was so complete that the whole civic con¬
stitution was remodelled with the craft fraternities as a basis.
A widespread movement of this sort would scarcely he found in
England, where trade and industry were less developed than on
the continent, and where the motives of a class conflict between
merchants and craftsmen were less potent. Moreover, borough
government in England seems to have been mainly democratic
uqtil the 14th or 15th century ; there was no oligarchy to be
depressed or suppressed. Even if there had been motives for
uprisings of artisans such as took place in Germany and the
Netherlands, tile English kings would probably have intervened.
True, there were popular uprisings in England, but they were
usually conflicts between the poor and the rich ; the crafts as
sudh seldom took part in these tumults. While many continental
(hunicipalities were becoming more democratic in the 14th
century, those of England were drifting towards oligarchy,
towards government by a close “ select body." As a rule the
craft gilds secured no dominant influence in the boroughs of
England, but remained subordinate to the town government.
Whatever power they did secure, whether as potent subsidiary
organs of the municipal polity for the regulation of trade, or as
the chief or sole medium for the acquisition of citizenship, or as
integral parts of the common council, was, generally speaking,
the logical a cyst n ee of a gradual economic development, and
not the outgrowth of a revolutionary movement by which
oppressed craftsmen endeavoured to throw off the yoke of an
arrogant patrician gild merchant.
Two new kindt ft craft fraternities appear in the 14th century
end became more prominent in the 15th, namely, the merchants'
and the journeymen's companies. Hie misterie* or companies
of merchants* traded in one or more kinds of wans. They were
pre-eminently dealers, who sold what others produced. Hence
they should not be confused with the old gfld merchant, which
originally comprised both merchants and artisans, and had the
whole monopoly of the trade of the town. In most cases, the
company of merchants was merely one of the craft organizations
which superseded the gild merchant
In the 14th century the journeymen or yeomen began to set
up fraternities in defence of their rights. The formation of these
societies marks a cleft within the ranks of some particular class
of artisans—a conflict between employers, or master artisans,
and workmen. The journeymen combined to protect their
special interests, notably as regards hours of work and rates of
wages, and they fought with the masters over the labour question
in all its aspects. The resulting struggle of organized bodies
of masters and journeymen was widespread throughout western
Europe, but it was more prominent in Germany than in France or
England. This conflict was indeed one of the main features of
German industrial life in the 15th century. In England die
fraternities of journeymen, after struggling a while for complete
independence, seem to have fallen under the supervision and
control of the masters’ gilds; in other words, they became
subsidiary or affiliated organs of the older craft fraternities.
An interesting phenomenon in connexion with the organiza¬
tion of crafts is their tendency to amalgamate, which is occasion¬
ally visible in England in the 15th century, and more frequently
in the 16th and r7th. A similar tendency is visible in the
Netherlands and in some other parts of the continent already
in the 14th century. Several fraternities—old gilds or new
companies, with their respective cognate or heterogeneous
branches of industry and trade—were fused into one body. In
some towns all the crafts were thus consolidated into a single
fraternity ; in this case a body was reproduced which regulated
the whole trade monopoly of the borough, and hence bore some
resemblance to the old gild merchant.
In dealing briefly with the modem history of craft gilds, we may
confine our attention to England. In the Tudor period the
policy of the crown was to bring them under public or national
control. Laws were passed, for example in 1503, requiring that
new ordinances of “ fellowships of craf ts or misteries ” should be
approved by the royal justices or by other crown officers ; and
the authority of the companies to fix the price of wares was thus
restricted. The statute of 5 Elizabeth, c. 4, also curtailed their
jurisdiction over journeymen and apprentices (see Apprentice-
SHtP).
The craft fraternities were not suppressed by die statute of
1547 (1 Edward VI.). They were indeed expressly exempted
from, its general operation. Such portions of their revenues as
were devoted to definite religious observances were, however,
appropriated by die crown. The revenues confiscated were those
used for “ the finding, maintaining or sustentation of any priest
or of any anniversary, or obit, lamp, light or other such things.”
This has been apdy called “ the disendowment of the religion
of the misteries.” Edward Vl.’s statute marks no break of
continuity in die life of the craft organizations. Even before the
Reformation, however, signs of decay had already begun to
appear, and these multiplied in the 16th and 17th centuries. The
old gild system wan breaking down under the action of new
economic forces. Its dissolution was due especially to the
introduction of new industries, organized on a more modem
basis, and to the extension of the domestic system of manufacture.
Thus the companies gradually lost control over die regulation of
industry, though they still retained their old monopoly in the
17 th century, and in many cases even in the 18th. In fact, many
craft fraternities still survived in the second half of the 18th
century, but their usefulness hod disappeared. The medieval
form of association was incompatible with the new ideas of in¬
dividual liberty and free competition, with the greater separation
of capital and industry, employers and workmen, and with die
introduction of the factory system. Intent only on promoting
their own interests and disregarding the welfare of the community,
the old companies had become an unmitigated evil. Attempts
have been made to find in diem the progenitors of the trades
GILEAD—GILES, i8T tj
onions, but there seems to be no immediate connexion between
the bitter and the craft gild*. The privileges of the old frater¬
nities were not formally abolished until 1835; and the sub-
stantial remains or spectral forms of some are still visible m other
towns besides London.
Bibliography.— W. E. Wilda, Das Gildenwestn im Mistelattsr
(Halle, 1B31); E. Levasseur, Histotre des classes auvr&res sn Francs
(a vols., Paris, 1859, new ed. 1900); Gustav von Scboaherg, " Zur
wirthschaftlichen Bedeutung des deutsclien Zunftwesens imMittel-
alter," in JahrMcher filr Nativnaldkonomie und Statistic, ed. B.
Hildebrand, vol.br. pp. 1-7*, 97-169 (Jena, 1867) ; Joshua Toolmin
Smith, English Gilds, with Lu]o Brentano's introductory essay on
the History and Development of Gilds (London, 1870); Max Pappen-
heim, Die alldinischen Schutzgilden (Breslau, 1885); W. J. Ashley,
Introduction to English Economic Historv (2 vols., London, 1888-
1893 ; 3rd ed. of vol. i., 18114) ; C. Gross, The Gild Merchant (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1890); Karl Hegel, Slddte send Gilden der germanischen
Vdlker (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891); J. Malet Lambert, Two Thousand
Years of Gild Life (Hull, 1891); Alfred Doren, Untersuchungen zur
Geschickte der Kaufmarmsgilden (Leipzig, 1893) ; H. Vander Linden,
Lee Glides marchandes dans les Fays-Bus au moytu tge (Ghent,
1896); E. Martin Saint-Lcon, Histoire das corporations de miliars
(Paris, 1897); C. Nyrop, Danmarks Gilde- ug Lavsskraaer fra middtl-
alderen (2 vols., Copenhagen, 1899-1904) ; F. Keutgrn, Amter und
Zttnfte (Jena, 1903); George Unwin, Industrial Organization in the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Oxford, 1904). For biblio¬
graphies of gilds, see H. Blanc, Bibliographic des corporations
ouoriires (Paris, 1885); G. Gonetta, Bibliografia delle corporazioni
d' arti e mestieri (Rome, 1891); C. Gross, Bibliography of British
Municipal History, including Gilds (New York, 1897); W. Stieda,
in Handwtrterbuch der Staatswiesensehaften, ed. J. Conrad (znd ed.,
Jeaa, loot, under “ Ziunftwcsen ”). (C. Gh.)
BILBAO (i.e. “ hard ” or “ rugged,” a name sometimes used,
both in earlier and in later writers, to denote the whole of the
territory occupied by the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending
from the Amon to the southern base of Hermon (Deut. xxxiv. 1;
Judg. xx. 1; Jos. Ant. xii. 8. 3, 4). More precisely, however,
it was the usual name of that picturesque hill country which is
bounded on the N. by the Hierumax (Yarmuk), cm tire W. by
the J ordan, on the S. by the Amon, and on the E. by a line which
may be said to follow the meridian of Amman (Philadelphia or
Rabbath-Ammon). It thus lies wholly within 31° 25' and 32®
42' N. lat. and 35® 34' and 36° E. long., and is cut in two by the
jabbok. Excluding the narrow strip of low-lying plain along
the Jordan, it has an average elevation of 2500 ft. above the
Mediterranean ; but, as seen from the west, the relative height
is very much increased by the depression of the Jordan valley.
The range from the same point of view presents a singularly uni¬
form outline, having the appearance of an unbroken wall; in
reality, however, it is traversed by a number of deep ravines
(wadis), of which the most important are the Yabis, the Ajlun,
the Rajib, the Zerka (Jabbok), the Hesban, and the Zerka Ma in.
The great mass of tbe Gilead range is formed of Jura Ernes tone,
the base slopes being sandstone partly covered by white marls.
The eastern slopes are comparatively bare of trees; but the
western are well supplied with oak, terebinth and pine. The
pastures are everywhere luxuriant, and the wooded heights and
winding glens, in which the tangled shrubbery is here and there
broken up by open glades and flat meadoVs of green turf, exhibit
a beauty of vegetation such as is hardly to be seen in any other
district of Palestine.
The first biblical mention of “ Mount Gilead ” occurs in
connexion with the reconcilement of Jacob and Laban (Genesis
xxxi.). The composite nature of the story makes an identifica¬
tion of die exact site difficult, but one of the narrators (E) seems
to hafe in mind the ridge of what is now known as Jebel Ajlun,
probably not far from Mahneh (Mahanaim), near the head of the
wadi Yabis. Same investigators incline to Suf, or to the Jebel
Kafkafa. At the period of the Israelite conquest the portion of
Gilead northward of the Jabbok (Zerka)belonged to die dominions
of Og, king of Baahaa, while the southern half was niled by Sihon,
king of the Amorites, having been at an earlier date wrested from
Moab (Numb. xxi. 24; Deut. iii. 12-16). These two sections
were allotted respectively to Manasseh ami to Reuben and Gad,
both districts being peculiarly suited to die pastoral and nomadic
character of these tribes* A somewhat wild Bedouin disposition,
fostered by their surroundings, was retained by the Israelite in¬
habitants of Gilearito a late period Of their tottery* and n e w
tobetosomeextentdisoernibtem wfcatwe readaiilceof Jephthah,
of David’s Gadites, and of the prophet Elijah. At the eaitem
frontier of Palestine, Gilead bore the first wrarit of Syrian and
Assyrian attacks.
After the close of the Old Testament history the word Gilead
seldom occurs. It seems to have soon passed out of use as a
precise geographical designation; for though occasionally
mentioned by Apocryphal writers, try Josephus, and by Eusebius,
the allusions are all vague, and Show that those who made then
had no definite knowledge of Gilead proper. In Josephus and
the New Testament die name Peraea or rripav wS TopSovsv is
most frequently used; and the country is sometimes spoken
of by Josephus as divided into small provinces called after the
capitals in which Greek colonists had 'estabfished ihejhwfbes
during the reign of the Seleuddfte. At present Gilead sooth of
the Jabbok alone is known by the name of Jebel Jilad (Mount
Gilead), the northern portion between the Jabbok and the*
Yarmuk being called Jebel Ajlun. Jebel Jilad includes Jebel
Osha, and has for its capital the town of Es-Salt. The
cities of Gilead expressly mentioned in the Old Testament are
Ramoth, Jabekh and Jazer. The first of these has been variously
identified with Es-Salt, with Reintun, with Jerash or Gerasa,
with er-Remtha, and with $alhad. Opinions are also divided
on the question of its identity with Mizpeh-Qiletd (see Eneyt.
BMica, art. “ Ramoth-Gilead ”). Jabesh is perhaps to be
found at Meriamin, less probably at ed-Deir ; Jazer, at Yajux
near Jogbehah, rather than at Sar. The city name Gilead (J udg.
x. 17, xii. 7; Hos. vi. 8, xii. ri) has hardly been satisfactorily
explained ; perhaps the text has suffered.
The “ balm ” (Heb. tori) for which Gilead -was so noted
(Gen.xlvii. 11; Jer. vfii. 22, xlvi. 11; Keek, xxvii. 17), is probably
to be identified with mastic (Gen. xxxvii. tj, R.V. marg.) »>.
the resin yielded by the Pistachia Lmtiscut. The modem
“ balm of Gilead ” or “ Mecca balsam,” an aromatic gum
produced by the BalMmedendrm trftobalsamtm, is more likely
the Hebrew mSr, which the English Bible wrongly renders
“ myrrh."
See G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. xxiv. foil. (R, A. S. M.)
GILES (Gil, Gii.les), ST, the name given to an abbot whosa*
festival is celebrated on the ist of September. According to
the legend, he was an Athenian (A iylbat, AegidiuS) of royal
descent. After the death of his parents he dMtrmufad his
possessions among the poor, took ship, and landed at Marseilles.
Thence he went to Arles, where he remained for two years with
St Caesarius. He then retired into a neighboaring desert,
where he lived upon herbs and upon the milk of a hind which
came to him at stated hours. He was discovered there one <f*y
by Flavius, the king of the Goths* who built a monastery on the
place, of which he was the first abbot. Scholars are-very much
divided as to the date of his life, some holding that he lived in
the 6th century, others in the 7th or 8th. It may be regarded
as certain that St Giles was buried in the hermitage "which he
had founded in a spot which was afterwards the town of *St-
Gilles (diocese of Nfmes, department of Gard). His reputation
for sanctity attracted many pilgrims. Important gifts were
made to the church which contained his body, and a monastery
grew up hard by. It is probable that the Visigothic princes who
were in possession of the country protected and enriched this
monastery, and that it was destroyed by the Saracens at the
time of their invasion in 721. But there are no authentic data
before the 9th century concerning his history. In 808 Charle¬
magne took the abbey of St-Giltes under his protection, dad
it is mentioned among the monasteries from which only prayen
for the prince und the state were due. In the 1 ath century the
pilgrimages to St-Gilles are cited as among the most celebrated
of the time. Tbe cult of the saint, who came to be regarded as
the special patron of lepers, beggars and cripples, spread very
extensively over Europe, especially in England, Scotland,
France, Belgium and Germany, 'ibe church of St Giles,
Crippiegate, London, was built about 1090, white the hospital for
lepers at St Giles-in-the-Fields (near New Oxford Street) was
r 8 GILFILLAN—GILGAMESH
founded by Queen Matilda in 1117. In England alone there
are about 150 churches dedicated to this saint. In Edinburgh
the church of St Giles could boast the possession of an arm-bone
of its natron. Representations of St Giles are very frequently
met with in early French and German art, but are much less
common in Italy and Spain.
See Acta Sanctorum (September), i. *84-399; Devic and Valssete,
Hittoirc ginirale da Languedoc, pp. 514-5“ (loulouse, 1870);
E. Rembry, Saint Cities, sa vie, sts reliques, son cults en Belgique et
dam le norddela France (Bruges, 1881); F. Arnold-Forstcr, Studies
in Church Dedications, or England's Patron Saints, 11. 46-51, lh. 15,
365.565 (1899); A. Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art, 768-770
(1896); A. BeU, Lives and Legends of the English Bishops and Kings,
Medieval Monhs, and other later Saints, pp. 61, 70, 74-78, 84, 197
(.904). (H. r»E.)
011.I HI.LAM , GEORGE (1813-1878), Scottish author, was 1
bom on the 30th of January 1813, at Comrie, Perthshire, where
his father, the Rev. Samuel Gilfillan, the author of some theo-
* logical works, was for many years minister of a Secession con¬
gregation. After an education at Glasgow University, in March
1836 he was ordained pastor of a Secession congregation in
Dundee. He published a volume of his discourses in 1839,
and shortly afterwards another sermon on “ Hades,” which
brought him under the scrutiny of his co-presbyters, and was
ultimately withdrawn from circulation. Gilfillan next contri¬
buted a series of sketches of celebrated contemporary authors
to the Dumfries Herald, then edited by Thomas Aird; and these,
with several new ones, formed his first Gallery of Literary Portraits,
which appeared in 1846, and had a wide circulation. It was
quickly followed by a Second and a Third Gallery. In 1851 his
most successful work, the Bards of the Bible, appeared. His
aim was that it should be “ a poem on the Bible ” ; and it was
far more rhapsodical than critical. His Martyrs and Heroes of
the Scottish Covenant appeared in 1833, and in 1856 he produced
a partly autobiographical, partly fabulous, History of a Man.
For thirty years he was engaged upon a long poem, on Night,
which was published in.1867, but its theme was too vast, vague
and unmanageable, and the result was a failure. He also
edited an edition of the British Poets. As a lecturer and as a
preacher he drew large crowds, but his literary reputation has
^tot proved permanent. He died on the 13th of August 1878.
He had just finished a new life of Bums designed to accompany
a new edition of the works of that poet.
GIUML (Heb. for “ circle ” of sacred stones), the name of
several places in Palestine, mentioned in the Old Testament
The name is not found east of the Jordan.
1. The first and most important was situated “ in the east
border of Jericho ” (Josh. iv. 19), on the border between
Judah and Benjamin (Josh. xv. 7). Josephus (Ant. v. 1. 4)
places it 50 stadia from Jordan and 10 from Jericho (the
New Testament site). Jerome ( Onomasticon, s.v. “ Galgal ’’)
places Gilgal 3 Roman miles from Jericho, and speaks of-it
as a deserted place held in wonderful veneration (“ miro cultu ”)
by the natives. This site, which in the middle ages appears to
haAe been lost—Gilgal being shown farther north—was in
*865 recovered by a German traveller (Hermann Zschokke),
and fixed by the English survey party, though not beyond
dispute. It is about 3 m. east of the site of Byzantine
Jericho, and x m. from modem er-Riha. A fine tamarisk,
traces of a church (which is mentioned in the 8th century), and
a huge reservoir, now filled up with mud, remain. The place is
cidled Jiljulieh, and its position north of the valley of Achor
(Wadi Kelt) and east of Jericho agrees well with the biblical
indications above mentioned. A tradition connected with the
fall of Jericho is attached to the site (see C. R. Conder, Tent
Work, 303 ft.). This sanctuary and camp of Israel held a high
place in the national regard, and is often mentioned in Judges
and Samuel. But .whether this is the Gilgal spoken of by Amos
and Hosea in connexion with Bethel is by no means certain
[see (3) below). >
a. Gilgal, mentioned in Josh. xii. 13 in connexion with Dor,
appears to have been situated in the maritime plain. Jerome
(Onomasticon, s.v. “ Geigel ”) speaks of a town of the name
6 Roman miles north of Antipatris (Ras el‘Ain). This, is
apparently the modem Kalkilia, but about 4 m. north of Anti¬
patris is a large village called Jiljulieh, which is more probably
the biblical town.
3. The third Gilgal (a Kin^s iv. 38) was in the mountains
(compare 1 Sam. vii. 16, 3 Kings ii. 1-3) near Bethel. Jerome
mentions this place also ( Onomasticon, s.t'. “ Galgala ”). It
appears to be the present village of Jiljilia, about 7 English
miles north of Beitin (Bethel). It may have absorbed the old
shrine of Shiloh and been the sanctuary famoqs in the days of
Amos and Hosea.
, 4. Deut. xi. 30 seems to imply a Gilgal near Gerizim, and there
is still a place called Juleijil on the plain of Makhna, m. S.E.
of Shechem. This may have been Amos’s Gilgal and was
almost certainly that of 1 Macc. ix. 2.
5. The Gilgal described in Josh. xv. 7 is the same as the
Beth-Gilgal of Neh. xii. 29; its site is not known. (R. A. S. M.)
GILGAMESH, EPIC OF, the title given to one of the most
important literary products of Babylonia, from the name of the
chief personage in the series of tales of which it is composed.
Though the Gilgamesh Epic is known to us chiefly from the
fragments found in the royal collection of tablets made by
Assur-bani-pal, the king of Assyria (668-626 B.c.) for his palace
at Nineveh, internal evidence points to the high antiquity of at
least some portions of it, and the discovery of a fragment of the
epic in the older form of the Babylonian script, which can be
dated us 2000 b.c., confirms this view. Equally certain is a
second observation of a general character that Hie epic originating
as the greater portion erf the literature in Assur-bani-pal's collec¬
tion in Babylonia is a composite product, that is to say, it consists
of a number of independent stories or myths originating at
different times, and united to form a continuous narrative with
Gilgamesh as the central figure. This view naturally raises the
question whether the independent stories were all told of
Gilgamesh or, as almost always happens in the case of ancient
tales, were transferred to Gilgamesh as a favourite popular
hero. Internal evidence again comes to our aid to lend its
weight to the latter theory.
While the existence of such a personage as Gilgamesh may
be admitted, he belongs to an age that could only have preserved
a dim recollection of his achievements and adventures through
oral traditions. The name 1 is not Babylonian, and what
evidence as to his origin there is points to his having come from
Elam, to the east of Babylonia. He may have belonged to the
people known as Hie Kassites who at the beginning of the 18th
century B.c. entered Babylonia from Elam, and obtained control
crf'the Euphrates valley. Why and how he came to be a popular
hero in Babylonia cannot with our present material be deter¬
mined, but the epic indicates that he came as a conqueror and
established himself at Erech. In so far we have embodied in
the first part of the epic dim recollections of actual events, but
we soon leave the solid ground of fact and find ourselves soaring
to the heights of genuine myth. Gilgamesh becomes a god, and
in certain portions of fhe epic clearly plays the part of the sun-
god of the spring-time, taking the place apparently of Tammuz
or Adonis, the youthful sun-god, though the story shows traits
that differentiate it from the ordinary Tammuz myths. A
separate stratum in the Gilgamesh epic, is formed by the story of
Eabani—introduced as the friend of Gilgamesh, who joins him
in his adventures. There can be no doubt that Eabani, who
symbolizes primeval man, was a figure originally entirely inde¬
pendent of Gilgamesh, but his stoTy was incorporated into the
epic by that natural process to be observed in the national epics
of other peoples, which tends to connect the favourite hero with
all kinds of tales that for one reason or the other become em¬
bedded in the popular mind. Another stratum is represented
by the story of a favourite of the gods known as Ut-Napishtim,
who is saved from a destructive storm and flood that destroys
1 The name of the hero, written always ideographically, was for a
long time provisionally read Isdubar ; but a tablet, discovered by
T. G. Finches gave the equivalent Gilgatnefh (see Jastro*, Religion 0/
Babylonia and Assyria, p. 468).
GIIX5IT
19
his fellow-citizens of Shurippak. Gilgamesh is artificially
brought into contact with Ut-Napishtim, to whom he pays a
visjt for'the purpose of learning the secret of immortal life and
perpetual youth which he enjoys. During the visit Ut-Napishtim
tells Gilgamesh the story of the flood and of his miraculous
escape, feature myths have been entwined with other episodes-
in the epic and flhally the theologians took up the combined
stories and made them the medium for illustrating the truth
and force of certain doctrines of the Babylonian religion. In
its final form,/he outcome of an extended and complicated
literary process, the Gilgamesh Epic covered twelve tablets,
each tablet devoted to one adventure in which the hero plays
a direct or indirect part, and the whole covering according to the
most plausible estimate about 3000 lines. Of all twelve tablets
portions have been found among the remains of Assur-bani-pal’s
library, but some of the tablets are so incomplete as to leave
even their general contents in some doubt. The fragments do
not all belong to one copy. Of some tablets portions of two,
and of some tablets portions of as many as four, copies have
turned up, pointing therefore to the great popularity of the
production. The best preserved are Tablets VI. and XI., and
of the total about 1500 lines are now known, wholly or in part,
while of those partially preserved quite a number can be restored.
A brief summary of the contents of the twelve may be indicated
as follows
In the 1st tablet, after a general survey of the adventures of
Gilgamesh, his rule at Erech is described, where he enlists the
services of all the young able-bodied men in the building of the
great wall of the city. The people sigh under the burden im¬
posed, and call upon the goddess Aruru to create a being who
might act as a rival to Gilgamesh, curb his strength, and dispute
his tyrannous control. The goddess consents, and creates
Eabani, who is described as a wild man, living with the gazelles
and the beasts of the field. Eabani, whose name, signifying
“ Ea creates,” points to the tradition which made Ea (q.v.) the
creator of humanity, symbolizes primeval man. Through a
a hunter, Eabani and Gilgamesh are brought together, but
instead of becoming rivals, they are joined in friendship. Eabani
is induced by the snares of a maiden to abandon his life with the
animals and to proceed to Erech, where Gilgamesh, who has
been told in several dreams of the coming of Eabani, awaits him.
Together they proceed upon several adventures, which are
related in the following four tablets. At first, indeed, Eabani
curses the fate which led him away from his former life, and
Gilgamesh is represented as bewailing Eabani’s dissatisfaction.
The sun-god Shamash calls upon Eabani to remain with Gilga¬
mesh, who pays him all honours in his palace at Erech. With
the decision of the two friends to proceed to the forest of cedars
in which the goddess Irnina—a form of Ishtar—dwells, and
which is guarded by Khumbaba, the 2nd tablet ends. In the
3rd tablet, very imperfectly preserved, Gilgamesh appeals
through a Shamash priestess Rimat-Belit to the sun-god Shamash
for his aid in the proposed undertaking. The 4th tablet contains
a description of the formidable Khumbaba, the guardian of
the cedar forest. In the 5th tablet Gilgamesh and Eabani reach
the forest. Encouraged by dreams, they proceed against
Khumbaba, and despatch him near a specially high cedar over
which he held guard. This adventure against Khumbaba belongs
to the Eabani stratum of the epic, into which Gilgamesh is
artificially introduced. The basis of the 6th tablet is the familiar
natufe-myth of the change of seasons, in which Gilgamesh
plays the part of the youthful solar god of the springtime, who
is wooed by the goddess of fertility, Ishtar. Gilgamesh, recalling
to the goddess the sad fate of those who fall a victim to her
charms, rejects the offer, In the course of his recital snatches
of other myths are referred to, including the famous Tammuz-
Adonis tale',' in which Tammuz, the youthful bridegroom, is
slain by his consort Ishtar. The goddess, enraged.at the insult,
asks her fattier Anu to avenge her. A divine bull is sent to wage
a contest against Gflgamesh, who is assisted by his friend Eabani.
This scene of the fights with the bull is often depicted on seal
cylinders. The two friends by their united force succeed in
killing the buU, and then after performing certain, votive and
purification rites return to Erech, where they are hailed with joy.
In this adventure it is clearly Eabani who is aittteiafly intro¬
duced in order to maintain the association with Gilgamesh. *
The 7th tablet continues the Eabani stratum. The hero h,
smitten with sore disease, but the fragmentary condition of
tins and die succeeding tablet is such as to envelop in doubt the
accompanying circumstances, including the cause and nature
of his disease. The 8th tablet records the death of Eabani.
The 9th and 10th tablets, exclusively devoted to Gilgamesh,
describe his wanderings in quest of Ut-Napishtim, from wham
he hopes to learn how he may escape the fate that has overtaken
his friend Eabani. He goes through mountain passes and
encounters lions. At the entrance to the mountain Mashu,
scorpion-men stand guard, from one of whom he receives advice
as to how to pass through the Mashu district. He succeeds in
doing, so, and finds himself in a wonderful park, which lies along
the sea coast. In the 10th tablet the goddess Sabitu, who, air
guardian of the sea, first bolts her gate against Gilgamesh, after
learning of his quest, helps him to pass in a ship across the sea
to the “waters of death.” The ferry-man of Ut-Napishtim
brings him safely through these waters, despite the difficulties
and dangers of the voyage, and at last the hero finds himself
face to face with Ut-Napishtim. In the nth tablet, Ut-Napish-
tim tells the famous story of the Babylonian .flood, which is
so patently attached to Gilgamesh in a most artificial manner.
Ut-Napishtim and his wife are anxious to help Gilgamesh to new
life. He is sent to a place where he washes himself clean from
impurity. He is told of a weed which restores youth to the one
grown old. Scarcely has he obtained the weed when it is snatched
away from him, and the tablet closes somewhat obscurely with,
the prediction of the destruction of Erech. In the nth tablet
Gilgamesh succeeds in obtaining a view of Eabani ’b shade, and
learns through him of the sad fate endured by the dead. With
this description, in which care of the dead is inculcated as the
only means of making their existence in Aralu, where the dead
aregathered, bearable, the epic, so far as we have it, doses.
The reason why the flood episode and the interview with the
dead Eabani are introduced is quite clear. Both are intended *
as illustrations of doctrines taught in the schools of Babylonia^ •
the former to explain that only the favourites of the gods can
hope under exceptional circumstances to enjoy life everlasting;
the latter to emphasize the impossibility for ordinary mortals
to escape from the inactive shadowy existence led by the dead,
and to inculcate the duty of proper care for the dead. That the
astro-theological system iB also introduced into the epic is clear
from the division into twelve tablets, which correspond to the
yearly course of the sun, while throughout there are indications
that all the adventures of Gilgamesh and Eabani, including
those which have an historical background, have been submitted
to the influence of this system and projected on to the heavens.
This interpretation of the popular tales, according to which the
career of the hero can be followed in its entirety and in detail
in the movements in the heavens, in time, with the grafting
predominance of the astral-mythologkal system, overshadowed
the other factors involved, and it is in this form, as m astral
myth, that it passes through the ancient world and leaves its
traces in the folk-tales and myths of Hebrews^ Phoenicians,
Syrians, Greeks and Romans throughout Asia Minor and even
in India.
Bibliography. —The complete edition of the Gilgamesh Epic by
Paul Haupt under the title Das babylonischs Nimroiepos (Leipzig,
1884-1891), with the 12th tablet in the Blittife tur Auyriotogu,
i. 48-79; German translation by Peter Jensen in vol. vi. of
Schrader’s Ktilinschrifilichi Bibliothek (Berlin, 1900), pp. 116-273.
See also the same author’s comprehensive work, Diu Gilgamisch-
Hpos in Air WslUilsralur (vol. i. 1906, vol. ii. to follow). An
English translation of the chief portions in Jastrow, Riligion 0/
Babylonia and Assyria (Boston, 1H98), ch. xxiii. (M, Ja.)
GILO IT, an outlying province in the extreme north-wes't of
India, over which Kashmir has reasserted her sovereignty.
Only a part of the basin of the river Gilgit is included within
its political boundaries. There is an intervening width of
0
GIIXJIT
mountainous oountry, represented chiefly by glaciers and ice-fields,
and intersected by narrow sterile valleys, measuring some 100 to
TOO «1. it width, to the north and north-east, which separates
• a* province of Gilgit from the Chinese frontier beyond the
• Xuztagh and Karakoram. This part of the Kashmir borderland
includes Kanjut (or Hanza) and Ladakh. To the north-west,
beyond the sources of the Yasin and Ghazar in the Shandur
range (the two most westerly tributaries of the Gilgit river)
is the deep valley of the Yarkhun Or Chitral. Since the formation
of the North-West Frontier Province in 1901, the political charge
of Chitral, Dir and Swat, which was formerly included withm
the Gilgit agency, has been transferred to the chief commissioner
of the new province, with his capital at Peshawar. Gilgit proper
now forms a wazarat of the Kashmir state, administered by a
fM»>. Gilgit is also the headquarters of a British political
agent, who exercises some supervision over the waste, and is
directly responsible to the government of India for the adminis-
*tration of the outlying districts or petty states of Hunza, Nagar,
Ashkum&n, Vasin and Ghizar, the little republic of Chilas, &e.
These states acknowledge the suzerainty of Kashmir, paying an
annual tribute in 'gold or grain, but they form no part of its
territory.
Within the wider limits of the former Gilgit agency are many
mixed races, speaking different languages, which have all been
usually classed together under the name Dard. The Dard,
however, is unknown beyond the limits of the Kohistan district
of the Indus valley to the south of the Hindu Koh, the rest of
the inhabitants of the Indus valley belonging to Shin republics,
or Chilas. The great mass of die Chitral population are Kho
(speaking Khowar), and they may be accepted as representing
. the aboriginal population of the Chitral vatley. (See Hinbu
Rush.) Between Chitral and the Indus the “ Dards ” of
Dardistan are chiefly Yeshkuns and Shins, and it would appear
from the proportions in which these people occupy the country
that they must have primarily moved up from the valley of the
Indus in successive waves of conquest, first the Yeshkuns, and
then the Shins. No one cam put a date to these invasions, hut
Biddulph is inclined to class the Yeshkuns with the Yuechi
who conquered the Bactrian kingdom about 120 b.c. The
are obviously a Hindu twee (as is testified by their
veneration for the oow), who spread themselves northwards
and eastwards as far as Baftistan, where they collided with the
aboriginal Tatar of the Asiatic highlands. But the ethnography
of H Ourdwten,” or the Gilgit agency (for the two are, roughly
speaking, synonymous), requires further investigation, and it
would lie premature to attempt to frame anything like an ethno¬
graphical history of these regions until the neighbouring pro¬
vinces of Tmtgir and Dard have been more fully examined. The
witarat of Gilgit contains a population (1901) of 60,885, a 'l
Mahommedans, mostly of the Shiah sect, hut not fanatical.
The dominant race is that of the Shins, whose language is uni¬
versally spoken. This is one of the so-called Pisacha languages,
an archaic Aryan group intermediate between the Iranian and
thwTkmskritie.
• In general appearance and dress all the mountain-bred peoples
extending through these northern districts are very similar.
Thick feat coats Teaching below the knee, loose “ pyjamas ”
wMt cloth putties ” apd hoots (often of English make) are
almost universal, the distinguishing feature in their costume
being the felt cap worn close to the head and rolled up round the
edges. They are on the whole a light-hearted, cheerful race of
people, but it has been observed that their temperament varies
much with their habitat—those who live on the shadowed sides
of mountains being distinctly more morose and more serious in
disposition than the dwellers in valleys which catch the winter
sunlight. They are, at the same time, bloodthirsty and treacher¬
ous to a degree which would appear incredible to a casual
observer of their happy and genial manners, exhibiting a strange
combination (as fits been olwerved by a careful studertt of their
ways) of “ the monkey and the tiger.” Addicted to sport of
every kind, they purine no manufacturing industries whatsoever,
but they, are excetlee^ agriculturists, and show great ingenuity
in their local irrigation works and in their efforts to bring every
available acre of cultivable soil within the irrigated area. Gold
washing is more or less carried on in most of the valleys north o!
the river Gilgit, and gold dust (contained in small packets
formed with the petals of a cup-shaped flower) is an invariable
item in their official presents and offerings. Gold dust still
constitutes part of the annual tribute which, strangely enough,
is paid by Hunza to China, as well as to Kashmir.
Routes in Ike Gilgit Agency. —Due of the oldest recorded routes
through this country is that which connects Mastuj in the Chitral
valley with Gilgit, passing across the Shandur range (12,250). It now
forms the high-road between Gilgit and Chitral, and has been
engineered ihto a passable route. From the north three great glaoier-
brod affluents make their way to the river of Gilgit, joining it at
almost equal intervals, and each of them affords opportunity for a
rough passage northwards. (1) The Yasin river, which follows a
fairly straight oonrsc from north to south for about 40 m. from the
foot of the Oarkdt pass across the Shandur range (15,000) to its
junction with the river Gilgit, close to the little fort of Gupis, on the
Gilgit Maatuj road. Much of this valley is cultivated and extremely
picturesque. At the head of it Is a grand group of glaciers, one
of which leads up to the well-known pass of DarkOt. (2) 25
m. (by map measurement) below Gupis the Gilgit receives the
Ashkuman affluent from the north. The little lake of Karumbar
is held to be its source, as it lies at the head of the river. The same
lake is sometimes called the source of the river Yarkhun or Chitral;
and it seems possible that a part of its waters may be defected in
each direction. The Karumbar, or Ashkuman, is nearly twice the
length of tire Yasin, and the upper half of the valley is encompassed
by glaciers, rendering the route along it uncertain and difficult.
(3) 40 m. or so bdow the Ashkuman junction, and nearly
opposite the little station of digit, the river receives certain further
contributions from the north which are collected in the Hunza and
Nagar basins. These basins include a system of glaciers of such
gigantic proportions that they are probably unrivalled ill any part
of the world. The glacial head of the Hunza is not far from that of
the Karumbar, and, like the Karnmbar, the river commences with a
wide sweep eastwards, following a course roughly parallel to the crest
of the Hindu Kush (under whose southern slopes it lies close) for
about 40 nt. Then striking south for another 40 in., it twists
amidst the barren feet of gigantic rock-bound spurs which reach up¬
wards to tlie Muctagh peaks on the east and to a mass of glaciers
and snow-fields on the west, hidden amidst the upper folds of moun¬
tains towering to an average of 25,000 ft. The next groat bend is
again (0 the west for 30 m., before a final change of direction to the
south at tiie historical position of Chalt and a comparatively straight
run of 25 m. tea junction with the Gilgit. The valley of Hunza lies
same 10 m. from the point of this westerly bend, and 20 (as the crow
flies) from Chalt. Much has been written of the magnificence of
Hunza valley scenery, surrounded as it is by a stupendous ring of
snow-capped peaks find brightened with all the radiant beauty that
cultivation adds to these mountain valleys ; but such scenery must
be regarded as exceptional in these northern regions.
Glaciers and Mountains.— Conway and Godwin Austen have
dfScribed the glaciers of Nagar which, enclosed between file Muztagh
spurs on the north-cast and the frontier peaks of Kashmir (terminat¬
ing with Rakapushi) on the south-west, and massing themselves in
an almost uninterrupted series from the Hunza valley to the base of
those gigantic peaks -which stand about Mount Godwin Austen,
seem to lie set like an ice-sea to dofinc the farthest bounds of the
Himalaya. From its uttermost head to the loot of the Hi spar,
overhanging the valley above Nagar, the length of the glacial ice-
bod known under the name of Biafo is said to measure about on m
Throughout the .mountain region of Kanjut (or Hunza) and Nagar
the valleys are deeply sunk between mountain ranges, which are
nowhere less than 15,000 ft. in altitude, and which must average
above 20,000 ft. As a rule, these valleys are hare of vegetation.
Where the summits of the loftier ranges are not buried beneath snow
and ice they are bare, bleak aad splintered, and the nakedness of the
rock scenery extends down their rugged spurs to the very base of
lliem. On the lower slopes of tumbled debris the sun in summer
beats with an Intensity which is unmitigated by the cloud drifts
which form in the moister atmosphere of the monsoon-swept sum¬
mits of the Himalaya. Sun-baked in summer and, frost-riven in
winter, the mountain sides are but immense ramps of loose rock
dt-bris, only awaiting the yearly melting of the upper snow-fields, or
the advent of a casual rainstorm, to be swept downwards in an
avalanche of mud and stones into the gorges below. Here it becomes
piled and massed together, till the pressure of accumulation forces
it out into the main valleys, where it spreads in alluvial fans and
silts up the plains. This formation is especially marked throughout
the high level-valleys of the Gilgit basin.
1 Passes .—Each of these northern affluents of the main stream is
headed by a pare, or a group of passes, leading either to the Pamir
region direct, or into the upper Yarkhun valley from which a Pamir
route diverges. The Yasm valley is headed by the Darkdt pass
(15,000 ft.), which drops into the Yarichtm not far from the foot of
GILL, J»-*—GfiLL 8i
tk» Bareglfii bkhw ovor the main Hindu Kush watershed. Tho
A.^imman is headed by the Gasar and Kota Bohrt passes, leading
to (toe valley of the Ab-J-Punja ; and the Hunxa by the Kilik and
Min taka, the connecting links between the Taghdumbahh Pamir
and the Gilgit basin. They are all about the same height-' i 3,000 ft.
All are passable at certain times of the year to small parties, and all
are uncertain- In tu> case do they present insupsrablo difficulties
in themselves, glaciers and snow-fields and mountain staircases
being common to all; but the gorges and precipices which distin¬
guish the approaches to them from the south, the slippery sides of
shelving spurs whose feet are washed by raging torrents, the perpetual
weary monoton? of ascent and descent over successive ridges
multiplying the gradient indefinitely—these form the real obstacles
blocking the way to these northern passes.
Gilgit Station .—The pretty little station of Gilgit (4890 ft. above sea)
spreads itself in terraces above the right bank of the river nearly
opposite the opening leading to Hunza, almost nestling under the
cuffs of the HfnduKoh, which separates it on the south from the
savage mountain wilderness of Darel and Kohistan. It includes
a residency for the British political officer, with about half a dozen
homes for the accommodation of officiate, barracks suitable for a
battalion of Kashmir troops, and a hospital. Evidences of Buddhist
occupation are not wanting in Gilgit, though they are few and un¬
important. Such as they are, they appear to prove that Gilgit
was once a Buddhist centre, and that the old Buddhist route between
Gilgit and the Peshawar plain passed through the gorges and clefts
ol the unexplored Dare) valley to Tliakot under the northern spurs
of the Black Mountain.
Comuttion with India.-- The Gilgit river joins the Indus a few
miles above the little post of Bunji, where an excellent suspension
bridge spans the river. The valley is tow and hot, and the scenery
between Gilgit and Bunji is monotonous ; but the road is now
maintained in excellent condition. A little below Bunji the Ah tor
river joins the Indus from the south-east, and this deep pine-clad
valley indicates the continuation ot tine highroad from Gilgit to
Kashmir via the Tragbal and Burzil passes. Another well-known
route connecting Gilgit with the Abbottabad frontier of the Punjab
lies across the Babusar pass (13,000 ft.), linking the lovely Hazara
valley of Kaghaa to Chilas; Chilha (41 jo ft.) being on the Indus,
some 30 m. below Bunji. This is a more direct connexion between
Gilgit and the plains of the Punjab than that afforded by the Kashmir
route via Gurais and Astor, which latter route involves two con¬
siderable posses—the Tragbal (11,400) and the Burzil (13,300);
but the intervening strip of absolutely independent territory (in-
dependent alike of Kashmir and the Punjab), which includes the
hills bordering the road from the Babusar pass to Chilas, renders
it a risky route for travellers unprotected by a military escort.
Like the Kashmir route, it is now defined try a good military road.
History. —The Dards are located by Ptolemy with surprising
accuracy (Daradae) on the west of the Upper Indus, beyond the
head-waters of the Swat river (Snarfwsjand north of the Gandarae,
i.e. the Gandharis, who occupied Peshawar and the country north
of it. The Darias and Chinas also appear in many of the old
Pauranic lists of peoples, the latter probably representing the
Shin branch of the Dards. This region was traversed by two
of the Chinese pilgrims of the early centuries of our era, who have
left records of their journeys, viz. Fahien, coming from the north,
c. 400, and Hsiian Tsang, ascending from Swat, c. 631. The
latter says; “Perilous were the roads, and dark the gorges.
Sometimes the pilgrim had to pass by loose cords, sometimes by
light stretched iron chains. Here there were ledges hanging in
mid-air; there flying bridges across abysses ; elsewhere paths
cut with the chisel, or footings to climb by.” Yet even in
these inaccessible regions were found great convents, and
miraculous images of Buddha. How old the name of Gilgit
is we do not know, but it occurs in the writings of the great
Mahommedan savant al-Biruni, in his notices of Indian
geography. Speaking of Kashmir, he says: “ Leaving the
ravin* by which you enter Kashmir and entering the plateau,
then you hav§ for a march of two more days on your left the
mountains of Bolor and Shamilan, Turkish tribes who are
called Bhattavaryan. Their king has the title Bhatta-Shah.
Their towns arc Gilgit, Aswira and Shiltash, and their language
is the Turkish. Kashmir suffers much from their inroads ”
(Trs. Sachau, i. 207). There are difficult matters for discussion
here. It is impossible to say what ground the writer had lor
calling the people Turks. But it is curious that, the Shins say
they are all of the same race as the Moguls of India, whatever
they may mean by that. Gilgit, as far back as tradition goes,
was ruled by rajas of a family called Trakane. When this family
became extinct the valley was desolated by successive invasions
of neighbouring rajas, aad in the ao or 30 years fading with i«*a
there had been five dynastic revolutiaw- The mesfc prominent
character in the history was a certain Gaur ,Rahman *r Goubar.
Aman, chief of Yasin, a esuel savage and wnwelter, of whom .
many evil deeds are told. Being remonstrated with tor seUfeg
a muHak, he said* “Why not ? The Kpsaa,the wordef Gad,,*
sold; why not sell the expounder thereof ?:” $hefiikfc* entered
Gilgit about 184a, and; kept a garrison there. When Kashmir
was made over to Maharaja Guteb Singh of Jammu to i&to,
by Lard Harding*, the Gftfeit claims were transferred with it.
And when a commission' was sent toffy down boundaries of the
tracts made oxer, Mr Vans Agnew (afterwards murdered, at
Multan) and Lieut. Ralph Young of the Engineers visited Gilgit,
the first Englishmen who did so. The .lSograe (Gulak Stogh’s
race) bad much ado to hold their pound, and to 185s a cata¬
strophe occurred, parallel on a smelter scale, to thatch the English
troops at Kabul. Nearly 2000 men of theirs were exterminated*
by Gaur Rahman and a combination of the Dards; onlv one
person, a soldier’s wife, esaaped, and the Dogres were driven
away for eight years. Gulab Singh would not again cross the
Indus, but after his death (in 1857) Maharaja Ranwf' Singh
longed to recover lost prestige. In i860 he sent a force into
Gilgit. Gaur Rahman just wen died, and there was little re¬
sistance. The Dogras after that took Yasin twice, but did not
hold it. They also, in 1866, invaded Darel, one of the most
secluded Dard states, to the south of the Gilgit basin, but with¬
drew again. In 1889, in order to guard against the advance of
Russia, the British government, acting as the suzerain power of
Kashmir, established the Gilgit agency; in 1901, on the forma¬
tion of the North-West Frontier province, the rearrangement
was made as stated above.
Authorities.— Biddulpli. The Tribes 0/ the Hindu Kush (Calcutta,
1880) ; W. Lawrence, The Kashmir Valley (London, 1895); Tanner,
"Our Present Knowledge of the Himalaya," Ptoc. H.G.S. vol. xki.,
1891; Durand, Making a Frontier (London, 1899); Report of
Lockhart's Mission (Calcutta, 1886); E. F. Knight, Where Three
Empires Meet (London, 1892) ; F. Youngiiusband, Journeys in the
Pamirs and Adjacent Countries," Pros, R.G.S, vol xiv,, 1892 ;
Curzon, " Pamirs,” Jour. R.G.S, vol. viii., 1896 ; Lcltnir, Darttstan
(1877). tT.H.H.’)
GILL, JOHN (1697-1771), English Nonconformist divine^
was born at Kettering, Northamptonshire. His parents were
poor and he owed his education chiefly to his own perseverance.
In November 1716 he was baptized and began to preach at
Higham Ferrers and Kettering, until rile beginning of 1719,
when he became pastor of the Baptist congregation at Howley-
down in Southwark. There he continued rill 1757, when ne
removed to a chapel near London Bridge. From 1729 to 1756
he was Wednesday evening lecturer in Great Eastcheap. In 17^8
he received the degree of D.D. frdln the university of Aberdeen.
He died at Camberwell on the 14th of October 1771. Gill was
a great Hebrew scholar, and in his theology a sturdy Calvinist.
His principal works are Exposition of the Song of Solomon (1728);
The Prophecies of the Old Testament respecting the MtesUh (1728);
The Doctrine of the Trinity (1731); T»« Cause of God and Trirth
(4 vols., x731) ; Exposition of the Riblt, in 10 vols. (1746-4766), 124
E reparing which lie formed a large collection ot Hebrew and Bab-
inical books and MSS.; The Antiquity of the Hebrew Language-
Letters, Vowel Points, and Accents (1767) ; A Body of Doctrinal
Divinity (1767) ; A Body of Practical Divinity (1770) ; and Sermons
and Trails , with a memoir of liis life (1773). An edition of his
Exposition of the Bible appeared in 1,816 with a memoir by John
Rippon, which has also appeared separately.
GILL. (1) One of the branchiae which form the breathing
apparatus of fishes and other animals that live in the water.
The word is also applied to the branchiae of some kinds of wqrxn
and arachnids, and by transference to objects resembling the
branchiae, of fishes, such as the wattles of a fowl, or the radiating
films on the under side of fungi. The word is of obscure origin.
Danish has g iaelle, and Swedish gal with the same meaning.
The root which appears in “ yawn,” ‘ ‘ chasm,” has heen suggested.
If this be correct, the word will be in origin the same as “ giH { ”
often spelled “ ghyll,” meaning a glen or ravine, common m
northern English dialects and also in Kent and Surrey. The g
in both these words is hard. (2) A liquid measure usually-holding
GILLES DE ROYE—GILLIE
one-fourth of * pint. The word comes through the 0 . Vt.gelle,
front Low Let. gelio or gille, e measure for wine. It is thus con-
• meted with “ gallon.” The g is soft. (3) An abbreviation of the
• feminine name Gillian, also often spelled Jill, as it is pronounced
like Jack for a boy, with which it is often coupled, as m the
nursery rhyme, it is used as a homely generic name for a girl.
CULM DE ROYE, or Eoidius de Roya (d. 1478), Flemtsh
chronicler, was bom probably at Montdidier, and became a
Cistercian monk. He was afterwards professor of theology in
Paris and abbot of the monastery of Koyaumont at Asmires-
sur-Oise, retiring about 1458 to the convent of Notre Dame des
Dunes, near Fumes, and devoting his time to study. Gilles
wrote the Chronictm Dunense or Annales Belgici, a r6sum6 and
continuation of the work of another monk, Jean Brandon (d.
14*8), which deals with the history of Flanders, and also with
events in Germany, Italy and England from 792 to 1478.
• The Chronicle was published by F. R. Sweert in the Return Betti-
carum annales (Frankfort, 1620) ; and the earlier part of it by C. B.
Kcrvyn de Lettenhove in the Chroniques relatives A I'histoire de lb
Belgique (Brussels, 1870).
GILLM U MUISIS, or t.e Muiset (c. 1272-1352), French
chronicler, was bom probably at Toumai, and in 1289 entered
the Benedictine abbey of St Martin in his native city, becoming
prior of this house in 1327, and abbot four years later. He only
secured the latter position after a contest with a competitor,
but he appears to have been a wise ruler of the abbey. Gilles
wrote two Latin chronicles, Chrtmicon majus and Chronictm
minus, dealing with the history of the world from the creation
until 1349. This work, which was continued by another writer
to 1352, is valuablt for the history of northern France and
• Flanders during the first half of the 14th century. It is published
by J. J. de Senet in the Corpus chronicorum Flandriae, tome ii.
(Brussels, 1841). Gilles also wrote some French poems, and
these Persies de Gilles li Muisis have been published by Baron
Kervyn de Lettenhove (Louvain, 1882).
See A. Molinier, Let Sources de I’histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris,
>o° 3 )-
GILLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-1648), Scottish divine, was Lorn
at Kirkcaldy, where his father, John Gillespie, was parish
wn inis ter, on the 21st of January 1613, and entered the university
of St Andrews as a “ presbytery bursar ” in 1629. On the
completion of a brilliant student career, he became domestic
chaplain to John Gordon, 1st Viscount Kenmure (d. 1634),
and afterwards to John Kennedy, earl of Cassillis, his conscience
not permitting him to accept the episcopal ordination which
was at that time in Scotland an indispensable condition of
induction to a parish. While with the earl of Cassillis he wrote
his first work, A Dispute against the English Popish Ceremonies
ottruded upon the Church of Scotland, which, opportunely pub¬
lished shortly after the “ Jenny Geddes ” incident (hut without
the author's name) in the summer of 1637, attracted considerable
attention, and within a few months had been found by Hie
privy council to be so damaging that by their orders all available
coflies were called in and burnt. In April 1638, soon after the
authority of the bishops had been set aside by the nation,
Gillespie was ordained minister of Wemyss (Fife) by the
presbytery of Kirkcaldy, and in the same year was a member
of the famous Glasgow Assembly, before which he preached
(November 21st) a sermon against royal interference in matters
ecclesiastical so pronounced as to call for some remonstrance
on the part of Argyll, the lord high commissioner. In 1642
Gillespie was translated to Edinburgh ; but the brief remainder
of his life was chiefly spent in the conduct of public business
in London. Already, in 1640, he had accompanied the commis¬
sioners of the peace to England as one of their chaplains; and
in 1643 was appointed by the Scottish Church one of the four
commissioners to the Westminster Assembly. Here, though
the youngest member of the Assembly, he took a prominent
part in almost al^the protracted discussions on church govern¬
ment, discipline and worship, supporting Presbyterianism by
numerous controversial writings, as well as by an unusual
fluency and readiness in debate. Tradition long preserved and
probably enhanced the record of his victories in debate, and
especially of his encounter with John Selden on Matt. xvhi.
15-17. In 1645 he returned to Scotland, and is said to have
drawn the act of assembly sanctioning the directory of public
worship. On his return to London he had a hand in drafting
the-Westminster confession of faith, especially chap. i. Gillespie
was elected moderator of the Assembly in 1648, but the laborious
duties of that office (the court continued to sit from the 12 th
of July to the 12th of August) told fatally on an overtaxed
constitution ; he fell into consumption, and, after many weeks
of great weakness, he died at Kirkcaldy on the 17 th of December
1648. In acknowledgment of his great public services, a sum
of £1000 Scots was voted, though destined never to be paid, to
his widow and children by the committee of estates. A simple
tombstone, which had been erected to his memory in Kirkcaldy
parish church, was in 1661 publicly broken at the cross by the
hand of the common hangman, but was restored in 1746.
His principal publications were controversial and chiefly against
Erastianism : Three sermons against Thomas Coleman ; A Sermon
before the House of Lords (August 27th), on Matt. iii. 2, Nihil Re-
tptmdem and Male Audit-, Aaron's Rod Blossoming, or the Divine
Ordinance of Church-government vindicated (1646), which is de¬
servedly regarded as a really able statement of the case for an
exclusive spiritual jurisdiction in the church ; One Hundred and
Eleven Propositions concerning the Ministry and Government of the
Chkrch (Edinburgh, 1647). The following were posthumously
published by his brother: A Trealise of Miscellany Questions (1640) ;
The Ark of the New Testament (2 vols., 1661-1667) ; Notes of Debates
and Proceedings of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, from
February 1644 to January 1(143. See Works, with memoir, published
by Hetherington (Edinburgh, 1843-1846).
GILLESPIE, THOMAS (1708-1774), Scottish divine, was torn
at Clearbum, in the parish of Duddingston, Midlothian, in
1708. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and
studied divinity first at a small theological seminary at Perth,
and afterwards for a brief period under Philip Doddridge at
Northampton, where he received ordination in January 1741.
In September of the same year he was admitted minister of the
parish of Camock, Fife, the presbytery of Dunfermline agreeing
not only t6 sustain as valid the ordination he had received in
England, but also to allow a qualification of his subscription
to the church's doctrinal symbol, so far as it had reference to the
sphere of the civil magistrate in matters of religion. Having
on conscientious grounds persistently absented himself from the
meetings of presbytery held for the purpose of ordaining one
Andrew Richardson, an unacceptable presentee, as minister of
Inverkeithing, he was, after an unobtrusive but useful ministry
of ten years, deposed by the Assembly of 1752 for maintaining
that the refusal of the local presbytery, to act in this case was
justified. He continued, however, to preach, first at Carnock,
and afterwards in Dunfermline, where a large congregation
gathered round him. His conduct under the sentence of deposi¬
tion produced a reaction in his favour, and an effort was made
to have him reinstated ; this he declined unless the policy of the
church were reversed. In 1761, in conjunction with Thomas
Boston of Jedburgh and Collier of Colinsburgh, he formed a dis¬
tinct communion under the name of “ The Presbytery of Relief,' 1
—relief, that is to say, “ from the yoke of patronage and the
tyranny of the church courts.” The Relief Church eventually
became one of the communions combining to form the United
Presbyterian Church. He died on the 19th of January 1774,
His only literary efforts were an Essay on the Continuation of
Immediate Revelations in the Church, and a Practical Treatise on
Temptation. Both works appeared posthumously (1774). In
the former he argues that immediate revelations are no longer
vouchsafed to the church, in the latter he traces temptation to
the work of a personal devil.
See Lindsay’s Life and Times of the Rev. Thomas Gillespie ;
Smithers’s History of the Relief Chunk ; for the Relief Church see
United Phesbytkkian Church.
GILLIE (from the Gael, gille, Irish gille or giolla, a servant
or boy), an attendant on a Gaelic chieftain; in this sense its use,
save historically, is rare. The name is now applied in the
Highlands of Scotland to the man-servant who attends a sports¬
man in shooting or fishing. A gillie-welfool, a term now obsolete
(a translation of gillie-casfiiuch, from the Gaelic cas, foot, and
GILLIES^-GiLLRAY
fliuck, wet), was the gillie whose duty it was to carry his master
ov$r streams. It became a term of contempt among the Law-
landers for the “ tail ” (as his attendants were called) of a
Highland chief.
GILUEB, JOHN (1747-1836), Scottish historian and classical
scholar, was borrf at Brechin, in Forfarshire, on the 18th of
January 1747. He was educated at Glasgow University, where,
at the age of twenty, he acted for a short time as substitute for
the professor <)f Greek. In 1784 he completed his History of
Ancient Greece, its Colonies and Conquests (published 1786).
This work, valuable at a time when the study of Greek history
was in its infancy, and translated into French and German,
was written from a strong Whig bias, and is now entirely super¬
seded (see Greece : Ancient History, “ Authorities ”). On the
death of William Robertson (1721-1793), Gillies was appointed
historiographer-royal for Scotland. In his old age he retired to
Clapham, where he died on the 15th of February 1836.
Of his other works, none of which are much read, the principal
are: View of the Reign of Frederic II. of Prussia, with a Parallel
between that Prince and Philip II. of Macedon (1789), rather a pane¬
gyric tlian a critical history ; translations oi Aristotle’s Rhetoric
(1823) and Ethics and Politics (1786-1797) ; of the Orations of
Lysias and Isocrates (1778) ; and History of the World from Alexander
to Augustus (1807), which, although deficient in style, was com¬
mended for its learning and research.
GILLINGHAM, a market town in the northern parliamentary
division of Dorsetshire, England, 105 m. W.S.W. from I-on don
by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3380.
The church of St Mary the Virgin has a Decorated chancel.
There is a large agricultural trade, and manufactures of bricks
and tiles, cord, sacking and silk, brewing and bacon-curing are
carried on. The rich undulating district in which Gillingham
is situated was a forest preserved by King John and his successors,
and the site of their lodge is traceable near the town.
GILLINGHAM, a municipal borough of Kent, England, in
the parliamentary borough of Chatham and the mid-division
of the county, on the Medway immediately east of Chatham,
on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 27,809 ;
(1901) 42,530. Its population is largely industrial, employed
in the Chatham dockyards, and in cement and brick works in the
neighbourhood. The church of St Mary Magdalene ranges in date
from Early English to Perpendicular, retaining also traces of
Norman work and some early brasses. A great battle between
Edmund Ironside and Canute, c. 1016, is placed here ; and there
was formerly a palace of the archbishops of Canterbury. Gilling¬
ham was incorporated in 1903, and is governed by a mayor, 6
aldermen and 18 councillors. The borough includes the populous
districts of Brompton and New Brompton. Area, 4355 acres.
GILLOT, CLAUDE (1673-1722), French painter, best known
as the master of Watteau and Lancret, was bom at Langres.
His sportive mythological landscape pieces, with such titles
as “ Feast of Pan ” and “ Feast of Bacchus,” opened the Academy
of Painting at Paris to him in 1715; and he then adapted his
art to the fashionable tastes of the day, and introduced the
decorative fetes champetres, in which he was afterwards surpassed
by his pupils. He was also closely connected with the opera
and theatre as a designer of scenery and costumes.
GILLOTT, JOSEPH (1799-1873), English pen-maker, was bom
at Sheffield on the nth of October 1799. For some time he was
a working cutler there, but in 1821 removed to Birmingham,
wheA he found employment in the “ steel toy ” trade, the
technical name for the manufacture of steel buckles, chains and
light ornamental steel-work generally. About 1830 he turned
his attention to the manufacture of steel pens by machinery,
and in 1831 patented a process for placing elongated points on
the nibs of pens. Subsequently he invented other improvements,
getting rid of the hardness and lack of flexibility, which had been
a serious defect in nibs, by cutting, in addition to the centre slit,
side slits, and cross grinding the points. By 1859 he had built up
a very large business. Gillott was a liberal art-patron, and
one of the first to recognize the merits of J. M. W. Turner. He
died at Birmingham on the 5th of January 1873. His collection
of pictures, sold after his death, realized £170,000.
mu/m, ROBERT (d. 1773), the founder at Lancaster
of a distinguished firm of English cabinet-makers and furniture
designers whose books begin m 1731. He whs succeeded by his *
eldest stm Richard (1734-1811), who after being educated at the >
Roman Catholic seminary at Deuai was taken into partnership
about 1757, when the firm became Gillow & Barton, and his
younger sons Robert and Thomas, and the business was continued
by his grandson Richard (1778-1866). In its early days the firm
of Gillow were architects as well as cabinet-makers, and the first
Richard Gillow designed the classical Custom House at Lancaster.
In the middle of the 18th century the business was extended to
London, and about 1761 premises were opened in Oxford Street
on a site which was continuously occupied until 1906. For a
long period the Gillows were the best-known makers of English
furniture—Sheraton and Heppelwhite both designed for them,
and replicas are still made of pieces from the drawings of Robert
Adam. Between 1760 and 1770 they invented the original
form of the billiard - table; they were the patentees (about
1800) of the telescopic dining-table which has long been universal
in English houses; for a Captain Davenport they made, if they
did not invent, the first writing-table of tnat name. Their vogue
is indicated by references to them in the works of Jane Austen,
Thackeray and the first Lord Lytton, and more recently in one
of Gilbert and S ulliva n’s comic operas.
GILLRAY, JAMES (1757-1815), English caricaturist, was bom
at Chelsea in 1757. His father, a native of Lanark, had served
as a soldier, losing an arm at Fontenoy, and was admitted first
as an inmate, and afterwards as an outdoor pensioner, at Chelsea
hospital. Gillray commenced life by learning letter-engraving,
in which he soon became an adept. This employment, however,,
proving irksome, he wandered about for a time with a company
of strolling players. After a very checkered experience he
returned to I^ndon, and was admitted a student in the Royal
Academy, supporting himself by engraving, and probably issuing
a considerable number of caricatures under fictitious names.
Hogarth’s works were the delight and study of his early years.
“ Paddy on Horseback,” which appeared m 1779, is the first
caricature which is certainly his. Two caricatures on Rodney’s *
naval victory, issued in 1782, were among the first of the memoT* -
able series of his political sketches. The name of Gillray’s
publisher and printseller, Miss Humphrey—whose shop was first
at 227 Strand, then in New Bond Street, then in Old Bond Street,
and finally in St James’s Street—is inextricably associated with
that of the caricaturist. Gillray lived with Miss (often called
Mrs) Humphrey during all the period of his fame. It is believed
that he several times thought of marrying her, and that on one
occasion the pair were on their way to the church, when Gillray
said: “This is a foolish affaif, methinks, Miss Humphrey,
We live very comfortably together; we had better let well
alone.” There is no evidence, however, to support the stories
which scandalmongers invented about their relations. Gillrey’s
plates were exposed in Humphrey’s shop window, where eager
crowds examined them. A number of his most trenchant satires
are directed against George III., who, after examining some df
Gillray's sketches, said, with characteristic ignorance and blind¬
ness to merit, “ I don’t understand these caricatures.” Gillray
revenged himself for this utterance by his splendid caricature
entitled, “A Connoisseur Examining a Cooper,” which he is
doing by means of a candle on a “ save-all ”; so that the sketch
satirizes at once the king's pretensions to knowledge of art and
his miserly habits.
The excesses of the French Revolution made Gillray conserva¬
tive ; and he issued caricature after caricature, ridiculing the
French and Napoleon, and glorifying John Bull. He is not,
however, to be thought of as a keen political adherent of either
the Whig or the Tory party ; he dealt his blows pretty freely
all round. His last work, from a design by Bunbury, »
entitled " Interior of a Barber’s Shop in Assize Time," and
is dated 1811. While he was engaged on it he became
mad, although he had occasional intervals of sanity, which he
employed on his last work. The approach of madness must
have been hastened by his intemperate habits. Gillray died on
GILLYFLOWER—GILMAN
the ttt of June 1815, end was buried in St Janes’s churcbjrwd,
Pi c c a dilly
• The times in which Gillray lived were peculiarly favourable
, to the growth of a.great school of caricature. Party warfare waa
carried on with great vigour and not a little bitterness; and
penonalities were freely indulged in on both sides. Gillray’s
incomparable wit aad humour, knowledge of life, fertility of
resource, keen sense of the ludicrous, and beauty of execution,
at once gave him the first place among caricaturists. He is
honourably distinguished in lie history of caricature by the fact
that his* sketches are real works of art. The ideas embodied in
some of them are sublime and poetically magnificent in their
intensity of meaning ; while the coarseness by which others are
disfigured is to be explained by the general freedom of treatment
common in all intellectual departments in the 18th century.
The historical value of Gillray’s work has been recognized by
Accurate students of history. As has been well remarked:
“ Lord Stanhope has turned Gillray to account as a veracious
reporter of speeches, as well as a suggestive illustrator of events.’’
Ills contemporary political influence is home witness to in a letter
from Lord Buteman, dated November 3,1798. “ The Opposi¬
tion,” he writes to Gillray, “ are as low as we can wish them.
You have been of infinite service in lowering them, and making
them ridiculous.” Gillray’s extraordinary industry may be
inferred from the fact that nearly 1000 caricatures have been
attributed to him; while some consider him the author of 1600
or 1700. He is invaluable to the student of English manners
as well as to the political student. He attacks the social follies
of the time with scathing satire; and nothing escapes his notice,
_not even a trifling change of fashion in dress. The great tact
Gillray displays in hitting on the ludicrous side of any subject
is only equalled by the exquisite finish of his sketches—the finest
of which reach an epic grandeur and Miltonic sublimity of con¬
ception.
Gillray's caricatures are divided into two classes, the political
series and the social. The political caricatures form really the best
history extant of the latter part of the reign of George III. They
were circulated riot only over Britain but throughout Europe,
and exerted a powerful influence. In this series, George III., the
onetm, the prince of Wales, Fox, Pitt, Burke and Napoleon are the
most prominent figures. In 1788 appeared two fine caricatures by
Gillray. " Blood on Thunder fording the Red Sea " represents
Lord Thurlow carrying Warren Hastings through a sea of gore:
Hastings looks vcrV comfortable, and is carrying two large bags of
money, " Market-Day " pictures the ministerialists oi tlie time as
horned cattle for sale. Among Gillray’s best satires on the king
are: " Farmer George and his Wife," two companion plates, in one of
which the king is toasting muffins for breakfast, and in the other
the queen is frying sprats; " The Anti-Saccharites," where the royal
pair propose to dispense with sugar, to the great honor of the
family ; “ A Connoisseur Examining a Cooper " ; “ Temperance
enjoying a Frugal Meal " ; " Royal Aflability ” ; "A Lesson in
Apple Dumplings " ; and " The Pigs Possessed." Among his other
political caricatures may be mentioned : “ Britannia between Scylla
and Charybdis," a picture in which >’itt, bo often Gillray's butt,
figures in a favourable light; “ The Bridal Night " ; “ The Apothe¬
osis of Hoclic," Which concentrates the excesses of the French
Revolution in one view ; “ The Nnrsery with Britannia reposing in
Pflace " ; " The First Kiss these Ten Years " (1803), another satire
on the peace, which is said to have greatly amused Napoleon; '' The
Handwriting upon the Wall ” ; “ The Confederated Coalition," a
fling at the coalition which superseded the Addington ministry;
“ Uncorking Old Sherry " ; “The Plum-Pudding in Danger “ ;
" Making Decent," i.t. " Broad-bottomites getting into the Grand
Costume " ; “ Comforts of a Bad of Roses " ; “ View of the Hustings
in Covent Garden ” ; “ Pbaethon Alarmed ” ; and “ Pandora
opening her Box." The miscellaneous series of caricatures, although
they have scarcely the historical importance of the political series,
are more readily intelligible, and are even more amusing. Among
the finest are; " Shakespeare Sacrificed " " Flemish Characters '
(two plates) ; " Twopenny Whist " ; “ Oh ! that this too solid
flesh would melt ”; “ Sandwich Carrots “; “TheGoul"; “Comfort
to the Corns " ; “ Begone Dull Care ” ; “ The Cow-Pock," which
gives humorous expression to the poyaiar dread of vaccination;
" Dillutsotj Theatricals "; and “ Harmony before Matrimony"
and " Matrimonial Harmonics two exceedingly good sketches in
violent contrast to eooh Other.
A selection of Gillray's works appeared in parts in 1818; bnt
thfc first good edition was Thomas M'Lean's, which was published,
wttha key, ia 1830. A somewhat bitter attack, not only on Gillray'a
character, but even on hu genius, appeared in the Athenaeum for
October 1, 183s, which was successfully refuted by I. Landseer
m. the Athenaeum a fortnight later. In i8ji Henry G. Bohn out
out an edition, from the original plates, in ; a handsome folio, the
coarser sketches being published in a separate volume. For this
edition Thomas Wright and R. H. Evans wrote a valuable com¬
mentary, which a a goad history of toe times' embraced hy the
caricatures. The next edition, entitled The Works of James Gtllray,
the Caricaturist; with the Story of his Life and Times (Cliatto A
Windus, 1874), was the work of Thomas Wright, and, by its popular
exposition and narrative, introduced Gillray to a very large circle
formerly ignorant of him. This edition, which is complete in one
volume, contains two portraits of Gillray, and upwards of 400
illustrations. Mr ]. J. Cartwright, in a letter to the Academy (Feb.
28, 1874), drew attention to the existence of a MS. volume, in the
British Museum, containing letters to and from Gillray, and other
illustrative documents. The extracts he gave were used in a valuable
article in the Quarterly Review for April 1874. See also the Academy
for Feb. 21 and May 16, 1874,
There is a good account of Gillray in Wright’s History of Cari¬
cature and Grotesque in Literature and Art (1865). See alto the
article. CARtcawn*.
GILLYFLOWER, a popular name applied to various flowers,
but principally to the clove, Diantkus Caryopkyllus, of which
the carnation is a cultivated variety, and to the stock, Matthiola
incana, a well-known garden favourite. Hie word is sometimes
written giUiflower or giUoflower, and is reputedly a corruption
of July-flower, “ so called from the month they blow in.” Henry
Phillips (1775-1838), in his Flora historica, remarks that Turner
(1568) “ calls it gelouer, to which he adds the word stock, as
we would say gelouers that grow on a stem or stock, to distin¬
guish them from the clove-gelouers and the wall-gelouers. Gerard,
who succeeded Turner, aad after him Parkinson, calls it gillo-
flower, and thus it travelled from its original orthography until
it was called July-flower by (hose who knew not whence it was
derived.” Dr Prior, in his useful volume on the Papular Names
«/ British Plants, very distinctly shows the origin of the name.
He remarks that it was “ formerly spelt gyllofer and gilofre
with the 0 long, from the French giro flee, Italian garopalo (M, Lat.
gariofilunt), corruptedfrom the Latin Caryophylltm, and referring
to the. spicy odour of the flower, which seems to have been used
in flavouring wine and other liquors to replace the more costly
clove of India. The name was originally given in Italy to plants
of the pink tribe, especially the carnation, but has in England
been transferred of late years to several cruciferous plants.”
The gillyflower o£ Chaucer and Spenser and Shakespeare was,
as in Italy, Bianthus Caryopkyllus; that of later writers and of
gardeners, Matthiola. Much of the confusion in the names of
plants has doubtless arisen from the vague use of the French
terras giroftee, aetUel and violeUe, which were all applied to
flovjere of the pink tribe, but in England were subsequently
extended and finally restricted to very different plants. The
use made of the flowers to impart a spicy flavour to ale and wine
is alluded to by Chaucer, who writes:
" And many a clove gilofre
To put in.ale " ;
also by Spenser, who refers to them by the name of sops in wine,
which was applied in consequence of their being steeped in the
liquor. In both these cases, however, it is the clove-gillyflower
which is intended, as it is also in the passage from Gerard, in
which he states that the conserve made of the flowers with sugar
“ is exceeding cordiall, and wonderfully above measure doth
comfort the heart, being eaten now and then.” The principal
other plants which bear the name are the wallflower, Cheiretnthus
Cheiri, called wall-gillyflower in old books; the dame’s vibkt,
Hesperis matronaUs, called variously the queen’s,) the rogue’s
and the winter gillyflower; the ragged-robin, Lychnis Flos-cuculi,
called marsh-gillyflower and cuckoo-gillyflower ; the water-
violet, Hettoma palustris, called water-gillyflower; and the
thrift, Armaria vulgaris, called sea-gillyflower. As a separate
designation’it is nowadays usuallv applied to the wallflower.
GILMAN, DANIEL CUT (1831-1908), American education¬
ist, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 6th of July 1831.
He graduated at Yale in 185,2, studied in Berlin, was assistant
librarian of Yale in 1856-1858 and librarian in 1858-1865, and
was professor of physical and political geography in the Sheffield
Scientific School of Yale University and a member of the
GILMOREl^OILPIN
»S
Governing Board of this School in 1863-187*. From 1856 61
i860 he was a member of the school bond of New Haven, and
ffom August 1865 to January 1867 secretary of the Connecticut
Board of Education. In 1873 he became president of the
University of California at Berkeley. On the 30th of December
1874 he was elected first president of Johns Hopkins University
(q.v.) at Baltimore. He entered upon his duties on the 1st of
May 1875, and was formally inaugurated on the sand of February
1876. This post he filled until 1901. From 1901 to 1904 he
was the first president of the Carnegie Institution at Washington,
D.C. He died at Norwich, Conn., on the 13th of October 1908.
He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard, St
John’s, Columbia, Yale, North Carolina, Princeton, Toronto,
Wisconsin and Gark Universities, and William and Mary College.
His influence upon higher education in America was great,
especially at Johns Hopkins, where many wise details of ad¬
ministration, tire plan of bringing to the university as lecturers
for a part of the year scholars from other colleges, the choice of
a singularly brilliant and able faculty, and the marked willing¬
ness to recognise workers in new branches of science were all
largely due to him. To the organization of the Johns Hopkins
hospital, of which he was made director in 1889, he contributed
greatly. He was a singularly good judge of men and an able
administrator, and under him Johns Hopkins had an immense
influence,' especially in the promotion of original and productive
research. He was always deeply interested in the researches
of the professors at Johns Hopkins, and it has been said of him
that his attention as president was turned insjde and not outside
the university. He was instrumental in determining the policy
of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University while he
was a member of its governing board ; on the 28th of October
1897 he delivered at New Haven a semi-centennial discourse
on the school, which appears in his University Problems. He was
a prominent member of the American Archaeological Society
and of the American Oriental Society ; was one of the original
trustees of the John F. Slater Fund (for a time he was secretary,
and from 1893 until his death was president of the board);
from 1891 until his death was a trustee of the Peabody Educa¬
tional Fund (being the vice-president of the board); and was
an original member of the General Education Board (1903)
and a trustee of the Russell Sage Foundation for Social Better-
ment(i9o7). In 1896-1897 he served on the Venezuela Boundary
Commission appointed by President Cleveland. In 1901 he
succeeded Carl Schurz as president of the National Civil Service
Reform League and served until 1907. Some of his papers
and addresses are collected in a volume entitled University
Problems in the United States (1888). He wrote, besides, James
Monroe (1883), in the American Statesmen Series; a Life of
James D. Dana, the geologist (1899); Science and Letters at
Yale (1901), and The Launching of a University (1906), an
account of the early years of Johns Hopkins.
GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD (1829-1892), American
bandmaster, was bom in Ireland, and settled in America about
1850. He had been in the band of an Irish regiment, and he had
great success as leader of a military band at Salem, Massachu¬
setts, and subsequently (1859) in Boston. He increased his
reputation during the Civil War, particularly bv organizing a
monster orchestra of massed bands for a festival at New Orleans
in 1864 ; and at Boston in 1869 and 1872 he gave similar per¬
formances. He was enormously popular as a bandmaster, and
composed or, arranged a large variety of pieces for orchestra.
He died at St Louis on the 24th of September 1892.
GILPIN, BERNARD (1517-1583), the “ Apostle of the North,”
was descended from a Westmorland family, and was bom at
Kentmere in 1517. He was educated at Queen’s College,
Oxford, graduating B.A. in 1540, M.A. in 1542 and B.D. in 1549.
He was elected fellow of Queen’s and ordained in 1542 ; subse-
uently he was elected Student of Christ Church. At Oxford he
rst adhered to the conservative side, and defended the doctrines
of the church against Hooper; but his confidence was somewhat
shaken by another public disputation which he had with Peter
Martyr. In 1552 he preached before King Edward VI. a sermon
on sacrilege, which mis duly published, and displays the high
ideal which even then he had formed «f the clerical office; and
about the same time he was presented to die vicarage of Norton,
in the diocese of Durham, and obtained, it licence, through
William Cecil, as a general preacher throughout the kingdom*
as long as the king lived. On Mary’s accession he went abroad
to pursue bis theological investigations at Louvain, Antwerp
and Paris; and from a letter of his own, dated Louvain, 1554,
we get a glimpse of the quiet student rejoicing in an “ excellent
library belonging to a monastery of Minorites.” Returning to
England towards the dose of Queen Maiy’s reign, he was invested
by his mother’s unde, Tunstall, bishop of Durham, with the
archdeaconry of Durham, to which the rectory of Easington
was annexed. The freedom of his atta&s on the vices, and
especially the clerical vices, of his times excited hostility against
him, and he was formally brought before the bishop on a charge
consisting of thirteen articles. Tunstall, however, not ornjs
dismissed the case, but presented the offender with the rich
living of Houghton-le-Spring; and when the accusation was
again brought forward, he again protected him. Enraged at
this defeat, Gilpin’s enemies laid their complaint before Bonner,
bishop of London, who secured a royal warrant for his apprehen¬
sion. Upon this Gilpin prepared for martyrdom; and, having
ordered his house-steward to provide him with a long garment,
that he might “ goe the more comely to the stake,” he set out
for London. Fortunately, however, for him, he broke his leg
on the journey, and his arrival was thus delayed till the news
of Queen Mary’s death freed him from further danger. He at
once returned to Houghton, and there he continued to labour
till his death on the 4th of March 1583. When the Roman
Catholic bishops were deprived he was offered the see of Carlisle ;*
but he declined this honour and also the provostship of Queen’s,
which was offered him in 1560. At Houghton his course of life
was a ceaseless round of benevolent activity. In June 1560 he
entertained Cecil and Dr Nicholas Wotton on their way to
Edinburgh. His hospitable manner of living was the admiration
of all. His living was a comparatively rich one, his house was
better than many bishops’ palaces, and his position was that .
of a clerical magnate. In his household he spent “ eveij
fortnight 40 bushels of com, 20 bushels of malt and an ox,
besides a proportional quantity of other kinds of provisions.”
Strangers and travellers found a ready reception ; and even
their horses were treated with so much rare that it was humor¬
ously said that, if one were turned loose in any part of the country,
it would immediately make its way to the rector of Houghton.
Every Sunday from Michaelmas till Easter was a public day
with Gilpin. For the reception of his parishioners he had three
tables well covered—one for gen^emen, the second for husband¬
men, the third for day-labourers ; and this piece of hospitality
he never omitted, even when losses or scarcity made its continu¬
ance difficult. He built and endowed a grammar-school at a
cost of upwards of £500, educated and maintained a laige number
of poor children at his own chaige, and provided the more
promising pupils with means of studying at the imiversitiej.
So many young people, indeed, flocked to his school that there
was not accommodation for them in Houghton, and he had to fit
up part of his house as a boarding establishment. Grieved at
the ignorance and superstition which the remissness of the clergy
permitted to flourish in the neighbouring parishes, he used
every year to visit the most neglected parts of Northumberland,
Yorkshire, Cheshire, Westmorland and Cumberland; and that
his own flock might not suffer, he was at the expense of a constant
assistant. Among his parishioners he was looked up to as a
judge, and did great service in preventing law-suits amongst
them. If an industrious man suffered a loss, he delighted to
make it good; if the harvest was bad, he was liberal in the
remission of tithes. The boldness which he could display at
need is well illustrated by his action in regard to duelling. Find¬
ing one day a challenge-glove stuck up on the door of a church
where he was to preach, he took it down with his own hand, and
proceeded to the pulpit to inveigh against the unchristian
custom. His theological position was not in accord with any of
26 GIL8QNITE—GIN
the FfcUgiMs' partus of bis age, end Gladstone thought that
the catholicity of the Anglican Church was better exempiMd
ja be r*nmr than in those of more prominent ecclesiastics
(mat to A. W. Hutton’s edition of S. R. Maitland's Ettayt
mtke Reformation). He was not satisfied with the Elizabethan
w a lffi nit , had greet inspect for the Fathers, and was with
difficulty induced to subscribe. Archbishop Sandys’ views on
the Eucharist horrified him; but on the other hand he main¬
tained friendly relations with Bishop Pilkington and Thomas
Lever, end the Puritans had some hope of l»is support.
A life of Bernard Gilpin, written by George Carletou, bishop of
Chichester, who had been a pupil of Gilpin s at Houghton, will be
found in Bates's Vitae selectorum aliquot virorum, &c. (London,
x68i). A translation of this sketch by William Freake, minister,
was published at London, 1629 ; and in 1852 it was reprinted m
Glasgow, with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. It forms
one of the lives in Christopher Wordsworth’s Ecclesiastical Urography
(vol. Hi., 4th ed.), having been compared with Carleton’s Latin
fcxt. Another biography of Gilpin, which, however, adds Httle to
Bishop Carleton’s, was written by William Gilpin, M.A., prebondary
of Ailrbury (London, 1733 and 1854). See also Diet. Nat. Biog.
GiUONITE (so named after S. H. Gilson of Salt Lake City),
or UiNTAHiTB, or UiNTAixc, a description of asphalt occurring in
masses several inches in diameter in the Uinta (or Uintah)
valley, near Fort Duchesne, Utah. It is of black colour ; its
fracture is conchoidal, and it has a lustrous surface. When
warmed it becomes plastic, and on further heating fuses perfectly.
It has a specific gravity of 1-065 10 z -0 7°- It dissolves freely
in hot oil of turpentine. The output amounted to 10,916 short
tons for the year 1905, and the value was 84-31 per ton.
GiLYAKS, a hybrid people, originally widespread throughout
the Lower Amur district, but now confined to the Amur delta
"'and the north of Sakhalin. They have been affiliated by some
authorities to the Ainu of Sakhalin and Yezo ; but they are more
probably a mongrel people, and Dr A. Anuchin states that
there are two types, a Mongoloid with sparse beard, high cheek¬
bones and fiat face, and a Caucasic with bushy beard and more
regular features. The Chinese call them Yupilatse, “ Fish-skin-
clad people,” from their wearing a peculiar dress made from
salmon skin.
Sen E. G. Kavenstein, The Bussians on the Amur (i86i); Ur A,
ffhuchin, Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc. xx., Supplement (Moscow, 1877):
H. von Siebold, Vber die Aino (Berlin, 1881); J. Deniker in Revue
i' ethnographic (Parts, 1884); L. Schrenck, Die V/llher des Amur-
landes (St Petersburg, 1891).
GIMBAL, a mechanical device for hanging some object so
that it should keep a horizontal and constant position, while
the body from which it is suspended is in free motion, so that
the motion of the supporting body is not communicated to it.
It is thus used particularly for the suspension of compasses or
chronometers and lamps at sea, and usually consists of a ring
freely moving on an axis, within which the object swings on an
axis at right angles to the ring.
The word is derived from the O. Fr. gemel, from Lat. gemellus,
diminutive of gttmnus, a twin, and appears also in gimmel or
jimbel and as getnel, especially as a term for a ring formed of two
l^pops linked together and capable of separation, used in the
16th and 17 th centuries as betrothal and keepsake rings. They
sometimes were made of three or more hoops linked together.
GIMLET (from the 0 . Fr. guimbelet, probably a diminutive
of the O.E. wimble, and (he Scandinavian wammle, to bore or
twist; the modern French is gibelei), a tool used for boring smaU
holes. It is made of steel, with a shaft having a hollow side,
and a screw at the end for boring the wood ; the handle of wood
is fixed transversely to the shaft. A gimlet is always a small
tool. A similar tool of large size is called an “ auger ” (see
Toot),
GIMU, in Scandinavian mythology, the great hall of heaven
whither the righteous will go to spend eternity.
GUO*, or Gymp. (i) (Of somewhat doubtful origin, but prob¬
ably a nasal form of the Fr. guipure, from guiper, to cover or
“ whip ” a cord over with silk), a stiff trimming made of silk
or cotton woven around a ten cord, often further ornamented
by a metal cord running through it. It is also sometimes
covered with bugles, tgads or other glistening ornaments. The
trimming employed by upholsterers to edge curtains, draperies,
the seats of chairs, Ac., ss also called gimp; and in lace work
it is the firmer or coarser thread which outlines the pattern and
strengthens the material, (a) A shortened form of gimple (the
OJS. wimple), the kerchief were by a nun around her throat,
sometimes also applied to a nun’s stomacher. ,
GIN, an aromatized or compounded potable spirit, the char¬
acteristic flavour of which is derived from the juniper berry.
The word “ gin ” is an abbreviation of Geneva, both being
primarily derived from the Fr. genievre (juniper^. The use (3
the juniper for flavouring alcoholic beverages may be traced to
the invention, or perfecting, by Count de Morret, son of Henry
IV. of France, of juniper wine. It was the custom in the early
days of the spirit industry, in distilling spirit from fermented
liquors, to add in the working some aromatic ingredients, such
aB ginger, grains of paradise, &c., to take off the nauseous
flavour of the crude spirits then made. The invention of juniper
wine, no doubt, led some one to try the juniper berry for this
purpose, and as this flavouring agent was found not only to
yield an agreeable beverage, but also to impart a valuable
medicinal quality to the spirit, it was generally made use of by
makers of aromatized spirits thereafter. It is probable that the
use of grains of paradise, pepper and so on, in the early days of
spirit manufacture, for the object mentioned above, indirectly
gave rise to the statements which are still found in current text¬
books and works of reference as to the use of Cayenne pepper,
cocculus indicus, sulphuric acid and so on, for the purpose of
adulterating spirits^ It is quite certain that such materials are
not used nowadays, and it would indeed, in view of modern
conditions of manufacture and of public taste, be hard to find a
reason for their use. The same applies to the suggestions that
such substances as acetate of leaa, alum or sulphate of zinc are
employed for the fining of gin.
There are two distinct types of gin, namely, the Dutch geneva
or Hollands and the British gin. Each of these types exists in
the shape of numerous sub-varieties. Broadly speaking, British
gin is prepared with a highly rectified spirit, whereas in the
manufacture of Dutch gin a preliminary rectification is not an
integral part of the process. The old-fashioned Hollands is
prepared much after the following fashion. A mash consisting
of about one-third of malted barley or bere and two-thirds rye-
meal is prepared, and infused at a somewhat high temperature.
After cooling, the whole is set to ferment with a small quantity
of yeast. After two to three days the attenuation is complete,
and the wash so obtained is distilled, and the resulting distillate
(the low wines) is redistilled, with the addition of the flavouring
matter (juniper berries, &c.) and a little salt. Originally the
juniper berries were ground with the malt, but this practice no
longer obtains, but some distillers, it is believed, still mix the
juniper berries with the wort and subject the whole to fermenta¬
tion. When the redistillation over juniper is repeated, the
product is termed double (geneva, Ac.). There are numerous
variations in the process described, wheat being frequently
employed in lieu of rye. In the manufacture of British gin, 1
a highly rectified spirit (see SnaiTs) is redistilled in the presence
of the flavouring matter (principally juniper and coriander),
and frequently this operation is repeated several times. The
product so obtained constitutes the “dry” gin of commerce.
Sweetened or cordialized gin is obtained by adding sugar and
1 The precise origin o£ the term " Old Tom,” as applied to un¬
sweetened gin, appears to be somewhat obscure. In the English
case of Board &■ Son v. Huddart (1903), in which the plaintiffs estab¬
lished their right to the “Cat Brand " trade-mark, it was proved
before Mr Justice Swlnfen Eady that this firm had first adopted
about 1849 the punning association of the picture of a Tom cat
on a barrel with the name of ” Old Tom " ; and it was at one time
supposed that this was due to a tradition that a cat had fallen into
one of the vats, the gin from which was highly esteemed. But the
term " Oki Tom ” had been known liefore that, and Messrs Board &
Son inform us that previously “ Old Tom " had been a man, namely
" old Thomas Chamberlain of Hodge’s distillery ”; an old label
book in their possession (1909) shows a label ana bill-head with a
picture of “ Old Tom ’’ the man on it, and another label shows a
picture of a sailor lad on shipboard described as " Young Tom.”
GINDELY-UGBWSHER
favouring matter (juniper, coriander, angelica, fisc,) to the dry
variety. Inferior qualities of gin are made by simply adding
es s enti a l ofa to plain spirit, the distillation process being emitted.
The essential oil of juniper is a powerful diuretic, and gin is
frequently prescribed in affections of the urinary organs.
HROILY, ANTON (1829-1890), German historian, was the
son of a German lather and. a Slavonic mother, and was bom. at
Prague on the 3rd of September 1829. He studied at Prague
and at Qbaiiu, and, after travelling extensively in search of
historical material, became professor of history at the university
of Prague and archivist for Bohemia in 1862. He died at
Prague on the 24th of October 1892. Gindely’s chief work is
his Gesckichte des drassigjakrigm Kriefes (Prague, 1869-1880),
which has been translated into English (New York, 1884);
and his historical work is mainly concerned with the period of the
Thirty Years’ War. Perhaps the most important of his numerous
other works are: Geschichtt da bohmischen Briider (Prague,
1857-1858); Rudolf II. und seine 'Zeil (1862-1868), and a criti¬
cism of Wallenstein, Waldstein wahrend seines ersten Genaalals
(x886). He wrote a history of Bethlen Gabor in Hungarian,
and edited the Monummta historiae Bohemica. Gindely’s
posthumous work, Geschichte da Gcgenrcj or motion in biihmen,
was edited by T. Tupctz (1894).
See the AUgemeine deutschc Biographic, Band 49 (Leipzig, 1904).
GWGALL, or Jin gal (Hindostani jonjal), a gun used by the
natives throughout the East, usually a light piece mounted on
a swivel; it sometimes takes the form of a heavy musket fired
from a rest.
GINGER (Fr. gingcmbre, Ger. htgwa), the rhizome or under¬
ground stem of Zingiber officinale (nat. ord. Zingiberaceac), a
perennial reed-like plant growing from 3 to 4 ft. high. The
flowers and leaves are borne on separate stems, those of the
former being shorter than those of the latter, and averaging from
6 to 12 in. The flowers themselves are borne at the apex of the
stems in dense ovate-oblong cone-like spikes from 2 to 3 in. long,
composed of obtuse strongly-imbricated bracts with membranous
margins, each bract enclosing a single small sessile flower. The
leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows, bright green,
smooth, tapering at both ends, with very short stalks and long
sheaths which stand away from the stem and end in two small
rounded auricles. The plant rarely flowers and the fruit is
unknown. Though not found in a wild state, it is considered
with very good reason to be a native of the wanner parts of Asia,
over which it has been cultivated from an early period and the
rhizome imported into England. From Asia the plant has spread
into the West Indies, South America, western tropical Africa,
and Australia. It is commonly grown in botanic gardens in
Britain.
The use of ginger as a spice has been known from very early
times; it was supposed by the Greeks and Romans to be a
product of southern Arabia, and was received by them by way
of the Red Sea; in India it has also been known from a very
remote period, the Greek and Latin names being derived from
the Sanskrit. Fltickiger and Hanbury, in their Pharmacographia,
give the following notes on the history of ginger. On the
authority of Vincent’s Commerce and Navigation of Hu Ancients,
it is stated that in the list of imports from the Red Sea into
Alexandria, which in the second century' of our era were there
liable to the Roman fiscal duty, ginger occurs among other
Indian spices. So frequent is the mention of ginger in similar
lists during the middle ages, that it evidently constituted an
important itfiln in the commerce between Europe and the East.
It thus appears in the tariff of duties levied at Acre in Palestine
about 1173, m that of Barcelona in 1221, Marseilles in 1228
and Paris in 1296. Ginger seems to have been well known in
England even before the Norman Conquest, being often referred
to tn the Anglo-Saxon leech-books of the nth century. It was
very common in the 13th and 14th centuries, ranking next in
value to pepper, which was then the commonest of all spices,
and easting on an avenge about is. 7d. per tb. Three kinds of
ginger wen known airibng the merchants of Italy about the
middle of rite 14th century: (1) BeUteU or Balaii, an Arabic I
*7
name, which, as applied to ginger,. would sign# country at
wild; and denotes common ginger; (1) C a lemii no, which refer*
to Cofarabom, Koiam or Quiten, a port in Travmncore, fre¬
quently mentioned in. the middle ages; and (3) Micckme, a
name which denoted that the aprie had betnbrought from or
by way of Mecca. Marco Polo seems to have seen the giqger
plant both in India aad China between ia8o and fbgoi John ef
Montecorvino, a m i s s ion ary friar who visited' India about 129*9
gives a description of the {riant, and refers to the bust ef the root
being dug up and transported. Nicole di Cento, a Venetian
merchant in the early part of the 15th century, also describee
the plant and the collection of trie not, as seen by him in India.
Though the Venetians received ginger by way of Egypt, some ef
the superior kinds were taken from India Overland by the Black
Sea. The spice is said to have been introduced into America
From Bent lay ft TrlmenV MeeUcinml Plants, by per in lad on of J, & A. Churchill,
Ginger (Zingiber officinale), half nat. siso, with leafy and flowering
stem ; the former cut off sliort.
1. Flower. 1, Labvllum, representing two
2. Flower in vertical section. barren stamens.
3. Fertile stamen, enveloping the ft, Fertile stamen.
style which projects aliove it. y, Staminode.
4. Piece of leafy stem. 1-3 x. Tip of style bearing the
enlarged. stigma.
s, Sepals. a, style.
/>, Petals. gl, Honey-secreting glands.
by Francisco de Mendoza, who took it from the East ladies to
New Spain. It seems to have been shipped for commercial pur¬
poses from San Domingo as early as 1585, and from Barbados
in 1654; so early as 1547 considerable quantities were sent from
the West Indies to Spain.
Ginger is known in commerce in two distinct forms, termed
respectively coated and uncoated ginger, as having or wanting
the epidermis. For the first, the pieces, which are called “ races ”
or “ hands,” from their irregular palmate form, are washed and
simply dried in the sun. In this form ginger presents a brown,
more or less irregularly wrinkled or striated surface, and when
broken shows a dark brownish fracture, hard, and sometimes
horny and resinous. To produce uncoated ginger the rhizomes
are washed, scraped and sun-dried, and are often subjected
to a system of bleaching, either from the fumes of burning
sulphur or by immersion for a short time in a solution of chlorin¬
ated lime. The whitewashed appearance that much of the
ginger has, as seen in the shops, is due to the fact of its being
washed in whiting and water, or even coated with sulphate of
GINGHAM
lime.' This artificial coating is supposed by some to give toe
ginger a better appearance; it often, however, covers an inferior
qatiity, and can readily bo detected by the ease with which it
mbs off ,or by its leaving a white powdery substance at the bottom
of the jar in which it is contained. Uncoated ginger, as seen
in trade, varies from single joints an inch or less in length to
fltttish irregularly branched pieces of several joints, the “ races
or “ hands, and from 3 to 4 in. long ; each branch has a depres¬
sion at its summit showing the former attachment of a leafy
item. The colour, when not whitewashed, is a pale buff; it is
somewhat rough or fibrous, breaking with a short mealy fracture,
■wj presenting on the surfaces of the broken parts numerous short
bristly fibres.
The principal constituents of ginger are starch, volatile oil (to
which the characteristic odour of the spice is due) and resin (to
which is attributed its pungency). Its chief use is as a condiment
or spice, but as an aromatic and stomachic medicine it is also used
internally. “ The stimulant, aromatic and carminative properties
render it of much value in atonic dyspepsia, especially if accom¬
panied with much flatulence, and as an adjunct to purgative medi¬
cines to correct griping.” Externally applied as a rubefacient, it
lias been found to relieve h-adache and toothache. The rhizomes,
collected in a young green state, washed, scraped and preserved in
syrup, form a delicious preserve, which is largely exported both
from the West Indies and from China. Cut up into pieces like
lozenges and preserved in sugar, ginger also forms a very agreeable
sweetmeat.
GINGHAM, a cotton or linen doth, for the name of which
several origins are suggested. It is said to have been made at
Guingamp, a town in Brittany; the Netv English Dictionary
derives the word from Malay ging-gang, meaning "striped.”
The cloth is now of a light or medium weight, and woven of dyed
or white yarns either in a single colour or different colours, and
in stripes, checks or plaids. It is made in La nc a s hire and
in Glasgow, and also to a large extent in the United States.
Imitations of it are obtained by calico-printing. It is used for
dresses, &c.
GINGI, or Gingke, a rock fortress of southern India, in the
South Arcot district of Madras. It consists of three hills, con¬
nected by walls enclosing an area of 7 sq. m., and practically
impregnable to assault. The origin of the fortress is shrouded
in legend. When occupied by the Mahratta* at the end of the
17th century, it withstood a siege of eight years against the armies
of Aurangzeb. In 1750 it was captured by the French, who held
it with a strong force for eleven years. It surrendered to the
English in 1761, in the words of Orme, “ terminated the long
hostilities between the two rival European powers in Coromandel,
and left not a single ensign of the French nation avowed by the
authority of its government in any part of India.”
GINGUENt, PIERRE LOUIS (1748-1815), French author,
was bom on the 27th of April 1748 at Rennes, in Brittany. He
was educated at a Jesuit college in his native town, and came
to Paris in 1772. He wrote criticisms for the Mercure de France,
and composed a. comic opera, Pomponin (1777). The Satire des
satiys (1778) and the Confession de Zulme (1779) followed.
The Confession was claimed by six or seven different authors, and
though the value of the piece is not very great, it obtained great
success. His defence of Piccini against the partisans of Gluck
made him still more widely known. He hailed the first symptoms
of the Revolution, joined Giuseppe Cerutti, the author of the
Mtmoire pout le peuple franfais (1788), and others in producing
the FotriUe vtllageoise, a weekly paper addressed to the villages
of France. He also celebrated in an indifferent ode the opening
of toe states-general. In hiB Lettres sur les confessions de
Rousseau (1791) he defended toe life and principles of his author.
He was imprisoned during toe Terror, and only escaped with
life by the downfall of Robespierre. Some time after his release
he assisted, as director-general of, the “ commission executive
de l'instruction publique,” in reorganizing the system of public
instruction, and he was an original member of the Institute of
France. In 1797 *the directory appointed him minister pleni¬
potentiary to the king of Sardinia. After fulfilling hi* duties
for seven months, very little to the satisfacton of his employers,
Ginguenf retired for ^time to his country house of St Prix, in
-—GINKEL
the valley of Montmorency; He was appointed a member of
the tribunate, but Napoleon, finding toat he was not sufficiently
tractable, had him expelled at the first “ purge,” and Ginguttfe
returned to his literary pursuits. He was One of the commission
charged to continue toe Histoire litUraire de U France, and he
contributed to the volumes of this series wMch,appeared in 1814,
i8r7 and 1820. Ginguene’s most important work is the Histoire
littiraire d’ltalie (14 vols., 1811-1835). He was putting toe
finishing touches to the eighth and ninth volumes when he died
on toe nth of November 1815. The lsat five* volumes were
written by Francesco Salfi and revised by Pierre Daunou.
In the composition of his history of Italian literature he was
guided for the most part by the great work of Girolamo Tiraboschi,
but he avoids the prejudices and party views of his model.
Ginguenfe edited the Dicade phitosophique, politique et littiraire
till it was suppressed by Napoleon in 1807. He contributed largely
to the Biopaphie universem1, the Mercure de France and the En¬
cyclopedic mithodique ; and he edited the works of Cbamfort and of
Lebrun. Among his minor productions are an opera, Pomponin
ou le tuteur mystifti (1777) ; La Satire des satires (1778) ; De
Vautoritt ds Rabelais dans la rivoMion prisente (1791) ; De M.
Nsckar (1795),; Fables nouvelles (1810) ; Fables midites (1814). See
" Eloge de Gingueife " by Dacier, in the Mtmoires de I'institut, tom.
vii. ; " Discours " by Daunou, prefixed to the 2nd ed. of the
Hist. lilt, d'Italic ; D. I. Garat, Notice sur la vie et les ouvraees de
P. L. Guingeni, prefixed to a catalogue of his library (Paris, 1817).
GINKEL, GODART VAN (1630-1703), 1st earl of Athlone,
Dutch general in the service of England, was bom at Utrecht'
in 1630. He came of a noble family, and bore toe title of Baron
van Reede, being toe eldest son of Godart Adrian van Reede,
Baron Ginkel. In his youth he entered the Dutch antay, and in
1688 he followed William, prince of Orange, in his expedition to
England. In the following year he distinguished himself by
a memorable exploit—the pursuit, defeat and capture of a Scottish
regiment which had mutinied at Ipswich, and was marching
northward across the fens. It was the alarm excited by this
mutiny that facilitated the passing of the first Mutiny Act. In
1690 Ginkel accompanied William III. to Ireland, and com¬
manded a body of Dutch cavalry at the battle of the Boyne.
On the king's return to England General Ginkel was entrusted
with the conduct of the war. He took the field in the spring of
1691, and established his headquarters at Mullingar. Among
those who held a command under him was the marquis of
Ruvigny, the recognized chief of the Huguenot refugees. Early in
June Ginkel took toe fortress of Ballymore, capturing the whole
garrison of 1000 men. The English lost only 8 men. After
reconstructing the fortifications of Ballymore the army marched
to Athlone, then one of the most important of the fortified towns
oflrfcland. The Irish defenders of the place were commanded
by a distinguished French general, Saint-Ruth. The firing
began on June 19th, and on the 30th the town was stormed,
the Irish army retreating towards Galway, and taking up their
position at Aughrim. Having strengthened the fortifications
of Athlone and left a garrison there, Ginkel led the English,
on July xsth, to Aughrim. An immediate attack was resolved
on, and, after a severe and at one time doubtful contest, the
crisis was precipitated by the fall of Saint-Ruth, and the
disorganized Irish were defeated and fled. A horrible slaughter
of the Irish followed the struggle, and 4000 corpses were left
unburied on the field, besides a multitude of others that lay
along the line of the retreat. Galway next capitulated, its
garrison being permitted to retire to Limerick. There the viceroy
Tyrconnel was in command of a large force, but his sudden death
early in August left the command in the hands of General Sars-
field and toe Frenchman D’Usson. The English came in sight of
the town on the day of Tyrconnel’s death, and the bombardment
was immediately begun. Ginkel, by a bold device, crossed the
Shannon and captured the camp of the Irish cavalry. A few days
later he stormed tor; fort on Thomond Bridge, and after difficult
negotiations a capitulation was signed, toe terms of which were
divided into a civil and a military treaty. Thus was completed
the conquest or pacification of Ireland, and the services of the
Dutch general were amply recognized tuid rewarded. He re¬
ceived the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and was
GINSBU«.G^OIOBE«m
crested by the long i*t esri of Athbne and baron of Aughrim.
TTie nmmenre forfeited Estates of the earl of Limerick were given
to him, but the giant was a few years later revoked by the English
parliament. The earl continued to serve in the English army,
and accompanied the king to the continent in 1693. _ He fought
at the sieges of* Namur and the battle of Neerwinden, and
assisted in destroying the French magazine at Givet. In 170a,
waiving his own claims to the position of commander-in-chief,
he commanded the Dutch serving under the duke of Marlborough.
He died at iTtrecht'on the nth of February 1703, and was
succeeded by his son the 2nd earl (1668-1719), a distinguished
soldier in the reigns of William III. and Anne. On tire death
of the 9th earl without issue in 1844, the title became extinct.
GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID (1831- ), Hebrew scholar,
was bom at Warsaw on the 25th of December 1831. Coming to
England shortly after the completion of his education in the
Rabbinic College at Warsaw, Dr Ginsburg continued his study
of the Hebrew Scriptures, with special attention to the Megilloth.
The first result of these studies was a translation of the Song
of Songs, with a commentary historical and critical, published
in 1857. A similar translation of Ecclesiastes, followed by
treatises on the Karaites, on the Essenes and on the Kabbala,
kept the author prominently before biblical students while he
was preparing the first sections of his magnum opus, the critical
study of the Massorah. Beginning in 1867 with the publication
of Jacob ben Chajim’s Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible,
Hebrew and English, with notices, and the Massoreth Ha-
Massoreth of Elias Levita, in Hebrew, with translation and
commentary', Dr Ginsburg took rank as an eminent Hebrew
scholar. In 1870 he was appointed one of the first members
of the committee for the revision of the English version of the
Old Testament. His life-work culminated in the publication
of the Massorah, in three volumes folio (1880-1886), followed
by the Masoretico-critical edition of the Hebrew Bible (1894),
and the elaborate introduction to it (1897). Dr Ginsburg had
one predecessor in the field, the learned Jacob ben Chajim, who
in 1524-1525 published the second Rabbinic Bible, containing
what has ever since been known as the Massorah ; but neither
were the materials available nor was criticism sufficiently
advanced for a complete edition. Dr Ginsburg took up the
subject almost where it was left by those early pioneers, and
collected portions of the MaSsorah from the countless MSS.
scattered throughout Europe and the East. More recently
Dr Ginsburg has published Facsimiles 0/ Manuscripts of the
Hebrew Bible (1897 and 1898), and The Text of the Hebrew Bible
in Abbreviations (1903), in addition to a critical treatise “ on the
relationship of the so-called Codex Babylonicus of a.d. 916 to
the Eastern Recension of the Hebrew Text ” (1899, for private
circulation). In the last-mentioned work he seeks to prove that
the St Petersburg Codex, for so many years accepted as the
genuine text of the Babylonian school, is in reality a Palestinian
text carefully altered so as to render it conformable to the
Babylonian recension. He subsequently undertook the prepara¬
tion of a new edition of the Hebrew Bible for the British and
Foreign Bible Society. He also contributed many articles to
J. Kitto’s Encyclopaedia, W. Smith’s Dictionary of Christian
Biography and the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
GINSENG, the root of a species of Panax ( P. Ginseng), native of
Manchuria and Korea, belonging to the natural order Araliuceae,
used in China as a medicine. Other roots are substituted for it,
notably that of Panax quinquefolium, distinguished as American
ginseng, and imported from the United States. At one time
the ginseng obtained from Manchuria was considered to be the
finest quality, and in consequence became so scarce that an
imperial edict was issued prohibiting its collection. That
prepared in, Korea is now the most esteemed variety. The root of
the wild plant is preferred to that of cultivated ginseng, and the
older the plant the better is the quality of the root considered to
be. Great care is taken in the preparation of the drug. The
account given by Koejnpfer of the preparation of nindsin, the
root of Sium ninsi, in Korea, will give a good idea of the prepara¬
tion of ginseng, ninsi being a similar drug of supposed weaker
virtue, obtained from a different plant, and often confounded
with ginseng. " la the 'beginning of winter nearly all the
population of SJaneai turn out to collect the root, mid make,
preparations for sleeping in the Adds. The root, when collected,
w macerated for three days in fresh water, or water m which'
rice has been boiled twice; it is then suspended in a closed
vessel over the fire, and afterwards dried, until from the base to
the middle it assumes a hard, resinous and translucent appear¬
ance, which is considered a proof of its good quality.”
Ginseng of good quality generally occurs in hard, rather
brittle, translucent pieces, about the size of the little finger,
and varying in length from 9 to 4 in. The taste is mucilaginous,
sweetish and slightly bitter and aromatic. The root is frequently
forked, and it is probably owing to, this circumstance that
medicinal properties were in the first place attributed to it,
its resemblance to the body of a man being supposed to indicate
that it could restore virile power to the aged and impotent
In price it varies from 6 or 12 dollars to the enormous sum of
300 or 400 dollars an ounce.
Lockhart gives a graphic description of a visit to a ginseng mer¬
chant. Opening the outer box, the merchant removed several paper
parcels which appeared to fill the box, but under them was a second
box, or perhaps two small boxes, which, When taken out, showed
the bottom of the large box and all the intervening space filled with
more paper parcels. Those parcels, he said, " contained quicklime,
for the purpose of absorbing any moisture and keeping the boxes
quite dry, the lime being packed in paper for the sake of cieanlinees.
The smaller box, which held the ginseng, was lined with sheet-load ;
the ginseng further enclosed in silk wrappers was kept in little silken-
covered boxes. Taking up a piece, he would request his visitor not
to breathe upon it, nor handle it; he would dilate upon the many
merits of the drug and the cures it had effected. The cover of the
root, according to its quality, was silk, either embroidered or plain
cotton cloth or paper.” In China the ginseng is often sent to
friends as a valuable present; in such cases, " accompanying the
medicine is usually given a small, beautifully-finished double kettle,
in which the ginseng is prepared as follows. The inner kettle is
made of silver, and between this and the outside vessel, which is a
copper jacket, is a small space for holding water. The silver kettle,
which fits on a ring near tne top of the outer covering, has a cup-likc
cover in which rice is placed with a little water; the ginseng is put
in the inner vessel with water, a cover is placed over the whole, and
the apparatus is put on the fire. When the rice in the cover is suffi¬
ciently cooked, the medicine is ready, and is then eaten by tfcr
patient, who drinks the ginseng tea at the same time." The dose
of the root is from 60 to 90 grains. During the use of the drug tea¬
drinking is forbidden for at least a month, but no other change is
made in the diet. It is taken in the morning before breakfast, from
three to eight days together, and sometimes it is taken in the evening
before going to bed.
The action of the drug appoars to be entirely peychic, find com¬
parable to that of the mandrake of the Hebrews. There is no
evidence that it possesses any pharmacological or therapeutic
properties.
See Porter Smith, Chinese Matfria Medica, p. 103; Report* on
Trade at the Treaty Ports of China (1868), p. 63 ; Lockhart, Med.
Missionary in China (2nd ed.), p. 107 ; hull, d* la Socitil Imperials
is Nat. de Moscou (1863), No. 1, pp. 70-76; Pharmaceutical Journal
(2), vol. iii. pp. 197, 333 , ( 2 )> vo1 ' * x ’ P- 77 ! Lewis, Materia Medic a,
p. 324 ; Geoffroy, Tract, de matters medicate, t. ii. p. it* Kaempfer,
Amoenitates exoticae, p. 824.
GIOBERTI, VINCENZO (1801-1852), Italian philosopher,
publicist and politician, was born in Turin on tile 5th of April
1801. He was educated by the fathers of the Oratory witn a
view to the priesthood and ordained in 1825. At first he led a
very retired life; but gradually took more and more interest
in the affairs of his country and the new political ideas as well
as in the literature of the day. Partly under the influence of
Mazzini, the freedom of Italy became his ruling motive in life,—
its emancipation, not only from foreign masters, but from modes
of thought alien to its genius, and detrimental to its European
authority. This authority was in his mind connected with
papal supremacy, though in a wav quite novel—intellectual
rather than political. Inis must be remembered in considering
nearly all his writings, and also in estimating his position, both
in relation to the ruling clerical patty— the Jesuits—and-also
to the politics of the court of Piedmont after the accession of
Charles Albert in 1831. He was now noticed by the king and
made one of his chaplains. His popularity and private influence,
however, were reasons enough for the court party to mark him
30
dOIOSA-4lONICA^GIOJA
tor ekile; he was not one of them, aad could not be depended on.
Saowing tofe, he resigned hfc office :in *83$, but vai suddenly
, anosted «n a charge af«*spiracy, and, after onirnpr torment of
i a a r months, was banished without a trial. Gioberti tot went
to Iteris, and, a year later, to Brunei*, whew he remained till
*»m»hitig philosophy, and assisting a friend in the work
of a private school. He nevertheless found time to write many
works of philosophical importance, with special reference to his
country and its position. An amnesty having been declared
by Charles Albert in 1846, Gioberti (who was again in Paris)
was at liberty to return to Italy, but refused to do so till the end
of 1847. On his entrance into Turin on the 09th iof April 1848
he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. He refused the
dignity of senator offered him by Charles Albert, preferring to
represent his native town in the Chamber of Deputies, of which
he was soon elected president. At the close of the same year,
p new ministry was termed, headed by Gioberti; but with the
accession of Victor Emmanuel iu March 1849, his active life
came to an end. For a short time indeed he held a seat in the
aabinet, though without a portfolio; but an irreconcilable
disagreement soon followed, and his removal from Turin was
accomplished by his appointment on a mission to Paris, whence
he never returned. There, refusing the pension which had been
offered him and all ecclesiastical preferment, he lived frugally,
and spent his days and nights as at Brussels in literary labour.
He died suddenly, of apoplexy, on the 26th of October 1852.
Giobarti'a writings are more important than his political career.
In the general history Of European philosophy they stand apart. As
the speculations of Rosmini-Serbati, against which he wrote, have
been called the last link added to medieval thought, so the system of
.Gioberti. known as “ Ontologism," more especially in his greater
and earlier works, is unrelated to other modem schools of thought.
It shows a harmony with the Roman Catholic faith which caused
Cousin to dodarr that “ Italian philosophy was stiEU in the bonds of
theology,” and that Gioberti was no philosopher. Method is with
him a synthetic, subjective and psychological instrument. He re¬
constructs, as he declares, ontology, and begins with the " ideal
formula, 1 ' “ the Ena creates ex rrihilo the existent." God is the only
being (Ens) ; all other things are merely existences. God is the
origin of all human knowledge (called Video, thought), whiah is one
and so to say identical with God himself. It is directly beheld
(intuited) by reason, but in order to be of use it has to be reflected
on, and this by means of language. A knowledge of being and
existennes (concrete, not abstract) and their mutual relations, is
necessary as the beginning of philosophy. Gioberti is in some
respects a Piatonist. He identifies religion with civilisation, and in
his treatise De f p remain morale e civile defli ttaliani arrives at the
conclusion that the church is the axis on which the well-being of
human life revolves. In it he affirms the idea of the supremacy of
Italy, brought about by the restoration of the papacy as a moral
dominion,foundedonreligionandpublicopiaion. I11 hi» later.works,
the Rinnovamento and the Protologia, he is thought by some to have
shifted his ground under the influence of eventB. His first work,
written when he was thirty-or von, had a personal reason ter its
existence. A young fellow-exile and friend, Paolo Pallia, having
many doubts and misgivings as to .the reality of revelation and a
future life, Gioberti at once sot to work with La Teorica del sovran-
naturals, which was bis first publication (1858). After this, philo¬
sophical treatises followed in rapid suooession. The Teorica was
followed by Introdwnone alio studio della /Uosefia in three volumes
(1839-1840). In this work he status his reasons for requiring a new
method and new terminology. Here he brings out the doctrine
that religion is the direct expression of the idea in this life, and is
one with'true civilisation in history. Civilisation is a conditioned
mediate tendency to perfection, to Wilich religion is the final com¬
pletion if carried out; it is'the end of the second cycle expressed by
the second Tomrala, the Eos redeems existences. Essays (not pub¬
lished TUI 1648) on the lighter and more popular subjects, Del beilo
and Del bean o followed the Intredusione. Del primate morale e
civile digit luUiani aad the 1 ’rolegomeni to the same, and soon after¬
wards hw triumphant exposure of the Jesuits, 11 Getuita moderno,
no doubt hastened the transfer of rale from clerical‘to civil hands.
It was the popularity of these eemi-political works, increased by
other accananal poiitioalartides, and his kinnova m e a to civile d' Delta,
that c a u se d Giobarti to,be welcomed with such enthusiasm on his
return to his native country. All.these works were perfectly or¬
thodox, and aided m draWmg the liberal clergy into toe movement
which has resulted since Ml tone in the unification of Italy. The
Jeetofa, however, eIdled round toe pope mere firmly after bis return
to Roma, and in the end Ghiberti's writings were placed on toe
Judes (see J. Kleutgen, Vber die Verurlkmunt das Ontologismus
dutch den hdRten SfflU, tody). Th»'remainder of Us works, espeei-
*Dv La Filosofia dMa Rprtasione and the Protologia, give'his mature
nears on mapy points. Du retire writing! td Gioberti, iadtiding
those left in manuscript, have been edited by Giuseppe Ibiun
(Turm, 1856-1861). r ►
_ Y ita * v - Gfbberli (Elorence, rtU8); A. Roamini-
Seibatf, V. Gioberti e il panteismo (Milan, 1848); C, B. Smyth,
ChnsPan Metaphysics ; (1851); B, Speventa, la Filosofia di GidberU
(Naples, 1834); A. Mauri, Delia Vila e dalle opere di V. Gioberti
(G®P oa , 1 pJ3); G. Frisco, Gioberti e V outologismo (Naples, 1867);
P. Luciani, Gioberti e la filosofia nuova itatiana (Naples, 1866-1872);
D. Berti, Di V. Gioberti (Florence, 1881); see also L. Ferri, UHittcmc
de iet philosophic en Italie ate XIX’ siicle (Paris, 1869): C. Werner,
Dtetialuntscne Philosophic dts 19. Jahrhunderls, il (flSBc ): appendix
to Ueberweg's Hist, of Philosophy (Eng. tr.); art. in Brownson’s
Quarterly Review (Boston, Mass.), xxi.; R. Mariano, La Philosophic
contemporaine en Italie (1866); R. SeydeJ's exhaustive article in
Ersch and Gruber's Allgemsine Enpyelopddie . ■ The centenary of
Gioberti called forth several monqgrapbs in ttifiy,
G 4010 SA- 10 HICA, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the province
Calabria, from which it is 65 am. N.E. by rail, and 38 m.
direct,492 ft above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 907a; commune,
u.aoo. Near the station, which is on the E. coast of Calabria
3 m. below the town to the S.E., the remains of a theatre
belo nging to the Roman period were discovered in 1883; the
orchestra, was 46 ft. in diameter (Notide degU scad, 1883, p. 423).
The ruins of an ancient braiding called the Naviglio, the nature
of which does not seem dear, are described (ib. 1884, p. 252).
GIOJA, MBUSH 10 B 8 B (1767-1829), Italian writer on philo¬
sophy and political economy, was horn at Piacenaa, on the 20th
of September 1767. Originally intended for the church, he took
orders, but renounced them in 1796 aad went to Milan, where he
devoted himself to the study of political economy. Having
obtained the prize for an essay on “ the kind of free'government
best adapted to Italy ” he decided upon toe career of a publicist.
The arrival of Napoleon in Italy drew him into public life
He advocated a republic under toe dominion of the French in
a pamphlet / Tedeschi, i Francesi, ed i Russi in Lombardia, and
under the Cisalpine Republic he was named historiographer
and director of statistics. He was several times imprisoned,
once for eight months in 1820 on a charge of being implicated
in a conspiracy with the Carbonari. After the fell of Napoleon
he retired into private life, and does not appear to have held
office again. He died on the 2nd of January 1829. Gioja’s
fundamental idea is toe value of statistics or toe collection of
facts. Philosophy itself is with him classification and consideration
of ideas. Logic he regarded as a practical art, and his Esercidoni
logict has toe further title, Art of deriving benefit from ill-con¬
structed boobs. In ethics Gifoja follows Bentoam generally, aad
his large treatise Del tneriio t dtUe recompense (1818) is a clear
and.systematic view of social ethics from toe utilitarian principle.
In political economy this avidity for facts produced better fruits.
The Nuova Prospetto deUe sdtnstt economiche (1815-1817),
although long to excess, and overburdened with classifications
and foibles, contains much valuable material The author
prefers large properties and large commercial undertakings to
small ones, and strongly favours association as a means of pro¬
duction. He defends a restrictive policy and insists on the
necessity of toe action of the state as a regulating power in toe
industrial world. He was an opponent of ecclesiastical domina¬
tion. He must be credited with toe finest and most original
treatment of division of labour since the Wealth of Nations.
Much of what Babbage taught later on the subject of combined
work is anticipated by Gioja. His theory of production is also
deserving of attention from toe fact that it takes into aoccunt
and gives due prominence to immaterial goods. ..Throughout
the work there is continuous opposition to Adam Smith. Gioja’s
latest work Filosofia idla statistsca (2 vols., 1826 ; 4 vote., 1829-
1830) contains in brief compass the essence of his ideas on tinman
life, and affords toe clearest insight into his aim and method in
philosophy both theoretical arid practical.
See monographs by G. D. Rem&gnosi (1829), F. False (1866);
G. Pecohfo, Storia ddt eoonomia pubblica in Italia (1829), and article
in Ersch and Gruber's Allg em e ine Encyclopedic ; for Gioja's philo¬
sophy, L. Ferri, Essai sur Vhistoire de la philosophic en Italie au
XIX’ silclt (1869); TJeberweg’s Hist, of Philosophy (Em. tr.,
appendix H.): A. Reemini-Serbatf, Opuscoli filosofia, Hi. (1*44)
(oontasniag an . attack on Gioja's sensualism '■); for bis political
GIOLITTI—GIORGIONE
economy, hat of works in 1 . Conrad's HandmBrltrbmh dor Stoob-
wf umtaka tUn (1*91) ; L. Cant, Introd. to Pol. Earn. (Eng. trana.,
n.,488). Giojas complete workB were published at Lugano (183a-
r#49). He was one of the founders of the Annuli univtrtalt M
ttdtisticn.
OlOUm, GIOVAHKl (184a- ), Italian statesman, was
bom at Mondov^on the 37th of October 1843. After a rapid
career in the financial administration he was, in 1883, appointed
councillor of state and elected to parliament. As deputy he
chiefly acquired prominence by attacks on Magiiani, treasury
minister in the Depretis cabinet, and on the 9* of March 1889
was himself selected as treasury minister by Crispi. On the faS
of tiie Rudinl cabinet in May 1893, Giolitti, with the help of a
court clique, succeeded to the premiership. His term of office
was marked by misfortune and misgovemment. The building
crisis and the commercial rupture with France had impaired the
situation of .the state banks, of which one, the Banca Romana,
had been further undermined by maladministration. A bank
law, passed by Giolitti, failed to effect an improvement. More*
ever, he irritated public opinion by raising to senatorial rank the
director-general of the Banca Romana, Signor Tanlongo, whose
irregular practices had become a byword. The senate declined
to admit Tanlongo, whom Giolitti, in consequence of an inter¬
pellation in parliament upon the condition of the Banca Romana,
was obliged to arrest and prosecute. During the prosecution
Giolitti abused his position as premier to abstract documents
bearing on the case. Simultaneously a parliamentary commission
of inquiry investigated the condition of the state banks. Its
report, though acquitting Giolitti of personal dishonesty, proved
disastrous to his political position, and obliged him to resign.
His fall left the finances of the state disorganised, the pensions
fund depleted, diplomatic relations with France strained in
consequence of the massacre of Italian workmen at Aigues-
Mortes, and Sicily and the Lunigiana in a state of revolt, which
he had proved impotent to suppress. After his resignation he
was impeached for abuse of power as minister, but the supreme
court quashed the impeachment by denying the competence of
the ordinary tribunals to judge ministerial acts. For several
years he was compelled to play a passive part, having lost all
credit. But by keeping m the background and giving public
opinion time to forget his past, as well as by parliamentary
intrigue, he gradually regained much of his former influence.
He made capital of the Socialist agitation and of the repression
to which other statesmen resorted, and gave the agitators to
understand that were he premier they would be allowed a free
hand. Thus he gained their favour, and on the fall of the
Pelloux cabinet he became minister of the Interior in Zanardelli’s
administration, of which he was the real head. His policy of
never interfering in strikes and leaving even violent demonstra¬
tions undisturbed at first proved successful, but indiscipline
and disorder grew to such a pitch that Zanardelli, already in
had health, resigned, and Giolitti succeeded him as prime minister
(November 1903). But during his tenure of office he, too, had to
resort to strong measures m repressing some serious disorders in
various parts of Italy, and thus he tost the favour of the Socialists.
In March 1905, feeling himself no longer secure, he resigned,
indicating Fortis as his successor. When Sonnino became
premier in February 1906, Giolitti did not openly oppose him,
but his followers did, and Sonnino was defeated in May, Giolitti
becoming prime minister once more.
GJORDANO, LUCA (1632-1705), Italian painter, was bom in
Naples, son of a very indifferent painter, Antonio, who imparted
to him the (fret rudiments of drawing. Nature predestined him
for tite art, and at the age of eight he painted a cherub into one
of his father's pictures, a feat which was at once noised abroad,
and induced the viceroy of Naples to recommend the child to
Ribera. His father afterwards took him to Rome, to study under
Pietro da Cdrtona. He acquired the nickname of Luca Fa-presto
(Luke Work-fast). One might suppose this nickname to be
derived merely from the almost miraculous celerity with which
from an early age and throughout his life he handled the brush;
but it is said to have*had a more express origin. The father,
we are told, poverty-stricken and greedy of gain, was perpetually 1
3*
urging hit boy to exertion with the phrase, “ Luck, ft presto.”
The youth obeyed hh parent to the letter, and would actually
not so much as pause to enatch a hasty read, bnt received into
his mouth, while he still worked on, the food which his father’s’
hand supplied. He copied nearly twenty times the “ Battle of*
Constantine” by Julio Romano,and with projMTtioaatefrequency
several of the great works of Raphael and Michelangelo. His
rapidity, which belonged aa much to invention as to mere handi¬
work, and his versatility, which enabled him to imitate other
painters deceptively, earned far him two other epithets, “ The
Thunderbolt ’’ (Fuhnine), and “ The Proteus,” of Painting. He
shortly visited all the main seats of the Indian school of art,
and formed for himself a style combining in a certain measure
the ornamental pomp of Paul Veronese ami the contrasting asm-
positions and large schemes of chiaroscuro of Pietro da Cortona.
He was noted also for lively and showy colour. Returning to
Naples, and accepting every sort of oommisstob by which monejt
was to be made, he practised his art with so much applause that
Charles 11 . of Spain towards (687 invited him over to Madrid,
where he remained thirteen years. Giorddho was very popular
at the Spanish oourt, being a sprightly talker along with his other
marvellously facile gifts, and the king created him a cavahere.
One anecdote of his rapidity of work is that the tjueen qf Spain
having one day made some inquiry about his wife, he at once
showed Her Majesty what the lady was like by painting her
portrait into the picture on which he was engaged. Soon after
the death of Charles in 1700 Giordano, gorged with wealth,
returned to Naples. He spent large sums in acts of munifioenoe,
and was particularly liberal to his poorer brethren of the art. He
again visited various parts of Italy, and died in Naples on the
12th of January 1705, his last words being “ 0 Napoli, soepire*
mio ” (O Naples, my heart’s love!). One of his maxims was that
the good painter is the one whom the public like, and that the
public are attracted more by colour than by design.
Giordano had an astonishing readiness and facility, in spite
□f the general commonness and superficiality of his performances.
He left many works in Rome, and far more in Naples. Of the
latter one of the meet renowned is “ Christ expelling the Traders
from the Temple,” in the church of the Padri Girolamini, a
colossal work, full of expressive lazzaroni; alto the frescoes
of S. Martino, and those in the Teroro della Certosa, including
the subject of “ Moses and the Brazen Serpent ” ; and the cupola-
paintings in the Church of S. Brigida, which contains the artist’s
own tomb. In Spain he executed a surprising number of works,
—continuing in the Escorial the series commenced by Cambiasi,
and punting frescoes of the “ Triumphs of the Church,” the
"Genealogy and Life of the Madonna,” the stories of Moses,
Gideon, David and Solomon, and the "Celebrated Women of
Scripture,” all works of large dimensions. His pupils, Anielto
Rossi and Matteo Pacelli, assisted him in Spain. In Madrid he
worked more in oil-colour, a Nativity there being one of his best
productions. Other superior examples are the “ Judgment of
Paris ” in the Berlin Museum, and “ Christ with the Doc top in
the Temple,” in the Corsini Gallery of Rome. In Ftorenoe, in
his closing days, he painted the Cappella Corsini, the Galleria
Riocardi and other works. In youth he etched with coneiderable
skill some of his own paintings, such as the “ Slaughter of the
Priests of Baal. ” He also painted much on the crystal borderings
of looking-glasses, cabinets, Ac., seen in many Italian palaces, and
was, in this form of art, the master of Pietro Garofolo. His beet
pupil, in painting of the ordinary kind, was Paolo de Matteis.
Bellori, in his Vite de' pittori moderni , is a leading authority
regarding Luca Giordano. P. Benvenuto (1882) has wnttea a work
on the Riccardi paintings.
GIORGIONE (1477-1510), Italian painter, was bom at Caatel-
franco in 1477. In contemporary documents he is always called
(according to the Venetian manner of pronunciation and spelling)
Zom, Zorzo or Zorzon of Castelfranco. A tradition, haying
its origin in the 17th century, represented him as the natural
son of some member of the great local family of the BarbaralU,
by a peasant girl of the neighbouring village of Vedelago:
consequently he is commonly referred to in histories and
%2
f i
GIORGIONE!
catalogues uiider the name of Giorgio Barbarelli or Barbarella.
TWattadition has, however, on dose examination been proved
h—»W. On the other hand mention has been found in a
'contemporary document of an earlier Zoreon, a native of
v V-edelago, living in Castelfranco in 1460- Vasan > w ? ot *
beforethe BarbareUa legend had sprung up, says ^
was of very humble origin. It seems probable that he was
•imply tie son or grandson of the afore-mentioned Zorzon the
elder ; that the after-claim of the Barbarelli to kindred with him
was a mere piece of family vanity, very likely suggested by the
analogous case of Leonardo da Vinci; and that, this claim once
put abroad, the peasant-mother of Vedelago was invented on
the ground of some dim knowledge that his real progenitors
tnrxp from that village. ... .
Of the facts of his life we are almost as meagrely informed as
of the circumstances of his birth. The little city, or large
iortified village, for it is scarcely more, of Castelfranco in the
Trevisan stands in the midst of a rich and broken plain at some
distance from the last spurs of the Venetian Alps. From the
natural suiroundingS of Giorgione’s childhood was no doubt
derived his ideal of pastoral scenery, the country of pleasant
copses, glades, brooks and hills amid which his personages love
to wander or recline with lute and pipe. How early in boyhood
he went to Venice we do not know, but internal evidence
supports the statement of Ridolfi that he served his apprentice¬
ship there under Giovanni Bellini; and there he made his fame
and had his home. That his gifts were early recognized we
know from the facts, recorded in contemporary documents,
that in 1500, when he was only twenty-three (that is if Vasari
gives rightly the age at which he died), he was chosen to paint
•- portraits of the Doge Agostino Barberigo and the condottiere
Consalvo Ferrante ; that in 1504 he was commissioned to paint
an altarpiece in memory of Matteo Costanzo in the cathedral
of his native town, Castelfranco ; that in 1507 he received at the
order of the Council of Ten part payment for a picture (subject
not mentioned) on which he was engaged for the Hall of the
Audience in the ducal palace; and that in 1507-1508 he was
employed, with other artists of his own generation, to decorate
with frescoes the exterior of the newly rebuilt Fondaco dei
Tedeschi or German merchants' hall at Venice, having already
done similar work on the exterior of the Casa Soranzo, the Casa
Grimani alii Servi and other Venetian palaces. Vasari gives
also as an important event in Giorgione's life, and one which had
influence on his work, his meeting with Leonardo da Vinci on
the occasion of the Tuscan master’s visit to Venice in 1500. In
September or October 1510 he died of the plague then raging
in the city, and within a few days of his 'death we find the great
art-patroness and amateur, Isabella d’Este, writing from Mantua
and trying in vain to secure for her collection a night-piece by
his hand of which the fame had reached her.
All accounts agree in representing Giorgione as a personage
of distinguished and romantic charm, a great lover, a great
musician,' made to enjoy in life and to express in art to the
uttermost the delight, die splendour, the sensuous and imaginative
pMa and fulness, not untinged with poetic melancholy, of the
Venetian existence of his time. They represent him further as
having made in Venetian painting an advance analogous to that
made in Tuscan painting by I<eonardo more than twenty years
before; that is as having released the art from the last shackles
of archaic rigidity and placed it in possession of full freedom
and tire’full mastery of its means. He also introduced a new
range ■« subjects. Besides altarpieces and portraits he painted
pictures that told no story, whether biblical or classical, or if
they professed to tell such, neglected the action and simply
embodied in form and colour nloods of lyrical or romantic
feeling, much as a musician might embody them in sounds.
Innovating with the courage arid felicity of genius, he had for
a time an overwhelming influence on his contemporaries and
immediate succresors in the Venetian school, including Titian,
Sebastian del Piombo, the elder Palma, Cariani and the two
Campagnolas, and not a little even on seniors of long-standing
fame such da Gioyutni Bellini. His name and work have
exorcised, and continue to exercise, no less a spell on posterity.
But to identify and define, among the relics of his age and school,
precisely What that work is, and to distinguish it. from the
kindred work of other men whom his influence inspired, is a
very difficult matter. There are induewn critips who atill
claim for Giorgione nearly every painting of^ the time that at
all resembles his manner, and there are exclusive critics who pare
down to some ten or a dozen the list of extant pictures which
they will admit to be actually his.
To name first those which are either certain or command
the most general acceptance, placing them in something like
an approximate and probable order of date. In the Uffizi at
Florence are two companion pieces of the “ Trial of Moses ”
and the “ Judgment of Solomon,” the latter the finer and
better preserved of the two, which pass, no doubt justly, as
typical works of Giorgione’s youth, and exhibit, though not yet
ripely, his special qualities of colour-richness and landscape
romance, the peculiar facial types of his predilection, with lie
pure form of forehead, fine oval of cheek, and somewhat close-set
eyes and eyebrows, and the intensity of that still and brooding
sentiment with which, rather than with dramatic life and
movement, he instinctively invests his figures. Probably the
earliest of the portraits by common consent called his is the
. beautiful one of a young man at Berlin. His earliest devotional
picture would seem to be the highly finished “ Christ bearing
his Cross ” (the head and shoulders only, with a peculiarly
serene and high-bred oast of features) formerly at Vicenza and
now in the collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston. Other versions
of this picture exist, and it has been claimed that one in private
possession at Vienna is the true original: erroneously in the
judgment of the present writer. Another “ Christ bearing the
Cross,” with a Jew dragging at the rope round his neck, in the
church of San Rocco at Venice, is a ruined but genuine work,
quoted by Vasari and Ridolfi, and copied with the name of
Giorgione appended, by Van Dyck in that master’s Chatsworth
sketch-book. (Vasari gives it to Giorgione in his first and to
Titian in his second edition.) The composition of a lost early
picture of the birth of Paris is preserved in an engraving of the
“ Teniers Gallery ” series, and an old copy of part of the same
picture is at Budapest. “ In the Giovanelli Palace at Venice
is that fascinating and enigmatical mythology or allegory,
known to the Amonimo Morelliano, who saw it in 1530 in the house
of Gabriel Vemdramin, simply as “ the small landscape with
the storm, the gipsy woman and the soldier ” ; the picture is
conjecturally interpreted by modern authorities as illustrating
a passage in Statius which describes the meeting of Adrastus
with Hypsipyle when she was serving as nurse with the king of
Nemea. Still belonging to the earlier part of the painter’s
brief career is a beautiful, virginally pensive Judith at St Peters¬
burg, which passed under various alien names, as Raphael,
Moretto, &c., until its kindred with the unquestioned work of
Giorgione was in late years firmly established. The great
Castelfranco altarpiece, still, in spite of many restorations,
one of the most classically pure and radiantly impressive works
of Renaissance painting, may be taken as closing the earlier
phase of toe young master’s work (1504). It shows the Virgin
loftily enthroned on a plain, sparely draped stone structure with
St Francis and a warrior saint (St Liberate) standing in attitudes
of great simplicity on either side of toe foot of the throne, a
high parapet behind them, and a beautiful landscape of the
master’s usual type seen above it. Nearly akin to this master¬
piece, not in shape or composition but by the type'll f the Virgin
and the very Bellinesque St Francis, is the altarpiece of the
Madonna with St Francis and St Roch at Madrid. Of the
master’s fully ripened time is toe fine and again enigmatical
picture formerly in the house of Taddeo Contarini at Venice,
described by contemporary witnesses as the "Three Philosophers,”
and now, on slender enough grounds, supposed to represent
Evander showing Aeneas toe site of Troy as narrated in the
eighth Aeneid. The portrait of a knight of Malta in toe Uffizi at
Florence has more power and authority, 1 if less sentiment, than
the earlier example at Berlin, and may be token to be of the
GIOTTINO
matter’s middle time. Most entirely central and typical of all
Giorgione’s extant works is the Sleeping Venus at Dresden,
first recognized by Morelli, and now universally accepted, as
being the same as the picture seen by the Anonimo and later
by Ridolfi in the Casa Marcello at Venice. An exquisitely pure
and severe rhythm »of line and contour chastens the sensuous
richness of the presentment: the sweep of white drapery on
which the goddess lies, and of glowing landscape that fills the
space behind her, most harmoniously frame her divinity. It is
recorded that tffls master left this piece unfinished and that
the landscape, with a Cupid which subsequent restoration has
removed, were completed after his death by Titian. The picture
is the prototype of Titian’s own Venus at the Uffizi and of many
more by other painters of the school; but none of them attained
the quality of the first exemplar. Of such small scenes of mixed
classical mythology and landscape as early writers attribute in
considerable number to Giorgione, there have survived at least
two which bear strong evidences of his handiwork, though the
action is in both of unwonted liveliness, namely the Apollo and
Daphne of the Seminario at Venice and the Orpheus and Eurydice
of Bergamo. The portrait of Antonio Grocardo at Budapest
represents his fullest and most penetrating power in that branch
of art. In his last years the purity and relative slenderness of
form which mark his earlier female nudes, including the Dresden
Venus, gave way to ideals of ampler mould, more nearly approach¬
ing those of Titian and his successors in Venetian art; as is
proved by those last remaining fragments of the frescoes on the
Grand Canal front of the Fondaro dei Tedeschi which were seen
and engraved by Zanetti in 1760, but have now totally dis¬
appeared. Such change of ideal is apparent enough in the
famous “Concert” or “Pastoral Symphony” of the Ixmvre,
probably the latest, and certainly one of the most characteristic
and harmoniously splendid, of Giorgione’s creations that has
come down to us, and has caused some critics too hastily to
doubt its authenticity.
We pass now to pictures for which some affirm and others
deny the right to bear Giorgione’s name. As youthful in style
as the two early pictures in the Uffizi, and closely allied to them
in feeling, though less so in colour, is an unexplained subject
in the National Gallery, sometimes called for want of a better
title the “ Golden Age ” ; this is officially and by many critics
given only to the “school of’’Giorgione,but may not unreasonably
be claimed for his own work (No. 1173). There is also in England
a group of three paintings which arc certainly by one hand,
and that a hand very closely related to Giorgione if not actually
his own, namely the small oblong “ Adoration of the Magi ”
in the National Gallery (No. 1x60), the “Adoration of the
Shepherds ” belonging to Lord Allendale (with its somewhat
inferior but still attractive replica at Vienna), and the small
“ Holy Family ” in the collection of Mr R. H. Benson. The
type of the Madonna in all these three pieces is different from
that customary with the master, but there seems no reason why
he should not at some particular moment have changed his
model. The sentiment and gestures of the figures, the cast of
draperies, the technical handling, and especially, in Lord Allen¬
dale’s picture, the romantic richness of the landscape, all incline
11s to accept the group as original, notwithstanding the deviation
of type already mentioned and certain weaknesses of drawing
and proportion which we should have hardly looked for. Better
knowrpto European students in general are the two fine pictures
commonly given to the master at the Pitti gallery in Florence,
namely the “ Three Ages ” and the “ Concert.” Both are very
Giorgionesque, the “ Three Ages ” leaning rather towards the
early manner of Ixjrenzo Lotto, to whom by some critics it is
actually given. The “ Concert ” is held on technical grounds
by some of the, best judges rather to bear the character of Titian
at the moment when the inspiration of Giorgione was strongest
on him, at least so far as concerns the extremely beautiful and
expressive central figure of the monk playing on the clavichord
with reverted head, a vejy incarnation of musical rapture and
yearning—the other figures are too much injured to judge.
There are at least two famous single portraits as to which
33
critics will probably never agree whether they are among the
later works of Giorgione or among the earliest of Titian under
his influence: these are the jovial and splendid half-length of
Catherine Comaro (or a stout lady much resembling her) with
a bas-relief,-in the collection of Signor Crespi at Milan, and the
so-called “Ariosto" from Lord Damley’s collection acquired
for the National Gallery in 1504. Ancient and half-effaced
inscriptions, of which there is no cause to doubt the genuineness,
ascribe them both to Titian; both, to the mind of the present
writer at least, are more nearly akin to such undoubted early
Titians as the “ Man with the Book ” at Hampton Court and
the “ Man with the Glove ” at the Louvre than to any authen¬
ticated work of Giorgione. At the same time it should be
remembered that Giorgione is known to have actually enjoyed
the patronage of Catherine Comaro and to have painted her
portrait. The Giorgionesque influence and feeling, to a degree
almost of sentimental exaggeration, encounter us again in another
beautiful Venetian portrait at the National Gallery which has
sometime 1 ! been claimed for him, that of a man in crimson velvet
with white pleated shirt and a background of bays,long attributed
to the elder Palma (No. 636). The same qualities are present
with more virility in a very striking portrait of a young man
at Temple Newsam, which stands indeed nearer than any other
extant example to the Brocardo portrait at Budapest. The
full-face portrait of a woman in the Borghese gallery at Rome
has the marks of the master's design and inspiration, but in its
present sadly damaged condition can hardly be claimed for his
handiwork. The head of a hoy with a pipe at Hampton Court,
a little over life size, has been enthusiastically claimed as Gior¬
gione’s workmanship, but is surely too slack and soft in handling
to be anything more than an early copy of a lost work, analogous
to, though better than, the similar copy at Vienna of a young
man with an arrow, a subject be is known to have painted.
The early records prove indeed that not a few such copies of
Giorgione’s more admired works were produced in his own time
or shortly afterwards. One of the most interesting and un¬
mistakable such copies still extant is the picture formerly in the
Manfrin collection at Venice, afterwards in that of Mr Barker in
London, and now at Dresden, which is commonly called “ The
Horoscope,” and represents a woman seated near a classic ruin
with a young child at her feet, an armed youth standing looking
down at them, and a turhaned sage seated near with compasses,
disk and book. Of important subject pictures belonging to the
debatable borderland between Giorgione and his imitators are the
large and interesting unfinished “ Judgment of Solomon ” at
Kingston Lary, which must certainly Ire the same that Ridolfi
saw and attributed to him in the Casa Grimani at Venice, but
has weaknesses of design and drawing sufficiently baffling to
criticism ; and the “ Woman taken in Adultery ” in the public
gallery at Glasgow, a picture truly Giorgionesque in richness of
colour, but betraying in its awkward composition, the relative
coarseness of its types and the insincere, mechanical animation
of its movements, the hand of some lesser master of the schoel,
almost certainly (by comparison with his existing engravings,
and woodcuts) that of Domeniro Campagnola. It seems un¬
necessary to refer, in the present notice, to any of the numerous
other and inferior works which have been claimed for Giorgione
by a criticism unable to distinguish between a living voice and its
echoes.
Bitiliography.—M orelli, Nolizie, &c. (etl. Frizzoni, 1884) ; Vasari
(ed. Milanesi), vol. iv.; Ridolfi, I.r Mamviglie dell' arte, vol. i. ,
Zanetti, Vane PUture {1 760) ; Crowe-Cavalcaselle, History 0/ Painting
in North Italy ; Morelli, KunstkrUische Shtdien ; Gronau, Zorton da
Castelfranco, la sua origtnc, &c. (1804) ; Herbert Cook , Giorgione [in
“ Great Masters ” series, iqoo) ; llgo Monneret dr Villard, Giorgione
da Castelfranco (1005). The two last-named works are critically
far too inclusive, but useful as going ove r Hie whole ground of
discussion, with full references to earlier authorities, &c. (S. C.)
GIOTTIHO (1324-1357). an early Florentine painter. Vasari
is the principal authority in regard to this artist; hut it is not by
any means easy to bring the details of his narrative into harmony
with such facts as can now be verified. It would appear that there
was a painter of the name of Tommaso (or Masoj di Stefano,
XII. 2
%2
GIORGIONE!
catalogues uiider the name of Giorgio Barbarelli or Barbarella.
TWattadition has, howevet, on dose examination been proved
h—»W. On the other hand mention has been found in a
'contemporary document of an earlier Zoreon, a native of
'■Vedelago, living in Castelfranco in 1460- Vasan > w ? ot *
beforethe BarbareUa legend had sprung up, says ^
was of very humble origin. It seems probable that he was
•imply tie son or grandson of the afore-mentioned Zorzon the
elder ; that the after-claim of the Barbarelli to kindred with him
was a mere piece of family vanity, very likely suggested by the
analogous case of Leonardo da Vinci; and that, this claim once
put abroad, the peasant-mother of Vedelago was invented on
the ground of some dim knowledge that his real progenitors
tnrxp from that village. ... .
Of the facts of his life we are almost as meagrely informed as
of the circumstances of his birth. The little city, or large
iortified village, for it is scarcely more, of Castelfranco in the
Trevisan stands in the midst of a rich and broken plain at some
distance from the last spurs of the Venetian Alps. From the
natural suiroundingS of Giorgione’s childhood was no doubt
derived his ideal of pastoral scenery, the country of pleasant
copses, glades, brooks and hills amid which his personages love
to wander or recline with lute and pipe. How early in boyhood
he went to Venice we do not know, but internal evidence
supports the statement of Ridolfi that he served his apprentice¬
ship there under Giovanni Bellini; and there he made his fame
and had his home. That his gifts were early recognized we
know from the facts, recorded in contemporary documents,
that in 1500, when he was only twenty-three (that is if Vasari
gives rightly the age at which he died), he was chosen to paint
•- portraits of the Doge Agostino Barberigo and the condottiere
Consalvo Ferrante ; that in 1504 he was commissioned to paint
an altarpiece in memory of Matteo Costanzo in the cathedral
of his native town, Castelfranco ; that in 1507 he received at the
order of the Council of Ten part payment for a picture (subject
not mentioned) on which he was engaged for the Hall of the
Audience in the ducal palace; and that in 1507-1508 he was
employed, with other artists of his own generation, to decorate
with frescoes the exterior of the newly rebuilt Fondaco dei
Tedeschi or German merchants' hall at Venice, having already
done similar work on the exterior of the Casa Soranzo, the Casa
Grimani alii Servi and other Venetian palaces. Vasari gives
also as an important event in Giorgione's life, and one which had
influence on his work, his meeting with Leonardo da Vinci on
the occasion of the Tuscan master’s visit to Venice in 1500. In
September or October 1510 he died of the plague then raging
in the city, and within a few days of his 'death we find the great
art-patroness and amateur, Isabella d’Este, writing from Mantua
and trying in vain to secure for her collection a night-piece by
his hand of which the fame had reached her.
All accounts agree in representing Giorgione as a personage
of distinguished and romantic charm, a great lover, a great
musician,' made to enjoy in life and to express in art to the
uttermost the delight, die splendour, the sensuous and imaginative
pMa and fulness, not untinged with poetic melancholy, of the
Venetian existence of his time. They represent him further as
having made in Venetian painting an advance analogous to that
made in Tuscan painting by I<eonardo more than twenty years
before; that is as having released the art from the last shackles
of archaic rigidity and placed it in possession of full freedom
and tire’full mastery of its means. He also introduced a new
range ■« subjects. Besides altarpieces and portraits he painted
pictures that told no story, whether biblical or classical, or if
they professed to tell such, neglected the action and simply
embodied in form and colour nloods of lyrical or romantic
feeling, much as a musician might embody them in sounds.
Innovating with the courage and felicity of genius, he had for
a time an overwhelming influence on his contemporaries and
immediate successors in the Venetian school, including Titian,
Sebastian del Piombo, the elder Palma, Cariani and the two
Campagnolas, and not a little even on seniors of long-standing
fame such da Gioyutni Bellini. His name and work have
exorcised, and continue to exercise, no less a spell on posterity.
But to identify and define, among the relics of his age and school,
precisely What that work is, and to distinguish it. from the
kindred work of other men whom his influence inspired, is a
very difficult matter. There are incluaivecritipsswhoatill
claim for Giorgione nearly every painting of^ toe time that at
all resembles his manner, and there are exclusive critics who pare
down to some ten or a dozen the list of extant pictures which
they will admit to be actually his.
To name first those which are either certain or command
the most general acceptance, placing them in something like
an approximate and probable order of date. In the Uffizi at
Florence are two companion pieces of the “ Trial of Moses ”
and the “ Judgment of Solomon,” the latter the finer and
better preserved of the two, which pass, no doubt justly, as
typical works of Giorgione’s youth, and exhibit, though not yet
ripely, his special qualities of colour-richness and landscape
romance, the peculiar facial types of his predilection, with lie
pure form of forehead, fine oval of cheek, and somewhat close-set
eyes and eyebrows, and the intensity of that still and brooding
sentiment with which, rather than with dramatic life and
movement, he instinctively invests his figures. Probably the
earliest of the portraits by common consent called his is the
. beautiful one of a young man at Berlin. His earliest devotional
picture would seem to be the highly finished “ Christ bearing
his Cross ” (the head and shoulders only, with a peculiarly
serene and high-bred oast of features) formerly at Vicenza and
now in the collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston. Other versions
of this picture exist, and it has been claimed that one in private
possession at Vienna is the true original: erroneously in the
judgment of the present writer. Another “ Christ bearing the
Cross,” with a Jew dragging at the rope round his neck, in the
church of San Rocco at Venice, is a ruined but genuine work,
quoted by Vasari and Ridolfi, and copied with the name of
Giorgione appended, by Van Dyck in that master’s Chatsworth
sketch-book. (Vasari gives it to Giorgione in his first and to
Titian in his second edition.) The composition of a lost early
picture of the birth of Paris is preserved in an engraving of the
“ Teniers Gallery ” series, and an old copy of part of the same
picture is at Budapest. “ In the Giovanelli Palace at Venice
is that fascinating and enigmatical mythology or allegory,
known to the Anonimo Morelliano, who saw it in 1530 in the house
of Gabriel Vendramin, simply as “ the small landscape with
the storm, the gipsy woman and the soldier ” ; the picture is
conjecturally interpreted by modern authorities as illustrating
a passage in Statius which describes the meeting of Adrastus
with Hypsipyle when she was serving as nurse with the king of
Nemea. Still belonging to the earlier part of the painter’s
brief career is a beautiful, virginally pensive Judith at St Peters¬
burg, which passed under various alien names, as Raphael,
Moretto, &c., until its kindred with the unquestioned work of
Giorgione was in late years firmly established. The great
Castelfranco altarpiece, still, in spite of many restorations,
one of the most classically pure and radiantly impressive works
of Renaissance painting, may be taken as closing the earlier
phase of toe young master’s work (1504). It shows the Virgin
loftily enthroned on a plain* sparely draped stone structure with
St Francis and a warrior saint (St Liberate) standing in attitudes
of great simplicity on either side of toe foot of the throne, a
high parapet behind them, and a beautiful landscape of the
master’s usual type seen above it. Nearly akin to this master¬
piece, not in shape or composition but by the type'll f the Virgin
and the very Bellinesque St Francis, is the altarpiece of the
Madonna with St Francis and St Roch at Madrid. Of the
master’s fully ripened time is toe fine and again enigmatical
picture formerly in the house of Taddeo Contarini at Venice,
described by contemporary witnesses as the "Three Philosophers,”
and now, on slender enough grounds, supposed to represent
Evander showing Aeneas toe site of Troy as narrated in the
eighth Aeneid. The portrait of a knight of Malta in toe Uffizi at
Florence has more power and authority, 1 if less sentiment, than
the earlier example at Berlin, and may be token to be of the
GIOTTO 35
in colour and design; the compositions, especially the first three,
fitted with admirable art into the cramped spaces of the vaulting,
the subjects, no doubt in the main dictated to the artist by his
Franciscan employers, treated in no cold or mechanical spirit
but with a full measure of vital humanity and original feeling..
Had the career and influence of St Francis had no other of their
vast and far-reaching effects in the world than that of inspiring
these noble works of art, they would still have been entitled
to no small gratitude from mankind. Other works at Assisi
which most modem critics, but not all, attribute to Giotto him¬
self are three miracles of St Francis and portions of a group of
frescoes illustrating the history of Mary Magdalene, both in the
Lower Church; and again, in one of the transepts of the same
Lower Church, a series of ten frescoes of the Life of the Virgin
and Christ, concluding with the Crucifixion. It is to he remarked
as to this transept series that several of the frescoes present not
only the same subjects, but with a certain degree of variation
the same compositions, as are found in the master's great series
executed in the Arena chapel at Padua in the fulness of his
powers about 1306; and that the versions in the Assisi transept
show a relatively greater degree of technical accomplishment
than the Paduan versions, with a more attractive charm and
more abundance of accessory ornament, but a proportionately
less degree of that simple grandeur in composition and direct
strength of human motive which are the special notes of Giotto’s
style. Therefore a minority of critics refuse to accept the
modern attribution of this transept series to Giotto himself,
and see in it later work by an accomplished pupil softening and
refining upon Ills master's original creations at Padua. Others,
insisting that these unquestionably beautiful works must be
by tlie hand of Giotto and none but Giotto, maintain that in
comparison with the Paduan examples they illustrate a gradual
progress, which can be traced in other of his extant works, from
the relatively ornate and soft to the austerely grand and simple.
This argument is enforced by comparison with early work of the
master’s at Rome as to the date of which we have positive
evidence. In 12118 Giotto completed for Cardinal Stefaneschi
lor the price of 2200 gold ducats a mosaic of Christ saving St
Peter from the waves (the celebrated “ Navicella ”); this is
still to he seen, but in a completely restored and transformed
state, in the vestibule of St Peter’s. For the same patron he
executed, probably just before the “ Navicella,” an elaborate
ciborium or altar-piece for the high altar of St Peter’s, for which
he received 800 ducats. It represents on the principal far* a
colossal Christ enthroned with adoring angels beside him and
a kneeling donor at his feet, and the martyrdoms of St Peter and
St Paul on separate panels to right and left; on the Tcverse is
St Peter attended by St George and other saints, receiving from
tlie donor a model of his gift, with stately full-length figures of
two upostles to right and two to left, besides various accessory
scenes and figures in the predellas and the margins. The
separated parts of this altar-piece are still to be seen, in a quite
genuine though somewhat tarnished condition, in the sacristy
of St Peter’s. A third work by the master at Rome is a repainted
fragment at the Lateran of a fresco of Pope Boniface VIII.
proclaiming the jubilee of 1300. The “ Navicella ” and the
Lateran fragment are too much ruined to argue from; but the
ciborium panels, it is contended, combine with the aspects of
majesty and strength a quality of ornate charm and suavity
such ag is remarked in the transept frescoes of Assisi. The
sequence proposed for these several works is accordingly, first
the St Peter's cihorium, next the allegories in the vaulting of the
Lower Church, next the three frescoes of St Francis’ miracles
in the north transept, next the St Francis series m the Upper
Church ; and last, perhaps after an interval and with the help
of pupils, the. scenes from the life of Mary Magdalene in her
chapel in tlie Lower Church. This involves a complete reversal
of the prevailing view, which regards the unequal and sometimes
dumsy compositions of this St Francis series as the earliest
independent work of the master. It must be admitted that
there is something paradoxical in the idea of a progress from
the m a nner of the Lower Church transept series of the life of
Christ to the much ruder manner of the Upper Church series
of St Francis.
A kindred obscurity and little less conflict of opinion await
the inquirer at almost all stages of Giotto's, career. In 1841
there wete partially recovered from the whitewash that had
overlain them a series of frescoes executed in the chapel of the
Magdalene, in the Bargello or Palace of the Podesti at Florence,
to celebrate (as was supposed) a pacification between the Black
and White parties in the state effected by the Cardinal d’Acqua-
sparta as delegate of the pope in 1302. In them are depicted a
series of Bible scenes, besides great compositions of Hell and
Paradise, and in the Paradise are introduced portraits of Dante,
Brunette Latini and Corso Donato. These recovered fragments,
freely “ restored ” as soon as they were disclosed, were acclaimed
as the work of Giotto and long held in especial regard for the
sake of the portrait of Dante. Latterly it has been shown that
if Giotto ever executed them at all, which is doubtful, it must
have been at a later date than the supposed pacification, and
that they must have suffered grievous injury in the fire which
destroyed a great part of the building in 1332, and been after¬
wards repainted by some well-trained follower of the school.
To alxmt 1302 or 1303 would belong, if there is truth in it, the
familiar story of Giotto’s 0 . Pope Benedict XI., the successor
of Boniface VIII., sent, as the tale runs, a messenger to bring
him proofs of the painter’s powers. Giotto would give no other
sample of his talent than an O drawn with a free sweep of the
brush from the elbow ; but the pope was satisfied and engaged
him at ft great salary to go and adorn with frescoes the pupal
residence at Avignon. Benedict, however, dying at this time
(1305), nothing came of this commission; and the remains of
Italian 14th-century frescoes still to lie seen at Avignon are now
recognised as the work, not, as was long supposed, of Giotto,
hut of tlie Sienese Simone Martini and his school.
At this point in Giotto’s life we come to the greatest by far of
his undestroyed and undisputed enterprises, and one which can
with some certainty be dated. This is the series of frescoes
with which he decorated the entire internal walls of the chapel
huilt at Padua in honour of the Virgin of the Annunciation by a
rich citizen of the town, F.nrico Serovegni, perhaps in order to
atone for the sins of his father, a notorious usurer whom Dante
places in the seventh circle of hell. The building is on the site
of an ancient amphitheatre, and is therefore generally called
the chapel of the Arena. Since it is recorded that Dante was
Giotto’s guest at Padua, and since we know that it was in 1306
that the poet came from Bologna to that city, we may conclude
that to the same year, 1306, iielongs the beginning of Giotto's
great undertaking in the Arena chapel. The scheme includes a
Saviour in Glory over the altar, a L#st Judgment, full of various
and impressive incident, occupying the whole of the entrance wall,
with a series of subjects from the Old and New Testament and
the apocryphal life of Christ painted in three tiers on either side
wall, and lowest of all a fourth tier with emblematic Virtues and
Vices in monochrome ; the. Virtues being on the side of the chapel
next the incidents of redemption in the entrance fresco of the
Last Judgment, the Vices on the side next the incidents of perdi¬
tion. A not improbable tradition asserts that Giotto was helped
by Dante in the choice and disposition of the subjects. The
frescoes, though not free from injury and retouching, are upon
the whole in good condition, and nowhere else can the highest
powers of the Italian mind and hand at (lie lieginning of the 14th
century be so well studied as here. At the close of the middle
ages we find Giotto laying the foundation upon which all the
progress of the Renaissance was afterwards securely based.
In his day the knowledge possessed by painters of the human
frame and its structure rested only upon general observation
and not upon detailed or scientific study ; while to facts other
than those of humanity their observation had never been closely
directed. Of linear perspective they possessed lmt elementary
and empirical ideas, and their endeavours to express aerial per¬
spective and deal with the problems of light and shade were rare
and partial. As far as painting could possibly lx- carried under
these renditions, it was carried by Giotto, in its choice of
GIOTTO
subject* i(i* art is entirely subservient to the religious spirit of
his age. Even in its mode of conceiving and arranging those
subjects it is. in part still trammelled by the rules and consecrated
traditions of the past. Many of those truths of nature to which
the painters of succeeding generations learned to give 1 accurate
and complete expression, Giotto was only able to express by way
of imperfect symbol and suggestion. But among the elements of
art over which he has control he maintains so just a balance that
his work produce* in the spectator less sense of imperfection
than that of many later and more accomplished roasters. In
some particulars his mature painting, as we sec it in the Arena
chapel, lias never been surpassed—in mastery of concise and
expressive generalized line and of inventive and harmonious
decorative tint; in the judicious division of the field and massing
and scattering of groups ; in the combination of high gravity
with complete frankness in conception, and the union of noble
dignity in the types with direct and vital truth in the gestures
of the personages.
The frescoes of the Arena chapel must liave lieen a labour
of years, and of the date of their termination wc have no proof.
Of the many otlier works said to have lieen executed by Giotto at
Padua, all that remains consists of some scarce recognizable traces
in the chapter-house of the great Franciscan church of St Antonio.
For twenty years or more we lose all authentic data as to Giotto's
doings and movements. Vasari, indeed, sends him on a giddy
but in the main evidently fabulous round of travels, including a
sojourn in France, which it is certain he never made. Besides
Padua, he is said to have resided and left great works at Ferrara,
Ravenna, Urbino, Rimini, Faenza, Lucca and other cities; in
some of them paintings of his school are still shown, but nothing
which can fairly fie claimed to be by his hand. It is recorded
also that he was much employed in his native city of Florence ;
but the vandalism of luter generations lias effaced nearly all that
he did there. Among works whitewashed over by posterity
were the frescoes with which he covered no less than five chapels
in the church of Santa Croce. Two of these, the chapels of the
Bardi and the Peruzzi families, were scraped in the early part
of the 19th century, and very important remains were uncovered
and immediately subjected to a process of restoration which
lias robbed them of half their authenticity. But through the
ruins of time wc can trace in some of these Santa Croce frescoes
all the qualities of Giotto's work at an even higher and more
mature development than in the last examples at Assisi or I'adua.
The frescoes of the liardi chapel tell aguin the story of St Francis,
to which so much of his best power had already been devoted;
those of the Peruzzi chapel deal with the lives of St John the
Baptist and St John the Evangelist. Such scenes as the Funeral
of St Francis, the Dance of Herodias’s Daughter, and the Re¬
surrection of St John the Evangelist, which have to some extent
escaped the disfigurements of the restorer, are among acknow¬
ledged classics of the world’s art. The only clues to the dates
of any <jf these works are to be found in the facts that among the
figures in the Bardi chapel occurs that of St Louis of Toulouse,
| who was not canonized till 1317, therefore the painting must be
subsequent to that year; ami that the •• Dance of Salome ” must
liave been painted before 1331, when it was copied by the Loren-
zetti at Siena. The only other extant works of (liotto at Florence
are a fine “ Crucifix,” not undisputed, at San Marco, and the
majestic but somewhat heavy altar-piece of the Madonna, prob¬
ably an early work, which is placed in the Academy beside a
- more primitive Madonna supposed to be the work of Cimabue.
Towards the end of Giotto's life we escape again from confused
legend, and from the tantalizing record of works which liave
not survived for us to verify, into the region of authentic docu¬
ment and fact. It appears that Giotto had coqje under the notice
of Duke diaries of Calabria, son of King Robert of Naples, during
the visits of the duke to Florence which took place between
1326 and 13211, in which year he disd. Soon afterwards Giotto
must have gone to King Robert's court at Naples, where he was
enrolled as an honoured guest and member of the household by
u royal decree dated the soth oLlanuary 1330. Another docu¬
ment shows him to liave been itul at Naples two yean later.
Tradition says much about the friendship of the king for tlie
painter and the freedom of speech and jest allowed him: much
also of the works he carried out at Naples in the Cartel Nuovo,
the Castel deH’ Uovo, and the church and convent of Sta Chiara.
Not a trace of these works remains; and others which later
criticism have claimed for him in a hall which formerly belonged
to the convent of Sta Chiara have been proved not to be his.
Meantime Giotto had been advancing, not only in years and
worldly fame, but in prosperity. He was married young, and
had, so far as is recorded, three sons, Francesco, Niccola and
Donato, and three daughters, Bice, Caterina and Lucia. He
had added by successive purchases to the plot of land inherited
from his father at Vespignano. His fellow-citizens of all occupa¬
tions and degrees delighted to honour him. And now, in his sixty-
eighth year (if we accept the birth-date 1266/7), on his return
from Naples by way of Gaeta, he received the final and official
testimony to the esteem in which he was held at Florence. By
a solemn decree of the Priori on the 12th of April 1334, he was
appointed master of the works of the ^pthedral of Sta Reparata
(later and better known as Sta Maria del Fiore) and official
architect of the city walls and the towns within her territory.
What training as a practical architect his earlier career had
afforded him we do not know, but his interest in the art from
the beginning is made clear by the carefully studied architectural
backgrounds of many of his frescoes. Dying on the 8th of
January 1336 (old style 1337), Giotto only enjoyed his new
dignities for two years. But in the course of them he had found
time not only to make an excursion to Milan, on the invitation
of Azzo Visconti and with the sanction of his own government,
but to plan two great architectural works at Florence and
superintend the beginning of their execution, namely the west
front of the cathedral and its detached campanile or bell-tower.
The unfinished enrichments of the cathedral front were stripped
away in a later age. The foundation-stone of the Campanile was
laid with solemn ceremony in the presence of a great concourse
of magistrates and people on the 18th of July 1334. Its lower
courses seem to have been completed from Giotto’s design, and
the first course ot its sculptured ornaments (the famous scries of
primitive Arts and Industries) actually by his own hand, before
his death. It is not dear what modifications of his design were
made by Andrea Pisano, who was appointed to succeed him,
or again by Francesco Talenti, to whom the work was next
entrusted; but the incomparable structure as we now sec it
stands justly in the world’s esteem as the most fitting monument
to the genius who first conceived and directed it.
The art <ff painting, as re-created by Giotto, was carried
on throughout Italy by his pupils and successors with little
change or development for nearly a hundred years, until a new
impulse was given to art by the combined influences of naturalism
and classicism in the hands of men like Donatello and Masaccio.
Most of the anecdotes related of the master are probably in¬
accurate in detail, but the general character both as artist and
man which tradition has agreed in giving him can never be
assailed. He was from the first a kind of popular hero. He is
celebrated by the poet Petrarch and by the historian Villani.
He is made the subject of tales and anecdotes by Boccaccio
and by Franco Sacchetti. From these notices, as well as from
Vasari, we gain a distinct picture of the man, as one whose
nature was in keeping with his country origin; whose sturdy
frame and plain features corresponded to a character .rather
distinguished for shrewd and genial strength th^n for sublimer
or more ascetic qualities ; a'master craftsman, to whose strong
combining and inventing powers nothing came amiss; conscious
of his own deserts, never at a loss either in the things of art or in
the things of life, and equally ready and efficient whether he has
to design the scheme of some great spiritual allegory in colour
or imperishable monument in stone, or whether he has to show
his wit in the encounter of practical jest and repartee. From his
own hand we have a contribution to literature which helps to
substantiate this conception of his character. A large jsart of
Giotto’s fame as painter was won in the service of the Franciscans.
and in the pictorial celebration of the life and ordinances of
GIPSIES
their founder. As is well known, it was a part of the ordinances
of Francis that his disciples should follow his own example in
worshipping and being wedded to poverty,—poverty idealized
and personified as a spiritual bride and mistress. Giotto, having
on the commission of the order given the noblest pictorial
embodiment to this and other aspects of the Franciscan doctrine,
presently wrote an ode in which his own views on poverty are
expressed; and in this he shows that, if on the one hancT his
genius was at the service of the ideals of his time, and his imagina¬
tion open to their significance, on the other hand his judgment
was shrewdly and humorously awake to their practical dangers
and exaggerations.
Authorities. — Ghiberti, Commentari; Vasari, Le Vite, vol. i.;
Crowe-Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy, ed. Langton
Douglas (1903) : H. Thode, Giotto (1899) ; M. G. Zimmcrmann,
Giotto und die Kunst I Miens im Mittelalter (1899); B. Berenson,
Florentine Painters of the Renaissance ; F. Mason Perkin, Giotto
(in “ Great Masters " series) (1903) ; Basil de S 61 incourt, Giotto
(1905). (S. C.)
GIPSIES, or Gypsies, a wandering folk scattered through
every European land, over the greater part of western Asia
and Siberia; found also in Egypt and the northern coast of
Africa, in America and even in Australia. No correct estimate
of their numbers outside of Europe can be given, and even in
Europe the information derived from official statistics is often
contradictory and unreliable. The only country in which the
figures have been given correctly is Hungary. In 1893 there
were 274,940 in Transleithania, of whom 243,432 were settled,
20,406 only partly settled and 8938 nomads. Of these 91,603
spoke the Gipsy language in 1890, but the rest had already been
assimilated. Next in numbers stands Rumania, the number
varying between 250,000 and 200,000 (1895). Turkey in Europe
counted 117,000 (1903), of whom 51,000 were in Bulgaria and
Eastern Rumelia, 22,000 in the vilayet of Adrianople and 2500 in
the vilayet of Kossovo. In Asiatic Turkey the estimates vary
between 67,000 and 200,000. Servia has 41,000; Bosnia and
Herzegovina, 18,000 ; Greece, 10,000 ; Austria (Cisleithania),
16,000, of whom 13,500 are in Bohemia and Moravia ; Germany,
2060 ; France, 2000 (5000 ?); Basque Provinces, 500 to 700 ;
Italy, 32,000 ; Spain, 40,000 ; Russia, 58,000 ; Poland, 15,000,
Sweden and Norway, 1500 ; Denmark and Holland, 5000;
Persia, 15,000 ; Transcaucasia, 3000. The rest is mere guesswork.
For Africa, America and Australia the numbers are estimated
between 135,000 and 166,000. The estimate given by Miklosich
(1878) of 700,000 fairly agrees with the above statistics. No
statistics are forthcoming for the number in the British Isles.
Some estimate their number at 12,000.
The Gipsies are known principally by two names, which
have been modified by the nations with whom they came in
contact, but which can easily be traced to cither the one or the
other of these two distinct stems. The one group, embracing
the majority of Gipsies in Europe, the compact masses living
in the Balkan Peninsula, Rumania and Transylvania and
extending also as far as Germany and Italy, are blown by the
name Atzigan or Alsigan, which becomes in time Tshingian
(Turkey and Greece), Tsigan (Bulgarian, Servian, Rumanian),
Czigany (Hungarian), Zigeuner (Germany), Zingari (Italian),
and it is not unlikely that the English word Tinker or Tinkler
(the latter no doubt due to a popular etymology connecting the
gaudy gipsy with the tinkling coins or the metal wares which
he carried on his back as a smith and tinker) may be a local
transformation «of the German Zigeuner. The second name,
partly known in the East, where the word, however, is used as an
xpression of contempt, whilst Zigan is not felt by the gipsies
is an insult, is Egyptian ; in England, Gipsy ; in some German
documents of the 16th century Aegypter ; Spanish Gitano ;
modem Greek Gypktos. They arc also known by the parallel
ixpressions Faraon (Rumanian) and Phdrao Nephka (Hungarian)
ir Pharaoh’s people, which are only variations connected with
the Egyptian origin. In France they are known as Bohimiens,
1 word the importance of jvhich will appear later. To the same
tategory belong other names bestowed upon them, such as
Walachi, Saraceni, Agaresi, Nubiani, &c. They were also known
37
by the name of Tartars, given to them in Germany, or as
“ Heathen,” Heyiens. All these latter must be considered as
nicknames without thereby denoting their probable origin.
The same may have now been the case with the first name
with which they appear in history, Attigan. Much ingenuity
has been displayed m attempts to explain the name, for it was
felt that a true explanation might help to settle the question of
their origin and the date of their arrival in Europe. Here
again two extreme theories have been propounded, the one
supported by Bataillard, who connected them with the Sigynnoi
of Herodotus and identified them with the Komodromoi of the
later Byzantine writers, known already in the 6tjs century’.
Others bring them to Europe as late as the 14th century; and
the name has also been explained by de Goeje from the Persian
Chang, a kind of harp or zither, or the Persian Zang,, black,
swarthy. Rienzi (1832) and Trumpp (1872) have connected
the name with the Cliangars of North-East India, but all have
omitted to notice that the real form was Atzigan or (more correct)
Atzingan and not Tsigan. The best explanation remains that sug¬
gested by Miklosich, who derives the word from the Athinganoi,
a name originally belonging to a peculiar heretical sect living
in Asia Minor near Phrygia and Lycaonia, known also as the
Melki-Zedekites. The members of this sect observed very strict
rules of purity, as they were afraid to be defiled by the touch
of other people whom they considered unclean. They therefore
acquired the name of Athinganoi (i.c. “ Touch-me-nots ”).
Miklosich lias collected seven passages where the Byzantine
historians of the 9th century describe the Athinganoi as sooth¬
sayers, magicians and serpent-charmers. From these descrip¬
tions nothing definite can be proved as to the identity of the
Athinganoi with the Gipsies, or the reason why this name was
given to soothsayers, charmers, No. But the inner history of th(
Byzantine empire of that period may easily give a clue to it
and explain how it came about that such a nickname was given
to a new sect or to a new race which suddenly appeared in the
Greek Empire at that period. In the history of the Church we
find them mentioned in one breath with the Paulicians and other
heretical sects which were transplanted in their tens of thousands
from Asia Minor to the Greek empire and settled especially in
Rumelia, near Adrianople and Philippopolis. The Greeks called
these heretical sects by all kinds ol names, derived from ancient
Church traditions, and gave to each sect such names as first struck
them, on the scantiest of imaginary similarities. One sect was
called Paulician, another Mclki-Zedekite ; so also these were
called Athinganoi, probably being considered the descendants
of the outcast Samer, who, according to ancient tradition, was
a goldsmith and the maker of the Golden, Calf in the desert.
For this sin Samer was banished and compelled to live apart
from human beings and even to avoid their touch (Athinganos :
“ Touch-me-not ”). Travelling from East to West these hereticnl
sects obtained different names in different countries, in accord
ance with the local traditions or to imaginary origins. The
Bogomils and Patarenes became Bulgarians in France, and So
the gypsies Bohemians, a name which was also connected with *
the heretical sect of the Bohemian brothels (lltdwuolir Brieder).
Curiously enough the Kutzo-Vlachs lit mg in Macedonia ( q.v.)
and Rumelia are also known by Ihe nickname Tsinlsari, a word
that has not yet been explained. Very' likely it stands in close
connexion with Zingari, the name having been transferred from
one people to the other without the justification ol any common
ethnical origin, except that the Kutzo-Vlachs. lil.> tin- Zingari,
differed from their Greek neighbours in race, as in language,
habits and customs; while they probably followed similar
pursuits to those of the Zingari, as smiths, Nr. As to the other
name, Egyptians, this is derived from a peculiar tale whit h tin-
gipsies spread when appearing in the west of Europe. They
alleged that they had come from a country of their own calltd
Little Egypt, either a confusion between Little Armenia and
Egypt or the Peloponnesus.
Attention may be drawn to a remarkable passage in the Syriac
version of the apocryphal Book of Adam, known as the Cave of
Treasures and compiled probably in the 6th century : “ And
GIPSIES
38
l the need of Caiman were at I said the Aegyptians; and, lo,
bey ware Mattered all over the earth and served as slaves of
laves ” (ed. Bezold, German translation, p. 25). No reference
o such a scattering and serfdom of the Egyptians is mentioned
nywhere else. This must have been a legend, current in Asia
iinor, and hence probably transferred to the swarthy Gipsies.
A new explanation may now be ventured upon as to the name
rhich the Gipsies of Europe give to themselves, which, it must
« emphasized, is not known to the Gipsies outside of Europe.
)nly those who storting from the ancient Byzantine empire
«ve travelled westwards and spread over Europe, America and
Uistralia call themselves by the name of Rom, the woman being
tomni and a stranger Gazi. Many etymologies have been sug¬
gested for the word Rom. Paspati derived it from the word
Droma (Indian), and Miklosich had identified it with Doma or
pomba, a “ low caste musician,” rather an extraordinary name
for a nation to call itself by. Having no home and no country
of their own and no political traditions and no literature, they
would naturally try to identify themselves with the people in
whose midst they lived, und would call themselves by the same
name as other inhabitants of the Greek empire, known also as
the Empire of New Rom, or of the Komaioi, Romeliots, Romanoi,
as the Byzantines used to call themselves before they assumed
the prouder name of Hellenes. The Gipsies would therefore
call themselves also Rom, a much more natural name, more
flattering to their vanity, and geographically and politically
more correct than if they called themselves “ low caste
musicians.” This Greek origin of the name would explain why
it is limited to the European Gipsies, and why it is not found
among that stock of Gipsies which has migrated from Asia
Minor southwards and taken a different route to reach Egypt
and North Africa.
Appearance in Europe .—Leaving aside the doubtful passages
in the Byzantine writers where the Athinganoi are mentioned,
the first appearance of Gipsies in Europe cannot he traced
positively further lack than the beginning of the 14th ccnturv.
Some have hitherto believed that a passage iri what was errone¬
ously called the Rhymed Version of Genesis of Vienna, but which
turns out to be the work of a writer be I on- the vear 1122,
and found only in the Klagenfurt manuscript (edited by Ditmar,
1862), referred to the Gipsies. It runs as follows: Gen. xiii. 15
“ Hagar had a son from whom were born the Chaltsmide. When
Hagar had that child, she numed it Ismael, from whom the
lsmaelites descend who journey through the land, and we cal!
them Chaltsmide, may evil liefall them 1 They sell only things
with blemishes, and for whatever they sell they always ask more
than its real value. They cheat the people to whom they sell.
They hive no home, no country, they are satisfied to live in
tents, they wander over the country, they deceive the people,
they cheat men but rob no one noisily."
This reference to the Chaltsmide (not goldsmiths, but very
likely ironworkers, smiths) has wrongly been applied to the
Gipsies. For it is important to note that at least three centuries
• before historical evidence proves the immigration of the genuine
Gipsy, there had been wayfaring smiths, travelling from country
to country, and practically paving the way for their successors,
the Gipsies, who not only took up their crafts Init who probably
have also assimilated a good proportion of these vagrants of
the west of Europe. The name given to the former, who pro¬
bably were Oriontal or Greek smiths and pedlars, was then
transferred to the new-comers. The Komodromoi mentioned
by TheophanCs (758-818), who speaks under the date 554 of one
hailing from Italy, and by other Byzantine writers, are no
doubt the same as the Chaltsmide of the German writer of the
nth century translated by Ducange as , Chaudroneurs . We
are on surer ground in the 14th century. Hopf has proved the
existence of Gipsies in Corfu before 1326. Before *346 the
empress Catherine de Valois granted to the governor of Corfu
authority to reduce to vassalage certain vagrants who came
from the mainland; and in 1386, under the Venetians, they
formed the Fcudum Acmdaapnim, which lasted for many
centuries. About 1378 the Venetian governor of Nauplia
confirmed to the “ Aciagani ” of that colony the privileges
granted by his predecessor to their leader John. It is even
possible to identify Hie people described by Friar Simon in his
Itintrarium, who, speaking of his stay in Crete in 1322, says:
“ We saw there a people outside the city who declare themselves
to be of the race of Ham and who worship according to the Greek
rite._ They wander like a cursed people from place to place, not
stopping at all or rarely m one place longer than thirty days :
they live in tents like the Arabs, a little oblong black tent.”
But their name is not mentioned, and although the similarity
is great between these “ children of Ham ” and the Gipsies,
the identification has only the value of an hypothesis. By the
end ot the 15th century they must have been settled for a
sufficiently long time in the Balkan Peninsula and the countries
north of the Danube, such as Transylvania and Walachia, to have
been reduced to the same state of serfdom as they evidently
occupied in Corfu in the second half of the 14th century. The
voivode Mireea I. of Walachia confirms the grant made by his
uncle Vladislav Voivode to the monastery of St Anthony of
Voditsa as to forty families of “ Atsigane,” for whom no taxes
should lie paid to the prince. They were considered crown
property . The same gift is rrnewed’in the year 1424 by the
voivode .Dan, who repeats the very same words (i Acig8nc, m.
celiudi. da su slobodni ot vstkih rabot i dankov) (H8jd8i..
Arh va, i. 20). At that time there must already have been
in Walachia settled Gipsies treated as serfs, and migrating
Gipsies plying their trade as smiths, musicians, dancers, sooth
savers, horse-dealers, Ac., for we find the voivode Alexander ol
Moldavia grunting these Gipsies in the year 1478 “ freedom of
air and soil to wander about and free fire and iron for their
smithy." But a certain portion, probably the largest, beeami
serfs, who could be sold, exchanged, bartered and inherited.
It may be mentioned here that in the 17th century' a family
when sold fetched forty Hungarian florins, and in the 18th
century the price was sometimes as high as 700 Rumanian
piastres, about £8, 10s. As late as 1845 an auction of 200
families of Gipsies took place in Bucharest, where they were sold
in batches of no less than 5 families and offered at a “ ducat ”
cheaper per head than elsewhere. The Gipsies followed at least
four distinct pursuits in Rumania and Transylvania, where they
lived in large masses. A goodly proportion of them were tied
to the soil; in consequence their position was different from that
of the Gipsies who had started westwards and who are nowhere
found to have obtained a permanent abode for any length ot
time, or to have been treated, except for a very short period,
with any consideration or humanity.
Their appearance in the West is first noted by chroniclers
early in the 15th century. In 1414 they are said to have already-
arrived in Hesse. This dute is contested, but for 1417 the reports
are unanimous of their appearance in Germany. Some count
their number to have been as high as 1400, which of course is
exaggeration. In 1418 they reached Hamburg, 1419 Atigshurg.
1428 Switzerland. In 1427 they had already entered France
(Provence). A troupe is said to have reached Bologna in 1422.
whence they' are said to have gone to Rome, on a pilgrimage
alleged to have been undertaken for some act of apostasy. After
this first immigration a second and larger one seems to have
followed in its wrake, led by Zumlicl. The Gipsies spread over
Germnny, Italy and France between the years 1438 and 1512.
About 1500 they must have reached England. On thtf'yth of
July 1505 james IV. of Scotland gave to “Antonius Gaginae,"
count of Iattle Egypt, letters of recommendation to the king of
Denmark ; and special privileges were granted by James V.
on the 13th of February 1540 to “ oure louit johnne Faw Lord
and Erie of Litill Egypt,” to whose son and successor he granted
authority to hang and punish all Egyptians within the realm
(May 26, 1340).
It is interesting to hear what the first writers who witnessed
their appearance have to tell us; for ever since the Gipsies
have remained the same. Albert Rrantzius (Krantz), in his
Saxonia (xi. s), was the first to give a full description, which was
afterwards repeated by Munster in his Cosmographia (iii. 5).
GIPSIES
He says that in the year 1417 there appeared for the first time
in Germany a people uncouth, black, dirty, barbarous, called
in Italian “ Ciani,” who indulge specially in thieving and (heat¬
ing. They had among them a count and a few knights well
dressed, others followed afoot. The women and children
travelled in carts. They also carried with them letters of safe-
conduct from the emperor Sigismund and other princes, and they
professed that they were engaged on a pilgrimage of expiation
for some act of apostasy.
The guilt of the Gipsies varies in the different versions of the
story, but all agree that the Gipsies asserted that they came from
their own country called “ Litill Egypt,” and they bad to go
to Rome, to obtain pardon for that alleged Bin of their fore¬
fathers. According to one account it was because they had not
shown mercy to Joseph and Mary when they had sought refuge
in Egypt from the persecution of Herod (Basel Chronicle).
According to another, because they had forsaken the Christian
faith for a while (Rhartia, 1656), &c. But these were fables,
no doubt connected with the legend of CaTtaphylus or the
Wandering Jew.
Krantz's narrative continues as follows: This people have
no country and travel through the land. They live like dogs and
have no religion although they allow themselves to be baptized
in the Christian faith. They live without care and gather unto
themselves also other vagrants, men and women. Their old
women practise fortune-telling, and whilst they are telling men
of their future they pick their pockets. Thus far Krantz. It
is curious that he should use the name by which these people
were called in Italy, “ Ciani.” Similarly Crusius, the author of the
Annalcs Suevici, knows their Italian name Zigani and the French
Bohcmiens. Not one of these oldest writers mentions them
as coppersmiths or furriers or musicians. The immunity which
they enjoyed during their first appearance in western Europe
is due to the letter of safe-conduct of the emperor. As it is of
extreme importance for the history of civilization as well as the
history of the Gipsies, it may find a place here. It is taken from
the compilation of Felix Oefelius, Rerunt Boicarum scriptores
(Augsburg, 1763), ii. 15, who reproduces the “ Diarium
sexennale ” of “ Andreas Presbyter,” the contemporary of the
first appearance of the Gipsies in Germany.
“ Sigismundus Dei gratia Romanorum Rex semper Augustus,
ac Hungariae, Bohemiae, Dalmatiae, Croatiae, &c. Rex
Fidelibus nostris universis Nohilihus, Militihus, Castellanis,
Officialibus, Tributariis, civitatibus liberis, opidis et eorum
iudicibus in Regno et sub domino nostro constitute ex existenti-
bus salutcm cum dilectione. Fideles nostri adierunt in prae-
sentiam personaliter Ladislaus Wayuoda Ciganorum cum aliis ud
ipsum spectantibus, nobis humilimas porrexerunt supplicationes,
hue in sepus in nostra praesentia supplicationum precum cum
instantia, ut ipsis gratia nostra uberiori provider* dignaremur.
Unde nos illorum supplicatione illecti eisdem hanc libertatem
duximus concedendam, qua re quandocunque idem Ladislaus
Wayuoda et sua gens ad dicta nostra dominia videlicet civitates
vel oppida pervenerint, ex tunc vestris fidelitatibus praesentibus
firmiter committimus et mandamus ut eosdem Ladislaum
Wayuodam et Ciganos sibi subicctos omni sine impedimenta ac
perturbatione aiiquali fovere ac conscrvare debeatis, immo
ab omnibus impetitionibus scu oftensionibus tueri velitis: Si
autem inter ipsos aliqua Zizania sou perturbatio evenerit ex
part^ quorumeunque ex tunc non vos nec aliquis alter vestrum,
sed idem ladislaus Wayuoda iudicandi et liberandi haheat
facultatem. thraesentes autem post earum lecturam semper
reddi iubemus praesentanti.
“ Datum in Sepus Dominica die ante festum St Georgii Martyris
Anno Domini MCCCCXXIII., Regnorum nostrorum anno
Hungar. XXXVI., Romanorum vero XII., Bohemiae tertio.”
Freely translated this reads: “ We Sigismund by the grace
of God emperor of Rome, king of Hungary, Bohemia, See. unto
all true and loyal subjects, noble soldiers, commanders, castellans,
open districts, free towns and their judges in our kingdom
established and under'our sovereignty, kind greetings. Our
faithful voivode of the Tsigaai with others belonging to him has
39
humbly requested us that we might graciously grant them our
.hnmtanc favour. We grant them their supplication, we have
vouchsafed unto them this liberty. Whenever therefore this
voivode Ladislaus and his people should come to any part of our
realm in any town, village or place, we commit them by these
presents, strongly to your loyalty and we command you to pro¬
tect in every way the same voivode Ladislaus and the Tsigani
his subjects without hindrance, and you should show kindness
unto them and you should protect them from every trouble and
persecution. But should any trouble or discord happen among
them from whichever side it may be, then none of you nor any¬
one else belonging to you should interfere, but this voivode
loidislaus alone should have the right of punishing and pardoning.
And we moreover command you to return these presents always
after having read them. Given in our court on Sunday the day
before the Feast of St George in the year of our Lord 14*3. The
36th year of our kingdom of Hungary, the nth of our being
emperor of Rome and the 3rd of our being king of Bohemia.”
There is no reason to doubt the authenticity of this document,
which is in no way remarkable considering that at that time the
Gipsies must have formed a very considerable portion of the
inhabitants of Hungary, whose king Sigismund was. They may
have presented the, emperor’s grant of favours to Alexander
prince, of Molda\ ia in 1472, and obtained from him safe-conduct
and protection, as mentioned above.
No one has yet attempted to explain the reason why the Gipsies
should have started in the 14th and especially in the first half
of the 15th century on their march westwards. But if, as has
been assumed above, the Gipsies had lived for some length of
time, in Rumelia, and afterwards spreud thence across the Danube
and the plains of Transylvania, the incursion of the Turks into
Europe, their successive occupation of those very provinces,
the overthrow of the Servian and Bulgarian kingdoms and the
dislocation of the native population, would account to a remark¬
able degree for the movement of the Gipsies: and this movement
increases in volume with the greater successes of the Turks and
with the peopling of the country by immigrants from Asia Minor.
The first to be driven from their homes would no doubt be the
nomadic element, which felt itself ill at ease in its new surround¬
ings, and found it more profitable first to settle in larger numbers
in Walachia and Transylvania and thence to spread to the western
countries of Europe. But their immunity from persecution did
not last long.
Later History .—less than fifty years from the time that they
emerge out of Hungary, or even from the date of the Charter of
the emperor Sigismund, they found themselves exposed to the
furv and the prejudices of the people whose good faith they had
abused, whose purses they had lightened, whose bams they had
emptied, and on whose credulity thev had lived with ease and
comfort. Their inlwrn tendency to roaming made them the
terror of the peasantry and the despau of every legislator who
tried to settle them on the land. Their foreign appearance, their
unknown tongue and their unscrupulous habits forced*the legis¬
lators of many countries to class them u itl 1 rogues and vagabonds,
to declare them outlaws and felons and to treat them with
extreme severity. More than one juilit ml murder has been com¬
mitted against them. In some places thev were suspected as
Turkish spies and treated accordingly, and the murderer of a
Gipsy was often regarded as innocent of any crime.
Weissenbruch describes the wholesale murder ol a group of
Gipsies, of whom five men were broken on the whc< 1 , tune perished
on the gallows, and three men and eight women mic decapitated.
This took place on the 14th and 15th of Noveinhci 1726. Acts
and edicts were issued in many countries from the end of the
15th century onwards sentencing the “ Egyptians " to exile under
pain of death. Nor was this an empty threat. In Edinburgh
four “ Faas ” were hanged in 1611 “for ubyding within the
kingdome, they being Egiptienis,” and in 1636 at Haddington
tiie Egyptians were ordered “ the men to lie hangied and the
weomen to be drowned, and suche of the weomen as lies children
to be scourgit throw the burg and burnt in the cheeks.'' The
burning on the cheek or on the back was a common penalty.
I
GIPSIES
In 169* four Estremadura Gipsies caught by the Inquisition were
charged with cannibalism and made to own that they had eaten
a friar, a pilgrim and even a woman of their own tribe, for which
• they suffered the penalty of death. And as late as 1782, 45
, Hungarian Gipsies were charged with a similar monstrous crime,
and when the supposed victims of a supposed murder could not be
found on the spot indicated by the Gipsies, they owned under
torture and said on the rack, “ We ate them.” Of course they
were forthwith beheaded or hanged. The emperor Joseph II.,
who was also the author of one of the first edicts in favour of the
Gipsies, and who abolished serfdom throughout the Empire,
ordered un inquiry into the incident; it was then discovered that
no murder liad keen committed, except that of the victims of
this monstrous accusation.
The history of the legal status of the Gipsies, of their treatment
in various countries and of the penalties and inflictions to which
they have been subjected, would form a remarkable chapter in
' the history of modem civilisation. The materials are slowly
accumulating, and it is interesting to note as one of the latest
instances, that not further bade than the year 1907 a “ drive ”
"was undertaken in Germany against the Gipsies, which fact may
account for the appearance of some German Gipsies in England
in that year, and that in 1904 the Prussian Landtag adopted
unanimously a proposition to examine anew the question of
granting peddling licences to German Gipsies ; that on the 17th
of February 1906 the Prussian minister issued special instructions
to combat the Gipsy nuisance and that in various parts of
Germany and Austria a special register is kept for the tracing of
the genealogy of vagrant and sedentary Gipsy families.
Different luis been the history of the Gipsies in what originally
formed the Turkish empire of Europe, notably in Rumania,
i.t. Walachia and Moldavin, and a careful search in the archives
of Rumania would offer rich materials for the history of the
Gipsies in a country where they enjoyed exceptional treatment
almost from the beginning of their settlement. They were
divided mainly into two classes, (1) liobi or Serfs, who were
settled on the land and deprived of all individual liberty, lieing
the property of the nobles and of churches or monastic establish¬
ments, and (2) the Nomadic vagrants. They were subdivided
into four classes according to their occupation, such as the
Iingurari (woodcarvers; lit. “ spoonmakers ”), Caldarari (tinkers,
coppersmiths und ironworkers), Ursari (lit. “ bear drivers ”)
and Rudari (miners), also called Aurnri (gold-washers), who used
formerly to wash the gold out of the auriferous river-sands
of Walachia. A separate and smullcr class consisted of the
Gipsy Lieshi or 1 itrashi (settled on u homestead or “ having
a fireplace ” of their own). Each shatra or Gipsy community
was placed under the authority of a judge or leader, known in
Rumania as judt , in Hungary as aga ; these officials were
subordinate to the bulubaslia or voivod, who was himself under
the direct control of the yusbasha (or governor appointed by the
prince from among his nobles). The yuzbasha was responsible
for the regular income to be derived from the vagrant Gipsies,
wh# were considered und treated as the prince's property.
These voivodi or vuzhashi who were not Gipsies by origin often
treated the Gipsies with great tyranny. In Hungary down to
1648 they belonged to the aristocracy. The last Polish Kralestvo
cyganskie or Gipsy king died in 1790. The Kobi could be bought
and sold, freely exchanged and inherited, and were treated
as the negroes in America down to 1856, when their final freedom
in Moldavia was proclaimed. In Hungary and in Transylvaniu
the abolition of servitude in 1781-1782 carried with it the
freedom of the Gipsies. In the 18th and 19th centuries many
attempts were made to settle and to educate the roaming Gipsies ;
in Austria this was undertaken by the empress Maria Theresa
and the emperor Francis II. (1761-1783), in Spain by Charles III.
(178S). In Poland (1791) the attempt succeeded. In England
(1827) and in Germany (1830) societies were fotmed for the
reclamation of the Gipsies, but nothing was accomplished in
either case. In other countries, however, definite progress was
made. Since 1866 the Gipsies have become Rumanian citizens,
and the latest official statisticsfto longer distinguish between
the Rumanians and the Gipsies, who are becoming thoroughly
assimilated, forgetting their language, and being slowly absorbed
by the native population. In Bulgaria the Gipsies were declared
citizens, enjoying equal political rights in accordance with the
treaty of Berlin in 1878, but through an arbitrary interpretation
they were deprived of that right, and on the 6th of January 1906
the first Gipsy Congress was held in Sofia,‘for the purpose of
claiming political rights for the Turkish Gipsies or Gopti as they
call themselves. Ramadan Alief, the tzari-bashi (i.e. the head
of the Gipsies in Sofia), addressed the Gipsies assembled; they
decided to protest and subsequently sent a petition to the
Sobranye, demanding the recognition of their political rights.
A curious reawakening, and an interesting chapter in the
history of this peculiar race.
Origin and Language 0) the Gipsies .—The real key to their
origin is, however, the Gipsy language. The scientific study
of that language began in the middle of the 19th century with
the work of Pott, and was brought to a high state of perfection
by Miklosich. From that time on monographs have multiplied
and minute researches have been carried on in many parts of
the world, all tending to elucidate the true origin of the Gipsy
language. It must remain for the time being an open question
whether the Gipsies were originally a pure race. Many a strange
element lius contributed to swell their ranks and to introduce
discordant elements into their vocabulary. Ruediger (1782),
Grcllmann (1783) and Marsdcn (1783) almost simultaneously
and independently of one another came to the same conclusion,
that the language of the Gipsies, until then considered a thieves’
jargon, was in reality a language closely allied with some Indian
speech. Since then the two principal problems to be solved
have been, firstly, to which of the languages of India the
original Gipsy speech was most closely allied, and secondly, by
which route the people speaking that language had reached
Europe and then spread westwards. Despite the rapid increase
in our knowledge of Indian languages, no solution has yet been
found to the first problem, nor is it likely to lie found. For the
language of the Gipsies, as shown now by recent studies of the
Armenian Gipsies, has undergone such a profound change and
involves so many difficulties, that it is impossible to compare
the modern Gipsy with any modem Indian dialect owing to the
inner developments which the Gipsy language has undergone
in the course of centuries. All that is known, moreover, of the
Gipsy language, and all that rests on reliable texts, is quite
modem, scarcely earlier than the middle of the 19th century.
Followed up in the various dialects into which that language
has split, it shows such a thorough change from dialect to dialect,
that except as regards general outlines and principles of inflexion,
nothing would lie more misleading than to draw conclusions
from apparent similarities between Gipsy, or any Gipsy dialect,
and any Indian language ; especially as the Gipsies must have
been separated from the Indian races for a much longer period
than has elapsed since their arrival in Europe and since the forma¬
tion of their European dialects. It must also he borne in mind
that the Indian languages have also undergone profound changes
of their own, under influences totally different from those to
which the Gipsy language lias been subjected. The problem
would stand differently if by any chance an ancient vocabulary
were discovered representing the oldest form of the common
stock from which the European dialects have sprung ; for there
can be no doubt of the unity of the language of the European
Gipsies. The question whether Gipsy stands close to Sanskrit
or Prakrit, or shows forms more akin to Hindi diaftets, specially
those of the North-West frontier, or Dordestan and Kafiristan,
to which may be added now the dialects of the Pisaca language
(Grierson, 1906), is affected by the fact established by Fink that
the dialect of the Armenian Gipsies shows much closer resem¬
blance to Prakrit than the language of the European Gipsies,
and that the dialects of Gipsy spoken throughout Syria and Asia
Minor differ profoundly in every respect from the European
Gipsy, taken as a whole spoken. The only explanation possible
is that the European Gipsy represents' the first wave of the
Westward movement of an Indian tribe or caste which, dislocated
GIPSIES 41
at a certain period by political disturbances, had travelled
through Persia, making a very abort stay there, thence to Armenia
staying there a little longer, and then possibly to the Byzantine
Empire at an indefinite period between 1100 and 1200; and that
another ckn had followed in their wake, passing through Persia,
settling in Armenia and then going farther down to Syria, Egypt
and North Africa.' These two tribes though of a common
remote Indian origin must, however, be kept strictly apart
from one another in our investigation, for they stand to each
other in the same relation as they stand to the various dialects
in India. The linguistic proof of origin can therefore now not
go further than to establish the fact that the Gipsy language
is in its very essence an originally Indian dialect, enriched in its
vocabulary from the languages of the peoples among whom
the Gipsies had sojourned, whilst in its grammatical inflection
it has slowly been modified, to such an extent that in some
cases, like the English or the Servian, barely a skeleton has
remained.
Notwithstanding the statements to the contrary, a Gipsy
from Greece or Rumania could no longer understand a Gipsy
of England or Germany, so profound is the difference. But the
words which have entered into the Gipsy language, borrowed as
they were from the Greeks, Hungarians, Rumanians, &c., are not
only an indication of the route taken—and this is the only use
that has hitherto been made of the vocabulary—but they' are
of the highest importance for fixing the time when the Gipsies
had come in contact with these languages. The absence of Arabic
is a positive proof that not only did the Gipsies not come via
Arabia (as maintained bv I)e Goeje) before they reached Europe,
but that they could not even have been living for any length of
time in Persia ufter the Mahommedan conquest, or at any rate
that they could not have come in contact with sueli elements of
the population as had already adopted Arabic in addition to
Persian. But the form of the Persiun words found among
European Gipsies, and similarly the form of the Armenian words
found in that language, are a clear indication that the Gipsies
could not have come in contact with these languages before
Persian had assumed its modem form and before Armenian had
been changed from the old to the modern form of language.
Still more strong and dear is the evidence in the case of the Greek
and Rumanian words. If the Gipsies had lived in Greece, as some
contend, from very ancient times, some at least of the old Greek
words would be found in their language, and similarly the Slavonic
words would lie of un archaic character, whilst on the contrary
we find medieval Byzantine forms, nay, modem Greek forms,
among the Gipsy vocabulary collected from Gipsies in Germany
or Italy, England or France ; a proof positive that they could not
have been in Europe much earlier than the approximate date
given above of the nth or 12th century. We then find from a
grammatical point of view the same deterioration, say among the
English or Spanish Gipsies, as has been noticed in the Gipsy
dialect of Armenia. It is no longer Gipsy, but a corrupt English
or Spanish adapted to some remnants of Gipsy inflections. The
purest form has been preserved among the Greek Gipsies and
to a certain extent among the Rumanian. Notably through
Miklosich's researches and comparative studies, it is possible
to follow the slow change step by step and to prove, at any rate,
that, as far as Europe is concerned, the language of these Gipsies
was ojje and the same, and that it was slowly split up into a
number of dialects (13 Miklosich, 14 Colocci) which shade off
into one unotRer, and which by their transitbnal forms mark
the way in which the Gipsies have travelled, as also proved by
historical evidence. The Welsh dialect, known by few, has
retained, through its isolation, some of the ancient forms.
Religion, Habits and Customs .—Those who have lived among
the Gipsies will readily testify that their religious views are a
strange medley of the local faith, which they everywhere embrace,
and some old-world superstitions which they have in common
with many nations. Among the Greeks they belong to the Greek
Church, among the MahSmmedans they are Mahommedans, in
Rumania they belong to the National Church. In Hungary they
are mostlv Catholics, accofding to the faith of the inhabitants of
that country. They have no ethical principles and they do not
recognise the obligations of the Ten Commandments. There is
extreme moral laxity in the r e lati o n of the two sexes, and on the
whole they take life easily, and art complete fatalists. At the
same time they are great cowards, and they play the rfUe of the
fool or the jester in the popular anecdotes of eastern Europe.
There the poltroon is always a Gijjsy, but he is good-humoured
and not so malicious as those Gipsies who had endured the
hardships of outlawry in the west of Europe.
There is nothing specifically of an Oriental origin in their
religious vocabulary, and the words Dtvla (God), Bang (devil)
or Trushul (Cross), in spite of some remote similarity^ must be
taken as later adaptations, and not as remnants of an old Sky-
worship or Serpent-worship. In general their beliefs, customs,
tales, &c. belong to the common stock of general folklore, and
many of their symbolical expressions find their exact oodnterpart
in Rumanian and modern Greek, and often read as if they were '
direct translations from these languages. Although they bve
their children, it sometimes happens that a Gipsy mother will hold
her child by the legs and beat the father with it. In Rumania
and Turkey' among the settled Gipsies a good number are carriers
and bricklayers; and the women take their full share in every
kind of work, no matter how hard it may be. The nomadic
Gipsies carry on the ancient craft of coppersmiths, or workers in
metal; they also make sieves and traps, but in the East they are
seldom farriers or horse-dealers. They are far-famed for their
music, in which art they are unsurpassed. The Gipsy musicians
belong mostly to the class who originally were serfs. They were
retained at the courts of the boyars for their special talent in
reciting old ballads and love songs and their deftness in playing,
notably the guitar and the fiddle. The former was used as an
aceompaniment to the singing of either love ditties and popular
songs or more especially in recital or heroic ballads and epic
songs ; the latter for dances and other amusements. They
were the troubadours and minstrels of eastern Europe; the
largest collection of Rumunian popular ballads and Bongs ws*
gathered by G. Dem. Teodorescu from a Gipsy minstrel, Petre
Sholkan : and not a few of the songs of the guslars among the
Servians and other Slavonic nations in the Balkans come also
from the Gipsies. They have also retained the ancient tunes
and airs, from the dreamy “ doina " of the Rumanian to the
fiery “czardas” of the Hungarian or the stately “hora” of the
Bulgarian. Liszt went so far as to ascribe to the Gipsies the origin
of the Hungarian national music. This is an exaggeration, as
seen by the comparison of the Gipsy music in other parts of south¬
east Europe; but they undoubtedly have given the most
faithful expression to the national tcioperauient. Equally famous
is the Gipsy woman for her knowledge of on ult practices. She
is the real witch : she knows charms to mjou the enemy or to
help a friend. She can break the ili.irni if made by others.
But neither in the one case nor in the otlvi, and in fact as little
as in their songs, do they use the Gipsy language. Itris either
the local language of the natives as in tin case ol charms, oi* a
slightly Romanized lorm of Greek, Rumanian or Slavonic. The*
old Gipsy woman is also known for her skill in palmistry and
fortune-telling by means of a special set ol card,, the well-known
Tarek of the Gipsies. They have also a large slock of fairy tales
resembling in each country the local fairy tales, in ( Iren e agreeing
with the Greek, and in Rumania with the Rumanian fairy tales.
It is doubtful, however, whether they have contributed to the
dissemination of these tales throughout .Europe, for a large
number of Gipsy tales can be shown to have been known in
Europe long before the appearance of the Gipsies, nod others are
so much like those of other nations that the borrowing may be
by the Gipsy from the Greek, Slav or Rumanian. It is, however,
possible that playing-cards might have been introduced to
Europe through the Gipsies. The oldest reference to cards is
found in the Chronicle of Nicolaus of Cavellazzo, who says that
the cards were first brought into Viterbo in 1379 from the land
of the Saracens, probably from Asia Minor or the Balkans.
They spread very quickly, but no one has been able as yet to trace
definitely the source whence they were first brought. Without
xii. 2 a
GIP8IES
entering here lhto the history of the playing-cards and of the
different form* of the face* and of the symbolical meaning of the
different designs, one may assume safely that the card*, before
they were used for mere pastime or for gambling, may originally
have had a mystical meaning and been used as sortes in various
combinations. To this very day the oldest form is known by the
hitherto unexplained name of Tarock, played in Bologna at the
beginning of the 15th century and retained by the French under
the form Tarot, connected direct with the Gipsies, “ Le Tarot des
BoMmiens,” It was noted above that the oldest chronicler
(Presbyter) who descrilies the appearance of the Gipsies in 1416
in Germany knows them by their Italian name “ Cianos,”
so evidently he must have known of their existence in Italy
previous to any date recorded hitherto anywhere, and it is there¬
fore not impossible that coming from Italy they brought with
them also their book of divination.
Physical Characteristics.— As a race they are of small stature,
varying in colour from the dark tan of the Arab to the whitish
hue of the Servian and the Pole. In fact there are some white-
coloured Gipsies, especially in Servia and Dalmatia, and these
are often not easily distinguishable from the native peoples,
except that they are more lithe and sinewy, better proportioned
and more agile in thfcir movements than the thick-set Slavs and
the mixed race of the Rumanians. By one feature, however,
they are easily distinguishable and recognize one another, viz.
by the lustre of their eyes and the whiteness of their teeth. Some
are well built; others have the features of a mongrel race, due
no doubt to intermarriage with outcasts of other races. The
women age very quickly and the mortality among the Gipsies
is great, especially among children ; among adults it is chiefly
due to pulmonary diseases. They love display and Oriental
showiness, bright-coloured dresses, ornaments, bangles, &c.;
red and green are the colours mostly favoured by the Gipsies
in the Fast. Along with a showy handkerchief or some shining
gold coins round their necks, they will wear torn petticoats and
no covering on their feet. And even after they have Iwen
assimilated and have forgotten their own language they still
retain some of the prominent features of their character, such
as the love of inordinate display and gorgeous dress; and their
moral defects not only remain for a long time as glaring as among
those who live the life of vagrants, but even become more pro¬
nounced. The Gipsy of to-day is no longer what his fore¬
fathers have been. The assimilation with the nations in the
near East and the steps taken for the suppression of vagrancy
in the West, combine to denationalize the Gipsy and to make
“ Romani Chib ” a thing of the past.
BinuooRAPHY.—The scientific, study of the Gipsy language and
Its origin, as well as the criticul history of thr Gipsy race, dates
(with the notable exception of Grellmann) almost entirely from
Pott’s researches in 1S44.
I. Collections of Documents, cW.--Lists of older publications
appeared in the books of Pott, Miklosich and the archduke Joseph ;
Pptt adds a critical appreciation of the scientific value of the books
enumerated. See also Verstichnis von Werken und Aufsatsen . . .
* Ubtr die Gesckickte und Spracks der Zigeuner, dec. , 228 entries (Leipzig,
1886); J. Tipray, Adalfkok a cziganyokril szblo irodalomhoz," in
Magyar Ktmyvsiemle (Budapest, 1877) ; Ch. G. Lcland, A Collection
of Cuttings . . . relating to Gypsies (1874-1891), bequeathed by
him to the British Museum. See also the Orientaliscker Jakresberickt,
ed. Muller (Berlin. 1887 «.).
II. History .—(a) The first appearance of the Gipsies in Europe.
Sources : A. F. Oefelius, lierum Boicarum scriptures, 1 f-c. (Augsburg,
1763) ; M. Freher, Andreae INesbyteri . . ckronicon de dun bus
tUv arise . . . (160a); S. Munster, Cosmogrnphia . . f-c. (Basel,
1343); J. Thurmaier, Annalium Boiorum libri septem, ed. T. Zie-
? ;lerux (lngolstad, 1554); M. Crusius, Annates Suevici, ire. (Frank-
urt. 1395-1396), Sckwdbische Ckronik . . . (Frankfurt, 1733);
A. Krantz. Saxonia (Cologne, 1520); Simon Simeon, Itinerant), tS-c.,
ed. J. Nasmith (Cambridge, 1778). (6) Orfgtn and spread of the
Gipsies: H. M. G. Grellmann, Die Zigeuner, &c. (ist ed., Dessau and
Letpsig, 1783; and ed., Got Ungen, 4787): English by M. Roper
(London, 1787 ; and cd..London, 1807), entitled Dissertation on Ike
Gipsies, fee. ; Carl von Heister, Ethnorraphische . . . Notisen Ober
die Zigeuner (KSnigsberg, 184a), a third and greatly Improved
edition of Grellmann and the bint hook of its kind up to that date;
A. F. Pott, Du Zigeuner in Etempa und Alien (2 vote., Halle, 844-
1843), the first scholarly wary with complete and critical biblio¬
graphy, detailed grammar, etvmologleal dictionary and important
texts; C. Hqpf, Die Einwanderung der Zigeuner in Europe (Gotha,
1870); F. von Miklosich, ” Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Zigeuner-
Mundarten,’’ i.-iv., in Sitsungsber. d. Wiener Akad. d. Wissenschaften
(Vienna, 1874-1878), ” Uber die Mundarten und die Wanderungcn
der Zigeuner Europas,’ i.-xii., in Denksckriften d. Wiener Akad. d.
Wissenschaften (1872-1880); M. J. de Goeje, Bijdrage tot de ge-
schiedenis der Zigeuners (Amsterdam, 1873), English translation by
MacRitchie, Account of tke Gipsies 0/ India (London, 1886) ; Zedler,
Universal-Lexicon, vol. Ixii., s.v. " Zigeuner,' 1 pp. 320-344 con¬
taining a rich bibliography; many publications of P. Bataillard
from 1844 to 1885; A. Colocci, .S tona d‘ un popolo err ante, with
illustrations, map and Gipsy-ltal. and Itah-Gipsy glossaries (Turin,
1889); F. H. Groome, 11 The Gypsies," in E. Magnusson, National
Life and Thought (1891), and art, ” Gipsies " in Encyclopaedia
Britannica (9th ed., 1879); C. Amiro, Bohtmiens, Tsiganes rt
Gypsies (Paris, 1893); M. Kogalnitschan, Esquisse sur I'kistoire, les
mamrs et la langue des Cigains (Berlin, 1837 ; German trans., Stutt-
ga:l, 1840)—valuable more for the historical part than for the
linguistic ; J. Czacki, Dsiela, vol. iii. (1844-1845)—for historic data
about Gipsies in Poland; I. Kopernicki and J. Moyer, Charahlery-
styka fisyctna ludrotci galicyjshitj (1876)—for the history and
customs of Galician gipsies ; Ungansche statistische Mitteilungen,
vol. ix. (Budapest, 1895), containing the best statistical information
on the Gipsies; V. Dittrichs A nagy-idai ezigdnyok (Budapest,
1898); T. H. Schwicker, " Die Zigeuner in ungarn u. Siebcn-
burgen," in vol. xii. of Die Vother Osterreich-Ungarns (Vienna,
1883), and in Mitteilungen d. K. K. geographischen Gcsellschaft
(Vienna, 189b) ; Dr J. Polek, Die Zigeuner in tier Bukowina (Czerno-
witz, 1908); Ficker, "Die Zigeuner der Bukowina," in Statist.
Monatschrift, v. 6, Hundrrl Jahre 1775-1875 : Zigeuner in i. Buko-
wina (Vienna, 1873), Die Valkerstamme der 0sterr.-ungar. Monarchic,
&-c. (Vienna, 1869); V. S. Morwood, Our Gipsies (London, 1883) ;
D. MacRitchie, Scottish Gypsies under the Stewarts (Edinburgh, 1894) ;
F. A. C-oelho, “Os Ciganos de Portugal," in Bol. Soe. Geog. (Lisbon,
1892) ; A. Dumbarton, Gypsy Life in the Mysore Jungle (London,
1902).
III. Linguistic. —(Armenia], F. N. Fiuck, ” Die Sprache der arise-
nischen Zigeuner," in Mtmoires dc l’lead. Imp. des Sciences, viii.
(St Petersburg, 1907). [Austria-Hungary), R. von Sowa, Die
Mundari der stovahisihen Zigeuner (Gottingen, 1887), and Die
mahrische Mundartder Ramsprache (Vienna, 1893) ; A. J. Puchmayer,
Romani Cib (Prague, 1821); P. Josef JeSina, Romihi Cib (in Czech,
1880 ; in German, 1886); G. Ihnatko, Csigdny nyelvtan (Losoncon,
1877) ; A. Kalina, La Langue des Tsiganes slovaques (Posen, 1882);
the archduke Joseph, Csigdny nyelvtan (Budapest, 1888) ; H. von
Wlisiocki, Die Sprache dtr transsilvantschen Zigeuner (Leipzig, 1884).
[Brazil], A. T. de Mello Moraes, Os ciganos no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro,
1886). [France, the Basques], A. Baudrimont, Vocabuluirc de la
langue des Bohtmiens habitant les pays basques-francais (Bordeaux,
1862). [Germany], R. Pischel, Beitrdge sur Kenntnis der deutschen
Zigeuner (Halle, 1894) I R. von Sowa," Wilrterbuch des Dialekts der
deutschen Zigeuner," in Abhandlungen /. d. Kunde d. Morgenlandes,
xi. 1, very valuable (Leipzig, 1898); F. N. Finck, Lehrbuch dts
Dialekts der deutschen Zigeuner —very valuable (Marburg, 1903).
[Great Britain, &c.], Ch. G. Leland, The English Gipsies and their
Language (JLondon and New York, 1873 ; 2nd ed., 1874), The Gipsies
0/ Russia, Austria, England, America, fee. (London, 1882)—the
validity of Leland’s conclusions is often doubtful; B. C. Smart and
H. J. Crofton, The Dialect of the English Gypsies (2nd ed., London,
1875) ; G. Borrow, Romano lavo-lit (London, 1874, 1905), Lavengro,
ed. F. H. Groome (London, 1899). [Rumania], B. Constantinescu,
Probe de limba si literature fttanUor dm Romdnia (Bucharest,
1878) . [Russia, Bessarabia], O: Boethlingk, Vber die Sprache der
Zigeuner in Russland (St Petersburg, 1852 ; supplement, 1854).
[Russia, Caucasus], K. Badganian, Cygany. Ntskollho stand 0 nartft-
jahit sahavkatskihd cyganu (St Petersburg, 1887) ; Istomin, Ciganskif
Jasyki (1900). [Spauil, G. H. Borrow, The Ztncali, or au Account
of the Gipsies of Spain (London, 1841, and numerous later editions);
R. Campuzano, Origen . . . de tos Gitanos, y diccionario de su
dialecto (2nd ed., Madrid, 1857) ; A. de C., Diccionario del diatecto
gitano, &-C. (Barcelona, 1831); M. de Sales y Guindale, Historia,
costumbres y dialecto de lot Gitanos (Madrid, 1870) ; M. de Sales,
El Gitanismo (Madrid, 1870); J. Tineo Rebolledo, “ A Chipicatli "
la lengua gitana : diccionario gitano-espanol (Granada, • 1900).
[Turkey], A. G. Panpat i, Etudes sur les T c hi no hi ants, ou Bohtmiens
de l empire ottoman (Constantinople, 1870), with grunmar, vocabu¬
lary, tales and French glossary; very important. [General], John
Sampson, “ Gypsy Language and Origin," in Journ. Gypsy Lore Soc.
vol. i. (2nd ser., Liverpool, 1907) ; J. A. Decourdemanche, Gram-
maire du Tchingcmt, fee. (Paris, 1908)—fantastic in some of its
philology; F. Kluge, Rotwelsche Quetlen (Strassburg, 1901); L.
Gunther, Das Rotmelsck des deutschen Gamers (Leipzig, 1903), for
the influence of Gipsy on argot; L. Besses, Diccionario de argot
espanol (Barcelona); G. A. Grierson, The Pi’sdca Languages of
North-Western India (London, igo6), for parallels in Indian dialects;
G. Borrow, Criscate e mafarf Lucas ... El evangelio ssgvn S.
Lucas . . . (London, 1837 ; 2nd ed., 18711)—this is the only complete
translation of any one of the gospels into Gipsy. For older fragments
of such translations, see Pott ii. 464-321.
IV. Folklore, Tales, Songs, 6 c .—Many songs and tales are found
GIRAFFE—GIRALDI. G. G. 43
in the books enumerated above, where they are matly acc a mpanled
by literal translations. See also Ch. G. Leland,o . H. Palmer and
T. Tuckey, English Gipsy Songs in Romany, with Metrical English
Translation (London, 1875]; G. Smith, Gipsy Life.&c. (London,
1880) : M. Rosenfeld, Lieder der Zigeuner (1882); Ch. G. Leland,
The Gypsies (Boston, Mass., 1882), Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune-
Telling (London, 18(A); H. von Wlislocki, Mqrchen und Sagen der
transsilvanischen Zigettner (Berlin, 1886)—containing. 63 tales,
very freely translated; Volksdichtungen der sicbenbilrgischen und
sddungarischen Zigeuner (Vienna, 1890)—songs, ballads, charms,
proverbs and 100 kales ; Vom wandernien Zigeunervolke (Hamburg,
1890); Wescn und Wtrhungshreis der Zauber/rauen bet den sieben-
burgischen Zigeuner (1891); “ A us UeminueronLeben der Zigeuner,"
in Ethnologische Mitteilungen (Berlin, 1892); R. Pischel, Bericht
dber Wlislocki vom wandernden Zigeunervolke (Gottingen rRqo)—a
strong criticism of Wlislocki’s method, &c.; H. Groome, Gipsy
Folh-Tales( London, 1899), with historical introduction and acomplete
and trustworthy collection of 7b gipsy tales from many countries;
Katadi, Contes gitanos (Logroilo, 1907); M. Caster, Zigeuner-
mdrehen aus Rumdnien (1881); " Tigami, Ac.," in Rrvista pentru
Istorie, i. p. 469 ff. (Bucharest, 1883) ; " Gypsv Fairy-Tales ” in
Folklore. The Journal of the Gipsy-Lore Society (Edinburgh, 1888-
1892) was revived in l-iverjssil in 1907.
V. Legal Status. —A few of the books in which the legal status of
the Gipsies (cither alone or in conjunction with “ vagrants ”) is
treated from a juridical point of view are here mentioned, also the
history of the trial in 172b. J. B. Weissenhruch, Ausflihrliche
Relation von der famosen Zigeuner-Ditbes-Mord und Rduber (Frank¬
furt and Leipzig, 1727); A. Ch. Thomasius, 'lraitatio jundica de
vagabundn , r. (Leipzig, 1731) ; F, Ch. B. Ave-l.allemant, Has
deutsche Gaunertum, &r. (Leipzig, 1858-1862): V. de Kochss, I.es
Farias de Trance et d'Espagne (Paris, 1876) ; P. Chuchul, Zum
Kampfe gegen Laudstreuher und Bettler (Kassel, 1881); R. Breitliaupt,
Vic Zigeuner und der deutsche Siaal (Wurzburg, 1907); G. Stem-
hausen Geschirhtc der dcutschen Kultur (Leipzig and Vienna, 1904).
(M. G.)
GIRAFFE, a corruption of Zardfah, the Arabic name for the
tallest of all mammals, and the typical representative of the
family Girafftdae, the distinctive characters of which are given
in the article Pec-ora, where the systematic position of the
group is indicated. The classic term "camelopard,” probably
introduced when these animals were brought from North
Africa to the Roman amphitheatre, has fallen into complete
disuse.
In common with the okapi, giraffes have skin-covered horns
on the head, but in these animals, which form the genus Giraffa,
these appendages are present in both sexes ; and there is often
an unpaired one in advance of the pair on the forehead. Among
other characteristics of these animals may lie noticed the great
length of the neck and limbs, the complete absence of lateral
toes and the long and tufted tail. The tongue is remarkable
for its great length, measuring about 17 in. in the dead animal,
and for its great elasticity and power of muscular contraction
while living. It is covered with numerous large papillae, and
forms, like the trunk of the elephant, an admirable organ for
the examination and prehension of food. Giraffes are inhabit¬
ants of open country, and owing to their length of neck and long
flexible tongues are enabled to browse on tall trees, mimosas
being favourites. To drink or graze they are obliged to straddle
the fore-legs apart; but they seldom feed on grass and are
capable of going long without water. When standing among
mimosas they , so harmonize with their surroundings that they
are difficult of detection. Formerly giraffes were found in large
herds, but persecution has reduced their number and led to their
extermination from many districts. Although in late Tertiary
times jridely spread over southern Europe and India, giraffes are
now confined to Africa south of the Sahara.
Apart from’the distinct Somali giraffe ( Giraffa reticulata),
characterized by its deep liver-red colour marked with a very
coarse network of fine white lines, there are numerous local forms
of the ordinary giraffe (Giraffa Camelopardalis). The northern
races, such as the Nubian G. c. typica and the Kordofan G. c.
antiquorum, are characterized by the large frontal horn of the
bulls, the white legs, the network type of coloration and the pale
tint The latter feature is specially developed in the Nigerian
G. e. pet alia, which is likewise of the northern type. The Baringo
G. e. rotksehiUi also has # large frontal horn and white legs, but
the spots in the bulls are very dark and those of the females
jagged. In the Kilimanjaro G. c. tippelskirchi the frontal horn
is often developed in the bulls, butthe legs are frequently spotted
to the fetlocks. Farther south the frontal horn tends to dis¬
appear more or less completely, as in the Angola G. c. anptiensis,
the Transvaal G. c. vmrdi and the Cape G. c. capensis, while the
legs are fully spotted and the colour-pattern on the body
(especially in the last-named) is more of a blotched type, that
The North African or Nubian Giraffe {Giraffa Camelopardalis).
is to say, consists of dark blotches on a fawn ground, instead of
a network of light lines on a durk ground.
For details, sec a paper on the subspecies u! 1, nulla 1 amelopardalis.
by R. Lydekker in the Proceedings of the Zoologu at Society of London
for 1904. (R. L.*)
GIRALDI, GIGLIO GREGORIO [1. 11. ins (im-cmmis Gyrai.-
cus] (1479-1552), Italian scholar and poet, was bont on the
14th of June 1479, at Ferrara, where lie early distinguished
himself by his talents and acquirements. On the completion*
of his literary course he removed to Naples, where he lived on
familiar terms with Jnvianus Pontanus and Sannazaro; and
subsequently to Lombardy, where he enjoyed the favour of the
Mirandola family. At Milan in 1567 he studied Greek under
Chalcondylas; and shortly afterwards, at Modena, he became
tutor to Ercole (afterwards Cardinal) Rangone. About the year
1514 he removed to Rome, where, under Clement VII.. he held
the office of apostolic protonotary; hut having in the suck of that
city (15*7), which almost coincided with the death of his patron
Cardinal Rangone, lost, all his property, he n turned in poverty
once more to Mirandola, whence again he was driven by the
troubles consequent on the assassination of the reigning prince in
1533. The rest of his life was one long struggle with ill health,
poverty and neglect; and he is alluded to with sorrowful regret
by Montaigne in one of his Essais( i. 34), as having, like Sebastian
Castalio, ended his days in utter destitution. He died at Ferrara
in February 1552 ; and his epitaph makes touching and graceful
allusion to the sadness of his end. Giraldi was a man of very
' GIRALDI, Gv B.—GIRARD, J* B.
+4
extensive erudition, and wimerous testimonies to his profundity
and accuracy have been given both by contemporary and by
Iftttr scholars. Hi* Historia de diis gentium marked a distinctly j
forward step in the systematic study of classical mythology;
and by bis treatises De amis el mensibus, and on the Calen-
darium Romanum el Graecum, he contributed to bring about the
reform of the calendar, which was ultimately effected by Pope
Gregory XIII. His Progymnasma adversus lileras el lileralos
deserves mention at least among the curiosities of literature;
and among his other works to which reference is still occasionally
made are llisloriae pn'ctarum Graecorum ac Latinorum ; De
poetis suorum iemporum ; and De sepullura ac vario sepclicndi
ritu. (iiraldi was also an elegant laitin poet.
Hi* Opera omnia were published at Leiden in 1G06.
GIRALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1504-157.?), sumamed
Cyntkius, Cinthio or Cintio, Italian novelist and poet, bom
at Ferrara in November 1504, was educated at the university
of his native town, where in 15*5 he became professor of natural
philosophy, and, twelve years afterwards, succeeded Celio
Calcagnini in the chair of belles-lettres. Between 1542 and 1560
he acted as private secretary, first to Ercole II. and afterwards
to Alphonso II. of Este ; but having, in connexion with a literary'
quarrel in which he had got involved, lost the favour of his
patron in the latter year, he removed to Mondovi, where he
remained as a teacher of literature till 1568. Subsequently,
on the invitation of the senate of Milan, he occupied the chair
of rhetoric at Pavia till 1573, when, in search of health, he
returned to his native town, where on the 30II1 of December he
died. Besides an epic entitled Ercole (1557), in twenty-six
cantos, Giraldi wrote nine tragedies, the best known of which,
Orbecche, was produced in 1541. The sanguinary and disgusting
character of the plot of this play, and the general poverty of
its style, are, in the opinion of many of its critics, almost fully
redeemed by occasional bursts of genuine and impassioned
poetry ; of one scene in the third act in particular it has even
been affirmed that, if it alone were sufficient to decide the
question, the Orbecche would l* the finest play in the world.
01 the prose works of Giraldi the most important is the Hecatom-
milhi or Ecatomiti, a collection of tales told somewhat after the
manner of Boccaccio, but still more closely resembling the novels
of Giraldi’* contemporary Bondello, only much inferior in work¬
manship to the productions of either author in vigour, liveliness
and local colour. Something, but not much, however, may lx:
said in favour of their professed claim to represent a higher
standard of morality. Originally published at Monteregale,
Sicily, in 1565, they were frequently reprinted in Italy, while a
French translation by Chappuys appeared in 1583 and one in
Spanish in 1500. They have a peculiar interest to students of
English literature, as having furnished, whether directly or in¬
directly, the plots of Measure jor Measure and Othello. That
of the latter, which is to be found in the Hecatommlhi (iii. 7),
is cunjcttured to have reached Shakespeare through the French
translation ; while tliat of the former {Ilecat. viii. 5) is probably
• to he traced to Whetstone's Promos and Cassandra (1578), an
adaptation of Cinthio'* story, and to his He planter one (1582),
which contains a direct English translation. To Giraldi also
must be attributed the plot of Beaumont and Fletcher's Custom
of Ike Country .
GIRALDUS CAMBBENSIS (1146 ?-i 220). medieval historian,
also called Gkkauj de Babri, was bom in Pembrokeshire. He
was the son of William de Barri and Augharat, a daughter ol
Gerald, the ancestor* ol the Fitzgeralds and the Welsh princess,
Nesta, formerly mistress ol King Henry 1 . Falling under the
influence of his uncle, David Fitzgerald, bishop qf St David's,
be determined to enter the church. He studied at Paris, and his
works show that be had applied himself closely to the study of
the Latin poets. In 117a, ho was appointed to collect tithie in
Wales, and showed such vigour that he was made archdeacon.
In u76 0a attempt was made to elect him bishop oi St David’s,
but Henry II. was unwilling to see any one with powerful native
mtnexiota a bishop in Walafc, In 1180, alter another visit to
Paris, he was appointed commissary to the bishop of St David's,
who had ceased to reside. But Giraldus threw up his post,
indignant at the indifference of the bishop to the welfare of his
see. In 1184 he was made one of the kind’s chaplains, and was
elected to accompany Prince John on his voyage to Ireland.
While there he wrote a Topographia Hibernica, which is full of
information, and a strongly prejudiced history of the conquest,
the Expugnatio Hibernica. In n86 he read his work with great
applause before the masters and scholars of Oxford. In 1188
he was sent into Wales with the primate Ifcddwin to preach
the Third Crusade. Giraldus declares that the mission was
highly successful; in any case it gave him the material for his
llinerarium Cambrense, which is, after the Expugnatio, his best
known work. He accompanied the archbishop, who intended
him to be the historian of the Crusade, to the continent, with the
intention of going to the Holy Land. But in 1189 he was sent
back to Wales by the king, who knew his influence was great,
to keep order among his countrymen. Soon after he was absolved
from his crusading vow. According to his own statements,
which often tend Uj exaggeration, he was offered both the sees of
Bangor and Llandaff, but refused them. From 1192 to 1198
he lived in rctirementat Lincoln and devoted himself to literature.
It is probably during this period that he wrote the Gemma
ecclesiastira (discussing disputed points of doctrine, ritual, &c.)
and the Vila S. Remigii. In 1198 he was elected bishop of St
David’s. But Hubert Walter, the archbishop of Canterbury,
was determined to have in that position no Welshman who
would dispute the metropolitan pretensions of the English
primates. The king, for political reasons, supported Hubert
Walter. For four years Giraldus exerted himself to get his
election confirmed, and to vindicate the independence of Si
David's from Canterbury. lie went three times to Rome.
He wrote the De jure Meneviensis ecclesiue in support of the
claims of his diocese. He made alliances with the princes of
North and South Wales. He called a general synod of his diocese.
He was accused of stirring up rebellion among the Welsh, and
the justiciar proceeded against him. At length in 1202 the pope
annulled all previous elections, and ordered a new one. The
prior of Llanthony was finally elected. Gerald was immediately
reconciled to Live king and archbishop ; the utmost favour was
shown to him; even the expenses of his unsuccessful election
were paid. He spent the rest of his life in retirement, though
there was some talk of his being made a cardinal. He certainly
survived John.
The works of Giraldus are partly polemical and partly historical.
His value? as a historian is marred by his violent party spirit;
some of his historical tracts, such as the Liber de instructione
principum and the Vila Galjridi Archiepiscopi Eborecensis,
seem to have been designed as political pamphlets. Henry II.,
Hubert Walter and William Longchamp, the chancellor of
Richard 1 ., are the objects of his worst invectives. His own
pretensions to the see of St David are the motive of many of his
misrepresentations. But he is one of the most vivid and witty
of our medieval historians.
See the Roll* edition of his works, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimock
and G. F. Warner in 8 vols. (London, 1801-189?), some of which
have valuable introduction*.
GIRANDOLE (from the Ital. girandola), an ornamental
branched candlestick of several lights. It came into use about
the second half of the 17 th century, and was commonly made
and used in pairs. It has always been, comparatively speaking,
a luxurious uppliance for lighting, and in the greut 18th-century
period of French house decoration the famous ciseleurs designed
some exceedingly beautiful examples. A great variety of metals
has been used for the purpose—sometimes, as in the case of the
candlestick, girandoles have been made in hard wood*. Gilded
bronze has been a very frequent medium, but for table purposes
silver is still the favourite materiaL
GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE [known as “ Le Fire Girard ”
or “ Le Pire Gregoire ”](i 765-1850), French-Swiss,educationalist,
was born at Fribourg and educated lor .the priesthood at Lucerne.
He was the fifth child in a family of fourteen, and bis gift for
teaching was early shown at home in helping his mother with the
GIRARD, P. H. DE—GIRARD, St 4S
younger children; end after passing through his noviciate he |
spent some time as an instructor in convents, notably at Wun- j
burg (1785-1788). Then for ten years he was busy with [
religious duty. In 1798, full of Kantian ideas, he published an
essay outlining a scheme of national Swiss education ; and in j
1804 he began his career as a public teacher, first in the elementary
school at Fribourg"(1805-18*3), then (being driven away by i
Jesuit hostility) in the gymnasium at Lucerne till 1834, when
he retired to Fribourg and devoted himself with the production !
of his books oi» education, De I'enseignement regulier it la
langur malemeUe (1834, 9th ed. 1894; Eng. trans. by Lord j
Ebrington, The Mother Tongue, 1847), and Cours eiucatif (1844-
1846). Father Girard’s reputation and influence as an enthusiast ;
in the cause of education became potent not only in Switzerland,
where he was hailed as a second Pestalozzi, but in other countries.
He had a genius for teaching, his method of stimulating the
intelligence of the children at Fribourg and interesting them !
actively in learning, and not merely cramming them with rules ,
and facts, being warmly praised i>y the Swiss educationalist
Franyois Naville (1784-1846) in his treatise on public education
(1832). His undogmatic method and his Liberal Christianity
brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, but his aim was,
in all his teaching, to introduce the moral idea into the minds of
his pupils by familiarizing them with the right or wrong working
of the facts' he. brought to their attention, and thus to elevate
character all through the educational curriculum.
GIRARD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE (1775-1845), French;
mechanician, was born at Lourmarin, Vaucluse, on the 1st of j
February 1775. He is chiefly known in connexion with flax¬
spinning machinery. Napoleon having in 1810 decreed a reward j
of one million francs to the inventor of the best machine for 1
spinning flax, Girard succeeded in producing what was required. ;
But he never received the promised reward, although in 1853, '
after his death, a comparatively small pension was voted to his
heirs, and having relied on the money to pay the expenses of
his invention he got into serious financial difficulties. He was
obliged, in 1815, to abandon the flax mills he had established
in France, and at the invitation of the emperor of Austria
founded a flax mill and a factory for his machines at Hirtenberg.
In 1825, at the invitation of the emperor Alexander I. of Russia,
he went to Poland, and erected near Warsaw a flax manufactory,
round which grew up a village which received the name of
Girardow. In 1818 he built a steamer to run on the Danube.
He did not return to Paris till 1844, where he still found some
of his old creditors ready to press their claims, and he died in
that city on the 26th of August 1845. He was also the author
of numerous minor inventions.
GIRARD, STEPHEN (1750-1831), American financier and
philanthropist, founder of Girard College in Philadelphia, was
born in a suburb of Bordeaux, France, on the 20th of May 1750.
He lost the sight of his right eye at the age of eight and had little
education. His father was a sea captain, and the son cruised
to the West Indies and back during 1764-1773, was liceased
captain in 1773, visited New York in 1774, and thence with the
assistance of a New York merchant liegan to trade to and from
New Orleans and Port au Prince. In May 1776 he was driven
into the port of Philadelphia by a British fleet and settled there as
a merchant; in June of the next year he married Mary (Polly)
Lum, daughter of a shipbuilder, who, two years later, after
Girard's becoming a citizen of Pennsylvania (1778), built for him
the “ Water Witch,” the first of a fleet trading with New Orleans
and the West Indies—most of Girard’s ships being named after
his favourite French authors, such as “ Rousseau,” “ Voltaire,”
“ Helvetius” and “Montesquieu.” His beautiful young wife
became insane and spent the years from 1790 to her death in
1815 in the Pennsylvania Hospital. In 1810 Girard used about
a million dollars deposited by him with the Barings of London
for the purchase of shares of the much depreciated stock of
the Bank of the United States—a purchase of great assistance
to the United States government in bolstering European confi¬
dence in its securities. When the Bank was not rechartered the
building and the cashier’s house in Philadelphia wen purchased
at a third of the original cost by Girard, who in»M*y 1812
established the Bank of Stephen Girard. He subscribed in
1814 for about 95 % of the government’s war loan of $5,000,000,
of which only $20,000 besides had been taken, and he generously
offered at par shares which upon his purchase had gone to a
premium. He pursued his business vigorously m person until
the 12th of February 1830, when he was injured in the street
by a truck ; he died on the 26th of December 1831. His public
spirit had been shown during his life not only financially but
personally ; in 1793, during the plague of yellow fever in Phil¬
adelphia, he volunteered to act as manager of the wretched
hospital at Bush' Hill, and with the assistance of Peter Helm
had the hospital cleansed and its work systematized : again
during the yellow fever epidemic of 1797-1798 he tdok the lead
in relieving the poor and caring for the sick. Even' more was his
philanthropy shown in his disposition by will of his estate,
which was valued at about $7,500,000, and doubtless the greatest
fortune accumulated by any individual in America up to that
time. Of this fortune he bequeathed $116,000 to various
Philadelphia charities, $500,000 to the same city for the im¬
provement of the Delaware water front, $300,000 to Pennsyl¬
vania for internal improvements, and the bulk of his estate to
Philadelphia, to be used in founding a school or college, in
providing a better police system, and in making municipal
improvements and lessening taxation. Most of his bequest
to the city was to be used for building and maintaining a school
“ to provide for such a number of poor male white orphan
children ... a better education as well as a more comfortable
maintenance than they usually receive from the application of
the public funds.” His will planned most minutely for the
erection of this school, giving details as to the windows, doors,
walls, &c.; and it contained the following phrase : “ 1 enjoin
and require that no ecclesiastic, missionary or minister of any
sect whatsoever, shall ever hold or exercise any duty whatsoever
in the said college ; nor shall any such person ever be admitted
lor anv purpose, or as a visitor, within the premises appropriated
to the purposes of the said college. ... I desire to keep the
tender minds of orphuns . . . free from the excitements which
dashing doctrines and sectarian controversy are so apt to
produce.” Girard’s heirs-at-law contested the will in 1836, and
thev were greatly helped by a public prejudice aroused by the
clause cited ; in the Supreme Court of the United States in 1844
Daniel Webster, appearing for the la irs, made a famous plea
for the Christian religion, but Chief justice Joseph Story handed
down an opinion adverse to the heirs (l tidal v. Girard's Executors).
Webster was opposed in this suit by John Sergeant and Horace
Binnev. Girard specified that those admitted to the college
must he white male orphans, of legitimate birth and good
character, between the ages of six and ten . that no boy was
to be permitted to stay after his eighteenth year ; and that as
regards admissions preference was to lie shown, first to orphans
born in Philadelphia, second to orphans born in any other part of
Pennsylvania, third to orphans bom in New York Gity, and
fourth to orphnns born in New Orleans. Work upon the build¬
ings was begun in 1833, and the college was opened on the 1st
of January* 1848, a technical point of law making instruction
conditioned upon the completion of the five buildings, of which
the principal one, planned by Thomas Ustick W alter (1804-1887),
has been called “ the most perfect Greek temple in existence.'’
To a sarcophagus in this main building the remains <>1 Stephen
Girard were removed in 1851. In the 40 acres of the college
grounds there were in iqoq 18 buildings (valued at pto.ooo),
1513 pupils, and a total “population,” including students,
teachers and all employes, of 1007. The value of the Girard
estate in tne year 1907 was $35,000,000, of winch $550,000
was devoted to other charities than Girard College. The control
of the college was under a board chosen by the city councils
until 1869, when by act of the legislature it was transferred to
trustees appointed by the Common Pleas judges of the city of
Philadelphia. The course of training is partly industrial—for
a long time graduates were indentured till they came of age—
but it is also preparatory to college entrance.
+6
GIRARDIN, U. D£ - U1JK.AK1 UtL JJULSUOOII^IA^IN '
College (Philadelphia, 1898)-
GIRARMN, DELPHI*! DE (1804-1855), French author,
was bom at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 26th of January 1804. Her
mother, the well-known Madame Sophie Guy, brought her up
in the midst of a brilliant literary society. She published two
volumes of miscellaneous pieces, Essais poctiqucs (1824) and
Notweaux Essais poctiqucs (1825). A visit to Italy in 1827,
during which she was enthusiastically welcomed by the literati
of Kome and even crowned in the capital, was productive of
various poems, of which the most ambitious was Napoline (1833).
Her marriage in 1831 to /smile de Uirardin (see below) opened
up a new literary career. The contemporary sketches which
she contributed from 1836 to 1839 to the feuilleton of La Presse,
under the mm de plume of Charles de Launav, were collected
under the title of Lettres parisiennes (1843), and obtained a
brilliant success. Contes d'une vieille fille a ses neveux (1832),
La Canne de Monsieur de Balzac (1836) and Jl tie jaut pas jouer
aver la douieur (1853) are among the best-known of her romances;
and her dramatic jiicces in prose and verse include L’tzcolc des
journalises (1840), Judith (1843), Cleopatre (1847), Lady Tartuje
(1853), and the one-act comedies, C'est la faute du mart (1851),
La Joic fait peur (1854), I.e Chapeau d’un horloger (1854) and line
femme qui detests son mari, which did not appear till after the
author's death. In the literary society of her time Madame
Girardin exercised no small personal influence, and among the
frequenters of her drawing-room were Tluophile Gautier and
Balzac, Alfred de Musset and Victor Hugo. She died on the
39th of June 1855. Her collected works were published in six
volumes (1860-1861).
See Sainte-Beuve, Causerus du lundt, t. iii. ; G. de Molt>nes,
" Les Femmes poAtcs,” in Items des deux niondes (July 1842);
Taxile Delord, I.es Mutinies HMraircs (i860) ; L'I.sprit de Madame
Girardin, aver tine preface par M. Lamartine (1862) ; G. d'Heilly,
Madame de Girardin, sa vie et ses tguvres (1868) ; Imbert de Saint
Amand, Mme de Girardin (1875).
GIRARDIN, Emile DE (1803-1881), French publicist, was
born, not in Switzerland in 1806 of unknown parents, but (as
was recognized in 1837) in Paris in 1802, the son of General
Alexandre de Girardin and of Madame Dupuv, wife of a Parisian
advocate. His first publication was a novel, Untile, dealing
with his birth and early liie, and appeared under the name of
Girardin in 1827. He became inspector of fine arts under the
Martignac ministry just More the revolution of 1830, and
was an energetic and passionate journalist. Besides his work
on the daily press lie issued miscellaneous publications which
attained an enormous circulation. His Journal des connate-
sances utiles had 120,000 subscribers, and the initial edition of
his Almanack de France (1834) ran to a million copies. In 1836
he inaugurated cheap journalism in a popular Conservative
organ, La Presse, the subscription to which was only forty
francs 1* year. This undertaking involved him in a duel with
Armand Carrel, the fatal result of which made him refuse satis¬
faction to later opponents. In 1839 he was excluded from the
Chamber of Deputies, to which he had been four times elected,
on the plea of his foreign birth, but was admitted in 1842. He
resigned early in February 1847; and on the 24th of February
1848 sent a note to Louis Philippe demanding his resignation and
the regency of the duchess of Orleans, in the Legislative
Assembly he voted with the Mountain. He pressed eagerly in
his paper for the election of Prince Louis Napoleon, of whom he
afterwards became one of the most violent opponents. In 1856
he sold la Presse, only to resume it in 1862, but its vogue was
over, and Girardin started a new journal, La Liberie, the sale
of which was forbidden in the public streets. He supported
fcmile Ollivrer and the liberal Empire, but plunged into vehement
journalism again to advocate war against Prussia. Of his
many subsequent enterprises the most successful was the purchase
of Le Petit Journal, which served to advocate the policy of Thiers,
though he himself did not contribute. The crisis of the 16th |
of May 1877, when Jules Sftnon fell from power, made him 1
resume his pen to attack MacMahon and the party of reaction
in La France and in Le Petit Journal, fcmilc de Girardin married
in 1831 Delphine Gay (see above), and-after her death in 1855
Gufllemette Josephine Brunold, countess von Tieffenbach,
widow of Prince Frederick of Nassau. He was divorced from
his second wife in 1872.
The long list of his social and political writings includes: Dt la
presse plrtodique au XIX * siiele (1837); De I’instruction publique
(1838); Etudes politiques (1838); De la liberti de la presse et du
journalisms (1842); Le Droit au travail au Luxembourg et a I'Assembler
Naiionate (2 vols., 1848); Les Cinquante-deux (2849, &c.), a series
of articles on current parliamentary questions; La Politique uni-
verselle, dicrcts de I'avenir (Brussels, 1852); Le C on damn { du 6 mars
(1867), an account of his own differences with the government in
1867 when he was fined 5000 fr. for an article in La Liberti; Le
Dossier de la guerre (1877), a collection of official documents ; Ques¬
tions de mon temps, eSjt> 4 1X56, articles extracted from the daily
and weekly press (12 vols., 1858).
GIRARDON, FRANQOIS (1628-1715), French sculptor, was
bom at Troyes on the 17th of March 1628. As a boy he had for
master a joiner and wood-carver of his native town, named
Baudesson, under whom he is said to have worked at the ch&teau
of Liibault, where he attracted the notice of Chancellor Siguier.
By the chancellor’s influence Girardon was first removed to
Paris and placed in the studio of Franpois Anguier, and afterwards
sent to Rome. In 1652 he was back in France, and seems at
once to have addressed himself with something like ignoble
subserviency to the task of conciliating the court painter Charles
Le Brun. Girardon is reported to have declared himself incap
able of composing a group, whether with truth or from motives of
policy it is impossible to say. This much is certain, that a very
large proportion of his work was carried out from designs by
Le Brun, and shows the merits and defects of Le Brun’s manner—
a great command of ceremonial pomp in presenting his subject,
coupled with a large treatment of forms which if it were more
expressive might be imposing. The court which Girardon paid
to the “ premier peintre du roi ” was rewarded. An immense
quantity of work at Versailles was entrusted to him, and in
recognition of the successful execution of four figures for the
Bains d'Apollon, Le Brun induced the king to present his prot6g6
personally with a purse of 300 louis, as a distinguishing mark
of royal favour. In 1650 Girardon was made member of the
Academy, in 1659 professor, in 1674 “ adjoint au recteur,”
and finally in 1695 chancellor. Five years before (1690), on the
death of Le Brun, he had also been appointed “ inspecteur
general des outrages de sculpture ” - a place of power ami profit.
In 1699 he completed the bronze equestrian statue of Louis
XIV., erected by the town of Paris on the Place Louis le Grand.
This statue was melted down during the Revolution, and is
known to us only by a small bronze model (Louvre) finished
by Girardon himself. His Tomb of Richelieu (church of the
Sorbonnc) was saved from destruction by Alexandre Lenoir,
who received a bayonet thrust in protecting the head of the
cardinal from mutilation. It is a capital example of Girardon’s
work, and the theatrical pomp of its style is typical of the funeral
sculpture of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV.; butamongst
other important specimens yet remaining may also be cited the
1 'omb of Louvois (St F.ustache), that of Bignon, the king’s
librarian, executed in 1656 (St Nicolas du Chardonneret), and
decorative sculptures in the Galerie d’Apollon and Chambre du
roi in the Louvre. Mention should not be omitted of the group,
signed and dated 1699, “ The Rape of Proserpine ” at Versailles,
which also contains the “ Bull of Apollo.” Although chiefly
occupied at Paris Girardon never forgot his natfVe Troyes, the
museum of which town contains some of his best works, including
the marble busts of Louis XIV. and Maria Theresa. In the
hotel de ville is still shown a medallion of Louis XIV., and in the
chuTch of St Rimy a hronze crucifix of some importance—both
works by his hand. He died in Paris in 1715.
See Corrard de Breban, Notice sur la vie et les amvrcs de Girardon
(1830).
GIRART DE ROUSSILLON, an epic figure of the Carolmgian
cycle of romance. In the genealogy <jf romance he is a son of
Doan de Mayence, and he appears in different and irreconcSable
GIRAUD—GIRDLE
circumstances in many of the chansons it gtsit. The legend of
Girart de Roussillon is contained in a Vila Girards it Roussillon
(ed. P. Meyer, in Romania, 1878), dating from the beginning
of the isth century and written probably by a monk of the abbey
of Pothiires or of'Vezelai, both of which were founded in 860 by
Girart; in Girart it Roussillon, a chanson it geste written early
in the isth century in a dialect midway between French and
Provencal, and apparently based on an earlier Burgundian
poem ; in a 14th-century romance in alexandrines (ed. T. J. A. P.
Mignard, Paris and Dijon, 1878); and in a prose romance by
Jehan Wauquelin in 1447 (ed. L. de Montille, Paris, 1880). The
historical Girard, son of Leuthard and Grimildis, was a
Burgundian chief who was count of Paris in 837, and embraced
the cause of Lothair against Charles the Bald. He' fought at
Fontenay in 841, and doubtless followed Lothair to Aix. In
855 he became governor of Provence for Lothair’s son Charles,
king of Provence (d. 863). His wife Bertha defended Vienne
unsuccessfully against Charles the Bald in 870, and Girard,
who had perhaps aspired to be the titular ruler of the northern
part of Provence, which he had continued to administer under
Lothair II. until that prince’s death in 869, retired with his wife
to Avignon, where he died probably in 877, certainly before 870.
The tradition of his piety , of the heroism of his wife Berth.i,
and of his wars with Charles passed into romance ; but the
historical facts are so distorted that in Girart dt Roussillon the
trouvrre makes him the opponent of Charles Martel, to whom
he stands in the relation of brother-in-law. He is nowhere
described in authentic historic sources as of Roussillon. The
title is derived from his castle built on Mount Lassois, near
Chatillon-sur-Seine. Southern traditions concerning Count
Girart, in which he is made the son of Garin de Monglane. are
embodied in Girart dr Vianr (13th century) by Bertrand de
Bar-sur-l’Aube, and in the Aspramontr of Andrea da Barberino,
based on the French chanson of Aspremonl, where he figures as
Girart de Frete or de Krattc. 1 Girart de Viane is the recital of
a siege of Vienne by Charlemagne, and in Aspramontr Girart de
hratte leads an army of infidels against Charlemagne. Girart dr
Roussillon was long held to lie of Provencal origin, and to Ire
a proof of the existence of an independent Provengal epic,
but its Burgundian origin may be taken as proved.
Sec F. Michel, Gerard de Rossillon . . . publii en franpais et en
Provencal d'aprCs Its MSS. de Paris et de Londres (Paris, 1856) ;
V. Meyer, Girart de Roussillon (1884), a translation in modern French
with a comprehensive introduction. For Girart de Viane (ed. P.
Tarhf, Heims, 1850) see L. Gautier, Rpopfes francaises, voi. iv. ;
F. A. Will Si, Notice sur les sagas de Magus et de Geirard (Lund, 1874).
GIRAUD, GIOVANNI, Count (1776-1834), Italian dramatist,
of French origin, was born at Rome, and showed a precocious
passion for the theatre. His first play, VOnesta non si finer,
was successfully produced in 1798. He took part in politics
as an active supporter of Pius VI., but was mainly occupied with
the production of his plays, and in 1809 became director-general
of the Italian theatres. He died at Naples in 1834. Count
Giraud’s comedies, the best of which are Grlosie per equivoco
(1807) and L'Ajo nell’ imbarazzo (1824), were bright and amusing
on the stage, but of no particular literary quality.
His collected comedies were published in 1823 and his Teatro
domestico in 1823.
GIRDLE ( 0 . Eng. gyrdcl, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel,
Dutch gordel, from giirlrn and gordrn ; “ gird ” and its doublet
“ girth ” together with the other Teutonic cognates have been
refeived by some to the root ghar —to seize, enclose, seen in
Gr. x«i/>, ha#d, Lat. hortus, garden, and also English yard,
garden, garth, &c.), a band of leather or other material worn
round the waist, cithe. to confine the loose and flowing outer
robes so as to allow freedom of movement, or to fasten and
support the garments of the wearer. Among the Romans it
was used to confine the tunica, and it formed part of the dress
of the soldier ; when a man quitted military service he was said,
• It is of interest to note that Freta was the old name for the
town of Saint R«ny, and that it is close to the site of the ancient
town of Glanum, the name of which is possibly preserved in Garin
de Monglane, the ancestor of the heroes of the cycle of Guillaume
d’Orange.
cingulum itpontre, to lay aside the girdle. Money taring carried
in the girdle, zonam periett signified to lose one's purse, and,
among the Greeks, to cut the girdle was to rob a man of his
money.
Girdles and girdle-buckles are not often found in Gallo-Roman
graves, but in the graves of Franks and Burgundians they are
constantly present, often ornamented with bosses of silver or
bronze, chased or inlaid. Sidonius Apollinaris speaks of the
Franks as belted round the waist, and Gregory of Tours in the
6 th century says that a dagger was carried in the Frankish
girdle.
In the Anglo-Saxon dress the girdle makes an unimportant
figure, and the Norman knights, ns a rule, wore their belts under
their hauberks. After the Conquest, however, the artificers
gave more attention to a piece whose buckle and 'tongue invited
the work of the goldsmith. Girdles of varying richness are seen
on most of the western medieval effigies. That of Queen Beren-
garia lets the long pendant hang l»low the knee, following a'
fashion which frequently reappears.
In the latter part of the 13th century the knight’s surcoat
is girdled with a narrow cord at the waist, while the great belt,
which had become the pride of the well-equipped cavalier,
loops across the hips carrying the heavy sword aslant over the
thighs or somewhat to the left of the wearer.
But it is in the second half of the following century that the
knightly belt takes its most splendid form. Under the year
1356 the continuator of the chronicle of Nangis notes that the
increase of jewelled belts had mightily enhanced the price of
pearls. The Irelt is then worn, as a rule, girdling the hips at
some distance Mow the waist, being probably supported by
hooks as is the belt of a modern infantry soldier. The end of the
belt, after being drawn through the buckle, is knotted or caught
up after the fashion of the tang of the. Garter. The waist girdle
either disappears from sight or ns a narrow and ornamented
strap is worn diagonally to help io the support of the belt, A
mass of beautiful ornament covers the whole belt, commonly
seen as an unbroken line of bosses enriched with curiously
worked roundels or lozenges which, when the loose strap-end
is abandoned, meet in a splendid morse or clasp on which the
enamellcr and jeweller had wrought their best. About 1420
this fashion tends to disappear, the loose tabards worn over
armour in the jocsting-yard hindering its display. The belt
neverregains its importance as an ornament.and.at the beginning
of the 16th century, sword and dagger are sometimes seen hanging
at the knight's sides without visible support.
In civil dress the magnificent belt of the 14th century is
worn by men of rank over the hips of tin tight short-skirted
coat, and in that century and in the 1 ith and 16th there are
sumptuary laws to check the extravagance of rich girdles worn
by men and women whose humble station made them unseemly.
Even priests must he rebuked for their silver girdles with baselards
hanging from them. Purses, daggers, keys, primers and inkhoms,
beads and even books, dangled from girdles in the «i 5th and
early 16th centuries. Afterwards the pmllr goes on as a mere
strap for holding up the clothing or as a sword belt. At the
Restoration men contrasted the fashion nl the court, a light
rapier hung from a broad shoulder-belt, with the fashion of the
countryside, where a heavy weapon was supported by a narrow
waistbelt. Soon afterwards both fashions disappeared. Sword-
hangers were concealed by the skirt, and the belt, sav in certain
military and sporting costumes, has no more been in sight in
England. Even as a support for breeches in tnnisc;-., the use
of braces has gradually supplanted the girdle dm mg the past
century.
In most of those parts of the Continent—Brittanv, for example
—where the peasantry maintains old fashions in clothing, the
belt or girdle is still an important part of the clothing. Italian
non-commissioned officers find that the Sicilian recruit’s main
objection to the first bath of his life-time lies in the fact that he
must lay down the cherished belt which carries his few valuables.
With the Circassian the belt still buckles on an arsenal of pistols
and knives.
a# vmJUJsA*—
Folklore »and ancient custom are much concerned with the
ginfle. Bankrupts at one time put it off in open court; French
law refused courtesan* the right to wear it: Samt Guthlac
casts out devils by buckling his girdle round a possessed man ;
an sari is “ a belted earl ” since the days when the putting on
of a girdle was part of the ceremony of his creation ; and fairy
tale* of half the nations deal with girdles which give invisibility
to the wearer. ( 0 ^ B*.)
GIRGA, or Girckh, a town of Upper Egypt on the W. bank
of the Nile, 313 m. S.S.E. of Cairo by rail and about lom.N.N.E.
of the ruins of Abydos. Pop. (1907) I 9 )** 93 > of whom about
one-thirdare Copts. The town presents a picturesque appearance
from the Nile, which at this point makes a sharp bend. A
ruined mosque with a tall minaret stands by the river-brink.
Many of the houses are of brick decorated with glased tiles.
The town is noted for the excellence of its pottery. Girga is
the seat of a (optic bishop. It also possesses a Roman Catholic
monastery, considered tht most ancient in the country. As
lately as the middle of the 18th century the town stood a quarter
jf a mile from the river, but is now on the bank, the intervening
space having been washed away, together with a large part of
the town, by the stieam continually encroaching on its left
sank.
GIRGENTI (anc. Agrigettlum, q.v.), a town of Sicily, capital
if the province which bears its name, and an episcopal see, on
,he south coast, 58 m. S. by E. of Palermo direct and 84J m. by
ail. Population (1901) 25,024. The town is built on the
vestem summit of the ridge which formed the northern portion
if the ancient site; the main street runs from E. to W. on
he level, but the side streets arc steep and narrow. The cathedral
iccupies the highest point in the town; it was not founded till
he 13th century, taking the place of the so-culled temple of
'oncord. The campanile still preserves portions of its original
irchitecture, but the interior has been modernized. In the
ihapter-house a famous sarcophagus, with scenes illustrating
he myth of Hippolytus, is preserved. There are other scattered
emains of 13th-century architecture in the town, while, in the
:entre of the ancient city, close to the so-called oratory of
i’halaris, is the Norman church of S. Nicolo. A small museum
n the town contains vases, terra-cottas, a few sculptures, &c.
The port of Girgenti, 5! m. S.W. by rail, now known as Porto
impodocle (population in 1901, 11,529), is the principal place
if shipment for sulphur, the mining district beginning immedi¬
ately north ol Girgenti. (T. As.)
G1RIIHK, a village and fort of Afghanistan. It stands on
he right bank of the Helmund 78 m. W. of Kandahar on the
oad to Herat; 3641 ft. above the sea. The fort, which is
tarrisoned from Kandahar and is the residence of the governor
if the district (Pusht-i-Rud), has little military value. It
ommands the fords of the Helmund and the road to Seistan,
rom which it is about 190 m. distant; and it is the centre of a
rich agricultural district. Girishk was occupied by the British
luring the first Afghan War; and a small garrison of sepoys,
inder a native officer, successfully withstood a siege of nine
nonths by an overwhelming Afghan force. The Dasht-i-Bakwa
itretchcs beyond Girishk towards Farah, a level plain of consider¬
able width, which tradition assigns os the held of the final
contest for supiemacy between Russia and England.
GIRNAR, a sacred hill in Western India, in the peninsula
A Kathiawar, 10 m. E. of Junagarh town. It consists of
five peaks, rising about 3500 ft. above the sea, on which are
numerous old Jain temples, much frequented by pilgrims.
At the foot of the hill is a rock, with an inscription of Asoka
(2nd century B.c.), and also two other inscriptions (dated 150
and 455 a.d.) jf great historical importance.
GIRODET DE ROOMY, ANNE LOUIS (1767-1824), French
painter, better known as Girodet-Trioson, was born at Montsurgis
on the 5th of January 1767,. He lost his parents in early youth,
and the care of his fortune and education fell to the lot of his
guardian, M. Trioeon, “ mddecin de mesdames.” by whom he was
m later life adopted. After some preliminary studies under a
painter named Luquin, Girodtg entered the school of David,
and at the age of twenty-two be successfully competed for the
Prix de Rome. At Rome he executed his “ Hippocmte refluent
ies presents d’Artaxerxris ” and “ Endymkm dormant ” (Louvre),
a work which was hailed with acclamation at the Salon of 1792.
The peculiarities which mark Girodet's position as the herald
of the romantic movement are already evident in his “ Endymion.’
The firm-set forms, the grey cold colour, (he hardness of the
execution are proper to one trained in the school of David, but
these characteristics harmonize ill with the literary, sentimental
and picturesque suggestions which the painter has sought to
render. The same incongruity marks Girodet’s “ Danae ” and his
“ Quatre Saisons,” executed for the king of Spain (repeated for
Compiegne), and shows itself to a ludicrous extent in his “ Fingal ”
(St Petersburg, Leuchtenberg collection), executed for Napoleon
1 . in 1802. This work unites the defects of the classic and
romantic schools, for Girodet’s imagination ardently and ex¬
clusively pursued the ideas excited by varied reading both of
classic and of modem literature, and the impressions which lie
received from the external world afforded him little stimulus or
check; he consequently retained the mannerisms of his master’s
practice whilst rejecting all restraint on choice of subject. The
credit lost by “Fingal ’Girodet regained in 1806, when he exhibited
“ Seine de Deluge ’’ (Louvre), to which (in competition with the
" Sabines "of David) was awarded the decennial prize. This success
was followed up in 1808 by the production of the “ Reddition de
Vienne ” and " Atala au Tombeau a work which went far to
deserve its immense popularity, by a happy choice of subject,
and remarkable freedom from the theatricality of Girodet’s
usual manner, which, however, soon came to the front ugain in
his " Rivolte de Caire " (t8io). His powers now began to fail,
and his habit of working ut night and other excesses told upon
his constitution; in the Salon of 1812 he exhibited only a
"Tetede Vierge"; in 1819 " Pygmalion et Galatec” showed a still
further decline of strength ; and in 1824—the year in which lie
produced his portraits of Cathelincau and Bonchamps—Girodet
died on the 9th of December.
He executed a vast quantity of illustrations, amongst which may
lie cited those to the Didot Virgtl (1798) and to the Louvre Poems
(1801-1805). Fifty-tour of his designs for Anacreon were engraved
by M. Chatillon. Girodet wasted much time on literary composition,
his poem Le Peintre (a string of commonplaces), together with poor
imitations of classical poets, and essays on Le Glnie and La Grdic,
were published after his death (1829), with a biographical notice
by his friend M. Coupin rle la Couperie ; and M. Dcleciuze, in his
Louis David el son temps , has also a brief life of Girodet.
GIRONDE, a maritime department of south-western France,
formed fro®, four divisions of the old province of Guyenne, viz.
Bordelais, Bozadais, and parts of Perigord and Agenais. Area,
4140 sq. m. Pop. (rgo6) 823,925. It is bounded N. by the
department of Charente-Infirieurc, E. by those of Dordogne
and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by that of Landes, and W. by the Bay
of Biscay. It takes its name from the river or estuary of the
Gironde formed by the union of the Garonne and Dordogne.
The department divides itself naturally into a western and an
eastern portion. The former, which is termed the Landes (q.v.),
occupies more than a third of the department, and consists
chiefly of morass or sandy plain, thickly planted with pines and
divided from the sea by a long line of dunes. These dunes are
planted with pines, which, by binding the sand together with
their roots, prevent it from drifting inland and afford a barrier
against the sea. On the east the dunes are fringed for some
distance by two extensive lakes, Carcans and Lacanau, communi¬
cating with each other and with the Bay of ArcaChon, near the
southern extremity of the department. The Bay of Arcachon
contains numerous islands, and on the land Slide forms a vast
shallow lagoon, a considerable portion of which, however, has
been drained and converted into arable land. The eastern
portion of the department consists chiefly of a succession of hill
and dale, and, especially in the valley of the Gironde, is very
fertile. The estuary of the Gironde is about 45 m. in length,
and varies in breadth from 2 to 6 m. It presents a succession of
islands and mud banks which divide ibinto two channels and
render navigation somewhat difficult. It is, however, well
GIRONDISTS
buoyed and lighted, and has a mean depth of zi ft There are
extensive marshes on tire right bank to the north of Blaye, and
the shores cm the left are characterized, especially towards the
mouth, by low-lying polders protected by dikes and composed
of fertile salt marshes. At the mouth of the Gironde stands the
famous tower of Cardouan, one of the finest lighthouses of the
French coast. It wks built between the years 1585 and 1611
by the architect and engineer Louis de Foix, and added to
towards the end of the 18th century. The principal affluent of
the Dordogne in this department is the Isle. The feeders of the
Garonne are, with the exception of the Dropt, all small. West
of the Garonne the only river of importance is the Leyre, which
flows into the Bay of Arcachon. The climate is humid and
mild and very hot in summer. Wheat, rye, maize, oats and
tobacco are grown to a considerable extent. The corn produced,
however, does not meet the wants of the inhabitants. The
culture of the vine is by far the most important branch of industry
carried on (see Wine), the vineyards occupying about one-seventh
of the surface of the department. The wine-growing districts
are the Midoc, Graves, Cotes, Palus, Entre-deux-Mers and
Sautemes. The Medoc is a region of 50 m. in length by about
6 m. in breadth, bordering the left banks of the Garonne and the
Gironde between Bordeaux and the sea. The Graves country
forms a zone 30 m. in extent, stretching along the left bank of
the Garonne from the neighbourhood of Bordeaux to Barsac.
The Sautemes country lies to the S.E. of the Graves. The
Cotes lie on the right bank of the Dordogne and Gironde,
between it and the Garonne, and on the left bank of the Garonne.
The produce of the Palus, the alluvial land of the valleys, and of
the Entre-deux-Mers, situated on the left bank of the Dordogne,
is inferior. Fruits and vegetables are extensively cultivated,
the peaches and pears being especially fine. Cattle are exten¬
sively raised, the Bazadais breed of oxen and the Bordelais breed
of milch-cows being well known. Oyster-breeding is carried on
on a large scale in the Bay of Arcachon. Large supplies of resin,
pitch and turpentine are obtained from the pine woods, which
also supply vine-props, and there are well-known quarries of
limestone. The manufactures are various, and, with die general
trade, are chiefly carried on at Bordeaux (q.v.), the chief town
and third port in France. Pauillac, Blaye, Liboume and Arcachon
are minor ports. Gironde is divided into the arrondissements of
Bordeaux, Blaye, Lesparre, Liboume, Bazas and La Reole,
with 49 cantons and 554 communes. The department is served
by five railways, the chief of which arc those of the Orleans and
Southern companies. It forms part of the circumscription of
the archbishopric, the appeal-court and the academic (educational
division) of Bordeaux, and of the region of the XVIII. army
corps, the headquarters cf which are at that city. Besides
Bordeaux, Liboume, La Riole, Bazas, Blaye, Arcachon, St
Emilion and St Macaire are the most noteworthy towns and
receive separate treatment. Among the other places of interest
the chief are Cadillac, on the right bank of the Garonne, where
there is a castle of the ifith century, surrounded by fortifications
of the 14th century ; LabrAde, with a feudal chateau in which
Montesquieu was bom and lived ; Villandraut, where there is a
mined castle of the 13th century ; Uzeste, which has a church
begun in 1310 by Pope Clement V.; Mazdi cs with an imposing
castle of the 14th century; La Sauve, which has a church
(nth and izlh centuries) and other remains of a Benedictine
abbey ^ and Stc Foy-la-Grande, a bastide created in 1*55 and
afterwurds a centre of Protestantism, which is still strong there.
La Teste (pop. 1906, 5699) was the capital in the middle ages
of the famous lords of Buch.
GIRONDISTS (F’r. Girondins), the name given to a political
party in the Legislative Assembly and National Convention
during the French Revolution (1791-1793). The Girondists
were, indeed, rather a group of individuals holding certain
opinions and principles in common than an organized political
party, and the name was at first somewhat loosely applied to
them owing to the fact that the most brilliant exponents of their
point of view were deputies from the Gironde. These deputies
were twelve in number, six of whom—the lawyers Vergniaud,
49
Gnadet, Gensnuri, Grangeneuve and Jay, and rise tradesman
Jean Franpo is Du cos—-sat both in the Legislative Assembly
and the National Convention. In the Legislative Assembly these
represented a compact body of opinion which, though not as yet
definitely republican, was considerably more advanced than the
moderate royalism of the majority of the Parisian deputies.
Associated with these views was a group of deputies from other
parts of France, of whom the most notable were Condorcet,
Fauchet, Lasource, hoard, Keraaint, Henri Lariyifire, and,
above all, Jacques Pierre Brissot, Roland and Pdtion, elected
mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly on the 16th of November
1791. On the spirit and policy of the Girondists Madame Roland,
whose salon became their gathering-plaoe, exercised a powerful
influence (sec Roland) : but such party cohesion as they
possessed they owed to the energy of Brissot (?.».), who came
to be regarded as their mouthpiece in the Assembly and the
Jacobin Club, lienee the name Brissatins, coined by Camille
Desmoulins, whieh was sometimes substituted for that of
Girondtns, sometimes closely coupled with it. As strictly party
designations these first came into use after the assembling of the
National Convention (September 20th, 1792), to which a large
proportion of the deputies from the Gironde who had sat in the
Legislative Assembly were returned. Both were used as terms
of opprobrium bv the orators of the Jaoobin Club, who freely
denounced “ the Royalists, the Federalists, the Hrissotins, the
Girondins and all the enemies of the democracy ” (F. Aulard,
Sac. dcs Jacobins , vi. 531),
In the legislative Assembly the Girondists represented the
principle of democratic revolution within and of patriotic
defiance to the European powers without. They were all-
powerful in the Jacobin Club (see Jacobins), where Brissot's
influence had not yet been ousted by Robespierre, and they
did not hesitate to use this advantage to stir up popular passion
and intimidate those who sought to stay the progress of the
Revolution. Thevcompelled tin king in 179a to choose a ministry
composed of their partisans - among them Roland, Dumouriez,
ClavWre and Servan ; and it was they who forced the declaration
of war against Austria. In all this there was no apparent
line of cleavage between " La Gironde ” and the Mountain.
Montagna yds and Girondists alike were lundamcntally opposed
to the monarchy ; both were democrats its well os republicans;
both were prepared to appeal to force in order to realize their
ideals; in spite of the accusation of “ federalism ” freely brought
against them, the Girondists desired as little ns the Montagnards
to break up the unity of France. Yet from the first the leaders
of the two parties stood in avowed opposition, in the Jaoobin
Club as in the Assembly. It was largely u question of tempera¬
ment. The Girondists were idealists, doctrinaires and theorists
rather than men of action ; they eneourafcd, it is true, the
“armed petitions” which resulted, to 1 In ir dismay, in the
emeuleai the 20th of June; butRolund. turning the ministry of
the interior into a publishing office for trai ts on the civic virtues,
while in the provinces riotous mobs were burning the ch&tcaux
unchecked, is more typical of their spirit. With tiie ferocious
fanaticism or the ruthless opportunism of the lutiire organizers
of the Terror they had nothing in common. As the Revolution
developed they trembled at the anarchic forces they had helped
to unchain, and tried in vain to curb them. The overthrow
of the monarchy on the 10th of August and the massacres of
September were not their work, though they daimed credit
for the results achieved.
The crisis of their fate was not slow in coming. It was they
who proposed the suspension of the king and the summoning
of the National Convention ; but they had only consented to
overthrow the kingship when they found that Louis XVJ. was
impervious to their counsels, and, the republic once established,
they were anxious to arrest the revolutionary movement which
they had helped to set in motion. As Ifaunou shrewdly observes
in his Mhnoins, they were too cultivated and too polished to
retain their popularity long in times of disturbance, and were
therefore the more inclined to work for the establishment
of order, which would mean the guarantee of their own
CiiKUNUiSIS
50
power. 1 'Thus the Girondists, who had been the Radical* of the
Legislative Assembly, became the Conservatives of the Conven¬
tion. But they were soon to have practical experience of the fate
that overtake* those who attempt to arrest in mid-career a revolu -
tion they themselves have set in motion. The ignorant populace,
for whom the promised social millennium had by no means
dawned, saw in an attitude seemingly so inconsistent obvious
proof of corrupt motives, and there were plenty of prophets
of misrule to encourage the delusion—orators of the clubs and
the street comers, for whom the restoration of order would have
meant well-deserved obscurity. Moreover, the Septcmbriseurs—
Robespierre, Dan ton, Marat and their lesser satellites—realised
that not only their influence but their safety depended on keeping
the Revolution alive. Robespierre, who hated the Girondists,
whose lustre had so long obscured his own, had proposed to
include them in the proscription lists of September ; the Mountain
to a man desired their overthrow.
The crisis came in March 1793. The Girondists, who had
a majority in the Convention, controlled the executive council
and filled the ministry, believed themselves invincible. Their
orators had no serious rivals in the hostile camp ; their system
was established in the purest reason. But the Montagnards
made up by their fanatical, or desperate, energy and boldness
for what they lacked in talent or in numbers. They had behind
them the revolutionary Commune, the Sections and the National
Guard of Paris, and they luid gained control of the Jarobin dub,
where Brissot, absorbed in departmental work, had been super¬
seded by Robespierre. And as the motive power of this formid¬
able mechanism of force they could rely on the native suspicious¬
ness of the Parisian populace, exaggerated now into madness by
famine and the menace of foreign invasion. The Girondists
played into their hands. At the trial of Louis XVI. the bulk
of them had voted for the “ appeal to the people,” and so laid
themselves open to the charge of “ royalism ” ; they denounced
the domination of Paris and summoned provincial levies to their
aid, and so fell under suspicion of “ federalism,” though they
rejected Bur.ot’s proposal to transfer the Convention to Versailles.
They strengthened the revolutionary Commune by decreeing
its abolition, and then withdrawing the decree at the first sign
of popular opposition : they increased the prestige of Marat by
prosecuting him before the Revolutionary Tribunal, where his
acquittal wns a foregone conclusion. In the suspicious temper
of the times this vacillating policy was doubly fatal. Marat
never ceased his denunciations of the “ faction Acs hommes
d'etat" by which France was being betrayed to her ruin, and
his parrot cry of “ Nous sommes Irakis!" was re-echoed from
group to group in the streets of Paris. The Girondists, for
all their fine phrases, were sold to the enemy, as Lafayette,
Dumuuriez and a hundred others -once popular favourites—
had been sold.
The hostility of Paris to the Girondists received a fateful
advertisement by the election, on the 15th of February 1793,
of the*ex-Girondist Jean Nicolas Pache (1746-1823) to the
mayoralty. Pache had twice been minister of war in the
Girondist government; but his incompetence had laid him open
to strong criticism, and on the 4th of February he had been
superseded by a vote of the Convention. This wus enough to
secure him the suffrages of the Paris electors ten days later,
and the Mountain was strengthened by the accession of an ally
whose one idea was to use his new power to revenge himself
on his former colleagues. Pache, with Chaumette, procureur of
the Commune, and Hubert, deputy procureur, controlled the
armed organisation of the Paris Sections, and prepared to
turn this against the Convention. The abortive imeute of the
toth of March warned the Girondists of their danger, but the
Commission of Twelve appointed on the r8th of May, the arrest
of Marat and Hubert, and othei precautionary measures, were
defeated by the populai risings of the 27th and 31st of May,
and, finally, on the and of June, Hanriot with the National
1 Dauoou, " Mimpires pour servir i l'hist. de la Convention
Natlonale,” p. 409, vol. xii. of M. Fr. Barrifcre, Bibl. its mho. ret. A
l'hist. it la France , Ac. (Paris,*867).
Guards purged the Convention of the Girondists. Isnard’s
threat, uttered on the 25th of May, to march France upon Paris
had been met by Paris inarching upon the Convention.
The list drawn up by Hanriot, and endorsed by a decree
of the intimidated Convention, induded twenty-two Girondist
deputies and ten members of the Commission of Twelve, who
were ordered to be detained at their lodgings “ under the safe¬
guard of the people.” Some submitted, among them Gensonne,
Guadet, Vergniaud, Potion, Birotteau and Boyer-Fonfrlde.
Others, including Brissot, Louvet, Buzot, Lasource, Grangeneuve,
Lariviere and Bergoing, escaped from Paris and, joined later
by Guadet, Petion and Birotteau, set to woTk to organise a
movement of the provinces against the capital. This attempt
to stir up civil war determined the wavering and frightened
Convention. On the 13th of June it voted that the city of
Paris had deserved well of the country, and ordered the imprison¬
ment of the detained deputies, the filling up of their places in
the Assembly by their suppliants, and the initiation of vigorous
measures against the movement in the provinces. The excuse
for the Terror that followed was the imminent peril of France,
menaced on the east by the advance of the armies of the Coalition,
on the west by the Royalist insurrection of La Vendee, and the
need for preventing at all costs the outbreak of another civil
war. T he assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (q.v.)
only served to increase the unpopularity of the Girondists
and to seal their fate. On the 28th of July a decree of the
Convention proscribed, as traitors and enemies of their country,
twenty-one deputies, the final list of those sent for trial comprising
the names of Antibnul, BoiDeau the younger, Boyer-Fonfride,
Brissot, Carra, Duchastel, the younger Ducos, Dufriche de
Valazi, Duprat, Fauchet, Gardien, Gensonne, Lacaze, Lasource,
Lauze-Deperrct, Lehardi, I-esterpi-Beauvais, the elder Minvielle,
Sillery, Vergniaud and Viger, of whom five were deputies from
the Gironde. The names of thirty-nine others were included in
the final acte d'accusation, accepted by the Convention on the
24th of October, which stated the crimes for which they were
to be tried as their perfidious ambition, their hatred of Paris,
their “ federalism ” and, above all, their responsibility for the
attempt of their escaped colleagues to provoke civil war.
The trial of the twenty-one, which began before the Revolu¬
tionary Tribunal on the 24th of October, was a mere farce, the
verdict a foregone conclusion. On the 31st they were borne
to the guillotine in five tumbrils, the corpse of Dufriche de
Valazfi—who had killed himself—being carried with them.
They met death with great courage, singing the refrain “ Plulot
la mart que I’esclavage l” Of those who escaped to the provinces
the greater number, after wandering about singly or in groups,
were either captured and executed or committed suicide, among
them Barbaroux, Buzot, Condorcet, Grangeneuve, Guadet,
Kersaint, l’etion, Rabaut de Saint-Etienne and Rebecqui.
Roland had killed himself at Rouen on the 15th of November,
a week after the execution of his wife. Among the very few
who finally escaped was Jean Baptiste Louvet, whose Memoires
give a thrilling picture of the sufferings of the fugitives. In¬
cidentally they prove, too, that the sentiment of France was
for the time against the Girondists, who were proscribed even
in their chief centre, the city of Bordeaux. The survivors of
the party made an effort to re-enter the Convention after the
fall of Robespierre, but it was not until the 5th of March 1795
that they were formally reinstated. On the 3rd of petober
of the same year (11 Vendimiaire, year III.) a solemn f8te in
honour of the Girondist “ martyrs of liberty ’* was celebrated
in the Convention. See also the article French Revolution
and separate biographies.
Ol the special works on the Girondists Lamartine's Histoire its
Girondms (2 vols., Paris, 1847, new ed. 1902, in 6 vols.) Is rhetoric
rather than history and is untrustworthy ; the Histoire its Girondins,
bv A. Grander de Cassagnac (Paris, i860) led to the publication of a
Protestation by J. Guadet, a nephew of the Girondist orator, which
was followed by his Les Girondists, lew vie privte, lew me publiquc,
lew proscription el lew mart (2 vols., Paris, 1861, new e<L 1890);
with which cf. Alary, Let Gironditu par Guadet (Bordeaux, 1863);
also Charles Vatel, Charlotte de Corday et les Girondins : pieces
classles el annoties (3 vote., Paris, 1864-1872) : Recherches kistoriqnes
GIRTIN—GISBORNE
nr les Girondists (2 vols., ib. 1873); Ducos, Let Trois Giroviines
(Mad* me Boland, Charlotte Corday, Madame Bouquey) U let
Gironiins (ib. 1896); Edmond Biri, La L trends des tiirondins (PariB,
1881, new ed. 1890) ; also Helen Maria Williams, Slede of Manners
and Opinions in the French Republic towards the close of the /Sth
Century (2 vols., London. 1801). Memoirs or fragments of memoirs
also exist by particular Girondists, e.g. Barbaroux, Pition, Louvet,
Madame Roland. See, further, the bibliography to the article
French Revolution. (W. A. P.)
GIRTIN, THOMAS (1775-1802), English painter and etcher,
was the son of a well-to-do cordage maker in Southwark, London.
His father died while Thomas was a child, and his widow married
Mr Vaughan, a pattern-draughtsman. Girtin learnt drawing
as a hoy, and was apprenticed to Edward Doves (1763-1804),
the mezzotint engraver, and he soon made J. M. W. Turner’s
acquaintance. His architectural and topographical sketches
and drawings soon established his reputation, his use of water¬
colour for landscapes being such as to give him the credit of
having created modern water-colour painting, as opposed to
mere “ tinting." His etchings also were characteristic of hi,
artistic genius. His early death from consumption (qth of
November 1802) led indeed to Turner saying that “ had Tom
Girtin lived I should have starved.’’ From 1794 to his death
he was an exhibitor at the Royal Academy ; and some fine
examples of his work have lieen bequeathed by private owners
to the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
GIRVAN, a police burgh, market and fishing town of Ayrshire,
Scotland, at the mouth of the Girvan, 21 m. S.W. of Ayr, and
63 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway.
Pop. (igoi) 4024. The principal industry was weaving, but the
substitution of the power-loom for the hand-loom nearly put
an end to it. The herring fishery has developed to considerable
proportions, the harbour having been enlarged and protected
by piers and a breakwater. Moreover, the town has grown in
repute as a health and holiday resort, its situation being one of
the finest in the west of Scotland. There is excellent sea¬
bathing, and a good golf-course. The vale of Girvan, one of
the most fertile tracts in the shire, is made so by the Water of
Girvan, which rises in the loch of Girvan Eye, pursues a very
tortuous course of 36 m. and empties into the sea. Girvan is
the point of communication with Ailsa Craig. About 13 m.
S.W. at the mouth of the Stinchar is the fishing village of
Ballantrae (pop. 511).
GIRY (Jean Marif. Joseph), ARTHUR (1848-1809), French
historian, was born at Trivoux (Ain) on the 20th of February
1848. After rapidly completing his classical studies at the lycie.
at Chartres, he spent some time in the administrative service
and in journalism. He then entered the Ecole des Charles,
where, under the influence of J. Quicherat, he developed a strong
inclination to the study of the middle ages. The lectures at the
Ecole des Hautcs Etudes, which he attended from its foundation
in 1868, revealed his true bent; and henceforth he devoted
himself almost entirely to scholarship. He began modestly hy
the study of the municipal charters of St Omer. Having lx:en
appointed assistant lecturer and afterwards full lecturer at the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes, it was to the town of St Omer that he
devoted his first lectures and his first important work, Histoire
de la viUr de Saint-Omer et de ses institutions jusqu'au XIV'
siecle (1877). lie, however, soon realized that the charters of
one town can only be understood by comparing them with those
of otljer towns, and he was gradually led to continue the work
which Augustin Thierry had broadly outlined in his studies on
the Tiers Etdt. A minute knowledge of printed books and a
methodical examination of departmental and communal archives
furnished him with material for a long course of successful
lectures, which gave rise to some important works on municipal
history and led to a great revival of interest in the origins and
significance of the urban communities in France. Giry himself
published Les Etablissemsnts de Rouen (1883-1885), a study, based
on very minute researches, of the charter granted to the capital
of Normandy by Henry II., king of England, and of the diffusion
of similar charters throughout the French dominions of the
Plantagenets; a collection of Documents sw Us relations de
5*
la royaule avec Us oiUes ie France de //So a 13/4 (1^85); .and
Etude sur les engines de la commune de Saini-Quenlin (1887).
About this time personal considerations induced Giry to
devote the greater part of his activity to the study of diplomatic,
which had been much neglected at the Ecole dies Chartes, but
had made great strides in Germany. As assistant (1883) and
successor (1885) to Louis de Mas Latrie, Giry restored the study
of diplomatic, which had been founded in France by Dom Jean
MabUlon, to its legitimate importance. In 1894 he published
his Manuel de diplomatique, a monument of lucid and well-
arranged erudition, which contained the fruits of his long
experience of archives, original documents and textual criticism;
and his pupils, especially those at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes,
soon caught his enthusiasm. With their collaboration he under¬
took the preparation of an inventory and, subsequently, of a
critical edition of the Carolingian diplomas. By arrangement
with K. Miihlbacher and the editors of the Monumenta Ctrtnaniae
histnrica , this part of the joint work was reserved for Giry.
Simultaneously with this work he carried on the publication
of the annals of the Carolingian epoch on the model of the German
Jahrbucher, reserving for himself the reign of Charles the Bald.
Of this series his pupils produced in his lifetime Les Demiers
Carnlingiens (hy F. Lot, 1891), Eudes, comie de Paris et roi de
Francr (by E. Favre, 1893), and Charles U Simple (by Eckel,
1899). The biographies of Louis IV. and Hugh Capet and the
history of the kingdom of Provence were not published until
after his death, and his own unfinished history of Charles the
Bald was left to be completed by his pupils. The preliminary
work on the Carolingian diplomas involved such lengthy and
costly researches that the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres took over the expenses after Girv’s death.
In the midst of these multifarious labours Giry found time
for extensive archaeological researches, and made a special
studs' of the medics’al treatises dealing with the technical
processes employed in the arts and industries. He prepared
a new edition of the monk Theophilus’s celebrated treatise,
Dmersarum ariium schcdula, and for several years devoted his
Saturday mornings to laboratory research with the chemist
Ainu' 1 Girard at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, the results
of which were utilized by Mareellin I’erthelot in the first volume
(1894) of his Chimie au moyen age. Girv took an energetic part in
the Collection de testes relaiijs u fInstoire du moyen age, which
was due in great measure to his initiative. He was appointed
director of the section of French history in La Grande Encyclo¬
pedic, and contributed more than a hundred articles, many of
which, e.g. ‘‘Archives’’ and “Diplomatique," were original
works. In collaboration with his pupil Andie Reville, he wrote
the chapters on “ L’Emancipation des villes.les communes ctles
bourgeoisies ” and “ I.e ( ommerce et l'lndii-.irie au moyen age ”
for the Histoire generate of Luvisse and Knnibaud. Giry took
a keen interest in politics, joining the republican party and
writing numerous articles in the republic, m newspapers, mainly
on historical subjects. He was intensely inteiested in theiDrcyfus
case, but his robust constitution was undermin' d bv the anxieties
and disappointments occasioned by the Zola trial and the Rennes
court-martial, and he died in Paris on the 13th ol Novemlier 1899.
For details of Giry’s life and works see the luner.il orations pub¬
lished in the Bihtiathique de i ticole des Charles, and allrnvards in a
pamphlet (1890). See also the biography by Feidmand Lot in the
Annuairr. de I’ltcole des Hautes Etudes for iijoi ; and tin bibliography
of his works by Henry Maistre in the Carresfwndaiue hntmquc et
archtologique (1899 and 191x1).
GISBORNE, a seaport of New Zealand, in Cook county,
provincial district of Auckland, on Poverty Bay ol the east
coast of North Island. Pop. (1901) 2733 ; (1906) 5664. Wool,
frozen mutton and agricultural produce arc exported from the
rich district surrounding. Petroleum has been discovered iu
the neighbourhood, and about 40 m. from the town there are
warm medicinal springs. Near the site of Gisborne Captain
Cook landed in .769, and gave Poverty Bay its name from his
inability to obtain supplies owing to the hostility of the natives.
Young Nick’s Head, the southern horn of the bay, was named
from Nicholas Young, his ship’s boy, who first observed it.
« GISLJiBlSKl—G1UUU KUMAINU
oumr (or Giibekt) OF MOM (c. 1150-1**5), Flemish
chronicler, became a clerk, and obtained the positions of provost
of the churches of St Germanus at Mens and St Alban at Namur,
in addition to several other ecclesiastical appointments. In
official documents he is described as chaplain, chancellor or
notary, of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut (d. 1195). who employed
him on important business. After 1*00 Gislcbert wrote the
Ckromcon Hanoniense, a history of Hainaut and the neighbouring
lands from about 1050 to 1195, which is specially valuable for
the latter part of the xsth century, and for the life and times of
Baldwin V.
The chronicle is published in Band xxi. of the Monumenta Ger-
memiae historica (Hanover, 1X26 fol.); and separately with intro¬
duction by W. Arndt (Hanover, 1809). Another edition has been
published by L. Vandcrkindcrn in the Recueil tie tales pour servir A
I'ttudr dr I’histoire dr Belgique (Brussels, 1904) ; and there is a French
translation by G. Menilglaise (Tournai, 1S74).
See W. Meyer, Dos Wtrh des Kanslers Gislcbert von Mans uls
ver/assungsgeet kuhtluhe Quelle (Konigsberg, 1888); K. Huygens,
Hur lu valeur historu/ur Ur hi chrouique Gislcbert de Alons (Ghent,
1889) ; and W. Wattenba, h, Deutschlands Gcschuhtsqucllen, Band ii.
(Berlin, 1894).
ODORS, a town of France, in the department of F.ure, situated
in the pleasant valley of the Epte, 44 m. N.W. of Paris on the
railway to Dieppe. Pop. (1906) 4345. Gisors is dominated by
a feudal stronghold built chiefly by the kings of F,ngland in the
nth and 12th centuries. The outer enceinte, to which is attached
1 cylindrical donjon erected by Philip Augustus, king of France,
unbraces an area of over 7 acres. On a mound in the centre of
this space rises an older donjon, octagonal in shape, protected
t>y another enceinte. The outer ramparts and the ground they
inclose have been converted into promenades. The church of
5 t Gervais dates in its oldest parts— the central tower, the choir
md parts of the aisles-from the middle of the 13th century,
when it was founded bv Blanche of Castile. The rest of the
:hurch belongs to the Renaissance period. The Gothic and
Renaissance styles mingle in the west facade, which, like the
interior of the building, is adorned with a profusion of sculptures;
the fine carving on the wooden doors of the north and west
portals is particularly noticeable. The less interesting buildings
of the town include a wooden house of the Renaissance era,
an old convent now used ns an hotel de ville, and a handsome
modem hospital. There is a statue of General de Blanmonl,
bom at Gisors in 1770. Among the industries of Gisors are
felt manufacture, bleaching, dyeing and leather-dressing.
In the middle ages Gisors was cnpital of the Vexin. Its
position on the frontier of Normandy caused its possession to
be hotly contested by the kings of England and France during
the tatii century, at the end of which it and the dependent
fortresses of Neauflcs and Ifungti were ceded by Richard Cccur
de Lion to Philip Augustus. During the wars of religion of the
16th century it was occupied by the duke of Mayenne on behalf
of the League, and in the 17th century, during the Fronde, by
the duke of Longueville. Gisors was given to Charles Auguste
Fouquef in 1718 in exchange for Bclle-llo-en-Mer and made a
duchy in 1742. It afterwards came into the possession of the
count of F.u and the duke of Penthtevre,
GUSING, GEORGE ROBERT (1857-1903), English novelist,
was bom at Wakefield on the 22nd of November 1857. He was
educated at the Quaker boarding-school of Alderley Edge and
at Owens College, Manchester. His life, especially its earlier
period, was spent in great poverty, mainly in l/tndon, though
he was for a time also in the United States, supporting him¬
self chiefly by private teaching. He published his first novel,
Workers in the Pawn, in j88o. The Vnclasscd (1884) and Isabel
Clarendon (»886) followed. Demos ( 1886). a novel dealing with
socialistic ideas, was, however, the first to attract attention. It
was followed by ft series of novels remarkable for their pictures
of lower middle rlass life. Gissing's own experiences had pre¬
occupied him with poverty and its brutalizing effects on char¬
acter. He made no attempt at popular writing, and for a long
time the sincerity of his wotk was appreciated only by a limited
public. Among his more characteristic novels were: Tkyrsa
(1887), A Life's Morning (i88ffi, The Nether World (t 889), New
Grub Street (1891), Bom in Exile (189a), The Odd Women (1893),
In the Year of Jubilee (1894), The Whirlpool (1897). Others,
e.g. The Town Traveller (1901), indicate a humorous faculty,
but the prevailing note of his novels is that of the struggling
life of the shabby-genteel and lower classes and the conflict
between education and circumstances. The quasi - autobio¬
graphical Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft (1903) reflects
throughout Gissing’s studious and retiring tastes. He was a
good classical scholar and had a minute acquaintance with the
late Latin historians, and with Italian antiquities; and his
posthumous Veranilda (1904), a historical romance of Italy in
the time of Theodoric the Goth, was the outcome of his favourite
studies. Gissing’s powers as a literary critic arc shown in his
admirable study on Charles Dickens (1898). A book of travel,
By the Ionian Sea, appeared in 1901. lie died at St Jean de
Luz in the Pyrenees on the 28th of December 1903.
See also the introductory essay by T. Seccombe to The House of
Cobwebs (1906), a posthumous volume of Gissing's short stories.
GITSCHIN (Czech Jtlin ), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 65 m.
N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900! 9790, mostly Czech. The
parish church was begun by Wallenstein after the model of
the pilgrims’ church of Santiago de Compostela in Spain, but
not completed till 1655. The castle, which stands next to the
church, was built by Wallenstein and finished in 1630. It was
here that the emperor Francis I. of Austria signed the treaty of
1813 by which he threw in his lot with the Allies against Napoleon.
Wallenstein was interred at the neighbouring Carthusian mon¬
astery, but in 1639 the head and right hand were taken by
General Ban6r to Sweden, and in 170a the other remains were
removed by Count Vincent of Waldstein to his hereditary
burying ground at Munchengratz. Gitschin was originally the
village ot Zidinivcs and received its present name when it was
raised to the dignity of a town by Wenceslaus II. in 1302. The
place lielonged to various noble Bohemian families, and in the
17th century earnc. into the hands of Wallenstein, who made it
the capital of the duchy of Friedland and did much to improve
and extend it. His murder, and the miseries of the Thirty
Years’ War, brought it very low ; and it passed through several
hands before it was bought by Prince TrauUmnnnsdorf, to
whose family it still lielongs. On the 29th of June 1866 the
Prussians gained here a great victory over the Austrians. This
victory made possible the junction of the first and second
Prussian army corps, and had as an ultimate result the Austrian
defeat at Koniggrutz.
GIUDICI, PAOLO EM1LIANO (1812-1872), Italian writer,
was born .in Sicily. His History of Italian Literature (1844)
brought him to the front, and in 1848 he became professor of
Italian literature at Pisa, but after a few months was deprived
of the chair on account of his liberal views in politics. On the
re-establishment of the Italian kingdom he became professor of
aesthetics (resigning 1862) and secretary of the Academy of
Fine Arts ut Florence, and in 1867 was elected to the chamber
of deputies. He held a prominent place as an historian, his
works including a Storia del teatro (i860), and Sioria dei comuni
italiani (1861), besides a translation of Macaulay's History of
England (1856). He died at Tonbridge in England, on the 8th of
September 1872.
A Life appeared at Florence in 1874.
GIULIO ROMANO, or Girno Pippi (r. 1492-1546), the head
of the Roman school of painting in succession to Raphael.
This prolific painter, modeller, architect and engineer receives
his common appellation from the place of hif birth—Rome,
in the Macello de’ Corbi. His name in full was Giulio di Pietro
de Filippo de’ Giannuzzi—Giannuzzi being the true family name,
and Pippi (which has practically superseded Giannuzzi) being
an abbiwiation from the name of his grandfather Filippo.
The date of Giulio’s birth is a little uncertain. Vasari (who
knew him personally) speaks of him as fifty-four years old at
the date of his death, 1st November 1546; thus he would have
been born in 1492. Other accounts assign 1498 as the date of
birth. This would make Giulio young indeed in the early and
in such case most precocious stages of his artistic career, and
GIULIO ROMANO S3
would show him as dying, after an infinity of hard work, at the
comparatively early age of forty-eight.
Giulio must at all events have been quite youthful when he
first became the pupil of Raphael, and at Raphael’s death in
1520 he was at the utmost twenty-eight years of age. Raphael
had loved him as a son, and had employed him in some leading
works, especially in the Loggie of the Vatican ; the series there
popularly termed “ Raphael's Bible " is done in large measure
by Giulio,—as for instance the subjects of the “ Creation of Adam
and Eve,” “ Noah’s Ark,” and “ Moses in the Bulrushes.” In
the saloon of the “ lnocndio del Borgo,” also, the figures of
'• Benefactors of the Church ” (Charlemagne, &c.) are Giuiio's
handiwork. It would appear that in subjects of this kind
Raphael simply furnished the design, and committed the execu¬
tion of it to some assistant, such as Giulio,—taking heed, however,
to bring it up, by final retouching, to his own standard of style
and type. Giulio at a later date followed out exactly the same
plan ; so that in both instances inferiorities of method, in the
general blocking-out and even in the details of the work, are not
to be precisely charged upon the catooscuola. Amid the multitude
of Raphael’s pupils, Giulio was eminent in pursuing his style, and
showed universal aptitude ; he did, among other things, a large
amount of architectural planning for his chief. Raphael lie-
queathed to Giulio, and to his fellow-pupil Gianfrancesco Penni
(“ II Fattore "), his implements and works of art; and upon
them it devolved to bring to completion the vast fresco-work of
the “ Hall of Constantine ” in the Vatican—consisting, along
with much minor matter, of the four large subjects, the “ Battle of
Constantine,” the “ Apparition of the Cross,” the “ Baptism of
Constantine ” and the “ Donation of Rome to the Pope.” The
two former compositions were executed by Pippi, the two latter
by Penni. The whole of this onerous undertaking was com¬
pleted within a period of only three years,—which is the more
remarkable as, during some part of the interval since Raphael’s
decease, the Fleming, Adrian VI., had been pope, and his anti-
aesthetic pontificate had left art and artists almost in a state of
inanition. Clement VII. had now, however, succeeded to the
popedom. By this time Giulio was regarded as the first painter
in Rome ; but his Roman careei was fated to have no further
sequel.
Towards the end of 1524 his friend the celebrated writer
Baldassar Castiglione seconded with sucoess the urgent request
of the duke of Mantua, Federigo Gonzaga, that Giulio should
migrate to that city, and enter the duke’s service for the purpose
of carrying out his projects in architecture and pictorial decora¬
tion. These projects were already considerable, and under
Giuiio’s management they became far more extensive still.
The duke treated his painter munificently as to house, table,
horses and whatever was in request; and soon a very cordial
attachment sprang up between them. In Pippi’s multifarious
work in Mantua three principal undertakings should be noted.
(1) In the Castello he painted the “ History of Troy,” along with
other subjects. (2) In the suburban ducal residence named
the Palazzo del Te (this designation being apparently derived
from the form of the roads which led towards the edifice) he
rapidly carried out a rebuilding on a vastly enlarged scale,—
the materials being brick and terra-cotta, as there is no local
stone,—and decorated the rooms with his most celebrated
works in oil and fresco painting—the story of Psyche, Icarus,
the fall of the Titans, and the portraits of the ducal horses and
hounds. The foreground figures of Titans are from 12 to 14 ft.
high; the room, even in its structural details, is made to subserve
the general artistic purpose, and many of its architectural
features are distorted accordingly. Greatly admired though these
pre-eminent works have always been, and at most times even
more than can now be fully ratified, they have suffered severely
at the hands of restorers, and modem eyes see them only through
a dull and deadening fog of renovation. The whole of the work
on the Palazzo del Te, which is of the Doric order of architecture,
occupied abentt five years.* (3) Pippi recast and almost rebuilt the
cathedral of Mantua; erected his own mansion, replete with
numerous antiques and other articles of vertu; reconstructed
the street architecture to a very huge extent, and made the city,
sapped as it is by the shallows of the Minrio, comparatively
healthy ; and at Marmiruolo, some £ m. distant from Mantua,
he worked out other important buildings and paintings. He
was in fact, for nearly a quarter of a century, a not of Demlragus
of the arts of design in the Mantuan territory.
Giuiio’s activity was interrupted but not terminated by the
death of Duke Federigo. The duke’s brother, a cardinal who
became regent, retained him in full employment. For a while he
went to Bologna, and constructed the facade of the church of
S. Petronio in that city. He was afterwards invited to succeed
Antonio Sangallo as architect of St Peter's in Rome,—a splendid
appointment, which, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition
of his wile and of the cardinal regent, he had almost resolved
to accept, when a fever overtook him, and, acting upon a con¬
stitution somewhat enfeebled by worry and labour, caused his
death on the rst of November 1546. He was buried in the church
of S. Bamaba in Mantua. At the time of his death Giulio
enjoyed an annual income of more than 1000 ducats, accruing
from the liberalities of his patrons. He left a widow, and a son
and daughter. The son. named Raffaello, studied painting,
but died before he could produce any work of importance ; the
daughter, Virginia, married Ercole Malatesta.
Wide and solid knowledge of design, combined with a prompti¬
tude of composition that was never at fuult, formed the chief
motive power and merit of Giulio Romano's art. Whatever
was wanted, he produced it at once, throwing off, as Vasari says,
a large design in an hour ; and lie may in that sense, though not
equally so when an imaginative or ideal test is applied, be called
a great inventor. It would be difficult to name any other artist
who, working as an architect, and as the plastic and pictorial
embellisher of his architecture, produced a total of work so fully
and homogeneously his own ; hence he has been named “ the
prince of decorators.” He had great knowledge of the human
frame, and represented it with iorce and truth, though some¬
times with an excess of movement ; lie was also learned in other
matters,especially in medals, and in the plans of ancient buildings.
In design he was more strong and emphatic than graceful, and
worked a great deal from his aceimiulated stores of knowledge,
without consulting nature direct. As a general rule, his designs
arc finer and freer than his paintings, whether in fresco or in oil
—his easel pictures being comparativeb tew, and some of them
the reverse of decent; his colouring is marked by an excess of
blackish and heavy tints.
Giulio Romano introduced the style <>l Rapliac! into Mantua,
and established there a considerable school of art. which surpassed
in development that of his predecessor Mantegna, and almost
rivalled that of Rome. Very mans engravings-- more than
three hundred are mentioned—were made contemporaneously
from his works; and this not only in ItuK. but in France and
Flanders as well. His plan of entrusting principally to assistants
the pictorial execution of his cartoons lias already heen,refcrred
to; Primaticcio was one of the leading coadjutors. Rinaldo
Mantovano, a man of great ability who died young, was the
chief executant of the “ Fall of the Giants ” ; lie also co-operated
with Benedetto Pagni da Pescia in painting the remarkable
series of horses and hounds, and the story ol Psyche. Another
pupil was Fermo Guisoni, who remained settled in Mantua.
The oil pictures of Giulio Romano are not generally of high
importance; two leading ones are the “ Martyrdom ot Stephen,”
in the church of that saint in Genoa, and a “ Holy Family ”
in the Dresden Gallery. Among his architectural works not
already mentioned is the Villa Madama in Rome, with a fresco
of Polyphemus, and boys and satyrs ; the Ionic facade of this
building may have been sketched out by Raphael.
Vasari gives a pleasing impression of the character of Giulio.
He was vary loving to his friends, genial, affable, well-bred,
temperate in the pleasures of the table, but liking fine apparel
and a handsome scale of living. He was good-looking, of
middle height, with black curly hair and dark eyes, and an
ample beard: his portrait, painted by himself, is in the
Louvre.
54
GIUNTA PISANO—GIUSTINIANI
Bsaides Vasari, L»nri other' historians ojut.thejol tomng
Hria may be mentioned: C. D. Arco, Vtla di C. Ptppt (*8*8) ■ i
C. C. von Murr. Notice cue let estampet gravies apris dessinsde jutes
Eomain (1B65); R. Sanrio, two work* on Etchings andPatnlings
<r8oo, 1Sj6). , (W ’ .
GIUNTA PISANO, the earliest Italian painter whose name is
found inscribed on an extant work. He is said to have exercised
his art from 1302 to 1236. He may perhaps have been born
toward* 11S0 in Pisa, and died in or soon after 1*36 ; but other
accounts give 120a as the date of his birth, and 1258 or there- j
•bouts for his death. There is some ground for thinking that ;
hi* family name was Capiteno. The inscribed work above
referred to, one of his earliest, is a " Crucifix,” long in the kitchen (
of the convent of St Anne in Pisa. Other Pisan works of like
date are very barbarous, and some of them may be also from
the hand of Giunta. It is said that he painted in the upper
church of Assisi,—in especial a ” Crucifixion " dated 12,36, with a
figure of Father Elias, the general of the Franciscans, embracing
the foot of the cross. In the sacristy is a portrait of St Francis,
also ascribed to Giunta; but it more probably belongs to the
dose of the 13th century. He was in the practice of painting
upon cloth stretched on wood, and prepared with plaster.
GIURGEVO ( Giurgiu ). the capital of the department of
Vlushca, Rumania; situated amid mud-flats and marshes on
the left bank of the Danube. Pop. (1900) 13,977. Three small
islands face the town, and a larger one shelters its port, Smarda,
24 m. E. The rich corn-lands on the north are traversed by a
railway to Bucharest, the first line opened in Rumania, which
was built in 1869 and afterwards extended to Smarda. Steamers
ply to Rustcbuk, 24 m. S.W. on the Bulgarian shore, linking !
the Rumanian railway system to the chief Bulgarian line north
of the Balkans (Rustchuk-Vama). Thus Giurgevo, besides
having a considerable trade with the home ports lower down
the Danube, is the headquarters of commerce between Bulgaria
and Rumania, it exports timber, grain, salt and petroleum;
importing coal, iron and textiles. There are also large saw-mills.
Giurgevo occupies the site of Theodorapolis, a city built
by the Roman emperor Justinian (a.d. 483-565). It was
founded in the 14th century by Genoese merchant adventurers,
who established a bank, and a trade in silks and velvets. They
called the town, after the patron saint of Genoa, San Giorgio
(St George); and hence comes its present name. As a fortified
town, Giurgevo figured often in the wars for the conquest of the
lower Danube; especially in the struggle of Michael the Brave
(t593~i6oi) against the Turks, and in the later Russo-Turkish
Wars. It was burned in 1659. In 1829, its fortifications were
finally razed, the only defence left being a castle on the island of
Slobosia, united to the shore by a bridge.
GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE (1809-1850), Tuscan satirical poet, was
born at Monsummano, a small village of the Valdimevole, on
the !2th of May 1809. His father, a cultivated and rich man,
accustomed his son from childhood to study, and himself taught
him, angmg other subjects, the first rudiments of music. After¬
wards, in order to curb his too vivacious disposition, he placed
the boy under the charge of a priest near the village, whose
severity' did perhaps more evil than good. At twelve Giusti
was sent to school at Florence, and afterwards to Pistoia and to
Lucca; and during those years he wrote his fint verses. In
1826 he went to study law at Pisa; but, disliking the study,
he spent eight yean in the course, instead of the customary four.
He lived gaily, however, though his father kept him short of
money, and learned to know the world, seeing the vices of
society, and the folly of certain laws and customs from which
his country was suffering. The experience thus gained he turned
to good account in the use he made of it in his satire.
His father had in the meantime changed his place of abode
to Pesda; but Giuseppe did worse there, and in November
1832, his father having paid his debts, he returned to study at
Pisa, seriously cnamoured of a woman whom he could not marry,
hut now commencing to write in real earnest in behalf of his
oountry. With the poem called La GUgUottim (the guillotine),
Giusti began to strike out a gpth for himself, and thus revealed
his great genius. From this time he showed himself the Italian
Biranger, and even surpassed the Frenchman in richness of
language, refinement of humour and depth of satirical conception.
In Beranger there is more feeling for what is needed for popular
poetry. His poetry is less studied, its vivacity perhaps more
boisterous, more spontaneous; but Giusti, in both manner and
conception, is perhaps more elegant, more refined, more pene¬
trating. In 1834 Giusti, having at last entered the legal profes¬
sion, left Pisa to go to Florence, nominally to practise with the
advocate Capoquadri, but really to enjoy life in the capital of
Tuscany. He fell seriously in love a second time, and as before
was abandoned by his love. It was then he wrote his finest
verses, by means of which, although his poetry was not yet
collected in a volume, but for some years passed from hand to
hand, his name gradually became famous. The greater part
of his poems were published clandestinely at Lugano, at no
little risk, as the work was destined to undermine the Austrian
rule in Italy. After the publication of a volume of verses at
Bastia, Giusti thoroughly established his fame by his GingiUino,
the best in moral tone us well as the most vigorous and effective
of his poems. The poet sets himself to represent the vileness
of the treasury officials, and the base means they used to conceal
the necessities of the state. The GingiUino has all the character
of a classic satire. When first issued in Tuscany, it struck all
as too impassioned and personal. Giusti entered heart and soul
into the political movements of 1847 and 1848, served in the
national guard, sat in the parliament for Tuscany ; but finding
that there was more talk than action, that to the tyranny of
princes had succeeded the tyranny of demagogues, he hegan to
fear, and to express the fear, that for Italy evil rather than
good had resulted. He fell, in consequence, from the high
position he had held in public estimation, and in 1848 was
regarded as a reactionary. His friendship for the marquis
Gino Capponi, who had taken him into his house during the last
years of his life, and who published after Giusti's death a volume
of illustrated proverbs, was enough to compromise him in the
eyes of such men as Guerrazzi, Montanelli and Niccolini. On
the 31st of May 1850 he died at Florence in the palace of his
friend.
The poetry of Giusti, under a light trivial aspect, has a lofty
civilizing significance. The type of his satire is entirely originai,
and it had also the great merit of appearing at the right moment,
of wounding judiciously, of sustaining the part of the comedy
that " castigat ridendo mores.” Hence his verse, apparently
jovial, was received by the scholars and politicians of Italy in
all seriousness. Alexander Manzoni in some of his letters showed
a hearty admiration of the genius of Giusti; and the weak
Austrian and Bourbon governments regarded them as of the
gravest importance.
His poems have often been reprinted, the best editions being those
of Le Monnier, Carducci (1839 ; 3rd ed., 1879), Fioretti (1876) and
Bragi (1890). Besides the poems and the proverbs already men¬
tioned, we have a volume of select letters, full of vigour and written
in the best Tuscan language, and a fine critical discourse on Giuseppe
I'arini, the satirical poet. In some of his compositions the elegiac
rather than the satirical poet is seen. Many of his verses have been
excellently translated into German by Paul Heyse. Good English
translations were published in the Athenaeum by Mrs T. A. Trollope,
and some by W. D. Howells are in his Modern Italian Poets (1887).
GIUSTINIANI, the name of a prominent Italian family which
originally belonged to Venice, but established itself subsequently
in Genoa also, and at various times had representatives in
Naples, Corsica and several of the islands of the Archipelago.
In the Venetian line the following are most worthy of mention
1. Lorenzo (1380-1465), the Laurentius Justinianus of the
Roman calendar, at an early age entered the congregation of
the canons of St George in Alga, and in 1433 became general
of that order. About the same time he was made by Eugenius
IV. bishop of Venice; and his episcopate was marked by con¬
siderable activity in church extension and reform. On the
removal of the patriarchate from Grado to Venice by Nicholas V.
in 1451, Giustmiani was promoted to that dignity, which he
held for fourteen year*. He died on January 8, 1465, was
canonized by Pope Alexander VIIL, his festival (semi-duplex)
GIUSTO DA GUANTD 55
«
being fixed by Innocent XII. for September 5th, the anni- he published a Latin version of HmMortk Nevockim of Mairaonides
versary his elevation to the bishopric. His works, consisting ( Director dubilantium out perplexorum, 1510), and also edited in
of sermons, letters and ascetic treatises, have been frequently Latin the Aureus libeUus of Aeneas Platonkus, and the Tmaeus
reprinted,—the best edition being that of the Benedictine of Chalddius. His annals of Genoa (Castigatissimi annali di
P. N. A. Giustiniani, published at Venice in 2 vols. folio, 1751. Genova) were published posthumously in 1537.
They are wholly devoid of literary merit. His life has been The following are also noteworthy :—
written by Bernard Giustiniani, by Maffei and also by the 7. Pompeio (1560-1616), a native of Corsica, who served under
Bollandists. Alessandro Fames* and the marquis of Spinola in the Low
2. Leonardo (1388-1446), brother of the preceding, was for Countries, where he lost an arm, and, from the artificial substitute
some years a senator of Venice, and in 1443 was chosen procurator which he wore, came to be known by the sobriquet Bras de Fer.
of St Mark. He translated into Italian Plutarch’s Lives of He also defended Crete against the Turks; and subsequently was
Cinna and Lucullus, and was the author of some poetical pieces, killed in a reconnaissance at Friuli. He left in Italian a,,personal
amatory and religious— strambotti and cansonetti —as well as 1 narrative of the war in Handers, which has been repeatedly
of rhetorical prose compositions. Some of the popular songs j published in a Latin translation (Helium Belgicum, Antwerp,
set to music bv him became known as Giustiniani. 1609).
3. Bernardo (1408-1489), son of I-eonardo, was a pupil of 8. Giovanni (1313-1556), born in Candia, translator of
Guarino and of George of Trebizond, and entered the Venetian Terence’s Andria and Eunuchus, of Cicero’s In Verrem, and of
senate at an early age. He served on several important diplo- Virgil's Aeneid, viii.
matic missions both to France and Rome, and about 1485 j 9. Ok:,atto (1538-1603), Venetian senator, translator of the
became one of the council of ten. His orations and letters Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles and author of a collection of
were published in 1492 ; hut his title to any measure of fame j Rime, in imitation of Petrarch. He is regarded as one of the
he possesses rests upon his history of Venice, De origine urbis 1 latest representatives of the classic Italian school.
Venetiarum rebusque. ah ipsa gestis hisloria (1492), which was ] 10. Geronimo, a Genoese, flourished during the latter half
translated into Italian by Domenichi in 1545, and which at the 1 of the 16th century. He translated the Alcestis of Euripides
time of its appearance was undoubtedly the best work upon the \ and three of the plays of Sophocles ; and wrote two original
subject of which it treated. It is to be found in vol. i. of the tragedies, Jephte and Christo in l’assionc.
Thesaurus of Graevius. J 11. Vincenzo, who in the beginning of the 17th century
4. Pietro, also a senator, lived in the 16th century, and j built the Roman palace and made the art collection which are
wrote on Historia rerum Venetarum in continuation of that of ; still associated with his name (see Galleria Giustiniana, Rome,
Bernardo. He was also the author of chronicles De gestis Petri 1631). The collection was removed in 1807 to Paris, where it
Mocenigi and De hello Venetorum cum Carolo VIII. The latter ! was to some extent broken up. In 1815 all that remained of it,
has been reprinted in the Script, rer. ltal. vol. xxi. about 170 pictures, was purchased bv the king of Prussia and
Of the Genoese branch of the family the most prominent removed to Berlin, where it forms a portion of the royal museum,
members were the following GIUSTO DA GUANTO f|on.in:s, or Justus, of Ghkni]
5. Paolo, di Monigi.ia (1444-1502), a member of the order (fl. 1465-1475), Flemish painter. The public records of the city
of Dominicans, was, from a comparatively early age, prior of of Ghent have been diligently searched, but in vain, for a clue
their convent at Genoa. As a preacher he was very successful, to the history of Justus or jodocus, whom Vasari and Guicciardini
and his talents were fully recognized by successive popes, by called Giusto da Guanto. ’ Flemish annalists of the 16th century
whom he was made master of the sacred palace, inquisitor- have enlarged upon the scanty statements of Vasari, and described
general for all the Genoese dominions, and ultimately bishop Jodocus as a pupil of Hubert Van Eyck. But there is no source
of Scio and Hungarian legate. He was the author of a number of j to which this fable can be traced. The registers of St Luke’s
Biblical commentaries (no longer extant), which are said to gild at Ghent comprise six masters of the name of Joos or
have been characterized by great erudition. Jodocus who practised at Ghent in the 15th century. But none
6. Auostino (1470-1536) was born at Genoa, and spent of the works of these masters has been preserved, and it is
some wild years in Valencia, Spain. Having in 1487 joined the impossible to compare their style with that of Giusto. It was
Dominican order, he gave himself with great energy to the between 1465 and 1474 that this artist executed the “Communion
study of Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic, and in 1514 of the Apostles " which Vasari has descrilied, and modem critics
began the preparation of a polyglot edition of the Bible. As now see to the best advantage in the museum ot Urbino. It
bishop of Nebbio in Corsica, he took part in some of the earlier was painted for the brotherhood of Corpus Christi at the bidding
sittings of the Lateran council (1516-1517), but, in consequence of Frederick of Montefeltro, who was introduced into the picture
of party complications, withdrew to his diocese, and ultimately as the companion of Caterino Zeno, a Persian envoy at that
to France, where he became a pensioner of Francis 1 ., and was time on a mission to the court of Urbino. From this curious
the first to occupy a chair of Hebrew and Arabic in the university production it may be seen that Giusto, far from lieing a pupil of
of Paris. After an absence from Corsica for a period of five Hubert Van Eyck, was merely a disciple of a later and less
years, during which he visited England and the Ixiw Countries, gifted master, who took to Italy some of the peculiarities of bis
and became acquainted with Erasmus and More, he returned native schools, and forthwith commingled them with those of
to Nebbio, about 1522, and there remained, with comparatively his adopted country. As a composer and draughtsman Giusto
little intermission, till in 1536, when, while returning from a compares unfavourably with the better-known painters of
visit to Genoa, he perished in .a storm at sea. He was the Flanders; though his portraits are good, his ideal figures are
possessor of a very fine library, which Fe hequeathed to the not remarkable for elevation of type or for subtlety of character
republic of Genoa. Of his projected polyglot only the Psalter and expression. His work is technically on a level with that of
was published (Psalterium Hebraeum, Graecum, Arabicum, et Gerard of St John, whose pictures are preserved in the IMvedere
Chaldaicutn, Genoa, 1616). Besides the Hebrew text, the LXX. at Vienna. Vespasian, a Florentine bookseller who contributed
translation, the Chaldee paraphrase, and an Arabic version, it much to form the antiquarian taste of Fredi rick of Montefeltro,
contains the Vulgate translation, a new Latin translation by states that this duke sent to the Netherlands for a capable artist
the editor, a Latin translation of the Chaldee, and a collection to paint a series of “ ancient worthies ” for a library recently
of scholia. Giustiniani printed 2000 copies at his own expense, erected in the palace of Urbino. It has beon conjectured that
including fifty in vellum for presentation to the sovereigns of the author of these “ worthies,” which are still in existence
Europe and Asia; but the sale of the work did not encourage at the Louvre and in the Barberini palace at Rome, was Giusto.
him to proceed with the. New Testament, which he had also Yet there are notable divergences between these pictures and the
prepared for the press. Besides an edition of the book of Job, “Communion of the Apostles." Still, it is not beyond the range
containing the original text, the Vulgate, and a new translation, of probability that Giusto should have been able, after a certain
5 6 GIVET—GLACIAL PERIOD
time, to temper hie Flemish stvle by studying the masterpieces
Of Santi and Melozzo, and so to acquire the misted manner of the
Flemings and Italians which these portraits of worthies display.
Sadi an assimilation, if it really took place, might justify the
Flemings in the indulgence of a certain pride, considering that
Raphael not only admired these worthies, but copied them in
the sketch-hook which is now the ornament of the Venetian
Academy. There is no ground for presuming that Giusto ad
Guanto is identical with Justus d’Allamagna who painted the
“ Annunciation " (1451) in the cloisters of Santa Maria di Custeilo
at Genoa. The drawing anti colouring of this wall painting
shows that Justus d’Allamagna was as surely a native of south
Germany as his homonym at Urbino was a born Netherlander.
GIVET, a town of northern France, in the department of
Ardennes, 40 m. N. by E. of M&tercs on the Eastern railway
between that town and Namur. Pop. (1906) town, 5110;
commune, 7468. Give! lies on the Meuse about 1 m. from the
Belgian frontier, tncl was formerly a fortress of considerable
importance. It is divided into three portions—the citadel
called Charlemont and Grand Givet on the left bank of the river,
and on the opposite bank Petit Givet, connected with Grand
Givet by a stone bridge of five arches. The fortress of Charle¬
mont, situated at the top of a precipitous rock 705 ft. high, was
founded by the emperor Charles V. in the 16th century, and
further fortified by Vauban at the end of the 17th century ; it
is the only survival of the fortifications of the town, the rest
of which were destroyed in 1892. In Grand Givet there arc a
church and a town-hall built by Vauban, and ft statue of the
composer fttienne Mfhul stands in the fine square named after
him. Petit Givet, the industrial quarter, is traversed by a
small tributary of the Meuse, the Houille, whieh is bordered by
tanneries and glue factories. Pencils and tobacco-pipes arc
also manufactured. The town has considerable river traffic,
consisting chiefly of coal, copper and stone. There is a chamber
of arts and manufactures.
GIVORS, a manufacturing town of south-eastern France, in
the department of Rhone, on the railway between Lyons and
St f.tienne, 14 m. S, of Lyon. Pop. (1906) 11,444. It is situated
on the right bank of the Rhone, here crossed by a suspension
bridge, at its confluence with the Gier and the canal of Givors,
which starts at Grand Croix on the Gier, some 13 m. distant.
The chief industries are tnetal-working, engineering-construction
and glass-working. There are coal-mines in the vicinity. On the
hill overlooking the town are the ruins of the ch&teau of St
Gerald and of the convent of St Ferrcol, remains of the old
town destroved in 1594.
GJALLAR, in Scandinavian mythology, the horn of Heimdall,
the guardian of the rainbow bridge by which the gods pass and
repass between earth and heaven. This horn had to lie blown
whenever a stranger approached the bridge.
GLABRIO. 1. Manius Acinus Glahrio, Roman statesman
and general, member of a plebeian family. When consul in
191 B.c. he defeated Antiochus the Great of Syria at Thermopylae,
and compelled him to leave Greece. He then turned his attention
to the Aetolians, who had persuaded Antiochus to declare war
against Rome, and was only prevented from crushing them by
the intercession of T. Quinctius Flamininus. In 189 Glabrio
was a candidate for the censorship, but was bitterly opposed
by the nobles. He was accused by the tribunes of having
concealed a portion of the Syrian spoils in his own house ; his
legate gave evidence against him, and he withdrew his candi¬
dature. It is probable that he was the author of the law which
left it to the discretion of the pontiffs to insert or omit the
intercalary month of the year.
Censorinus, Of Jit nataK, xx.; Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 13;
index to Livy ; Appiftn, Syr. 17-21.
». Manius Acinus Glabrio, Roman statesman and general,
grandson of the famott jurist P. Muchis Scaevola. When
ptMtor urbanus (70 b.c.) he presided at the trial of Verres.
According to Dio Caamts (xxxvi. 38), in conjunction with
L. Calpurnius Pieo, his cowague in the consulship (67), he
brought forward a severe ww (Lex Acilia Calpumia) against
illegal canvassing at elections. In the same year he was ap¬
pointed to supersede L. Lucutlus in the government of Cilicia
and the command of the war against Mithradates, but as he did
absolutely nothing and was unable to control the soldiery,
he was in turn superseded by Pompey according to the provisions
of the Manilian law. Little else is known, of him except that
he declared in favour of the death punishment for the Catilinarian
conspirators.
Dio Cassius xxxvi. 14, 16. 24; Cicero, Pro lege Manilla, 2. 9;
Appian, Mitkrid. 90.
GLACE BAY, a city and port of entry of Cape Breton county.
Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Atlantic Ocean, 14 m. E. of Sydney,
with which it is connected both by steam and electric railway.
It is the centre of the properties of the Dominion Cool Company
(founded 1893), which produce most of the coal of Nova Scotia.
Though it has a fair harbour, most ol the shipping is done from
Sydney in summer and from Louisburg in winter. Pop. (1892)
2000; (1901)6945; (1906)13,000.
GLACIAL PERIOD, in geology, the name usually given, by
English and American writers, to that comparatively recent
time when all parts of the world suffered a marked lowering
of temperature, accompanied in northern Europe and North
America by glacial conditions, not unlike those which now
characterize the Polar regions. This period, which is also
known as the “ Great Ice Age ” (German Die Eiszcit), is
synchronous with the Pleistocene period, the earlier of the Post-
Tertiary or Quaternary divisions of geological time. Although
“ Glacial period ” and “ Pleistocene ” (q.v.) arc often used
synonymously it is convenient to consider them separately,
inasmuch as not a few Pleistocene formations have no causal
relationship with conditions of glaciation. Not until the begin¬
ning of the 19th century did the deposits now generally recog¬
nized as the result of ice action receive serious attention ; the
tendency was to regard such superficial and irregular material
as mere rubbish. Early ideas upon the subject usually assigned
floods as the formative agency, end this view is still not without
its supporters (see Sir H. H. Howorth, The Glacial Nightmare
and the Flood). Doubtless this attitude was in part due to the
comparative rarity of glaciers and ice-fields where the work of
ice could be directly observed. It was natural therefore that the
first scientific references to glacial action should have been
stimulated by the Alpine regions of Switzerland, which called
forth the writings of J. -J. Scheuchzer, B. F. Kuhn, H. B. dc
Saussure, F. G. Hugi, and particularly those of J. Venetz, J. G.
von Charpentier and L. Aggasiz. Canon Rendu, J. Forbes
and others hod studied the cause of motion of glaciers, while
keen observers, notably Sir James Hall, A. Brongniart and
J. Playfair, had noted the occurrence of travelled and scratched
stones.
The result of these efforts was the conception of great ice-sheets
flowing over the land, grinding the rock surfaces and transporting
rock debris in the manner to be observed in the existing glaciers.
However, before this view had become established Sir C. Lyell
evolved the “ drift theory ” to explain the widely spread pheno¬
menon of 1 ransported blocks, boulder clay and the allied deposits;
in this he was supported by Sir H. de la Beche, Charles Darwin,
Sir R. I. Murchison and many others. According to the drift
theory, the transport and distribution of “ erratic blocks," &c.,
had been effected by floating icebergs; this view naturally
involved a considerable and widespread submergence of the
land, an assumption which appeared to receivp support from
the occasional presence of marine shells at high levels in the
“ drift ” deposits. So great was the influence of those who
favoured the drift theory that even to-day it cannot be said to
have lost complete hold ; we still speak of “ drift ” deposits in
England and America, and the belief in one or more great sub¬
mergences during the Glacial period is still held more firmly
by certain geologists than die evidence would seem to warrant.
The case against the drift theory was most clearly expressed
by Sir A. C. Ramsay for England and Scotland, and by the
Swedish scientist Otto Turell. Sinoe then the labours of Professor
James Geikie, Sir Archibald Geikie, Professor P. Kendall and
GLACIAL PERIOD 57
others in England; von Verendt, H. Credner, de Geer, E.
Geinitz, A. Helland, Jentzsch, K. Keilhack, A. Penck, H.
SchriSder, F. Wa hn s chaff e in Scandinavia and Germany ; T. C
Chamberlin, W. Upham, G. F. Wright in North America, have
all tended to confirm the view that it is to the movement of
glaciers and ice-sheets that we must look as the predominant
agent of transport and abrasion in this period. The three stages
through which our knowledge of glacial work lias advanced
may thus be summarized : (1) the diluvial hypothesis, deposits
formed by floods; (2) the drift hypothesis, deposits formed
mainly by icebergs and floating ice ; (3) the ice-sheet hypothesis,
deposits formed directly or indirectly through the agency of
flowing ice.
Evidences .—The evidence relied upon by geologists for the
former existence of the great ice-sheets which traversed the
northern regions of Europe and America is mainly of two kinds:
(1) the peculiar erosion of the older rocks by ice and ice-borne
stones, and (2) the nature and disposition of ice-borne rock
debris. After having established the criteria by which the work
of moving ice is to lie recognized in regions of active glaciation,
the task of identifying the results of earlier glaciation elsewhere
has been curried on with unabated energy.
1. Ice Erosion .—Although there are certain points of difference
between the work of glaciers and broad ice-sheets, the former
being more or less restricted laterally by the valleys in which
they flow, the general results of their passage over the rocky
floor are essentially similar. Smooth rounded outlines are
imparted to the rocks, markedly contrasting with the pinnacled
and irregular surfaces produced by ordinary weathering; where
these rounded surfaces have been formed on a minor scale the
well-known features of ruches moulnnnees (German Runihocker)
are created ; on a larger scale we have the erosion-form known
as “ crag and tail,” when the ice-sheet has overridden ground
with more pronounced contours, the side of the hill facing the
advancing ice being rounded and gently curved (German
Stossseile), and the opposite side ( Leeseite) steep, abrupt and
much less smooth. Such features are never associated with the
erosion of water. The rounding of rock surfaces is regularly
accompanied by grooving and striation (German Schrammen,
Schlifje) caused by the grinding action of stones and boulders
embedded in trie moving ice. These “ glacial striae ” are of
great value in determining the latest path of the vanished ice-
sheets (see map).' Several other erosion-features are generally
associated with ice action; such are the circular-headed valleys,
“ cirques ” or “ corrieh ” (German Zirkus) of mountain districts;
thepot-holes,giants’kettles ( Strudellncher, Riesenlopje ), familiarly
exemplified in the Gletschergarten near Lucerne ; the “ rock-
basins ” (Fclsseebecken) of mountainous regions are also believed
to be assignable to this cause on account of their frequent
association with other gladlai phenomena, but it is more than
probable that the action of running water (waterfalls, &c.)—
influenced no doubt by the disposition of the ice—has Vi d much
to do with these forms of erosion. As regards rock-basins,
geologists are still divided in opinion: Sir A. C, Ramsay, J.
Geikie, Tyndall, Helland, H. Hess, A. Penck, and others have
expressed themselves in favour of a glacial origin; while A.
Heim, F. Stapff, T.' Kjerulf, L. Rutimeyer and many others
have strongly opposed this view.
2. Glacial deposits may be roughly classified in two groups:
those that have been formed directly by the action of the ice,
and those formed through the agency of water flowing under,
upon, and from the ice-sneets, or in streams and lakes modified
by the presence of the ice. To differentiate in practice,between
the results of these two agencies is a matter of some difficulty
in the case of unstratified deposits; but the boulder clay may
be taken as the typical formation of the glacier or ice-sheet,
whether it has been left as a terminal moraine at the limit of
glaciation or as a ground moraine beneath the ice. A stratified
form of boulder clay, which not infrequently rests upon, and is
therefore younger than, the more typical variety, is usually
regarded as a deposit formed by water from the material
(englacial, innenmoran) held in suspension within the ice, and
set free during the process of melting. Besides the innumerable
boulders, large and small, embedded in the boulder clay, isolated
masses of rock, often of enormous size, have been borne by ice-
sheets far from their originu! home and stranded when the ice
melted. These “ erratic blocks," “ perched blocks ” (German
Eindltnge) are familiar objects in the Alpine glacier districts,
where they have frequently received individual names, but they
are just as easily recognized in regions from which the glaciers
that brought them there have long since l>een banished. Not
only did the ire transport blocks of bard rock, granite and the
litre, but huge masses of stratified rock were torn from their
bed by the same agency ; the musses of chalk in the cliffs near
Cromer are well known ; near Beilin, at hirkenwald, there is a
transported mass of chalk estimated to lie at least 2,000,000
cubic metres in bulk, which has traxelled probably 15 kilometres
from its original site ; a block of Lincolnshire oolite is recorded
by C. Fox-Strangways near Melton in Leicestershire, which is
300 yds. long and 100 yds. broad if no more ; and instances of a
similar kind might be multiplied.
When we turn to the “ fluvio-glnrial " deposits we find a
bewildering variety of stratified and partially bedded deposits
of gravel, sand and clay, occurring separately or in every
conceivable condition of association. Some of these deposits
have received distinctive names; such are the “ Kames ” of
Scotland, which are represented in Ireland h” " Kskers,” and in
Scandinavia by “ Asar.” Another type of liillm kv deposit is
exemplified by the “drums” or “ drumfire.." Everywhere
beyond the margin of the advancing ur ictuating ice-sheets
these deposits were being formed ; streams bore away coarse and
fine materials and spread them out upon alluvial plains or upon
the floors of innumerable lakes, many of which were directly
caused by the damming of the ordinary water-courses by Ihc ice.
As the level of such lakes was changed new beach-lines were
produced, such us are still evident in the great lake region of
North America, in the parallel roads of Glen Roy, and the
“ Strandlinien ” of many parts of northern Europe.
Viewed in relation to man's position on the earth, no geological
changes have had a more profound importance than those of the
Glacial period. The whole of the glaciated region bears evidence
of remarkable modification of topographic features ; in parts
of Scotland or Norway or Canada the old'rocks are bared of
soil, rounded and smoothed as far as the eye can see. The old
soil and subsoil, the product of ages of ordinary weathering,
were removed from vast areas to be deposited and concentrated
in others. Old valleys were filled—often to a great depth,
300-400 ft.: rivers were diverted from their old courses, never
to return ; lakes of vast size were caused by the damming of old
outlets (Lake Lahontan, Lake Agassiz, See., in North America),
while an infinite number of shifting lakelets—with their deposits
—played an important part along the ice-front at all stages
of its career. The influence of this period upon the present
$8 GLACIAL
distribution of plant and animal life in northern latitudes can
hardly be overestimated.
Much stress has been laid upon supposed (peat changes in
the level of the land in northern regions during the Glacial
period. The occurrence of marine shells at an elevation of
13jo ft. at Mnel Tryfaen in north Wales, and at isoo ft. near
Macclesfield in Cheshire, has been cited as evidence of profound
submergence by some geologists, though others see in these
and similar occurrences only the transporting action of ice-sheets
that have traversed the floor of the adjoining seas. Marine
shells in stratified materials have been found on the coast of
Scotland at 100 ft. and over, in S. Scandinavia at 600 to 800 ft.,
and in the “ Champlain ” deposits of North America at various
heights. 'Hie dead shells of the “ Yoldia clay ” cover wide areas
at the bottom of the North Atlantic at depths from 500 to 1300
fathoms, though the same mollusc is now found living in Arctic
seas at the depth of 5 to ij fathoms. This has been looked upon
as a proof that in the N W. European region the lithosphere
stood about aboo ft. higher than it does now (Brhgger, Nansen,
ffcc.), and it has been suggested that a union of the mainland of
Europe with that of North America—forming a northern con¬
tinental mass, “ 1‘rosarctis ”—may have been achieved by way
of Iceland, Jan Mayen Land and Greenland. The pre-glacial
valleys and fjords of Norway and Scotland, with their deeply
submerged seaward ends, are regarded as proofs of former
elevation. The great depth of alluvium in some places (236
metres at Bremen) points in the same direction. Evidences of
changes of level occur in early, middle and late Pleistocene
formations, and the nature of the evidence is such that it is on
the whole safer to assume the existence only of the more moderate
degree of change.
The Cause of the Glacial Period .—Many attempts have been
made to formulate a satisfactory' hypothesis that shall conform
with the known facts and explain the great change in climatic
conditions which set in towards the close of the Tertiary era,
and culminated during the Glacial period. Some of the more
prominent hypotheses may lie mentioned, but space will not
permit of a detailed analysis of theories, most of which rest
upon somewhat unsubstantial ground. The principal facts
to be taken into consideration are (i) the great lowering of
temperature over the whole earth ; (2) the localization of
extreme glaciation in north-west Europe and north-east America ;
and (3) the local retrogression of the ioc-shects, once or more
times repeated.
Some have suggested the simple solution of a change in the
earth's axis, and have indicated that the pole may have travelled
through some 15° to 20° of latitude; thus, the polar glaciation,
as it now exists, might have been in this way transferred to include
north-west Europe and North America ; but modem views on
the rigidity of the earth's body, together with the lack of any
evidence of the correlative movement of climatic zones in other
parts pf the world, render this hypothesis quite untenable.
On similar grounds a change in the earth’s centre of gravity' is
unthinkable. Theories baaed upon the variations in the obliquity
of the ecliptic or eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or on the
passage of the solar system through cold regions of space, or
upon the known variations in the heat emitted by the sun, are
all insecure and unsatisfactory. The hypothesis elaborated by
James Croll (Phil. Mag., >864, a8, p. 121: Climate and Time,
1875 ; and Discussion on Climate and Cosmology, 1889) was
founded upon the assumption that with the earth’s eccentricity
at its maximum and winter in the north at aphelion, there would
be a tendency in northern latitudes for the accumulation of snow
and ice, which would lie accentuated indirectly by the formation
of fogs and a modification of the trade winds. The shifting of
the thermal equator, and with it the direction of the trade winds,
would divert some of tlie warm ocean currents from the cold
regions, and this effect was greatly enhanced, he considered,
by the configuration of the Atlantic Ocean. (’-roll's hypothesis
was supported by Sir R. Ball (The Cause of the Great lee Age,
1893), and it met' with very general acceptance; but it lues
been destructively criticizld by Professor S. Newcomb (Phil.
PERIOD
Mag., 1676, 1883, 1884) and by E. P. Culverwell (Pktl. Mag.,
1894, p. 541, and Geol. Mag., 1895, pp. 3 and 55). The difficulties
in the way of ('roll’s theory are: (1) the fundamental assump¬
tion, that midwinter and midsummer temperatures are directly
proportional to the sun’s heat at those periods, is not in accord¬
ance with observed facts; (2) the glacial periods would be
limited in duration to an appropriate fruction of the processional
period (21,000 years), which appears to be too short a time for
the work that was actually done by ice agency ; and (3) Croll’s
glacial periods would alternate between the northern and
southern hemispheres, affecting first one then the other. Sir
C. I.yell and others have advocated the view that great elevation
of the land in polar regions would be conducive to glacial condi¬
tions ; this is doubtless true, but the evidence that the Glacial
period was primarily due to this cause is not well established.
Other writers have endeavoured to support the elevation theory
by combining with it various astronomical and meteorological
agencies. More recently several hypotheses have been advanced
to explain the glacial period as the result of changes in the
atmosphere; F. VV. Manner (“ The Influence of Winds upon the
Climate during the Pleistocene Epoch.” Q.J.G.S., 1901, 57,
p. 405) has shown the importance of the influence of winds in
certain circumstances; Marsden Manson (‘‘ The Evolution of
Climate,” American Geologist, 1899, 24, p. 93) has laid stress
upon the influence of clouds; but neithci of these theories
grapples successfully with the fundamental difficulties. Others
again have requisitioned the variability in the amount of the
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere—hypotheses which depend
upon the efficiency of this gas as a thermal absorbent. The
supply of carbon dioxide may be increased from time to time,
as by the emanations from volcanoes (S. Arrhenius and A. G.
Hogbom), or it may be decreased by absorption into sea-water,
and by the carbonation of rocks. Professor T. C. Chamberlin
based a theory of glaciation on the depletion of the carbon
dioxide of the air (“ An Attempt to frame a Working Hypothesis
of the cause of Glacial Periods on an Atmospheric Basis,” Jl.
Geol., 1899, vii. 752-771; see also Chamberlin and Salisbury,
Geology, 1906, ii. 674 and iii. 432). The outline of this
hypothesis is as follows: The general conditions for glaciation
were (1) that the oceanic circulation was interrupted by the
existence of land,; (2) that vertical circulation of the atmosphere
was accelerated hv continental and other influences ; (3) that
the thermal blanketing of the earth was reduced by a depletion
of the moisture and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and that
hence the average temperature of the surface of the earth and
of the. body of the ocean was reduced, and diversity in the
distribution of lieat and moisture introduced. The localization
of glaciation is assignable to the two great areas of permanent
atmospheric depression that have their present centres near
Greenland and the Aleutian Islands respectively. The periodicity
of glacial advances and retreats, demanded by those who believe
in the validity of so-called “ interglacial " epochs, is explained
by a series of complicated processes involving the alternate
depletion and completion of the normal charge of carbon dioxide
in the air.
Whatever may be the ultimate verdict upon this difficult
subject, it is tolerably dear that no simple cause of glacial
conditions is likely to be discovered, but rather it will appear
that these conditions resulted from the interaction of a compli¬
cated series of factors; and further, until a greater (fcgree of
unanimity can be approached in the interpretation of observed
facts, particularly as regards the substantiality of interglacial
epochs, the very foundations of a sound working hypothesis
are wanting.
Classification of Glacial Deposits—Interglacial Epochs. —Had
the deposits of gluciated regions consisted solely of boulder
clay little difficulty might have been experienced in dealing
with their dassification. Bu t there are intercalated in the boulder
days those irregular stratified and partially stratified masses
of sand, gravel and loam, frequently containing marine or
freshwater shells and layers of peatf’with plant remains, which
have given rise to the conception of “ interglacial epochs ”—
GLACIAL PERIOD
59
pauses in the rigorous conditions of glaciation, when the ice-
sheets dwindled almost entirely away, while plants and animals
re-established themselves on the newly exposed soil. Glacialists
may be ranged in.two schools: those who believe that one or
more phases of milder climatic conditions broke up the whole
Glacial period into*alternating epochs of glaciation and “ de¬
glaciation ”; and those who believe that the intercalated
deposits represent rather the localized recessional movements
of the ice-sheets within one single period of glaciation. In
addition to the stratified deposits and their contents, important
evidence in favour of interglacial epochs occurs in the presence
of weathered surfaces on the top of older boulder days, which
are themselves covered by younger glacial deposits.
The cause of the interglacial hypothesis has been most ardently
championed in England by Professor James Geikie; who has en¬
deavoured to show that there were in Europe six distinct glacial
epochs within the Glacial period, separated bv five epochs of more
moderate temperature. These are enumerated below :
6th Glacial epoch, Upper Turbarian, indicated by the deposits of
peat which underlie the lower raised beaches.
5th Interglacial epoch, Upper J'orestian.
5til Glacial epoch, Lower Turbarian, indicated by peat deposits
overlying the lower forest-bed, by the raised beaches and carse-
clays of Scotland, and in part by the Littorina -clays of Scandinavia.
4th interglacial epoch, Lower ioreshan, the lower forests under i
peat lH*ds, the .-Inn'/ns-beds of the great freshwater Baltic lake and !
the Littorina- clays oi Scandinavia. j
4th Glacial epoch, Mecklenburgian, represented by the moraines |
of the last great Baltic glacier, which reach their southern limit in 1
Mecklenburg; the 100-ft. terrace of Scotland and the Yoldia -beds of j
Scandinavia.
3rd Interglacial epoch, A ruder kian, intercalations of marine and
fresh water deposits in the boulder clays of the southern Baltic coasts.
3rd Glacial epoch, Polandiati, glacial and fluvio-glacial formations
of the minor Scandinavian ire-sheet; and the “ upper boulder clay "
ol northern and western Europe.
md Interglacial epoch, Helvetian, interglacial beds of Britain and
lignites of Switzerland.
2nd Glacial epoch, Saxomau, deposits of the period oi maximum
glaciation when the northern ice-sheet reached the low ground of
Saxony, and the Alpine glaciers formed the outermost moraines.
1st Interglacial epoch, S’orfollaan , the forest-bed series of Norfolk.
tst Glacial epoch, Seaman, represented only in the south of Sweden,
which was overridden by a large Baltic glacier. The GhiUesford
day and WVybourne crag of Norfolk and the oldest moraines and
fluvio-glacial gravels of the Arctic lands may belong to this epoch.
In a similar manner Professor Chamberlin and other American
geologists have recognized the iollowing stages in the glaciation of
North America:
The Champlain, marine substage.
The Glacio-lacustnnc substage.
The later Wisconsin (6th glacial).
The fifth interglacial.
The earlier Wisconsin (5th glaciul).
The Peorian (4//! interglacial).
The Iowan (4U1 glacial).
The Sangamon (3 rd interglacial).
The Illinoian (3rd glacial).
7 he Y armouth in' Buchanan ( 2nd interglacial).
The Kansan (2nd glacial).
The Aftonian (is/ interglacial).
The sub-Aftonian or Jerseyan (1st glacial).
Although it is admitted that no strict correlation of the European
and North American stages is passible, it has been suggested that
the Aftonian may be the equivalent of the Helvetian; the Kansan
may represent the Saxonian ; the Iowan, the Polandian; the*
Jerseyan, the Scanian ; the early Wisconsin, the Mecklenburgian.
But considering how fragmentary is much of the evidence in favour
of these stages both in Europe and America, the value of such
attempts at correlation muHt lie infinitesimal. Tliis is the more
evident when it is observed that there arc other geologists of equal
eminence who arr unable to accept so large a number of epochs
after a close study of the local circumstances ; thus, in the sut>-
joined scheme for north Germany, after H. W. Munthc, there are
three glacial and two interglacial epochs.
f The Mya time - beech-time.
Post-Glacial epoch • The Littorina time = oak-time.
I The Ancvlus time =^pine- and birch-time.
/'Including the upper boulder clay,
I “younger Baltic moraine” with the
3rd Glacial „ - Yoldia or Dry as phase in the rctro-
t gressive stage.
2nd Interglacial epoch including the Cvprina- clay.
2nd Glacial epoch, the^naxixnum glaciation,
xst Interglacial epoch.
1st Glacial epoch, “ older boulder clay.”
Again, in the Alps tour interglacial epoch* have been recognised;
while in England them are many who are willing to concede one
such epoch, though even tor this the evidence is not enough to satisfy
all jffipalists (G. YV. Lamplugh, Address, Section C, Bnt. At toe.,
This'ftreat diversity ol opinion is eloquent of the difficulties of the
subject; it is impossible not to see that the discovery ol inte rgl acial
epochs bears a close relationship to the origin of certain hypotheses
of the cause of glaciation; while it is significant that those who
have had to do the actual mapping of glacial deposits have usually
greater difficulty in finding good evidence oi such definite ameliara-
tions of climate, than those who have founded their views upon the
examination of numerous but isolated areas.
Extent 0/ Glacial Deposits.— From evidence of tlic kind cited above,
it appears that during the glacial period a series of great ice-sheets
covered enormous areas in North America and north-west Europe.
The area covered during the maximum extension of the ice has been
reckoned at ao million square kilometres (nearly 8 million sq. m )
in North America and 6} million square kilometres (about 2) million
sq. m.) in Europe. . '
In Europe three great centres existed irom which the ice-streams
radiated ; foremost in importance was the region oi Fennoscandia
(the name for Scandinavia with Finland as a single geological region);
from this centre the ice spread out far into Germany and Russia and
westward, across the North Sea, to the shores of Britain. The
southern boundary uf the ice extended from the estuary of the Rhine
iii an irregular series of lobes along the Schiefergebirgc, Hare,
Thuringerwuld, Erzgebirge and Ricsengebirge, anil tlic northern
flanks of tin* Carpathians towards Cracow. Down the valley of
the Dnieper a lobe of the ice-sheet projected as far as .|o' 30' N. ;
another lobe extended down tile Don valley as iar as 48“ N.; thence
tlie boundary runs nortii-easterlv towards the Urals and the Kara
Sea. The British Islands constituted the centre second in import¬
ance ; Scotland, Ireland and all but the southern part of England
were covered by a moving ice-cap. On the west the ice-sheets reached
out to sea; on tlic east they were conterminous with those from
Scandinavia. The third European centre was the Alpine region ;
it is abundantly clear from the masses of morainic detritus and
perched blocks that here, in the time of maximum glaciation, the
icc-covcml an a w as enormously in exceas ol the shrivelled remnants,
which still remain in the existing glaciers. Ail the valleyB wore filled
with moving ice ; thus the Rhone glacier at its maximum filled Lake
Geneva and the plain between the Bernese Oberland and the Jura;
it even overrode the latter and advanced towards Bcsangon. Ex¬
tensive glaciation wus not limited to the aioresaid regions, for ail
the areas of high ground had their independent glaciors strongly
developed, the Pyrenees, the central highlands of France, the
Y’osges, lilack Forest, Apennines and Caucasus were centres of
minor but still important glaciation.
The greatest expansion of ice-sheets was locuted on the North
American continent ; here, too, there were three principal centres
of outflow : the " Cordillcran " ice-sheet in the N.W., the " Kee-
watin ” sheet, radiating from the central Canadian plains, and the
eastern " Labrador” or " Ijiurentide ” sheet. From each of these
centres the k e poured outwards in every direction, but the principal
flow in each case was towards tlic south-west. The southern
boundary of the glaciated area runs as an irregular line along the
40° parallel in the western part of the continent, thence It follows
the Mississippi valley down to its junction with the Ohio (southern
limit 37“ 30' N.), eastward it follows the direction of that river and
turns north-eastward in the direction of New Jersey. As in Europe,
the mountainous regions of North America produced their own local
glaciers; in the Rockies, the Olympics and Sierras, the Bighorn
Mountains of Wyoming, the Uinta Mountains of Utah, A c. Although
it w as in the northern hemisphere that the most extensive glaciation
took place, the effects of a gunoral lowering of temperature seem to
have been ielt in the mountainous regions of ail parts ; thus in South
America, New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania glaciers reached
down the valley's far below the existing limits, and even where none
are now to be found. In Asia the evidences of a former extension
of glaciation are traceable in the Himalayas, and northward in the
high ranges of China and Eastern Siberia. The same is true of parts of
Turkestan and Lebanon. In Africa also, in British F.ast Africa moraines
are discovered 5400 ft. below their modem limit. In Ireland and
Greenland, and even in the Antarctic, there appears to be nvidencr
of a former greater extension of the ice. It is of interest to note that
Alaska seems to lie free from excessive glaciation, and that a remark¬
able " driftless " area lies in Wisconsin. The maximum glaciation of
the Glacial period was clearly centred around the North Atlantic.
Glacial Epochs in the Older Geological Periods.— Since Ramsay
drew attention to the subject in rSjs (“ On the occurrence ol angulai,
stihangular, polished and striated fragments and boulders in the
Permian Breccia of Shropshire, Worcestershire, Ac., and on the
probable existence of glaciers and icebergs in the Permian epoch,”
Q.J.G.S., 1855, pp. 185-203), a good deal of attention has been paid
to such formations. It is now generally acknowledged that the
Permo-carboniferous conglomerates with striated boulders and
polished rock surfaces, such as are found in the Karoo formation of
South Africa, the Talkir conglomerate of the Salt Range in India,
and the corresponding formations in Australia, represent undeniable
60 GLACIER
glacial condition* at that period on the great Indo-Auatralian
continent A glacial origin has been suggested ior numerous other
conglomeratic formations, such as the Pre-Cambrian Torridonian of
Scotland, and " Gekaschichten " of Norway; the basal Carboniferous
conglomerate of ]»rts of England ; the Permian breccias of England
and parts of Europe; the Trias of Devonshire; the coarse con¬
glomerates in the Tertiary Flysch in central Europe; and the Miocene
conglomerates of the Ligurian Apennines. In regard to the glacial
nature of all these formations there is, however, great divergence of
opinion (see A. Heim, "■ Zur I-rage der exotischen BIScke in Flysch,"
Eclogae gealogieae Helvetiae, vol. ix. No. 3, 1 <107, pp. 413-424).
Authorities.— The literature dealing directly with the Glacial
period lias reached enormous dimensions; in addition to the works
already mentioned the following may lie taken as a guide to the
general outline of the subject: f. Gcikie, The (treat Ice Age (3rd ed.,
London. 1904), also Earth Siulpture (1898); G. F. Wright, The he
Age in North America (4th ed,, New York, 1905) and Man and the
Glaeial Period (1892); F. K. Geinitz, Die Eiszeit (Braunschweig,
1906); A. Penck and E. Bruckner, Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter (Leipzig,
1901-1906, uncompleted). Many references to the literature wfll be
found in Sir A. Geikie's T exthook of Geology, vol. ii. (4th ed., 1903);
Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology vol. iii. (rqo6). As an example
of glacial theories carried beyond the usual limits, see M. Gugenhan,
Die Ergtctscherung da Erde von Pol zu Pol (Berlin, 1906). See also
Zeitschrift ]Ur Gtetscherkunde (Berlin, 1906 and onwards quarterly) ;
Sir H. H. Howorth (opposing accepted glacial theories), The Glai ial
Nightmare and the Flood, i., Ti. (Umdon, 1893), Ice and Water, i., ii.
(London, 19115), Fhe Mammoth and the Flood (London, 1887).
(J. A. H.)
GLACIER (adopted from the French ; from glace, ice, Lat.
glacies), a mass of compacted ice originating in a snow-field.
Glaciers arc formed on any portion of the earth’s surface that
is permanently above the snow-line. This line varies locally
in the same latitudes, being in some places higher than in others,
but in the main it may lx- described as an elliptical shell surround¬
ing the earth with its longest diameter in the tropics and its
shortest in the polar regions, where it touches sea-level. From
the extreme regions of the Arctic and Antarctic circles this cold
shell swells upwards into a broad dome, from 15,000 to 18,000 ft.
high over the tropics, truncating, as it rises, a number of peaks
und mountain ranges whose upper portions like all regions
above this thermal shell receive all their moisture in the form of
snow. Since the temperature above the snow-line is below
freezing point evaporation is very slight, and us the snow is
solid it tends to accumulate in snow fields, where the snow of
one year is covered by that of the next, and these are wrapped
over many deeper layers tliut have fallen in previous years.
If these piles of snow were rigid and immovable they would
increase in height until the whole field rose above the zone of
ordinary atmospheric precipitation, and the polar ice-caps would
add a load to these regions that would produce far-reaching
results. The mountain regions also would rise some miles in
height, and all their features would he buried in domes of snow
some miles in thickness. When, however, there is sufficient
weight the mass yields to pressure and flows outwards and
downwards. Thus a lialancc of weight and height is established,
and the .ice-field is disintegrated principally at the edges, the
surplus in polar regions being carried off in the form of ircliergs,
and in mountain regions by streams that flow from the melting
ends of the glaciers.
Formation. —The formation of glaciers is in all cases due to
similar causes, namely, to periodical and intermittent falls of
snow. After a snow-fall there is a period of rest during which
the snow becomes compacted by pressure and assumes the
well-known granular character seen in banks and patches of
ordinary snow that lie longest upon the ground when the snow
is melting. This is the pirn or nM. The next fall of snow covers
and conceals the nive, but the light fresh crystals of this new
snow in turn become compacted to the coarsely crystalline
granular form of the underlying layer and become mVc in turn.
The process goes on continually; the lower'layers become subject
to greater and greater pressure, and in consequence become
gradually compacted into dense clear ice, which, however, retains
its granular crystalline texture throughout. The upper layers
of nM are usually stratified, owing to some individual peculiarity
in the fall, or to the accumuktion of dust or dibris upon the
surface before it is covered by fresh snow. Ibis stratification
is often visible on the emerging glacier, though it is to be distin¬
guished from the foliation planes caused by shearing movement
in the body of the glacier ice.
Types .—The snow-field upon which a glacier depends is
always formed when snow-fall is greater than snow-waste. Ibis
occurs under varying conditions with a differently resulting
type of glacier. There are limited fields of snow in many
mountain regions giving rise to long tongues of ice moving
slowly down the valleys and therefore called “ valley glaciers.”
The greater part of Greenland is covered by an ice-cap extending
overnearly 400,000 sq. m., forming a kind of enormous continuous
glacier on its lower slopes. The Antarctic ice region is believed
to extend over more than 3,000,000 sq. m. Each of these
continental fields, besides producing block as distinguished
from tongue glaciers, sends into the sea a great number of ice¬
bergs during the summer season. These ice-cups covering
great regions are by far the most important types. Between
these “ polar ’’ or “ continental glaciers ” and the “ alpine ”
type there are many grades. Smaller detached ice-caps may
rest upon high plateaus as in Iceland, or several tongues of ice
coming down neighbouring valleys may splay out into convergent
lobes on lower ground and form a “ piedmont glacier ” such as
the Malaspina Glacier in Alaska. When the snow-field lies in a
small depression the glacier may remain suspended in the
hollow and advunce no farther than the edge of the snow-field.
This is called a “ cliff-glacier,” and is not uncommon in mountain
regions. The end of a larger glacier, or the edge of an ice-sheet,
may reach a precipitous cliff, where the ice will break from the
edge of the advancing mnss and fall in blocks to the lower ground,
where a “ reconstructed glacier ” will he formed from the frag¬
ments and advunce farther down the slope.
When a glacier originates upon a dome-shaped or a level
surface the ice will deploy radially in all directions. When a
snow-field is formed above steep valleys separated by high
ridges the icc will flow downwards in long streams. If the
valleys under the snow-fields are wide and shallow the resultant
glaciers will broaden out and partially fill them, and in all cases,
since the conditions of glacier formation are similar, the resultant
form and the direction of motion will depend upon the amount
of ice and the form of the surface over which the glacier flows.
A glacier flowing down a narrow gorge to un open valley, or on
to a plain, will spread at its foot into a fan-shaped lobe as the
ice spreads outwards while moving downwards. An ice-cup
is in the main thickest at the centre, and thins out at the edges.
A valley glacier is thickest at some point between its source
and its end, but nearer to its source than to its termination,
but its thickness at various portions will depend upon the
contour of the valley floor over which the glacier rides, and
may reach many hundreds of feet. At its centre the Greenland
ice-cap is estimated to be over 5000 ft. thick. Jn all cases the
glacier ends where the waste of ice is greater than the supply,
and since this relationship varies in different years, or cycles of
years, the end of a glacier may advance or retreat in harmony
with greater or less snow-fall or with cooler or hotter summers.
There seems to be a cycle of inclusive contraction and expansion
of from 35 to 40 or 50 years. At present the ends of the Swiss
glaciers are cradled in a mass of moraine-stuff due to former
extension of the glaciers, and investigations in India show that
in some parts of the Himalayas the glaciers are retreating as
they arc in North America and even in the southern hemisphere
( Nature, January 2, 1908, p. 201). *
Movement .—The fact that a glacier moves is easily demon¬
strated ; the cause of the movement is pressure upon a yielding
mass; the nature of the movement is still under discussion.
Rows of stakes or stones placed in line across a glacier are found
to change their position with respect to objects on the bank and
also with regard to each other. The posts in the centre of the
ice-stream gradually move away from those at the side, proving
that the centre moves faster than the sides. It has also been
proved that the surface portions move more rapidly than the
deeper layers and that tne motion is slowest at the sides and
bottom where friction is greatest.
GLACIER
6*
The rate of motion past the same spot is not uniform. Heat
accelerates it, cold arrests it, and the pressure of a large amount
of water stimulates the flow. The rate of flow under the same
conditions varies a.t different parts of the glacier directly as the
thickness of ice, the steepness of slope and the smoothness of
rocky floor. Generally speaking, the rate of motion depends
upon the amount of ice that forms the “ head ” pressure, the
slope of the under surface and of the upper surface, the nature
of the floor, the temperature and the amount of water present
in the ice. The ordinary rate.of motion is very slow. In Switzer¬
land it is from i or 2 in. to 4 ft. per day, in Alaska 7 ft., in Green¬
land 50 to 60 ft., and occasionally 100 ft. per day in the height
of summer under exceptional conditions of quantity of ice and
of water and slope. Measurements of Swiss glaciers show that
near the ice foot where wastage is great there is very little
movement, and observations upon the inland border of Greenland
ice show that it is almost stationary over long distances. In
many aspects the motion of a body of ice resembles that of a
body of water, and an alpine glacier is often called an ice-river,
since like a river it moves faster in the centre than at tire sides
and at the top faster than at tire bottom. A glacier follows a
curve in the same way as a river, and there appear to be ice
swirls and eddies as well as an upward creep on shelving curves
recalling many features of stream action. The rate of motion
of both ice-stream and river is accelerated by quantity and
steepness of slope and retarded by roughness of bed, but here
the comparison ends, for temperature does not affect the rate
of water motion, nor will a liquid crack into crevasses as a glacier
does, or move upwards over an adverse slope as a glacier always
does when there is sufficient “ head ” of ice above it. So that
although in many resects ice behaves as a viscous fluid the
comparison with such a fluid is not perfect. The cause of glacier
motion must be based upon some more or less complex considera¬
tions. The flakes of snow are gradually transformed into
granules because the points und angles of the original flakes
arrest the movement of the ioe immediately above it, or whan
the lower portion of the glacier is choked by dibris, the upper
ice glides over the lower in shearing planes that are sometimes
strongly marked by debris caught and pushed forwards along
these planes of foliation. It must bq remembered that there
is a solid push from behind upon the lower portion of a glacier,
quite different from the pressure of a body of water upon any
point, for the pressure of a fluid is equal in all directions, and
also that this push will tend to set the crystalline granules in
positions in which their crystalline axes are parallel along the
gliding planes. The production of gliding planes is in some
cases facilitated by the descent into the glacier of watpr melted
during summer, where it expands in freezing andv.pushes the
adjacent ice away from it. forming a surface along which move¬
ment is readily established.
If under all circumstances the glacier melted under pressure
at the bottom, glacial abrasion would be nearly impossible, since
every small stone and fragment of rock would rotate in a liquid
shell as the ice moved forward, but since the pressure is not
always sufficient to produce melting, the glacier sometimes
remains dry at its base ; rock fragments are held firmly; and
a dry glacier may thus Income a graving tool of enormous
power. Whatever views may be adopted as to the causes of
glacier motion, the peculiar character of glacier ice as distinct
from homogeneous river or pond ice must lie kept in view, os
well as the characteristic tendency ol water to expand in freezing,
the lowering of the melting point ot ice under pressure, the
raising of the melting point under tension, the production of
gliding or shearing planes under pressure from above, the
presence in summer of a considerable quantity of water in the
lower portions of the glacier which arc thus loosened, the cracking
of ice (as into crevasses), under sudden strain, and the regelation
of ice in contact. A result of this last process is tnat fissures
are not permanent, but having been produced by the passage
of ice over an obstruction, they subsequently become healed
melt and evaporate more readily than the more solid central
portions, which become aggregated round some master flake
that continues to grow in the neve at the expense of its smaller
neighbours, and increases in size until finally the glacier ice is
composed of a mass of interlocked crystalline granules, some as
large as a walnut, closely compacted under pressure with the
principal crystalline axes in various directions. In the upper
portions of the glacier movement due to pressure probably
takes place by the gliding of one granule over another. In this
connexion it must he noted that pressure lowers the melting
point of ice while tension raises it, and at all points of pressure
there is therefore a tendency to momentary melting, and also
to some evaporation due to the heat caused by pressure, and at
the intermediate tension spaces between the points of pressure
this resultant liquid and vapour will be at once re-frozen and
become solid. The granular movement is thus greatly facilitated,
while the body of ice remains in a crystalline solid condition,
in this connexion it is well to remember that the pressure of
the glacier upon its floor will have the same result, but the
effect here is a mass-effect and facilitates the gliding of the ice
over obstacles, since the friction produces heat and the pressure
lowers the melting point, so that the two causes tend to liquefy
the portion where pressure is greatest and so to “ lubricate ”
the prominences and enable the glacier to slide more easily over
them,.while the liquid thus produced is re-frozen when the
pressure is renyved.
In polar regions of very low temperature a very considerable
amount of pressure must be necessary before the ice granules
yield to momentary liquefaction at the points of pressure, and
this probably accounts for the extreme thickness of the Arctic
and Antarctic ice-capswhere the slopes are moderate, for although
equally low temperatures are found in high Alpine snow-fields
the slopes there are exceedingly steep and motion is therefore
more easily produced.
Observations made upon the Greenland glaciers indicate
a considerable amount or “ shearing ” movement in the lower
portions of a glacier. Where obstacles in the bed of the glacier
1 when the icc proceeds over a flatter lied. Finally it must be
remembered that although glacier ice behaves in some sense
like a viscous fluid its condition is totally different, since “ a
j glacier is a crystalline rock of the purest and simplest type, and
i it never has other than the crystalline state."
Characteristics .—The general appearance of a glacier varies
according to its environment of position and temperature.
The upjier portion is hidden by neve und often by Ireshly fallen
snow, and is smooth and unbroken. 1 hiring the summer, when
little snow falls, the body of the glacier moves away from the
snow-field and a gaping crevasse of great depth is usually
established called the bcr%schrund, which is sometimes taken
as the upper limit of the glacier. The glasier as it moves down
the valley may become “ loaded ” in various ways. Rock-falls
send periodical showers of stones upon it from the heights, and
these are spread out into long lines at the glacier sides os the ice
moves downwards carrying the rock fragments with it. These
are the “ lateral moraines.” When two or more glaciers descend¬
ing adjacent valleys converge into one glacier one or more sides
of the higher valleys disappear, and the icc that was contained
in several valleys is now carried by one. In the simplest case
where two valleys converge into one the two inner lateral
moraines meet and continue to stream down the larger valley
as one “ median moraine.” Where several valleys meet there
are several such parallel median moraines, and so long us the ice
remains unbroken these will be carried upon the surface of the
glacier and finally tipped over the end. There is. however,
differential heating of rock and ice, and if the stones carried
are thin they tend to sink into the ice because they absorb
heat readily and melt the ice under them. Dust has the
same effect and produces dust wells ” that honeycomb the
upper surface of the ice with holes into which the dust sinks.
If the moraine rocks are thick they prevent the ice under
them from melting in sunlight, and isolated blocks often
remain supported upon ice-pillars in the form of ice tables,
which finally collapse, so that such rocks may be scattered
out of the One of the moraine. As the glacier descends into
62 GLACIER
tbs lower valleys it is more strongly heated, and surfaoe
streams are established m consequence that flow into channels
caused by unequal melting of the ice and finally plunge into
crevasses. These crevasses are formed by strains established
as the central parts drag away from the sides of the glacier and
the Upper surface from the lower, and more markedly by the
tension due to a sudden bend in the glacier caused by 811 m ‘
equality in its bed which must be over-ridden. These crevasses
are developed at right angles to the strain and often produce
intersecting fissures in several directions. The morainic material
is gmduully dispersed by the inequalities produced, and is
further distributed by the action of superficial streams until the
whole surface is strewn with stones and debris, and presents,
as in the lower portions of the Mer de Glace, an exceedingly
dirty appearance. Many blocks of stone fall into the gaping
crevasses and much loose rock is carried down as “ englacial
' material" in the body of the glacier. Some of it reaches the
bottom and becomes part of the “ ground moraine ” which
underlies the glacier, at least from the hergsehrund to the “ snout,”
where much of it is carried away by the issuing stream and
spread finally on to the plains below. It appears that a very
considerable amount of degradation is caused under the berg-
schrund by the mass of ice “plucking” and dragging great
blocks of rock from the side of the mountain valley where the
great head of ice rests in winter and whence it begins to move
in summer. These blocks and many smaller fragments are
carried downwards wedged in the ire and cause powerful abrasion
upon the rocky floor, rasping and scoring the channel, producing
conspicuous striae, polishing and rounding the rock surfaces,
and grinding the contained fragments as well us the surface
over which it passes into small fragments and fine powder,
from which “ boulder clay ” or “ till ” is finally produced.
Emerging, then, from the snow-field us pure granular ice the
glacier gradually becomes strewn and filled with foreign material,
not only from above but also, as is very evident in some Greenland
glaciers, occasionally from below by masses of fragments that
move upwards along gliding planes, or are forced upwards by
slow swirls in the ice itself.
As a glacier is a very brittle body any abrupt change in gradient
will produce a numlier of crevasses, and these, together with
those produced by dragging strains, will frequently wedge the
glacier into n mass of pinnacles or shoes that may be partially
healed but are usually evident when the melting end of the
glacier emerges suddenly from a steep valley. Here the streams
widen the weaker portions and the moraine rocks fall from the
end to produce the “ terminal ” moraine, which usually lies in
a crescentic heap encircling the glacier snout, whence it can
only be moved by a further advance of the glacier or by the
ordinary slow process of atmospheric denudation.
In cases where no rock falls upon the surface there is a con¬
siderable amount of englacial material due to upturning either
over accumulated ground debris or over structural inequalities
in the rock floor. This is well seen at the steep sides and ends
of Greenland glaciers, where material frequently comes to the
surface of the melting ice and produces median and lateral
moraines, besides appearing in enormous “eyes” surrounded
in the glacial body by contorted and foliated ice and sometimes
producing heaps and embankments as it is pushed out at the
end of the melting ice.
The environment of temperature requires consideration.
At the upper or dorsal portion of the glacier there is a zone
of variable (winter and summer) temperature, beneath which,
if the ice is thick enough, there is a zone of constant temperature
which will be about the mean annual temperature of the region
of the snow-field. Underlying this there is a more or less constant
ventral or ground temperature, depending mainly upon the
internal heat of the earth, which is conducted to the under
surface of the glacier wMre it slowly melts the ice, the more
readily because the pressure lowers the melting point consider¬
ably, so that streams pf water ran constantly from beneath many
glaciers, adding their vohimeio the springs which issue from the
rock. The middle zone of constant temperature is wedge-shaped
in “ alpine ” glaciers, the apex pointing downwards to the zone
of waste. The upper zone of variable temperature is thinnest
in the snow-field where the mean temperature is lowest, and
entirely dominant in the snout end of the glacier where the zone
of constant temperature disappears. Two temperature wedges
are thus superposed base to point, the one being thickest where
the other is thinnest, and both these lie upon the basal film of
temperature where the escaping earth-heat is strengthened
by that due to friction and pressure. The cold wave of winter
may pass right through a thin glacier, or the constant temperature
may be too low to permit of the ice melting at the base, in which
cases the glacier is “ dry ” and has great eroding power. But
in the lower wanner portions water running through crevasses
will raise the temperature, and increase the strength of the
downward heat wave, while the mean annual temperature
being there higher, the combined result will be that the glacier
will gradually become “ wet ” at the base and have little eroding
power, and it will become more and more wet as it moves down
the lower valley zone of ice-waste, until at last the balance
is reached between waste and supply and the. glacier finally
disappears.
If the mean annual temperature be 20° F., and the mean
winter temperature be -12 0 F., as in parts of Greenland, all
the ice must be considerably below the melting point, since the
pressure of ice a mile in depth lowers the melting point only
to 30” F., and the earth-heat is only sufficient to melt } in. of
ice in a year. Therefore in these regions, and in snow-fields and
high glaciers with an equal or lower mean temperature than
20° F., the glacier will be “ dry ” throughout, which may account
for the great eroding power stated to exist near the bergsehrund
in glaciers of an alpine type, which usually have their origin on
precipitous slopes.
A considerable amount of ice-waste takes place by water-
drainage, though much is the result of constant evaporation
from the ice surface. The lower end of a glacier is in summer
flooded by streams of water that pour along cracks and plunge
into crevasses, often forming “pot-holes” or mouliiis where
stones arc swirled round in a glacial “ mill ” and wear holes
in the solid rock below. Some of these streams issue in a spout
half way up the glacier’s end wall, but the majority' find their
way through it and join the water running along the glacier
floor and emerging where the glacier ends in a large glacial
stream.
Results of Glacial Action.—A glacier is a degrading and an
aggrading agent. Much difference of opinion exists as to the
potency of a glacier to alter surface features, some maintaining
that it is extraordinarily effective, and considering that a valley
glacier forms a pronounced cirque at the region of its origin
and that the cirque is gradually cut backward until a long and
deep valley is formed (which becomes evident, as in the Rocky
Mountains, in an upper valley with “ reversed grade ” when
the glacier disappears), and also that the end of a glacier plunging
into a valley or a fjord will gouge a deep basin at its region of
impact. The Alaskan and Norwegian fjords and the rock basins
of the Scottish lochs are adduced as examples. Other writers
maintain that a glacier is only a modifying and not a dominant
agent in its effects upon the land-surface, considering, for example,
that a glacier coming down a lateral valley will preserve the
valley from the atmospheric denudation which has produced
the main valley over which the lateral valley “ hangs,” a»result
which the believers in strong glacial action hold to be due to the
more powerful action of the main glacier as contrasted with the
weaker action of that in the lateral valley. Both the advocates
and the opponents of strenuous ice action agree that a V-shaped
valley of stream erosiun is converted to a U-shaped valley of
glacial modification, and that rock surfaces are rounded into
rockcs moulounhs, and are grooved and striated by the passage
of ice shod with fragments of rock, while the subglacial material
is ground into finer and finer fragments until it becomes mud
and “ rock-flour " as the glacier proceeds. In any case striking
results are manifest in any formerly glaciated region. The high
peaks rise into pinnacles, and ridges with “ house-roof ” structure.
GLACIS—GLADIATORS 63
above the former glacier, while below it the contours are all
rounded and typically subdued. A landscape that was formerly
completely covered by a moving ice-cap has none but these
rounded features of dome-shaped hills and U-shaped valleys
that at least bear evidence to the great modifying power that
a glacier has upon a landscape,
There is no conflict of opinion with regard to glacial aggradation
and the distribution of superglacial, englacial and subglacial
material, which during the active existence of a glacier is finally
distributed by glacial streams that produce very considerable
alluviation. In many regions which were covered by the
Pleistocene ice-sheet the work of the glacier was arrested by
melting before it was half done. Great deposits of till and boulder
clay that lay beneath the glaciers were abandoned in situ, and
remain as an unsorted mixture of large boulders, pebbles and
mingled fragments, embedded in day or sand. The lateral,
median and terminal moraines were stranded where they sank
as the ice disappeared, and together with perched blocks (roches
perchees) remain as a permanent record of former conditions
which are now found to have existed temporarily in much earlier
geological times. In glaciated North America lateral moraines
are found that arc 500 to 1000 ft. high and in northern Italy
1500 to aooo ft. high. The surface of the ground in all these
places is modified into the characteristic glaciated landscape,
and many formerly deep valleys are choked with glacial debris
either completely changing the local drainage systems, or compel¬
ling the reappearing streams to cut new channels in a superposed
drainage system. Kamts also and eskers (qjr.) are left under
certain conditions, with many puzzling deposits that arc clearly
due to some features of ice-work not thoroughly understood.
See 1.. Agassiz, Etudes sur ks glaciers (NcuchMel, 1S40) and
NouoeUes {etudes . . . (Paris, 1X47); v S. Shuler and W. M. Davis,
Glaciers (Boston, 1X81) ; A. Penck, Die llegtctsuherung dcr deutschcn
■I I pen (Leipzig, i88z) ; j. Tyndall, The, Gtai ie.rs of the Alps (London,
1 Sijfj) ; T. G. Bouncy, Ire-Work, Past and Present (London, 1806) ;
1. C. Russell, Glaciers of North America (Boston, 1807I ; E. Richter,
Neue Hrgrbmsse und Probleme der Gletscherforschung (Vienna, 1809) ,
F. Forel, Essai sur les variations perwdiques des glaciers (Geneva, 1881
and 1900) : H ili'ss, l he GUtschcr (Brunswick, 1904). (H. C. SP.)
GLACIS, in military engineering (see Fortification and
Siegecraft), an artificial slope of earth in the front of works,
so constructed as to keep an assailant under the fire of the
defenders to the last possible moment. On the natural ground-
level, troops attacking any high work would be sheltered from
its fire when dose up to it ; the ground therefore is raised to
form a glacis, which is swept by the fire of the parapet. More
generally, the term is used tu denote any siope, natural or
artificial, which fulfils the above requirements.
GLADBACH, the name of two towns in Germany distinguished
its Bergisch-Gladbach and Munchcn-Gladbach.
1. Bergisch-Gladbach is in Rhenish Prussia, 8 m. N.E. of
Cologne by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,410. It possesses four large
paper mills and among its other industries are puste-board,
powder, percussion caps, nets und machinery. Ironstone,
peat and lime are found in the vicinity. The town has four
Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant. The Stunden-
thalshohe, a popular resort, is in the neighbourhood, and near
Gladbach is Altenberg, with a remarkably fine church, built
for the Cistercian abbey at this place.
2. MOncben-Gladbach, also in Rhenish Prussia, 16 m.
W.S .Vim of Dusseidorf on the main line of railway to Aix-la-
Chapclle. Pop. 41885)44,230; (1905)60,714. It is one of the chief
manufacturing places in Rhenish Prussia, its principal industries
being the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture
of silks, velvet, ribbon and damasks, and dyeing and bleaching.
There are also tanneries, tobacco manufactories, machine works
and foundries. The town possesses a fine park and has statues
of the emperor William I. and of Prince Bismarck. There are
ten Roman Catholic churches here, among them being the
beautiful minster, with a Gothic choir dating from 1250, a nave
dating from the beginning of the 13th centuiy and a crypt of
the 8th oentury. The town has two hospitals, several schools,
and is the headquarters of important insurance societies.
Gladbach existed before the time of Charlemagne, and a Bene¬
dictine monastery was founded near it ia 793. It was thus
called Munchen-Gladbach or Monks’ Gladbach, to distinguish
it from another town of the same name. The monastery was
suppressed in 1802. It became a town in 1336; weaving was
introduced here towards the end of the 18th century, and
having belonged for a long time to the duchy of Juliers it came
into the possession of Prussia in 1815.
See Strauss, Geschichte der Stadt Miincken-Gladbach (1893) I and
G. Eckerts, Das Verbriidermigs- uni Todtenbuck der Ablet Gladbach
(1881).
GLADDEN, WASHINGTON (1836- ), American Congrega¬
tional divine, was bom in Pottsgrovr, Pennsylvania, on the nth
of February 1836. lie graduated at Williams College in 1839,
preached in churches in BrooUy », Morrisania (New York City),
North Adams, Massachusetts, and Springfield, Massachusetts,
and in 1882 became pastor of the First Congregational Church
of Columbus, Ohio. He was an editor of the Independent in
1871-1875, and a frequent contributor to it and other periodicals.
He consistently and earnestly urged in pulpit and press the
need of personal, civil and. particularly, social righteousness,
and in 1900-1902 was a member of the city council of Columbus.
Among his many publications, which include sermons, occasional
addresses, Ac., are: Plain Thoughts on the Art of Living (1868);
Workingmen and their Employers (1X76); The Christian Way
(1877); Things New and Old (1X84); Applied Christianity
(1887); Tools and the Man — Property and Industry under the
Christian Law (181)3); The Chuu k und the Kingdom (1894),
arguing against a confusion and misuse of these two terms;
Seven Puzzling Bible Books (1897) 1 much is Left of the Old
Doctrines (1899); Social Salvation (1001); Witnesses of the
Light (1903); the William Bolden Noble Lectures (Harvard),
being addresses on Dante, Michelungclo, Fichte, Hugo, Wagner
and Ruskin ; The New Idolatry (1905) ; Christianity and Social¬
ism (1906), and The Church and Modern Life (1908). In 1909 he
published his Recollections.
GLADIATORS (from Lat. gladius, sword), professional com¬
batants who fought to the deuth in Roman public shows. That
this form of spectacle, which is almost peculiar to Rome and
the Roman provinces, was orgiually borrowed from Etruria
is shown by various indications. On an Etruscan tomb dis¬
covered at Tarquinii there is a representation of gladiatorial
games ; the slaves employed to carry off the dead bodies from
the arena wore masks representing the Etruscan Charon ; and
we learn from Isidore of Seville ( Origines , x.) that the name for
a trainer of gladiators ( lanista ) is an Etruscan word meaning
butcher or executioner. These gladiatorial games ore evidently
a survival of the practice of immolating «lavcs and prisoners
on the tombs of illustrious chieftains, a practice recorded in
Greek, Roman and Scandinavian legends, and traceable even as
late as the 19th century as the Indian suttee. Even at Rome
they were for a long time confined to iunerals, and hence the older
name for gladiators was bustuarit ; hut in the later days of the
republic their original significance was forgotten, and they
formed as indispensable a part of the public amusements as the
theatre and the circus.
The first gladiators are said, on the authority of Valerius
Maximus (ii. 4. 7) to have been exhibited at Rome in the Forum
Boarium in 264 b.c. by Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the
funeral of their father. On this occasion only three pairs fought,
but the taste for these games spread rapidly, and the number
of combatants grew apace. In 174 Titus Flkmininus celebrated
his father’s obsequies by a three-days’ fight, in which 74 gladiators
took part. Julius Caesar engaged such extravagant numbers
for his aedileship that his political opponents took fright and
carried a decree of the senate imposing a certain limit of numbers,
but notwithstanding this restriction he was able to exhibit no
less than 300 pairs. During the later days of the republic the
gladiators were a constant clement of danger to the public
peace. The more turbulent spirits among the nobility had
each his band of gladiators to act as a bodyguard, and the
armed troops of Clodius, Milo and Catiline played the same part
GLADIATORS
in Roman history as the armed retainers of the feudal barons
or the condottieri of the Italian republics. Under the empire,
notwithstanding sumptuary enactments, the passion for the
arena steadily increased. Augustus, indeed, limited the shows
to two a year, and forbade u praetor to exhibit more than 120
gladiators, yet allusions m Horace (Sat. ii. 3. 85) and Persius
(vi. 48) show that 100 pairs was the fashionable number for
private entertainments; and in the Marmor Ancyranum the
emperor states that more than 10,000 men had fought during
his reign. The imbecile Claudius was devoted to this pastime,
and would sit from morning till night in his chuir of state, descend-
ing now and then to the arena to coax or force the reluctant
gladiators to resume their bloody work. Under Nero senators
and even well-born women appeared as combatants ; and
Juvenal (viii. 190) has handed down to eternal infamy the
descendant of the Gracchi who appeared without disguise as a
retiarius, and begged his life from the secular, who blushed to
conquer one so noble and so vile,' Titus, whom his countrymen
sumamed the Clement, ordered a show which lasted 100 days ;
and Trajan, in celebration of his triumph over Decebalus,
exhibited 5000 pairs of gladiators. Domitian at the Saturnalia
of A.D. 90 arranged a battle lietween dwarfs and women. Even
women of high birth fought in the arena, and it was not till
a.d. 200 that the practice was forbidden by edict. How widely
the taste for these sanguinary spectacles extended throughout
the Roman provinces is attested by monuments, inscriptions
and the remains of vast amphitheatres. From Britain to Syria
there was not a town of any size that could not boast its arena
and annual games. After Italy, Gaul, North Africa and Spain
were most famous for their amphitheatres ; and Greece was the
only Roman province where the institution never thoroughly
took root.
Gladiators were commonly drawn either from prisoners of
war, or slaves or criminals condemned to death. Thus in the
first class we read of tattooed Britons in their war chariots,
Thracians with their peculiar bucklers and scimitars, Moors
from the villages round Atlas and negroes from central Africa,
exhibited in the Colosseum. Down to the time of the empire
only greater malefactors, such as brigands and incendiaries,
were condemned to the arena ; but by Caligula, Claudius and
Nero this punishment was extended to minor offences, such as
fraud and peculation, in order to supply the growing demand
for victims. For the first century of the empire it was lawful
for masters to sell their slaves as gladiators, tint this was forbidden
by Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. Besides these three regular
classes, the ranks were recruited by a considerable number of
freedmen and Roman citizens who had squandered their estates
and voluntarily took the awtnramentum gladiatorium, by which
for a stated time they bound themselves to the lanista. Even
men of birth and fortune not seldom entered the lists, either for
the pure love of fighting or to gratify the whim of some dissolute
emperor; and one emperor, Commodus, actually appeared in
person in the arena.
Gladiators were trained in schools (ludi) owned either by
the state or by private citizens ; and though the trade of a
lanista was considered disgraceful, to own gladiators and let
them out for hire was reckoned a legitimate branch of commerce.
Thus Cicero, in his letters to Atticus, congratulates his friend
on the good bargain he had made in purchasing a hand, and
urges that he might easily recoup himself by consenting to let
them out twice. Men recruited mainly from slaves and criminals,
whose lives hung on a thread, must have been more dangerous
characters than modem galley slaves or convicts ; and, though
highly fed and carefully tended, they were of necessity subject
to an iron discipline. In the school of gladiators discovered at
Pompeii, of the sixty-three skeletons buried in the cells many
were in irons. But hard as was the gladiator’s lot.—so hard
that special precautioniChad to be taken to prevent suicide,—
it haa its consolations. A successful gladiator enjoyed far
greater fame than any modem prize-fighter or athlete. He was
1 See A. E. Housman on tht#fissage in Classical Review (November
1904b
presented with broad pieces, chains and jewelled helmets, such
as may be seen in the museum at Naples; poets like Martial
sang his prowess; his portrait was multiplied on vases, lamps
snd gems; and high-bom ladies contended for his favours.
Mixed, too, with the lowest dregs of the city, there must have
been many noble barbarians condemned to<the vile trade by the
hard fate of war. There are few finer characters in Roman
history than the Thracian Spartacus, who, escaping with seventy
of his comrades from the school of Lentulus at Capua, for three
years defied the legions of Rome ; and after Antony’s defeat at
Actium, the only part of his army that remained faithful to
his cause were the gladiators whom he had enrolled at Cyzicus
to grace his anticipated victory.
There were various classes of gladiators, distinguished by
their arms or modes of fighting. Tbc Samnites fought with the
national weapons-a large oblong shield, a vizor, a plumed
helmet and a short sword. The Thraces had a small round
buckler and a dagger curved like a scythe ; they were generally
pitted against the Mirmillones, who were armed in Gallic fashion
with helmet, sword and shield, and were so called from the fish
(fcofijj.vkm or /Mip/rapos) which served as the crest of their helmet.
In like manner the Retiarius was matched with the Secutor:
the former had nothing on but a short tunic or apron, and sought
to entangle his pursuer, who was fully armed, with the cast-net
( jaculum ) that he carried in his right hand ; and if successful,
he despatched him with the trident (tridens, juscina) that he
carried in his left. We may also mention the Andabatae who
are generally believed to have fought on horseback and wore
helmets with dosed vizors; the Dimachaeri of the later empire,
who carried o short sword in each hand ; the F.ssedarii, who
fought from chariots like the ancient Britons , the Hoplomachi,
who wore a complete suit of armour ; and the Laquearii, who
tried to lasso their antagonists.
Gladiators also received special names according to the
time or circumstances in which they exercised their calling.
The Bustuarii have already been mentioned ; the Catervarii
fought, not in pairs, but in bands ; the Meridiani came forward
in the middle of the day for the entertainment of those spectators
who had not left their seats ; the Ordinarii fought only in pairs,
in the regular way ; the Fiscales were trained and supported
at the expense of t.hc imperial treasury ; the Paegniarii used
harmless weapons, and their exhibition was a sham one ; the
Postulaticii were those whose uppearance was asked as a favour
from the giver of the show, in addition to those already exhibited.
The shows were announced some days before they took
place by bills affixed to the walls of houses and public buildings,
copies of which were also sold in the streets. These bills gave
the names of the chief pairs of competitors, the date of the show,
the name of the giver and the different kinds of combats. The
spectacle began with a procession of the gladiators through the
arena, after which their swords were examined by the giver of
the show. The proceedings opened with a sham fight ( praelusio,
pralusio) with wooden swords and javelins. The signal for real
fighting was given by the sound of the trumpet, those who
showed fear being driven on to the arena with whips and red-hot
irons. When a gladiator was wounded, the spectators shouted
Habct (he is wounded); if he was at the mercy of his adversary,
he lifted up his forefinger to implore the clemency of the people,
with whom (in the later times of the republic) the giver left the
decision as to his life or death. If the spectators were in*favour
of merry, they waved their handkerchiefs ; if they desired the
death of the conquered gladiator, they turned their thumbs
downwards* The reward of victory consisted of branches of
palm, sometimes of money. Gladiators who had exercised
their calling for a long time, or such as displayed special skill
and bravery, were presented with a wooden sword (rudis), and
discharged from further service.
* A different account is given by Mayor on Juvenal iii. 36, who
lays: " Those who wished tne death of the conquered gladiator
turned their thumbs towards their breasts, as a signal to his opponents
to stab him: those who wished him to be spared. turned then* thumbs
downwards, as a signal for dropping the sword."
GLADIOLUS 6$
■ Both the estimation in which gladiatorial game* wen held by
Roman moralists, and the influence that they exercised upon the
morals and genius ol the natioa, deserve notice. The Roman was
essentially cruel, not so much from spite or vindictiveness as from
Callousness and defective sympathies. This element of inhumanity
and brutality must have been deeply ingrained in the national
character to have allowed the games to become popular, but there
can be no doubt that' it was fed and fostered by the savage form
which their amusements took. That the sight of bloodshed provokes
a love of bloodshed and cruelty is a commonplace of morals. To
the horrors of the arena we may attribute in part, not only the
brutal treatment of their slaves and prisoners, but the frequency
of suicide among the Romans.' Qu the other band, we should lx
careful not to exaggerate the effects or draw too sweeping infer¬
ences from the prevalence of this degrading amusement. Human
nature is happilv illogical: and we know that many of the Roman
statesmen who gave these games, and themselves enjoyed these sights
of blood, were in every other department of life irreproachable—
indulgent fathers, humane generals and mild rulers of provinces.
In the present state of society it is difficult to conceive how a man
of taste can have endured to gaze upon a scene of human butchery.
Yet we should remember that it is not so long since bear-baiting was
prohibited in England, and we are only now attaining that stage of
morality in respect of cruelty to animals that was reached in the 5th
century, by the help of Christianity, in respect of cruelty to men.
We shall not then be greatly surprised if hardly one of the Soman
moralists is found to raise his voice against this amusement, except
on the score of extravagance. Cicero in a well-known passage com¬
mends the gladiatorial games as the best discipline against the fear
of death and suffering that can be presented to the eye. The
younger Pliny, who perhaps of all Romans approaches nearest to our
ideal of a cultured gentleman, speaks approvingly of them. Marcus
Aurelius, though he did much to mitigate their horrors, yet in his
writings condemns the monotony rather than the cruelty. Seneca
is indeed a splendid exception, and his letter to Lentulus is an
eloquent protest against this inhuman sport. But it is without
a parallel till we come to the writings of the Christian fathers,
Tertullian, Lactantius, Cyprian and Augustine. In the Conftssians
of the last there occurs a narrative which is worth quoting as a proof
of the strange fascination which the games exercised even on a
religious man and a Christian. He tells us how his friend Aiipius
was dragged against his will to the amphitheatre, how he strove
to quiet bis conscience by closing his eyes, how at some exciting
crisis the shouts of the whole assembly aroused his curiosity, how
he looked and was lost, grew drunk with the sight of blood, and
returned again and again, knowing his guilt yet unable to abstain.
The first Christian emperor was persuaded to issue an edict abolishing
gladiatorial games (323), yet m 404 we read of an exhibition of
gladiators to celebrate the triumph of Honorius over the Goths,
and it is said that they were not totally extinct in the West till the
time of Theodoric.
Gladiators formed admirable models for the sculptor. One of
the finest pieces of ancient sculpture that has come down to us is
the “ Wounded Gladiator " of the National Museum at Naples. The
so-called 1 ‘ Fighting Gladiator 11 of the Borghcse collection, now in the
Museum of the Louvre, and the “ Dying Gladiator ” of the Capltoline
Museum, which inspired the famous stanza of Child* Harold, have
been pronounced by modern antiquaries to represent, not gladiators,
but warriors. In this connexion we may mention the admirable
picture of Gfirome which lxars the title, '* Ave, Caesar, morituri te
salutant.”
The attention of archaeologists has been recently directed to the
tesserae of gladiators. These tesserae, of which about sixty exist in
various museums, are small oblong tablets of ivory or bone, with
an inscription on each of the four sides. The first line contains
a name in the nominative case, presumably that of the gladiator;
the second line a name in the genitive, that of the patronus or
dominus: the third line begins with the letters SP (for speclatus
- approved), which shows that the gladiator had passed his pre¬
liminary trials ; this is followed by a day of a Roman month ; and
in the fourth line are the names of the consuls of a particular year.
Authorities. —All needful information on the subject will be
found in L. Fried lender's Darstellungen aus Her Sittengesckickte Roms,
(part ii.. 6th ed., 1889), and in the section by him on " The Games "
in Marquardt's Romische Staatsvsrwaltung, iii. (1885) p. 354; see
also article by G. Lafaye in Darcmberg and Saglio, Dicltonnuire
des antiquitls. See also F. W. Ritschl, Tesserae gladiatoriae (1864)
and P. J. Meier, De gladiatura Romana quaestiones selectae (1881).
The articles by Lipsms on the Saturnalia and amphithesUmm in
Graevius, Thesaurus antiyuiUUum Romanarum, ix., may still be
consulted with advantage.
GLADIOLUS, a genus Of monocotyledonous plants, belonging
to the natural order Iridaceae. They are herbaceous plants
growing from a solid flbrous-coated bulb (or corm), with long
narrow plaited leaves and a terminal one-sided spike of generally
bright-coloured irregular Rflwera. The segments of the limb of
the perianth ate very unequal, the perianth tube is curved, funnel¬
shaped and widening upwards, the segments equalling or
exceeding the tube in length. There are About *50 known
species, a huge number of which are South African, but the
genus extends into tropical Africa, forming a characteristic
feature of the mountain vegetation,, and as far nortb ai central
Europe and western Asia. One species G. iUyrieus (sometimes
regarded as a variety of G. communisya found wild in England,
in the New Forest and the Isle of Wight. Some of the sperigs
have been cultivated for a long period in English flower-gardens,
where both the introduced species and the modem varieties
bred from them are very ornamental and popular. G. segetum
has been cultivated since 1596, and G. bytcmltnus since 1629,
while many additional species were introduced during, the latter
half of the 18th century- One of the earlier of .the hybrids
originated in gardens was the beautiful G. Colvillei, raised in the
nursery of Mr Colville of Chelsea in 1823 from G. tristis fertilized
by G. cardinalis. In the first decade of the t9th century, however,
the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert had successfully crossed the
showy G. cardinalis with the smaller but more free-flowering
G. blandus, and the result was the production of a race of great
beauty and fertility. Other crosses were made with G. tristis,
G. oppositiflorus, G. hirsutus, G. alatus and G. psittacinus ; but
it was not till after the production of G. gandavensis that the
gladiolus really became a general favourite in gardens. This
fine hybrid was raised in 1837 by M. Bedinghaus, gardener to
the due d’Aremberg, at Enghicn. crossing 0 . psittacinus and
G. cardinalis. There can, however, be little doubt that before
the g andavensis type had become fairly fixed the services of
other species were brought into force, and the most likely of
these were G. oppositifterus (which shows in the white forms),
G. blandus and G. ramosus. Other species may also have been
used, but in any case the gandavensis gladiolus, as we now know
it, is the result of much crossing and inter-crossing between
the best forms as they developed (J. Weathers, Practical Guide
to Garden Plants). Since that time innumerable varieties have
appeared only to sink into oblivion upon being replaced by
still finer productions.
The modem varieties of gladioli have ulmost completely
driven the natural species out of gardens, except in botanical
collections. The most gorgeous groups—in addition to the
gandavensis type—are those known under the names of Lemeinti,
Childsi, nanceianus und brenchlcycnsis. The last-named was
raised by a Mr Hooker at Brenchley in 1848, and although quite
distinct in appearance from gandavensis, it undoubtedly had
that variety as one of its parents. Owing to the brilliant scarlet
colour of the flowers, this is always a great favourite for planting
in beds. The Lemoinei forms originated at Nancy, in France,
byfertilizing G. purpureo-auratus with pollen,from 6'. gandavensis,
the first flower appearing in 1877, and the plants being put into
commerce in 1880. The Childsi gladioli first appeared in 1882,
having been raised at Baden-Baden by Herr Max Leichtlin
from the best forms of G. gandavensis and G. Sounder si. The
flowers of the best varieties are of great size and substance, often
measuring 7 to 9 in. across, while the range of colour is marvellous,
with shades of grey, purple, scarlet, salmon, crimson, rose, white,
pink, yellow, &c., often beautifully mottled and blotched in the
throat. The plants are vigorous in growth, often reaching a
height of 4 to 5 ft. G. nanceianus was raised at Nancy by
MM. Lemoine and were first put into commerce in 1889. Next
to the Childsi group they are the most beautiful, and have the
blood of the best forms of G. Saundersi and G. Lemoinei in their
veins. The plants are quite as hardy as the pmdavensis hybrids,
and the colours of the flowers are almost as brilliant and varied
in hue as those of the Childsi section.
A deep and rather stiff sandy loam is the best soil lor the gladiolus,
and this should be trenched up in October and enriched with well-
decomposed manure, consisting partly of cow dung, the manure being
disposed altogether below the oorms, a layer at the bottom of . the
upper trench, say 9 in. from the surface, and another layer at double
that depth. The corms should be planted in succession at intervals
of two or three weeks through the months of March, April and May;
about 3 to 5 in. deep and at least 1 ft apart, a little pure soil or sand
being laid over each before the earth is closed in about them, an
XU. 3
M GLADSIffilM*^GLADSTONE
wVUh our b* advaaftageaBsly loUowed With tmlbou*
■tafanaesaUr. In hot nmner weather they should have a mod
l S.hi5r i< aSi^lMawd manure, and, aa aoon as the flower spikes
an produced, liquid manure -may occasionally be given them with
^fK'gladfohM to easily reused from seeds, wWch should be sown fa
u.»i, or Aped i« pots of rich soil placed in ehgbt heat, the pots
being kept »osr the glass alter they begin to grow, and the plants
beS! gradually hardened to permit their being placed out-of-doors
inaaheltered spot for the summer. Modern growers crfterr grow the
seeds fa the open m April on a nicely prepared bed fa drills about
A fa. apart and A in. deep, covering them with finely sifted gritty
mould The seed bed is then pressed down evenly and firmly,
watered occasionally and kept free from weeds during the summer.
In October they will have ripened off, and must be taken crat of the
soil, and stored fa paper bags in a dry room secure from frost. They
wUl have nude tittle bulbs from the size of a hazel nut downwards,
according to their vigour. In the spring they should be planted
like the old bulbs, and the larger ones will flower during the season,
while the smaller ones must be again harvested and planted out as
before. The time occupied from the flowing of the seed until the
plant attains Its full strength is from three to four years. The
approved sorts, which are identified by name, are multiplied by
means of bulblets or oflsets or " spawn," which form around the
principal bulb or corm : but in this they vary greatly, some kinds
furnishing abundant increase and soon becoming plentiful, while
others persistently refuse to yield oflsets. The stately habit and
rich glowing cotours of the modern gladioli render them exceedingly
valuable as decorative plants during the late summer months. They
are, moreover, very desirable and useful flowers for rutting for the
jurpose of room decoration, for while the blossoms themselves last
Jresh for some days if cut either early in the morning or late in the
evening, the undeveloped buds open in succession, if the stalks am
kept in water, so that a cut spike will go on blooming for some time.
GLASSHEIM (Old Norse Gladskeimr), in Scandinavian
mythology, the region of joy and home of Odin. Valhalla,
the paradise whither the heroes who fell in hattle were escorted,
was situated there.
GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL (1827-1902), English chemist,
was born at Hackney, London, on the 7th of March 1827. From
childhood he showed great aptitude for science ; geology was
his favourite subject, but since this in his father's opinion did
not afford a career of promise, he devoted himself to chemistry,
which he studied under Thomas Graham at University Collage,
London, and Liebig at Giessen, where he graduated, as Fh.D.
in 1847. In *850 he became chemical lecturer at St Thomas’s
hospital, and three yean later was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society at the unusually early age of twenty-six. From 1858
to 1861 he served on the royal commission on lighthouses, and
from 1864 to 1868 was a member of the war office committee
on gun-cotton. From 1874 to 1877 he was Fullerian professor
of chemistry at the Royal Institution, in 1874 he was chosen
first president of the Physical Society, and in 1877-1879 he was
president of the Chemical Society. In 1897 the Royal Society
recognized his fifty years of scientific work by awarding him the
Davy medal. Dr Gladstone’s researches were large in number
and wide in range, dealing to a great extent with problems
that lie on the bolder-1 me between physics and chemistry.
Thus a number of his inquiries, and those not the least important,
were partly chemici, partly optical. He determined the optical
constants of hundreds of substances, with the object of discover¬
ing whether any of the elements possesses more than one atomic
refraction. Again, he investigated the connexion between the
optical behaviour, density and chemical composition of ethereal
oils, and the relation between molecular magnetic rotation and
the re t r a ction and dispersion of nitrogenous compounds. So
early as 1856 he showed the importance of the spectroscope
in chemical reaearch, and he was one of the first to notice that
the Fraunhofer spectrum at sunrise and sunset differs from that
at midday, his conclusion being that the earth’s atmosphere
must be responsible for many of its absorption lines, which
indeed were subsequently traced to the oxygen and water-vapour
intheur. Another portioa of his work was of on electro-chemical
chancier. His stadia^ with Alfred Tribe (1840-1885) and W.
Hibbert, in the chemistiy of the storage battery, have added
hugely to our knowledge, while the *' copper-zinc.couple," with
whack his name is associated .together with that of Tribe, among
other things, afforded a Simple means of preparing certain
organo-roetallic compounds, and thus promoted research in
branches of organic chemistry where those bodies an especially
useful. Mention may also be made of his work on phosphorus,
on explosive substances such as iodide of nitrogen, gun-cotton
sad the fulminates, on the influence of mass in tbs process of
chemical reactions, and on die effect of carbonic arid on the
germination of plants. Dr Gladstone always took a great
interest in educational questions, and from 1873 to 1894 he was
a member of the London School Board. He was also a member
of the Christian Evidence Society, and an early supporter of
the Young Men’s Christian Association. His death occurred
suddenly in London on the 6th of October 1902.
GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART (1809-1898), British
statesman, was bom on the 29th of December 1&09 at No. 6a
Rodney Street, Liverpool. His forefathers were Gledstanes
of Gledstanes, in the upper ward of Lanarkshire; or in Scottish
phrase, Gledstanes of that Ilk. As years went on their estates
.dwindled, and by the beginning of the 17th century Gledstanes
was sold. The adjacent property of Arthuwhiel remained in
the hands of the family for nearly a hundred years longer. Then
the son of the last Giedstmes of Arthurshkl removed to Biggar,
where he opened the business of a maltster. His grandson,
Thomas Gladstone (for so the name was modified), became a
com-mcrchant at Leith. He happened to send his eldest son,
John, to Liverpool to sell a cargo of gram there, and the energy
and aptitude of the young man attracted the favourable notice
of a leading com-merchant of Liverpool, who recommended him
to settle in that city. Beginning his commercial career as a
clerk in his patron’s house, John Gladstone lived to become
one of the merchant-princes of Liverpool, a baronet and a
member of parliament. He died m 1851 at the age of eighty-
seven. Sir John Gladstone was a pure Scotsman, a Lowlander
by birth und descent. He married Anne, daughter of Andrew
Robertson of Stornoway, sometime provost of Dingwall. Provost
Robertson belonged to the Cian Donachie, and by this marriage
the robust and business-like Qualities of the Lowlander were
blended with the poetic imagination, the sensibility and fire
of the Gael.
John and Anne Gladstone had six children. The fourth son,
William Ewart, was named after a merchant of Liverpool who
was his father’s friend. He seems to have been a
remarkably good child, and much beloved at home.
In 1818 or 1819 Mrs Gladstone, who belonged to the that.
Evangelical school, said in a letter to a friend, that
she believed her son William had been " truly converted to God.”
After some tuition at the vicarage of Seaforth, a watering-place
near Liverpool, the boy went to Eton in 1821. His tutor was
the Rev. Hcnnr Hartopp Knapp. His brothers, Thomas and
Robertson Gladstone, were already at Eton. Thomas was in the
fifth form, and William, who was placed in the middle remove
of the fourth form, became his eldest brother’s fag. He worked
hard at his classical lessons, and supplemented the ordinary
business of the school hv studying mathematics in the holidays.
Mr Hawtrey, afterwards headmaster, commended a copy of
his Latin verses, and “ sent him up for good ” ; and this ex¬
perience first led the young student to associate intellectual
work with the ideas of ambition and success. He was not a
fine scholar, in that restricted sense of the term which implies
a special aptitude for turning English into Greek and Latin, or
for original versification in Hie classical languages t4 “ His
composition,” we read, “ was stiff,” but he was imbued with
the substance of his authors; and a contempcfrary who was in
the sixth form with him recorded that “ when there were thrilling
passage* of Virgil or Homer, or difficult passages in the Scriptores
Graen, to translate, he or Lord Arthur Hervey was generally
called up to edify the class with quotation or translation.” By
common consent he was pre-eminently God-fezring, orderly
and conscientious. " At Eton,” said Bishop Hamilton of
Salisbury, “ i was a thoroughly idle boy, but I was saved from
sane worse things by getting to know Gladstone.” His most
intimate friend was Arthur Hallanf; by universal acknowledg¬
ment the most remarkable Etonian of his day; but he was not
GLADSTONE 6?
generally popular or emu widely known. He me seen to Hie
greatest advantage, and ms most tho ro ughly at home, in the
debates of the Eton Society, learnedly called “ The Literati,’' and
vulgarly “ Fop,” and in the editorship of the Eton Miscellany.
He left Eton at Christmas 1817. He read for six months with
private tutors, and in October 1828 went up to Ovist Church,
where,in the following year, be was nominated to a studentship.
At Oxford Gladstone read steadily, but not laboriously,
till he neared his final schools. During the latter part of his
undergraduate career he took a brief but brilliant share in the
proceedings of the Union, of which he was successively secretary
and president. He made his first speech on the nth of February
1830. Brought up in the nurture mid admonition of Canning, hie
defended Roman Catholic emancipation, and thought the duke
of Wellington’s government unworthy of national confidence.
He opposed the removal of Jewish disabilities, arguing, we are
told by a contemporary, “ on the part of the Evangelicals,”
and pleaded for the gradual extinction, in preference to the
immediate abolition, of slavery. But his great achievement
was a speech against the Whig Reform Bill. One who heard
this famous discourse says: “ Most of the speakers rose, more
or less, above their usual level, but when Mr Gladstone sat
down we all of us felt that an epoch in our lives had occurred.
It certainly was the finest speech of his that I ever heard.”
Bishop Charles Wordsworth said that his experience of Gladstone
at this time “ made me (and I doubt not others also) feel no less
sure than of ray own existence that Gladstone, our then Christ
Church undergraduate, would one day rise to be prime minister
of England.” In December 1831 Gladstone crowned his career
by taking a double first-class. Lord Halifax (1800-1885) used
to say. with reference to the increase in the amount of reading
requisite for the highest honours: “ My double-first must have
been a better thing than Peel’s; Gladstone’s must have been
better than mine.”
Now came the choice of a profession. Deeply anxious to make
the best use of his life, Gladstone turned his thoughts to holy
orders. But his father had determined to make him
fSK. <0 a politician. Quitting Oxford in the spring of 1832,
Gladstone spent six months in Italy, learning the
language and studying art. In the following September
he was suddenly recalled to England, to undertake his first
parliamentary campaign. The fifth duke of Newcastle was one
of the chief potentates of the High Tory party. His frank
claim to “ do what he liked with his own ” in the representation
of Newark has given him a place in political history. But that
claim had been rudely disputed by the return of a Radical
lawyer at the election of 1831. The Duke was anxious to obtain
a capable candidate to aid him in regaining his ascendancy over
the rebellious borough. His son, Lord Lincoln, had heard
Gladstone's speech against the Reform Bill delivered in the
Oxford Union, and had written home that “ a man had uprisen
in Israel.” At his suggestion the duke invited Gladstone to
stand for Newark in the Tory interest against Mr Serjeant
Wilde, afterwards Lord Chancellor Truro. The last of the
Unreformed parliaments was dissolved on the 3rd of December
2832. Gladstone, addressing the electors of Newark, said that
he was bound by the opinions of no man and no party, but felt
it a duty to watch and resist that growing desire for change
which threatened to produce “ along with partial good a melan¬
choly preponderance of mischief.” The first principle to which
he looked for national salvation was, that the ‘‘duties of governors
are strictly and* peculiarly religious, and that legislatures, like
individuals, are bound to carry throughout their acts the spirit
of the high truths they have acknowledged." The condition of
the poor demanded special attention; labour should receive
adequate remuneration; and he thought favourably of the
“ allotment of cottage grounds.” He regarded slavery as
sanctioned by Holy Scripture, but the slaves ought to beeducatod
and gradually emancipated. The contest resulted in his return
at the head of the poll
The first Reformed parikmeut met on the 29th of January
*833, and the young member for Newark took his seat for the first
time in an assembly which he was deatiaad toadom, delight
and astonish for more than half a century. Hw maiden speech
was delivered on the 3rd of June in reply to _
almost a personal challenge. The colonial secretary, J**
Mr Stanley, afterwards Lord Derby, brought forward timer.
a series of resolutions in favour of tbs extinction of
slavery in the British colonies. On the first night of the debate
Lord Howick, afterwards Lord Grey, who had been under*
secretary for the Colonies, and who opposed the resolutions
as proceeding too gradually towards abolition, cited certain
occurrences on Sir John Gladstone’s plantation in Domerera
to illustrate his contention that the system of slave-labour in
the West Indies was attended by great mortality among the
slaves. Gladstone in his reply—his first speech in-the House—
avowed that he had a pecuniary interest in,the question, “ and,
if he might say so much without exciting suspicion, a stilLdeepar
interest in it as a question of j ustiee, of humanity and of religion,”
If there had recently been a high mortality on his father's planta¬
tion, it was due to the age o) the slaves rather than to any
peculiar hardship in their lot. It was true that the particular
system of cultivation practised in Demrrura was more trying
than same others ; but then it might be said that no two trades
were equally conducive to health. Steel-grinding was notoriously
unhealthy, and manufacturing processes generally were lew
favourable to life than agricultural. While strongly condemning
cruelty, he declared himself an advocate of emancipation, but
held that it should be effected gradually, and after due prepara¬
tion. The slaves must be religiously educated, and stimulated
to profitable industry. The uwners ot emancipated slaves were
entitled to receive compensatiqn from parliament, because it
was parliament that had established this description of property.
“ I do not,” said Gladstone, “ view property as an abstract
thing ; it is the creature of civil society. Uv the legislature it is
granted, and by the legislature it is destroyed.” On the following
day King William IV. wrote to Lord Altlmrp: “ The king
rejoices that a young member has come forward in so promis¬
ing a manner as Viscount Althorp states Mr W. E. Gladstone
to have done.” In the same session Gladstone spoke on
the question of bribery and corruption at Liverpool, and
on the temporalities of the Irish Church. In the session
of 1834 his most important performance was a speech in
opposition to Hume's proposal to throw the universities open
to Dissenters.
On the 10th of November 1834 Lord Althorp succeeded to
his father's peerage, and thereby vacated the leadership of
the Howe of Commons. The prime minister, Lord Melbourne,
submitted to the king a choice of names for the chancellorship
of the exchequer and leadership of the House of Commons;
but his majesty announced that, having last the services of
Lord Althorp as leader of the House of Commons, he could feel
no confidence in the stability of Lord Melbourne’s government,
and that it was his intention to send for the duke of Wellington.
The duke took temporary charge of affairs, but Peel was'felt to
be indispensable. He had gone abroad after the session, and
was now in Rome. As soon as he.could be brought back he
formed an administration, and appointed Gladstone to a junior
lordship of the treasury. Parliament was dissolved on the 29th
of Decemlier. Gladstone was returned unopposed, this time in
conjunction with the Liberal lawyer whore he had beaten at the
last election. The new parliament met on the 19th of February
1835. The elections had given the Liberals, a considerable
majority. Immediately after the meeting of parliament Glad¬
stone was promoted to the under-secretaryship for the colonies,
where his official chief was Lord Aberdeen. The administration
was not long-lived. On the joth of Marah Lord John Russell
moved a resolution in favour of an inquiry into the temporalities
of the Irish Church, with the intention of applying the surplus
to general education without distinction of religious creed.
This was carried against ministers by a majority of thirty-three.
On the Sth of April Sir Robert Peel resigned, and the under¬
secretary for the colonies of course followed his chief into private
life.
G0
GLAB 8 T 0 NE
Released from the labours of office, Ghdstone, liv mg m
ehtatibersin (he Albany, practically divuted h« time betweei
hkparliamentary duties and Study. Then, as always,
his constant companions were Homer and Dante, and
jt Is recorded that he read the whole of St Augustine,
fa twenty-two octavo volumes. He used to frequent the services
at St- James’s, Piccadilly, and Margaret chapel, since better
known as All Saints’, Margaret Street. On the aoth of June
i8ty King William IV. died, and Parliament, having been
prorogued by the young queen in person, was dissolved on the
rrth of the following month. Simply on the strength of his
parliamentary reputation Gladstone was nominated, without
his consent, for Manchester, and was placed at the bottom of
the poll; but, having been at (he same time nominated at
Newark, was again returned. The year 1838 claims special note
fa a record of Gladstone’s life, because it witnessed the appearance
of his famous work on The Slate in its Relations with the Church.
He had left Oxford just before the beginning of that Catholic
revival which has transfigured both the inner spirit and the
outward aspect of the Church of England. But the revival was
now in full strength. The Tracts for the Times were saturating
England with new influences. The movement counted no more
enthusiastic or more valuable disciple than Gladstone. Its
influence had reached him through his friendships, notably with
two Fellows of Merton—Mr James Hope, who became Mr Hope-
Scott of Abbotsford, and the Rev. H. E. Manning, afterwards
cardinal archbishop. The State in its Relations with the Church
was his practical contribution to a controversy in which his
deepest convictions were involved. He contended that the
Church, as established by law, was to be “ maintained for its
truth," and that this principle, if good for England, was good
also for Ireland.
On the 2jth of July 1839 Gladstone was married at Hawarden
to Miss Catherine dlynne, sister, and in her issue heir, of Sir
Stephen Glynne, ninth and last baronet of that name. In
1840 he published Church Principles considered in their Results.
Parliament was dissolved in June 1841. Gladstone was
again returned for Newark. The general election resulted in
a Tory majority of eighty. Sir Robert Peel became
*■*"/** prime minister, and made the member for Newark
8 *"**‘- vice-president of the Board of Trade. An inevitable
change is from this time to be traced in the topics of Gladstone’s
parliamentary speaking. Instead of discoursing on the corporate
conscience of the state and the endowments of the Church, the
importance of Christian education, and the theological unfitness
of the Jews to sit in parliament, he is solving business-like
problems about foreign tariffs and the exportation of machinery ;
waxing eloquent over the regulation of railways, and a graduated
tax on corn ; subtle on the monetary merits of half-farthings,
and great in the mysterious lore of quassia and coceulus indints.
In 184* he had a principal hand in the preparation of the revised
tariff, .by which duties were abolished or sensibly diminished
in the case of isoo duty-paying articles. In defending the new
scheme he spoke incessantly, and amazed the House by his
mastery of detail, his intimate acquaintance with the commercial
needs of the country, and his inexhaustible power of exposition.
In 1843 Gladstone, succeeding Lord Ripon as president of the
Board of Trade, became a member of the cabinet at the age of
thirtv-three. He has recorded the fact that “ the very first
opinion which he ever was called upon to give in cabinet ” was
an opinion in favour of withdrawing the bill providing education
for Children in factories, to which vehement opposition was
offered by (heDissenters,on the ground that it was too favourable
to the Established Church,
At the opening of the session of 1845 the government, in
pursuance of a promise made to Irish members that they would
jMhismO deal with the question of academical education in
ttSSi Ireland, proposed to establish non-sectarian colleges
rmlgm- fa that country and to make a large addition to the
grant to the Roman Catholic College of Maynooth.
Gladstone resigned office, in order, as be announced in the debate
on the address, to form ‘"hot only an honest, but likewise an
independent and an unsuspected judgment," on the plan to-be
submitted by the go ver nm e nt with respect to Maynooth, His
subsequent defence of the proposed grant, on the ground that
it would be improper and unjust to exclude the Roman Catholic
Church in Ireland from a “more indiscriminating support”
which the state might give to various Religious beliefs, was
regarded by men of less sensitive conscience as only proving that
there had been no adequate cause for his resignation. Before
he resigned he completed a second revised tariff, carrying
considerably further the principles on which he had acted in
the earlier revision of 1842.
In the autumn of 1845 the failure of the potato crop in Ireland
threatened A famine, and convinced Sir Robert Peel that all
restrictions on the importation of food must be at
once suspended. He was supported by only three tnde,
members of the cabinet, and resigned on the 5th of
December. Lord John Russell, who had just announced his
conversion to total and immediate repeal of the Cam Laws,
declined the task of forming an adminstration, and on the 20th
of December Sir Robert Peel resumed office. Lord Stanley
refused to re-enter the government, and his place as secretary
of state for the colonies was offered to and accepted by Gladstone.
He did not offer himself for re-eleetion at Newark, and remained
outside the House of Commons during the great struggle of the
coming year. It was a curious irony of fate which excluded
him from parliament at this crisis, for it seems unquestionable
that he was the most advanced Free Trader in Sir Robert Peel’s
Cabinet. The Com Bill passed the House of Lords on the 28th
of June 1846, and on the same day the government were beaten
in the House of Commons on an Irish Coercion Bill. Lord John
Russell became prime minister, and Gladstone retired for a season
into private life. Early in 1847 it was announced that one of the
two members for the university of Oxford intended to retire at
the general election, and Gladstone was proposed for the vacant
seat. The representation of the university had been pronounc, d
by Canning to be the most coveted prize of public life, and
Gladstone himself confessed that he “ desired it with an almost
passionate fondness.” Parliament was dissolved on the 23rd
of July 1847. The nomination at Oxford took place on the 29th
of July, and at the dose of the poll Sir Robert Inglis stood at
the head, with Gladstone as his colleague.
The three years .1847,1848, 1849 were for Gladstone a period
of mental growth, of transition, of development. A change
was silently proceeding, which was not completed for
twenty years. “ There have been,” he wrote in later ^
days to- Bishop Wilberforce, “ two great deaths, or
transmigrations of spirit, in my political existence—one, very
slow, the breaking of ties with my original party.” This was
now in progress. In the winter of 1850-1851 Gladstone spent
between three and four months at Naples, where he learned
that more than half the chamber of deputies, who had followed
the party of Opposition, had been banished or imprisoned ; that
a large number, probably not less than 20,000, of the citizens
had been imprisoned on charges of political disaffection, and that
in prison they were subjected to the grossest cruelties. Having
made careful investigations, Gladstone, on the 7th of April 1851,
addressed an open letter to Lord Aberdeen, bringing an elaborate,
detailed and horrible indictment against the rulers of Naples,
especially as regards the arrangements of their prisons and the
treatment of persons confined in them for political qffences.
The publication of this letter caused a wide sensation in England
and abroad, and profoundly agitated the court of Naples. In
reply to a question in the House of Commons, Lord Palmerston
accepted and adopted Gladstone’s statement, expressed keen
sympathy with the cause which he had espoused, and sent a
copy of his letter to the queen's representative at every court of
Europe. A second letter and a third followed, and their effect,
though for a while retarded, was unmistakably felt in the
subsequent revolution which created a free and united Italy.
In February 1852 the Whig government was defeated on a
Militia Bill,-and Lord John RussdU was succeeded by Lord
Derby, formerly Lord Stanley, with Mr Disraeli, who now
GLADSTONE 69
entered office lor the fint time, a* chancellor of the exchequer
end leader of the House of Commons. Mr Disraeli introduced
■ and carried a makeshift budget, and the government
push 1 in over the session, and dissolved parliament on the
tthfwnt istof July 1853. There was some talkof inducing Glad¬
stone to join the Tory government, ami on the 39th of
November Lord Malmesbury dubiously remarked, “ I cannot
make out Gladstone, who seems to me a dark hone.” In the
following month the chancellor of the exchequer produced his
second budget. The government redeemed their pledge to do
something for the relief of the agricultural interest by reducing
the duty on malt. This created a deficit, which they repaired by
doubling the duty on inhabited houses. The voices of criticism
were heard simultaneously on every side. The debate waxed
fast and furious. In defending his proposals Mr Disraeli gave full
scope to his most characteristic gifts ; he pelted his opponents
right and left with sarcasms, taunts and epigrams. Gladstone
delivered an unpremeditated reply, which has ever since been
celebrated. Tradition says that he “ foamed at the mouth.”
The speech of the chancellor of the exchequer, he said, must be
answered “ on the moment.” It must be “ tried by the laws
of decency and propriety.” He indignantly rebuked his rival’s
language and demeanour. He tore his financial scheme to
ribbons. It was the beginning of a duel which lasted till
death removed one of the combatants from the political arena.
“Those who had thought it impossible that any impression
could be made upon the House after the speech of Mr Disraeli
had to acknowledge that a yet greater impression was produced
by the unprepared reply of Mr Gladstone.” The House divided,
and the government were left in a minority of nineteen. Lord
Derby resigned.
The new government was a coalition of Whigs and Peelites.
Lord Aberdeen became prime minister, and Gladstone chancellor
of the exchequer. Having been returned again for
ot‘bf‘ llar “diversity of Oxford, he entered on the active
nd^ur, duties of a great office for which he was pre-eminently
fitted by an unique combination of financial, adminis¬
trative and rhetorical gifts. His first budget was introduced on
the 18th of April 1853. It tended to make life easier and cheaper
for large and numerous classes ; it promised wholesale remissions
of taxation; it lessened the charges on common processes of
business, on locomotion, on postal communication, and on
several articles of general consumption. The deficiency thus
created was to be met by a “ succession-duty,” or application
of the legacy-duty to real property ; by an increaae of the duty
on spirits ; and by the extension of the income-tax, at jd. in
the pound, to all incomes between £100 and £150. The speech
in which these proposals were introduced held the House spell¬
bound. Here was an orator who could apply all the resources
of a burnished rhetoric to the elucidation of figures ; who could
sweep the widest horizon of the financial future, and yet stoop
to bestow the minutest attention on the microcosm of penny
stamps and post-hones. Above all, the chancellor’s mode of
handling the income-tax attracted interest and admiration. It
was a searching analysis of the financial and moral grounds on
which the impost rested, and a historical justification and eulogy
of it. Yet, great as had been the services of the tax at a time
of national danger, Gladstone could not consent to retain it as
a part of the permanent and ordinary finances of the country.
It was objectionable on account of its unequal incidence, of the
harassing investigation into private affairs which it entailed,
and of the frauds to which it inevitably led. Therefore, having
served its turn, it was to be extinguished in i860. The scheme
astonished, interested and attracted the country. The queen
and Prince Albert wrote to congratulate the chancellor of the
exchequer. Public authorities and private friends joined in
the chorus of eulogy. The budget demonstrated at once its
author’s absolute mastery over figures and the persuasive force
of his expository gift It established the chancellor of the
exchequer as the paramouat financier of his day, and it was only
the first of a long series df similar performances, different, of
course, in detail, but alike in their bold outlines and brilliant
handling. Looking .bank on • long bfc id atwnuoriaamotion*
Gladstone declared that the work of preparing his proposals
about the succession-duty and carrying them through Parlia¬
ment was by fa riie most laboi»ttata^whkffi4»everperfqnty-.
War between Great Britain and Russia was declared on the
27th of March 1834, and it thus feU to the lot of. the most pacific
of ministers, the devotee of retrenchment, and the audotti
cultivator of all industrial arts, to prepare a war budget, ami to
meet as well as he might the exigencies of a conflict whieh hadso
cruelly dislocated all the ingenious device* of financial optimism.
No amount of skill in the manipulation of figures, no ingenuity
in shifting fiscal burdens, could prevent the addition of forty-one
millions to the national debt, or could countervail the-appalling
mismanagement at the seat of war. Gladstone declared that
die state of the army in rite Crimea was a “ matter lor weeping
all day and praying all night." As soon as parliamentjnet »
January 1855 J. A. Roebuck, the Radical member for.Sheffield,
gave notice that he would move for a select committee “ to
inquire into the condition of our army before Sevastopol, and
into the conduct of those departments of the government whose
duty it has been to minister to the wants of that army,” On
the same day Lord John Russell, without announcing hie inten¬
tion to his colleagues, resigned his office as president of the
council sooner than attempt the defence of the government.
Gladstone, in defending the government against Roebuck,
rebuked in dignified and significant terms the conduct of men
who, “ hoping to escape from punishment, ran away from duty,”
On the division on Mr Roebuck’s motion the government was
beaten by the unexpected majority of 157.
Lord Palmerston became prune minister. The Peelites
joined him, and Gladstone resumed office as chancellor of die
exchequer. A shrewd observer at the time pronounced him
indispensable. “ Any other chancellor of the exchequer would
be torn in bits by him.” The government was formed on the
understanding that Mr Roebuck’s proposed committee was to
be resisted. Lord Palmerston soon saw that further resistance
was useless; his Feelite colleagues stuck to their text, and,
within three weeks after resuming office, Gladstone, Sir James
Graham and Mr Sidney Herbert resigned. Gladstone onoe said
of himself and his Peelite colleagues, during the period of political
isolation, that they were like roving icebergs on which men
could not land with safety, but with which ships might come
into perilous collision. He now applied himself specially to
financial criticism, and was perpetually in conflict with the
chancellor of the exchequer, Sir George Camewatt Lewis.
In 1858 Lord Palmerston was succeeded by Lord Derby at
the head of a Conservative administration, and Gladstone
accepted the temporary office of high commiqiioner extraordinary
to the Ionian Islands. Returning to England for the sesewn of
1859, he found himself involved in the controversy whidh arose
over a mild Reform Bill introduced by the government. They
were defeated on the second reading of the bill, Gladstone voting
with them. A dissolution immediately followed, and GlftMtone
was again returned unopposed for the university of Oxford.
As soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of confidence
in the ministiy was moved in the House of Commons. In the
critical division which ensued Gladstone voted with the govern¬
ment, who were left in a minority. Lord Derby resigned. Lord
Palmerston became prime minister, and asked Gladstone to
join him as chancellor of the exchequer; To vote confidence
in an imperilled ministry, and on its defeat to take office with
the rivals who have defeated it, is a manoeuvre which invites
the reproach of tergiversation. But Gladstone risked the 're¬
proach, accepted the office and had a sharp tussle for his eesit.
He emerged from the struggle victorious, and entered on his
duties with characteristic seal. The prince contort wrote;
“ Gladstone is now the real leader in the House 0 1 Commons,
and works with an energy and vigour altogether incredible.”'
The budget of i860 was marked by two distinctive features.
It asked the sanction of parliament for the commercial treaty
which Co Wen had privately arranged with theemperor Napoleon,
and it propoaed to abolish the duty on paper. The French treaty
GLADSTONE
wnscarried, but the abolition of the paper-duty was defeated in
the Hoik at herd*. Gladstone justly regarded the refusal to
remit a duty aa being in effect an act of taxation, and
2 MftJ therefore as an infringement of the rights of the House
of Commons. The proposal to abolish the paper-
duty was revived in the budget of 1861, the chief proposals
of which, instead of being divided, as in previous years, into
several bills, were included in one. By this device the Lords were
obliged to acquiesce in the repeal of the paper-duty.
During Lord Palmerston’s last administration, which lasted
from i*59 to 1865, Gladstone was by far the most brilliant and
most conspicuous figure in the cabinet. Except in finance, he
was not able to accomplish much, for he was met and thwarted
at every turn by his chief's invincible hostility to change; but
the more advanced section of the Liberal party began to look
upon him as their predestined leader. In 1864, in a debate on a
private member’s bill for extending the suffrage, he declared that
the burden of proof lay on those “ who would exclude forty-nine
fiftieths of the working-classes from the franchise.” In 1865,
in a debate on the condition of the Irish Church Establishment,
he declared that the Irish Church, as it then stood, was in a false
position, inasmuch as it ministered only to one-eighth or one-
ninth of the whole community. But just in proportion as Glad¬
stone advanced in favour with the Radical party he lost the
confidence of his own constituents. Parliament was dissolved
in July 1865, and the university elected Mr Gathome BaTdy
in Ins place.
Gladstone at oner, turned his steps towards South Lancashire,
where he was returned with two Tories above him. The result
of the general election was to retain Lord Palmerston's
/fMuTof f? nv wn rnent m power, but on the 18th of October the
Caamaat. °M prime minister died. He was succeeded by Lord
Russell, and Gladstone, retaining the chancellorship
of the exchequer, became for the first time leader of the House
of Commons. Lord Russell, backed by Gladstone, persuaded
his colleagues to consent to a moderate Reform Bill, and the
task of piloting this measure through the House of Commons
fell to Gladstone. The speech in which he wound up the debate
on the second reading was one of the finest, if not indeed the very
finest, which he ever delivered. But it was of no practical avail.
The government were defeated on an amendment in committee,
and thereupon resigned. Lord Derby became prime minister,
with Disraeli as chancellor of the exchccfuer and leader of the
House of Commons. On the 18th of March 1867 the Tory
Reform BiH, which ended in establishing Household Suffrage
in the boroughs, was introduced, and was read n second time
without a division. After undergoing extensive alterations in
committee at the hands of the Liberals and Radicals, the bill
became law in August.
At Christmas 1867 Lord Russell announced his final retirement
from active politics, and Gladstone was recognized by acclama-
_ tion as leader of the Liberal party. Nominally he was
^ in Opposition; but his party formed the majority
party. of the House of Commons, and could heat the govern¬
ment whenever they chose to mass their forces.
Gladstone seized the opportunity to give effect to convictions
which had long been forming in his mind. Early in the session
he brought in a bill abolishing -compulsory church-rates, and
this passed into law. On the Kith of March, in a debate raised
by'an Irish member, he declared that in his judgment the Irish
Church, as a State Church, must cease to exist. Immediately
afterwards he embodied this opinion in a series of resolutions
concerning the Irish Church Establishment, and carried them
against the government. Encouraged by this triumph, he
brought m a Bill to prevent any fresh appointments in the Irish
Church, and this also passed the Commons, though it was
defeated in the Lords. Parliament was dissolved on the nth of
November. A single Issue was placed before the country—Was
the Irish Church to be, or not to he, disestablished ? The
reepoftse was an overwhelming affirmative. Gladstone, who had
been doubly nominated, wan defeated in Lancashire, but was
returned for Greenwich. He those tins moment lor publishing
a Chapter of Autobiography, in which he explained and justified
his change of opinion with regard to the lrisb Chureh.
On the and of December Disraeli, who had succeeded Lord
Derby as premier in the preceding February, announced that
he and his colleagues, recognizing their defeat, had
resigned without waiting for a formal vote of the new Mimiitor:
parliament. On the following day Gladstone was Ms*
summoned to Windsor, and commanded by the CMatak
Queen to form an administration. The great task to ££Sat
which the new prime minister immediately addressed
himself was the disestablishment of the Irish Church. The
queen wrote to Archbishop Tait that the subject of the Irish
Church “made her very anxious," but that Mr Gladstone
“ showed the most conciliatory disposition.” “ The government
can do nothing that would tend to Taise a suspicion of their
sincerity in proposing to disestablish the Irish Church, and to
withdraw all state endowments from all religious communions
in Ireland; but, were these conditions accepted, all other
matters connected with the question might, the queen thinks,
become the subject of discussion and negotiation.” The bill
was drawn and piloted on the lines thus indicated, and became
law on the 26th of July. In the session of 1870 Gladstone’s
principal work was the Irish Land Act, of which the object was
to protect the tenant against eviction as long as he paid his rent,
and to secure to him the value of any improvements which his
own industry had made, in the following session Religious
Tests in the universities were abolished, and a bill to establish
secret voting was carried through the House of Commons.
This was thrown out by the Lords, but became law a year later.
The House of Lords threw out a bill to abolish the purchase of
commissions in the army. Gladstone found that purchase
existed only by royal sanction, and advised the queen to issue
a royal warrant cancelling, on and after the 1st of November
following, all regulations authorizing the purchase of commissions.
In 1873 Gladstone set his hand to the third of three great
Irish reforms to which he had pledged himself. His sclieme
for the establishment of a university which should satisfy both
Roman Catholics and Protestants met with general disapproval.
The bill was thrown out by three votes, and Gladstone resigned.
The queen sent for Disraeli, who declined to take office in a
minority of the House of Commons, so Gladstone was compelled
to resume. But he and his colleagues were now, in Disraelitish
phrase, “exhausted volcanoes.” Election after election went
wrong. The government had lost favour with the public, and
was divided against itself. There were resignations and rumours
of resignations. When the session of 1873 had come to an end
Gladstone took the chancellorship of the exchequer, and. as
high authorities contended, vacated his seat by doing so. The
point was obviously one of vital importance; and we learn from
Lord Selbome, who was lord chancellor at the time, that Glad¬
stone “ was sensible of the difficulty of either taking his seat
in the usual manner at the opening of the session, or letting ....
the necessary arrangements for business in the House of Commons
be made in the prime minister’s absence. A dissolution was the
wily escape.” On the 23rd of January 1874 Gladstone announced
the dissolution in an address to his constituents,
declaring that (he authority of the government had “’‘su. **
now “ sunk below the point necessary for the due de¬
fence and prosecution of the public interest.” He promised that,
if he were returned to power, he would repeal the incqpe-tax.
This bid for popularity failed, die general election resulting in a
Tory majority of forty-six. Gladstone kept his selt for Greenwich,
but was only second on the poll. Following the example of
Disraeli in 1868, he resigned without meeting parliament.
For some years he had alluded to his impending retirement
from public life, saying that he was “ strong against going on in
politics to the end.” He was now sixty-four, and his
fife had been a continuous experience of exhausting
labour. On the 12th of March 1874 he informed
Lord Granville that he could give only occasional attendance
in the Home of Commons during tile current session, and that
he must “ reserve his entire freedom to divest himself of all the
''QjLADSTON-fi '■
responsibilities el leadership at no distant date. 1 ’’ His meet
important intervention in the debates of 1874 was when he
opposed Archbishop Tate's Public Worship Bill This was read
a second time without a division, but in committee Gladstone
enjoyed some signal triumphs over his late solicitor-general,
Sir William Harcourt, who had warmly espoused the cause of
the government and the bill. At the beginning of 1875 Gladstone
earned into effect the resolution which he had announced a year
before, and formally resigned the leadership of the Liberal
party. He was succeeded by Lord Hartmgton, afterwards
duke of Devonshire. The learned leisure which Gladstone had
promised himself when released from official responsibility
was not of long duration. In the autumn of 1875 an insurrection
broke out in Bulgaria, and the suppression of it by the Turks
was marked by massacres and outrage*. Public indignation
was aroused by what were known as the “ Bulgarian atrocities,”
and Gladstone dung himself into the agitation against Turkey
with characteristic seal. At public meetings, in the press, and
m parliament he denounced the Turkish government and its
champion, Disraeli, who had now become Lord Beaconsfield.
Lord Hartmgton soon found himself pushed aside from his
position of titular leadership. For four years, from 1876 to j88o,
Gladstone maintained the strife with a courage, a persistence
and a versatility which raised the enthusiasm of his followers
to the highest pitch. The county of Edinburgh, or Midlothian,
Midlothian w hich he contested against the dominant influence of
cmmptign the duke of Buccleuch, was the scene of the most
astonishing exertions. As the general election ap¬
proached the only question submitted to the electors was—Do
you approve or condemn Lord Beaconsfield’s foreign policy ?
The answer was given at Easter 1880, when tin; Liberals were
returned by an overwhelming majority over Tories and Home
Rulers combined. Gladstone was nuw member for Midlothian,
having retired from Greenwich at the dissolution.
When Lord Beaconsfield resigned, the queen sent for Lord
Hartington, the titular leader of the Liberals, but he and Lord
Granville assured her that no other chief than Gladstone would
satisfy the party. Accordingly, on the 23rd of April he became
prime minister for the second time. His second administration,
of which the main achievement was the extension of the suffrage
to the agricultural labourers, was harassed by two controversies,
relating to Ireland and Kgvpt, which proved disastrous to the
Liberal party. Gladstone alienated considerable masses of
English opinion by his efforts to reform the tenure of Irish land,
and provoked the Irish people by his attempts to establish
social order and to repress crime. A bill to provide compensation
for tenants who had been evicted hy Irish landlords passed the
Commons, but was shipwrecked in the Lords, and a ghastly
record of outrage and murder stained the following winter. A
Coercion Bill and a Land Bill passed in 1881 proved unsuccessful.
On the 6th of May 1882 the newly appointed chief secretary
for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his under-secretary,
Mr Burke, were stabbed to death in the Phoenix Park at Dublin.
A new Crimes Act, courageously administered by Lord Spencer
and Sir George Trevelyan, abolished exceptional crime in Ireland,
but completed the breach between the British government and
the Irish party in parliament.
The bombardment of the forts at Alexandria and the occupa¬
tion of Egypt in 1882 were viewed with great disfavour by the
bulk q| the Liberal party, and were but little congenial to
Gladstone himself. The circumstances of General Gordon’s
untimely death ^woke an outburst of indignation against those
who were, or seemed to be, responsible for it. Frequent votes of
censure were proposed by the Opposition, and on the 8th of June
1885 the government were beaten on the budget. Gladstone
resigned. The queen offered him the dignity of an earldom,
whieh he declined. He was succeeded by Lord Salisbury.
The general election took place in the following November.
When it was over the Liberal party was just short of the numerical
strength which was requisite to defeat the combination of Tories
and Famelltees. A startling surprise was at hand. Gladstone
had for some time been convinced of the expediency of conceding |
Borne Rale to Ireland in the event of .lbs Irish ini jliimw iia
giving on equivocal proof that ithey desired it. His. intentions
were made known only to a priv ileged few, sad
these, qurioosiy, wane not ha colleague^ Hie general Ag*.
election of 1885 showed that Ireland, outride Ulster, 2ZC m*
was practically u nanimous for Heme Rule On trio
r7th of December an anonymous paragraph was published,
stating that if Mr Gladstone returned to office be was prepared
to “ deal in a liberal spirit with the demand for Home Rule,”
It was deer that if Gladstone meant what he appeared to mean,
the Parnellites would support him, and the Tories must leave
office. The government seemed to accept the situation,' When
parliament met they executed, for form’s sake, some'eotsfusod
manoeuvres, and then they were beaten on an amendment
to the address in favour of Municipal Allotments. On the ist
of February 1886 Gladstone became, lor the third time, "prime
minister. Several of his former colleagues declined to join
him, on the ground of their absolui v hostility to the policy of
Home Rule; others joined on the express understanding that
they were only pledged to consider the police, and did not fetter
their further liberty of action. On the 8th of April
brought in his bill for establishing Home Rule, and eight days
later the bill for buying out the Irish landlords. Meanwhile
two members of his cabinet, feeling themselves unable to support
these measures, resigned. Hostility to the bills grew apace;
Gladstone was implored to withdraw them, or substitute a
resolution in favour of Irish autonomy ; but he resolved to press
at least the Home Rule Bill to a second reading. In the early
morning of the 8th of June the bill was thrown out by thirty.
Gladstone immediately advised the queen to dissolve parliament.
Her Majesty strongly demurred to a second general election
within seven months ; but Gladstone persisted, and she yielded.
Parliament was dissolved on the 26th of June. In spite of
Gladstone's skilful appeal to the constituencies to sanction
the principle of Home Rule, as distinct from the practical
provisions of his late bill, the general election resulted in a
majority of considerably over too against his polity, and Lord
Salisbury resumed office. Throughout the existence of the new
parliament Gladstone never relaxed his extraordinary efforts,
though now nearer eighty than seventy, on behalf of the cause
of self-government for Ireland. The fertility of argumentative
resource, the copiousness of rhetoric, and the physical energy
which he threw into the enterprise, would have been remarkable
at any stage of his public life ; continued into his eighty-fifth
year they were little less than miraculous. Two incidents of
domestic interest, one happy and the other sad, Wong to that
period of political storm and stress. On the 25th of July 1889
Gladstone celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his marriage,
and on the 4th of July 1891 his eldest son, William Henry, a
man of fine character and accomplishments, died, after a lingering
illness, in bis fifty-second year.
The crowning struggle of Gladstone's political career was
now approaching its climax. Parliament was dissolved on the
28th of June. 1894. The general election resulted
in a majority of forty far Home Rule, heterogeneously .
composed of Liberals, Labour members and Irish, g/a; *
As soon at the new parliament met a vote of want of
confidence in Lord Salisbury’s government was moved and
carried. Lord Salisbury resigned, and on the 15th of August
1892 Gladstone kneed hands as first lord of the treasury. He
was the first English statesman that had been four times prime
minister. Parliament reassembled in January 1893. Gladstone
brought in his- new Horae Rule Bill on the 13th of February.
It passed the House of Commons, but was thrown out by the
House of Lords on the second reading on the 8th of September
1893. Gladstone’s political work was now, in his own judgpnent,
ended. He made his last speech in the House of Commons on the
ist of March 1894, acquiescing in some amendments introduced
by the Lords into the Parish Councils Bill; and on the 3rd of
March he placed his resignation in the queen’s hands. He
never set toot again in the House of Commons, though he re¬
mained a member of it till the dissolution of 1895. He paid
GLADSTONE—GLAGOLITIC
72
oeoMkmtf visits to friends in London, Scotland and the south
of Pnaet ; but the remainder of his life was spent for the most
part at Hawarden. He occupied his leisure by writing a rhymed
translation of the Odes of Horace, and preparing an elaborately
annotated edition of Butler’s Analogy and Sermons. He had
also contemplated some addition to the Homeric studies which
he had always loved, but this design was never earned into effect,
for he was summoned once again from his quiet life of study
and devotion to the field of public controversy. The Armenian
massacres in 1894 and i8qt revived all his ancient hostility to
<• the governing Turk.” He denounced the massacres and their
perpetrators at public meetings held at Chester on the 6th of
August 1895, and at Liverpool on the 34th of September 1896.
In March 1897 he recapitulated the hideous history in an open
letter to the duke of Westminster.
But the end, though not yet apprehended, was at hand.
Since his retirement from office Gladstone s physical vigour,
up to that time unequalled, had shown signs of impairment.
Towards the end of the summer of 1897 he began to suffer from
an acute pain, winch waa attributed to facial neuralgia, and
in November he went to Cannes. In February 1898 he returned
to England and went to Bournemouth. There he was informed
that the pain had its origin in u disease which must soon prove
fatal. He received the information with simple thankfulness,
and only asked that he might die at home. On the 22nd of
March he returned to Hawarden, and there he died
on the 19th of May 1898. During the night of the
35th of May his body was conveyed from Hawarden to London
and the coffin was placed on a bier in Westminster Hall. T hrough •
out the 16th and 27th a vast train of people, officially estimated
at 350,000, and drawn from every rank and class, moved in
unbroken procession past the bier. On the 28th of May the
coffin, preceded by the two Houses of Parliament and escorted
by the chief magnates of the realm, was carried from Westminster
Hall to Westminster Abbey. The heir-apparent and his son,
the prime minister and the leader of the House of Commons,
were among those who bore the pall. The body was buried
in the north transept of the abbey, where, on the 19th of June
2900, Mrs Gladstone’s body was laid beside it.
Mr and Mrs Gladstone had four sons and four daughters, of
whom one died in infancy. The eldest son, W. H. Gladstone
(1840-1891), was a member of parliament for many
" lr ' years, and married the daughter of Lord Blantyre, his
son William (b. 1885) inheriting the family estates. The fourth
son, Herbert John (b. 1854)", sat in parliament for Leeds from
2880 to 1910, and filled various offices, being home secretary
1905-1910; in 1910 he was created Viscount Gladstone, on being
appointed governor-general of united South Africa. The eldest
daughter, Agnes, married the Rev. E. C. Wickham, headmaster of
Wellington, 1875-1893, and later Dean of Lincoln. Another
daughter married the Rev. Harry Drew, rector of Hawarden.
The youngest, Helen, was for some years vice-principal of
Newnham College, Cambridge.
After a careful survey of Mr Gladstone’s life, enlightened
by personal observation, it is inevitable to attempt some analysis
of his character. First among his moral attributes
mc ,r ' must be placed his religiousness. From those early
days when a fond mother wrote of him as having been ” truly
converted to God,” down to the verge of ninety years, he lived
in the habitual contemplation of the unseen world, and regulated
his private and public action by reference to a code higher
than that of mere prudence or worldly wisdom. A second
characteristic, scarcely less prominent than the first, was his
love of power. His ambition had nothing in common with the
vulgar eagerness for place and pay and social standing. Rather
it was a resolute determination to possess that control over the
machine of state which should enable him to fulfil without let
nr hindrance the political mission with which he believed that
Providence had charged him. The love of power was supported
by a splendid fearlessness. No dangers wert too threatening
for him toface.no obstacles too formidable,no tasks too laborious,
no heights too steep. TheHove of power and tbs supporting
courage were allied with a marked imperiousness. Of this
quality there was no trace in his manner, which was courteous,
conciliatory and even deferential; nor in his speech, which
breathed an almost exaggerated humility. But the imperious¬
ness showed itself in the more effectual form of action; in his
sudden resolves, his invincible insistence^ his recklessness of
consequences to himself and his friends, his habitual assumption
that the civilized world and all its units must agree with him,
his indignant astonishment at the bare thought of dissent or
resistance, his incapacity to believe that an overruling Provid¬
ence would permit him to be frustrated or defeated. He had
by nature what he himself called a “ vulnerable temper and
impetuous moods.” But so absolute was his lifelong self-mastery
that he was hardly ever betrayed into saying that which, on
cooler reflection, needed to be recalled. It was easy enough
to see the “ vulnerable temper ” as it worked within, but it
was never suffered to find audible expression. It may seem
paradoxical, but it is true, to say that Mr Gladstone was by
nature conservative. His natural bias was to respect things as
they were. In his eyes, institutions, customs, systems, so long
as the> r had not become actively mischievous, were good because
they were old. It is true that he was sometimes forced by
conviction or fate or political necessity to be a revolutionist
on a large scale ; to destroy an established Church ; to add two
millions of voters to the electorate ; to attack the parliamentary
union of the kingdoms. But these changes were, in their in¬
ception, distasteful to their author. His whole life was spent
in unlearning the prejudices in which he was educated. His
love of freedom steadily developed, and he applied its principles
more and more courageously to the problems of government.
But it makes some difference to the future of a democratic
state whether its leading men are eagerly on the look-out for
something to revolutionize, or approach a constitutional change
by the gradual processes of conviction and conversion.
Great as were his eloquence, his knowledge and his financial
skill, Gladstone was accustomed to say of himself that the only
quality in which, so far as he knew, he was distinguished from
his fellow-men was his faculty of concentration. Whatever were
the matter in hand, he so concentrated himself on it, and absorbed
himself in it, that nothing else seemed to exist for him.
A word must be said about physical characteristics. In
his prime Gladstone was just six feet high, but his inches
diminished as his years increased, and in old age the unusual
size of his head and breadth of his shoulders gave him a slightly
top-heavy appearance. His features were strongly marked;
the nose trenchant and hawk-like, and the mouth severely
lined. His flashing eyes were deep-set, and in colour resembled
the onyx with its double hand of brown and grey. His com¬
plexion was of an extreme pallor, and, combined with his jet-black
hair, gave in earlier life something of an Italian aspect to his
face. His dark eyebrows were singularly flexible, and they per¬
petually expanded and contracted in harmony with what he
was saying. He held himself remarkably upright, and even
from his school-days at Eton had been remarked for the rapid
pace at which he habitually walked. His voice was a baritone,
singularly clear and far-reaching. In the Waverley Market
at Edinburgh, which is said to hold 20,000 people, he could be
heard without difficulty ; and as late as 1895 he said to the
present writer : ” What difference does it make to me whether
I speak to 400 or 4000 people ? ” His physical vigour in old
age earned him the popular nickname of the Grand Old Man.
lord Morley of Blackburn’s Lift of Gladstone was published in
1903. (Cl. W. E. R.)
GLADSTONE, a seaport of Clinton county, Queensland,
Australia, 328 m. by rail N.E. of Brisbane. Pop. (igoi) 1566.
It possesses a fine, well-sheltered harbour reputed one of the
best in Queensland, at the mouth of the river Boyne. Gold,
manganese, copper and coal are found in the neighbourhood.
Gladstone, founded in 1847, became a municipality in 1863.
See J. F. Hogan, Th» Gladstone Colony (London, 1898).
GLAGOLITIC, an early Slavonic alphabet: also the liturgy
written therein, and the people (Dalmatians and Roman Catholic
GLAIR-^GLAMORfiANBMIRE
Montenegrin*) among whom it has survived by special licence
of the Pope (see Slavs for table of letters).
CLAIR (from Fr. glaire, probably from Lat dams, clear,
bright), the white of an egg, and hence a term used for a preparar
tion made of this and used, in bookbinding and in gilding, to
retain the gold and as a varnish. The adjective “ glairy " is
used of substances having the viscous and transparent consistency
of the white of an egg.
GLAUBER, JAKES (*809-1903), English meteorologist and
aeronaut, was bom in London on the 7th of April i8og. After
serving for a few years on the Ordnance Survey of Ireland,
he acted as an assistant at the Cambridge and Greenwich ob¬
servatories successively, and when the department of meteorology
and magnetism was formed at the latter, he was entrusted with
its superintendence, which he continued to exercise for thirty-four
years, until his retirement from the public service. In 1845 he
published his well-known dew-point tables, which have gone
through many editions. In 1850 he established the Meteoro¬
logical Society, acting as its secretary for many years, and in
18&6 he assisted in the foundation of the Aeronautical Society
of Great Britain. He was appointed a member of the royal
commission on the warming and ventilation nf dwellings in 1875,
and for twelve years from 1880 acted as chairman of the executive
committee nf the Palestine Exploration Fund. But his name
is best known in connexion with the series of balloon ascents
which he made between 1862 and 1866, mostly in company
with Henry Tracey Coxwell. Manv of these ascents were
arranged by a committee of the British Association, of which
he was a member, and were strictly scientific in character, the
object being to carry out observations on the temperature,
humidity, Ac., of the atmosphere at high elevations. Tn one of
them, that which took place at Wolverhampton, on the 5th of
September 1862, Glaishcr and his companion attained the
greatest height that had been reached by a balloon carrying
passengers. As no automatically recording instruments were
available, and Glaishcr was unable to read the barometer at
the highest point owing to loss of consciousness, the precise
altitude can never be known, blit it is estimated at about
7 m. from the earth. He died on the 7th of February root at
Croydon.
GLAMIS, a village and parish of Forfarshire, Scotland, 5 j m.
”• bv S. of Forfar by the Caledonian railway. Pop. of parish
(1901) rjjx. The name is sometimes spelled Glammis and the
1 is mutej it is derived from the Gaelic, glamhus, “ a wide gap,”
a vale. The chief object in the village is the sculptured stone,
traditionally supposed to be a memorial of Malcolm II., although
J'ordun s statement that the king was slain in the castle is now
rejected. About a mile from the station stands Glamis Castle,
the seat of the earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, a fine example
of tlie Scottish Baronial style, enriched with certain features
of the French chateau. In its present form it dates mostly
from the 17 th century, but the original structure was as old as
the nth century, for Macbeth was Thane of Glamis. Several
of the early Scots kings, especially Alexander III., used it
occasionally us a residence. Robert II. bestowed the thanadom
j ,n .f“h n Lyon, who had married the king’s second daughter
by Elizabeth Mure and was thus the founder of the existing
family. Patrick Lyon became hostage to England for James 1.
m I4 ~ 4 ' Wh *"> 1 S 37 , Janet Douglas, widow of the 6th Lord
(jlamijL was burned at Edinburgh as a witch, for conspiring to
procure James V.’s death, Glamis was forfeited to the crown, but
it was restored to her son six years later when her innocence had
!^ n ' sUbl i shed - ^i?* J r< i ®ari °f Strathmore entertained the
Old Chevalier and eighty of his immediate followers in 1715.
After discharging the duties of hospitality the earl joined the
Jacobites at Sheriffmuir and fell on the battlefield. Sir Walter
Scott spent a night in die “ hoary old pile ” when he was about
twenty years old, and gives a striking relation of his experiences
m his Demonology and Witdicraft. The hall has an arched
ceiling and several historical portraits, includin' those of Claver-
houre, Otari* II. and James II. of England. At Gossans, in
the parish of Glamis, there is a remarkable sculptured monolith,
n
and other examples occur at the Human.''' HK’-ajKMn dw tM
kirkyard of Easiie. 1 «■ > :W
GLAMORGANSHIRE (Welsh M orpm wg % a- maritime month
occupying the south-east corner of Wales, and-hounded HiW.
by Carmarthenshire, N. by Carmarthenshire aad- Broc restore,
E. by Monmouthshire and S. and S.W. by the Mrinoi' Channel
and Carmarthen Bay. The contour of the county » largely
determined by the fact that it lies between the mouStains ei
Breconshire and the Bristol Channel. Its extreme breadth freth
the sea inland is 29 m., while its greatest length from eastte
west is 53 m. Its chief rivers, the Rhymney, Thff, Neath-(or
Nedd) and Tawe or Tawy, luiv e their sources in the Breconshire
mountains, the two first trending towards the south-east, while
the two last trend to the south-west, so that the mam body of the
county forms a sort of quarter-circle between the Tall and the
Neath. Near the apex of the angle formed by these two riven
is the loftiest peak in the county, the great Pennant scarp of
Craig y Llyn or Cam Moesyn, 1970 ft high, which m the Glacial
period diverted the ice-flow from the Beacons into the valley
on either side of it. To the south and south-east of this peaJc
extend the great coal-fields of mid-Glamorgan, their surface
forming an irregular plateau with an average elevation of 600 to
1200 ft. above sea-level, but with numerous peaks about 1500 ft
high, or more ; Mynydd y Caerau, the second highest being
1823 ft Out of this plateau have been carved, to the depth
of 500 to 800 ft. below its general level, three distinct series
°f narrow valleys, those in each series being more or less parallel.
The rivers which give their names to these valleys include the
Cynon, the Great and Lesser Rhondda (tributaries of the Taff)
and the Ely flowing to the S.E., the Ogwr or Ogmore (with its
tributaries the Garw and Llynfi) flowing south through Bridgend,
and the Avan bringing the waters of the Corwg and Gwynfi to
the south-west into Swansea Bay at Aberavon. To the south
of this central hill country, which is wet, cold and sterile, and
whose steep slopes form the southern edge of the coal-field, there
stretches out to the sea a gently undulating plain, compendiously
known as the “ Vale of Glamorgan,” but in fact consisting of a
succession of small vales of such fertile land and with such a
mild climate that it has been styled, not inaptly, the “ Garden
of Wales.” To the east of the central area referred to .and
divided from it by a spur of the Brecknock mountains culminating
in Cam Bugail, 1570 ft. high, is the Rhynwiey, which forms the
county’s eastern boundary. On the west other spurs of the
Beacons divide the Neath from the Tawe (which enters the
sea at Swansea), and the Tawe from the Loughor, which, with
its tr ibutary the Amman, separates the county on die N.W.
from Carmarthenshire, in which it riles, and ailing into Car¬
marthen Bay forms what is known as the Burry estuary, so
called from a small stream of that name in the Gower peninsula.
The rivers are all comparatively short, the TaB, in every' re s pect
the chief river, being only 33 m. long.
Down to the middle of the ryth century most of the Glamorgan
valleys were famous for their beautiful scenery, but industrial
operations have since destroyed most of this beauty, except in
the so-called "Vale of Glamorgan,” the Vale of Nealb, the
“ combes ” and limestone gorges of Gower and the upper reaches
of the Tafi and the Tawe. The Vale of Neath is par excellence
I the waterfall district of South Wales, the finest falls being the
Cdhepste fall, the Syehnant and the three Clungwyns on the
Mellte and its tributaries near the Vale of Neath railway from
Neath to Hirwaun, Scwd Eiaon Gam and Scwd Gladys on the
Pyrddm on the west side of the valley dose by, with Melm Court
and Ahergarwed still nearer Neath. There are also several
cascades on the Dulais, and in the same district, though in
Breconshire,is Scwd Henrhyd on the Liech nearColbren Junction.
Almost the only part of the county which is now well timbered
is the Vale of Neath. There are three small hikes, Llyn Fawr
and Llyn Fach near Craw y Llyn and Kenfig Pool amid the
sand-dunes of Maigam. The rainfall of the oounty varies from
an average of about *5 in. at Porthcawl and ether ports of the
Vale of Glamorgan to about 37 in. at Cardiff, 40 In. at Swansea
and to upwards of 70 in. in the northern part of thecoiiritF,
xn.3«
n
' GLAMORGANSHIRE
the Ml being stall higher in the adjoining parts of BracbnaWre
whence Cardiff, Swansea, Merthyr and a large area near Neath
draw their main supplies of water. ...
, The county has a coa»t-lme of about 83 m. Its two chief bay*
an the Burry estuary and Swansea, one on either stde of the
Gower Peninsula, which has also a number of smaller inlets with
magnificent cliff scenery. The rest of the coast is fairly regular,
the chief openings being at the mouths of the Ogmore and the
Taft respectively. The most conspicuous headlandsareWhiteford
Pont, Worms Head and Mumbles Head in Gower, Nash Point
and Lavemock Point on the eastern half of the coast.
Gttbry .-The Silurian rocks, the oldest in the county, form a
snail iniier about a sq. m. in area ai Rumney and Pen-y-lan, north
at Cardiff, and consist oi mudstones aud sandstones oi Wenlock and
Ludlow age; a feeble representative of the Wenlock Limestone also
is present They are conformably succeeded by the Old Red Sand¬
stone which extends westwards as far as Cowbridge as » deeply*
eroded anticline largely concealed by Trias and Lias. The Old
Red Sandstone consists in the lower parts of red marls and sand¬
stones, while the upper beds are quurtzitic and pebbly, and form
bold scarps which dominate the low ground formed by the softer
beds below. Cefn-y-liryn, another anticline of Old Red Sandstone
(including small exposures o< Silurian rocks), forms the prominent
backbone of the Cower peninsula. The next formation is the
Carboniferous Limestone which encircles and underlies the great
South Wales coal-field, on the south of which, west of Cardiff, it
forms a bold escarpment oi steeply-dipping beds surrounding the
Oid Red Sandstone anticline. It shows up through the Trias and
Lias in extensive iniicrs near Bridgend, while in Gower it dins away
from the Old Red Sandstone of Ccfn-y-bryn. On the north of the
coal-field it is just reached near Merthyr Tydfil. The Millstone Grit,
which consists of grits, sandstones and shales, crops out above the
limestone and serves to introduce the Coal Measures, which lie in the
form of a great trough extending east and west across the county and
occupying most of its surface. The coal seams are most numerous
in the lower part of the Beries; the Pennant Sandstone succeeds
and occupies the inner parts of the basin, forming an elevated
moorland region deeply trenched by the teeming valleys (s.g. the
Rhondda) which cross the coal-field from north to south. Above
the Pennant Sandstone still higher coals come in. Taken generally,
the coals are bituminous in the south-east and anthracitic in the
north-west.
After the Coal Measures had been deposited, the southern part of
the region was subjected to powerful folding ; the resulting anticlines
were worn down during a long period oi detrition, and then sub¬
merged slowly beneath a Triassic lake in which accumulated the
Keuper conglomerates and marls which spread over the district
weit of Cardiff and are traceable on the coast of Gower. The
succeeding Rhaetic and Lias which form most of the coastal plain
(the fertile Vale of Glamorgan) from Penarth to near Bridgend were
laid down by the Jurassic sea. A well-marked raised beach is
traceable In Gower. Sand-dunes are present locally around Swansea
Bay. Moraines, chiefly formed of gravel and clay, occupy many
of the Glamorgan valleys; and these, together with the striated
surfaces which may be observed at higher levels, are clearly glacial
in origin. In the Coal Measures and the newer Limestones and
Triassic, Rhaetic and Liassic conglomerates, marls and shales, many
interesting fossils have been disinterred : these include the remains
of an air-breathing reptile {Antkraceprton'). Bones of the cave-bear,
lion, mammoth, reindeer, rhinoceros, along with flint weapons and
tools, have been discovered in some caves of the Gower peninsula.
A/rittdtun.—' The low-lying land on the south from Caerphilly to
Margam is very fertile, the sou being a deep rich loam ; and here the
standard of agriculture is fairly high, and there prevails a well-
defined tenant-right custom, supposed to be of ancient origin but
probably dating only from the beginning of the 19th century.
Everywhere on the Coal Measures the soil is poor, while vegetation is
also injured by the smoke from the works, especially copper smoke.
Ltoand (c. t jjj) describes the lowlands as growing good corn and
grass but little wood, while the mountains had " red tie dere, kiddes
Plenty, oxen and sheep." The land even in the " Vale " seems to
ave been open and unenclosed till the end of the 15th or beginning
oi the rfith century, while enclosure spread to the uplands still later.
About cMsffftb of the total area is still common load, more than half
of which .is unsuitable for cultivation. The total area under culti¬
vation in loqj was *69,171 acres or about onr-hali of the total area
of the county. The chief crops raised (giving them in the order
of their respective acreages) are oats, barley, 'turnips and swedes,
wheat, potatoes aad mangolds. A steady cncraase of the acreage
uader grain-craps, creed-crops and clover has been accompanied
by an Increase in the area of pasture. Dairying has been largely
abandoned for stock-raismg, and very Httle " Caerphilly cheese fs
now made la that district. In 1005 Glamorgan had the largest
number of ho me s in sgrisultum of any Welsh oouaty cacept those of
CarmarttieO aad Cardigan. Good sheep and ponies are reared in the
hill-country. Pig-keeping fs much neglected, aqd despite the mild
climate very little fruit to grown. The average sire bf holdings In
s t
1905 was 47-3 acres, these being only g6 holdings above 300 1
and 1719 between 50 and joo acres, .
Afiatne and Manufacture.— Down to tbe middle of the *$th
century the county had no industry of any importance exdept
agriculture. The coal which underlies practically the whole surface
of the county except the Vale of Glamorgan and West Gower was
little worked till about 1733, when it bagan to be used instead of
charcoal for the smelting of iron. By |8ii,- when there were 25
blast furnaces in the county, the demand for coal for this purpose
had much increased, but it was in the most active period of railway
construction that it reached its maximum. Down to about 1850,
ii not later, the chief collieries were owned by the ironmasters and
were Worked for their own requirements, but when the suitability
of the lower seams in the district north of Cardiff for steam purposes
was realized, an export trade sprang up and soon assumed enormous
proportions, so that " the port of Cardiff " (including Barry and
Penarth), from which the bulk of the steam coal was shipped, became
the first port in the world for the shipment of coal. The development
of the anthracite coal-field lying to the north and west of Swansea
(from which port it is mostly shipped) dates mainly from the closing
years of the 19th century, when the demand for this coal grew
rapidly. There are still large areas in the Rhymney Valley on the
east, and in the districts oi Neath and Swansea on the west, whose
development has only recently been undertaken. In connexion with
the coal industry, patent fuel (made from small coal and tar) is
largely manufactured at Cardiff, Port Talbot and Swansea, the ship¬
ments from Swansea being the largest in the kingdom. Next in
importance to coal are the iron, steel and tin-plate industries, and
in the Swansea district the smelting of copper and a variety of other
ores.
The manufacture of iron and steel is carried on at Dowlais, Merthyr
Tydfil, Cardiff, Port Talbot, Briton Ferry, Pontardawe, Swansea,
Gorseinon and Gowerton. During the last quarter of the 19th cen¬
tury the use of the native ironstone was almost wholly given up,
and the necessary ore is now imjiorted, mainly from Spain. As a
result several of the older inland works, such as those of Aberdare,
Ystalyfcra and Brynaman have been abandoned, and new works
have been established on or near the sea-board ; e.g. the Dowiais
company in 1891 opened large works at Cardiff. The tin-plate
industry is mainly confined to the west of the county, Swansea being
the chief port for the shipment of tin-plates, though there arc works
near Llantrisant and at Melin Griffith near Cardiff, the latter being
the oldest in the county. Copper-smelting is carried on on a large
scale in the west of tbe county, at Port Talbot, Cwmavon, Neath and
Swansea, and on a small scale at Cardiff, the earliest works having
been established at Neath in 1584 and at Swansea in 1717. There
are nickel works at Clydach near Swansea, the nickel being imparted
in the form of “ matte " from Canada. Swansea has almost a
monopoly of the manufacture of spelter or zinc. Lead, silver and a
number of other metals or their by-products are treated in or near
Swansea, which is often styled the '* metallurgical capital of Wales."
Limestone and silica quarries are worked, while sandstone and clay
are also raised. Swansea and Nantgarw were formerly famous for
their china, coarse ware is still made chiefly at Ewenny and terra¬
cotta at Pencoed. Large numbers of people arc employed in
engineering works and m the manufacture of machines, chains,
conveyances, tools, paper and chemicals. The textile factories are
few and unimportant.
Fisheries .—Fisheries exist all along the coast; by lines, draught-
nets, dredging, trawling, fixed nets and by band. There is a fleet of
trawlers at Swansea. The principal fish caught are cod, herring,
pollock, whiting, flukes, brill, plaice, soles, turbot, oysters, mussels,
limpets, cockles, shrimps, crabs and lobsters. There are good fish-
markets at Swansea and Cardiff.
Communications .—The county has ample dock accommodation.
The various docks of Cardiff amount to 210 acres, including timber
ponds i Penarth has a dock and baton of 26 acres and a tidal harbour
oi 35 acres. Barry docks cover 114 acres ; Swansea has 147 acres,
including its new King's Dock ; and Port Talbot 90 acres. There
are also docks at Briton Ferry and Porthcawl, but they arc not
capable of admitting deep-draft vessels.
Besides its porta, Glamorgan has abundant means of transit in
many railways, oi which the Great Western is the chief. Its trunk
line traversing the country between the mountains and the sea passes
through Cardiff, Bridgend and Landore (on the outskirts of Swansea),
and throws off numerous branches to the north. The Taff Vale
railway serves all the valley of tbe Taff and its tributaries, and has
also extensions to Barry and (through Llantrisant and Cowbridge)
to Aberthaw. The Rhymney railway likewise serves the Rhymnev
Valley, and has a joint service with the Great Western between
Cardiff and Merthyr Tydfil—the latter town being also the terminus
of the Brecon and Merthyr and a branch of the North-Western from
Abergavenny. The Btury railway visits Cardiff and then travels in
a north-westerly direction to Pontypridd and Forth, while it sends
another branch along the coast through Llan^wit Major to Bridgend.
Swansea is connected with Merthyr by the Great Western, with
Brecon by the Midland, with Craven Arms aad Mid-Wales generally
by the London ft Northwestern, with tbe Rbondda Valley by
the Rhondda and Swansea Bay (now worked by the Great Western)
and with Mumbles by the Mumbles railway. The Port Talbot
GLAMORGANSHIRE
n
railwmy No* to Biaragarw, rad the N*»th rad Brecon railway
(starting from Neath) join* the. Midland at Colbren Junction. • Tko
canali of the county are the Glamorgan canal from Card id to
Merthyr Tydfil (25) m.), with a branch (7 m.) to Aberdare, the
Neath canal {13 m.) from Briton Ferry to Abernant, Glen Neath
(whence a tramway formerly connected It with Aberdare), the
Tennant canal connecting the riven Neath and Tawe, and the Swan¬
sea canal (i6tm.), running up the Swansea Valley from Swansea to
Abercrave in Breconshire. Comparatively little use is now made of
these canals, excepting the lower portions of the Glamorgan canal.
Population and Administration .—The area of the ancient county
with which the administrative county is conterminous is 318,863
acres, with a population in 1901 of 839,931 persons. In the three
decades between 1831 and 1861 it increased 35 2, 35-4 and 37-1 %
respectively, and in 1881-1891,34-4, its average increase in the other
decennial periods subsequent to 1861 being about *5 %. The
county is divided into five parliamentary divisions (vis. Glamorgan¬
shire East, South and Middle, Gower and Rhondda): it also includes
the Cardiff district of boroughs (consisting of Cardiff, Cowbridge and
Llantrisant), which has one member ; the greater part of the parlia¬
mentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil (which mainly consists of the
county borough of Merthyr, the urban district of Aberdare aad part
of Mountain Ash), and returns two members; and the two divisions
of Swansea District returning one member each, one division con¬
sisting of the major part of Swansea town, the other comprising the
remainder of Swansea and the boroughs of Aberavon, Kenfig,
Uwchwr and Neath. There are six municipal boroughs : Aberavon
(pop. in 1901, 7553), Cardiff (164,333), Cowbridge (1202), Merthyr
Tydfil (69,228), Neath (13,720) and Swansea (94,537). Cardiff
(which in 1905 was created a city), Merthyr Tydfil and Swansea are
county boroughs. The following are urban' districts: Aberdare
( 43 . 365 ), Barry (27,030), Bridgend (6062), Briton Ferry (6973),
Caerphilly (15,835), Glyncorrwg (6452), Macstog (15,012), Marg&m
(9014), Mountain Ash (31,093), Ogmore and Garw (19,907), Oyster-
mouth (4461), Penarth (14,228) Pontypridd (32,316), Porthcawl
(1872) and Rhondda, previously known as Ystradyfodwg (113,735).
Glamorgan is in the S. Wales circuit, and both assizes and quarter-
sessions are held at Cardiff and Swansea alternately. All the
municipal boroughs have separate commissions of the peace, and
Cardiff and Swansea have also separate courts of quarter-sessions.
The county has thirteen other petty sessional divisions, Cardiff, the
Rhondda (with Pontypridd) and the Merthyr and Aberdare district
have stipendiary magistrates. There are 165 civil parishes. Ex¬
cepting the districts of Gower and Kilvey, which are in the diocese
of St David's, the whole county is in the diocese of Llandaff. There
are 159 ecclesiastical parishes or districts situated wholly or partly
within the county.
History .—The earliest known traces of man within the area
of the present county are the human remains found in the famous
bone-caves of Gower, though they are scanty as compared with
the huge deposits of still earlier animal remains. To a later
stage, perhaps in the Neolithic period, belongs a number of com¬
plete skeletons discovered in 1903 in sand-blown tumuli at
the mouth of the Ogmore, where many flint implements were
also found. Considerably later, and probably belonging to the
Bronze Age (though finds of bronze implements have been scanty),
are the many cairns and tumuli, mainly on the hills, such as on
Garth Mountain near Cardiff, Crug-yr-avan and a number east
of the Tawe ; the stone circles often found in association with
the tumuli, that of Cam l.lecharth near Pontardawe being one
of the most complete in Wales ; and the fine cromlechs of Cefn
Bryn in Gower (known as Arthur’s Stone), of St Nicholas and of
St Lythan’s near Cardiff.
In Roman times the country from the Neath to the Wye was
occupied by the Silures, a pre-Celtic race, probably governed at
that time by Brythonic Celts. West of the Neath and along the
fringe of the Brecknock Mountains were probably remnants of the
earlier Goidelic Celts, who have left traces in the place-names of
the igransea valley (e.g. lltvch, “ a lake ”) and in the illegible
Ogham inscription at Loughor, the only other Ogham stone in
the county being at Kenfig, a few miles to the east of the Neath
estuary. The conquest of the Silures by the Romans was begun
about a.d. 50 by Ostorius Scapula and completed some 35 yeans
later by Julius Frontinus, who probably constructed the great
military road, called Via Julia Maritime, from Gloucester to St
David’s, with stations at Cardiff, Bovium (variously identified
with Boverton, Cowbridge and Ewenny), Nidum (identified with
Neath) and Leucarum or Loughor. The important station of
Gaer on the Usk near Brecon was connected by two branch
roads, one running from Cardiff through Gelligaer (where there
was a strong hQl fort) and Merthyr Tydfil, and another from Neath
through Capel Colbren. Welsh tradition credits Glamorgan
with beingthe first home Of Christianity, and Lkndalf the earliest
bishopric in Britain, the name of three reputed missionaries of
the end century being preserved in the names of parishes in south
Glamorgan. Whatiscertain, however, is that the first two bishops
of Llandaff, St Dubricius and St Teilo, lived during the first
half of the 6th century, to which period also belongs the establish¬
ment of the great monastic settlements of Uancarvan by Cadoe,
of Llandough by Oudocena and of Llantwit Major by Ill tutus, the
last of which flourished as a seat of learning down to the nth
century. A few moated mounds such as at Cardiff indicate that,
after the withdrawal of the Romans, the coasts were visited by
sporadic bands of Saxons, but the Scandinavians Who came <in
the qth and succeeding centuries left more abundant traces both
in the place-names of the coast and in such camps as that on
Sully Island, the Bulwarks at Porthkerry and Hardings Dbwn
in Gower. Meanwhile the native tribes of the district had
regained their independence under a line of Welsh chieftains,
whose domain was consolidated into a principality known as
Glywyssing, till about the end of the iDth century when it
acquired the name of Morganwg, that, is the territory of Morgan,
a prince who died in a.d. q8o ; it then comprised the whole
country from the Neath to the Wye, practically corresponding
to the present diocese of Llandaff. Gwlod Morgan, later softened
into Glamorgan, never had much vogue and meant precisely the
same as Morganwg, though the two terms became differentiated
a few centuries later.
The Norman conquest of Morganwg was effected in the
closing years of the nth century by Robert Fitzhamon, lord of
Gloucester. His followers settled in the low-lying lands of the
“ Vale,” which became known as the “ body ” of the shire,
while in the hill country, which consisted of ten “ members,”
corresponding to its ancient territorial divisions, the Welsh
retained their customary laws and much of their independence.
Glamorgan, whose bounds were now contracted between the
Neath and the Rhymney, then became a lordship marcher, its
status and organization being that of a county palatine ; its
lord possessed jura regalia, and his chief official was from the
first a vice-comes, or sheriff, who presided over a county court
composed of his lord’s principal tenants. The inhabitants of
Cardiff in which, as the caput baroniae, this court was held
(though sometimes ambulatory), were soon granted municipal
privileges, and in time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Aberavon
and Neath.also became chartered market-towns, The manorial
system was introduced throughout the “ Vale,” the manor in
many cases becoming the parish, and the owner building for its
protection first a castle and then a church. The church itself
became Normanized, and monasteries were established—the
Cistercian abbey of Neath and Margam in 1129 and 1147 re¬
spectively, the Benedictine priory of Ewenny in 1141 and that of
Cardiff in 1147. Dominican and Franciscan houses were also
founded at Cardiff in the following century.
Gower (with Kilvey) or the country west of the morass between
Neath and Swansea had a separate history. It was conquered
about 1100 by Henry de Newburgh, 1st earl of Warwick, by
whose descendants and the powerful family of De Breos it
was successively held as a marcher lordship, organized to some
extent on county lines, till 1469. Swansea (which was the caput
baroniae of Gower) and Loughor received their earlier charters
from the lords of Gower (see Gower).
For the first two centuries after Frtohamon’s time the lordship
of Glamorgan was held by the earls of Glfmcester, a title con¬
ferred by Henry I. on his natural son Robert, who acquired
Glamorgan by marrying Fitzhamon’s daughter. To the tst
earl’s patronage of Geoffrey of Monmouth and other men of
letters, at Cardiff Castle of which he. was the builder, is probably
due the large place which Celtic romance, especially the Arthurian
cycle, won for itself in medieval literature. The lordship passed
by descent through the families of Clare (who held it from 1217
to 1317), Despenser, Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III., on
whose fell it escheated to the crown. From time to time, the
Welsh of the hills, often joined by their oowitiyinen from other
GLANDERS'
76
pntttnudr tbs Vale, sad even Cardiff Castle was aeieedmboot
115* by Ivor Bach, lord of Sengfasnydd, who for a time -heia its
lord a prisoner. At last Caerphilly Castle was built to keep them
in check, but this provoked an invasion in lrja bj- Prince
Llewelyn ap Griffith, who besieged the castle and refused to retire
tscept on cowfition*. In 1316 Llewelyn Bren headed a revolt in
the same district, but:beingdefeated was put to death byDespenser,
whose great unpopularity with the Welsh made Glamorgan less
safe as a retreat for Edward II. a few years later. In 1404
Giendower swept through the county, burning castles and laying
waste the possessions of the king’s supporters. By the Act of
Union of 1535 the county of Glamorgan was incorporated as it
now exists, by the addition to the old county of the lordship
of Gower and Kflvey, west of the Neath. By another act of
*54* the court of great sessions was established, and Glamorgan,
with the counties of Brecon and Radnor, formed one of its four
Welsh circuits from thence till 1830, when the English assize
system was introduced into Wales. In the same year the county
was given one parliamentary representative, increased to two
in *83* and to five in 1885. The boroughs were also given a
member. In 1835 Cardiff (with Llantrisant and Cowbridge), the
Swansea group of boroughs ami the parliamentary borough of
Merthyr Tydfil were given one member each, increased to two,
in the case of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867. In 1885 the Swansea
group was divided into two constituencies with a member cadi.
The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of its quasi-regal status, was
granted by Edward VI. to William Herbert, afterwards 1st earl
of Pembroke, from whom it has descended to the present marquess
of Bute.
The rule of the Tudors promoted the rapid assimilation of the
inhabitants of the county, and by the reign of Klizaiieth even
the descendants of the Norman knights had largely become
Welsh both in speech and sentiment. Welsh continued to be the
prevalent speech almost throughout the county, except in the
peninsular part of Gower and perhaps Cardiff, Gil the last quarter
of the iqth century. Since then it has lost ground in the mari¬
time towns and the south-east corner of the county generally,
while fairly holding its own, despite much English migration, in
the industrial districts to the north. In 1901 about 56 % of the
total population above three years of age was returned as speaking
English only, 37 % as speaking both English and Welsh, and
about 6| % as speaking Welsh only.
In common with the rest of Wales the county was mainly
Royalist in the Civil War, and indeed stood foremost in its
readiness to pay ship-money, but whan Charles I. visited Cardiff
in July 1645 he failtd to recruit his army there, owing to the
dissatisfaction of the county, which a few months later declared
far the parliament. There was, however, a subsequent Royalist
revolt in Glamorgan in 1648, but it was signally crushed by
Colonel Horton at the battle of St Fagan's (8th of May).
The educational gap caused by final disappearance of the
great university of Llantwit Major, founded in the 6th century,
and by the dissolution of the monasteries was to some extent
filled by the foundation, by the Strndling family, of a grammar
school at Cowbridge which, refounded in 1685 by Sir Leoiine
Jenkins, is still carried on as an endowed school. The only other
ancient grammar school is that of Swansea, founded by Bishop
Gore in 1683, and now under the control of the borough council.
Besides the University College of South Wales and Monmouth¬
shire established at Cardiff in 1883, and a technical college
at Swansea, there is a Church of Englan d theological college
(St Michael’s) at Llandaff (previously at Aberdare), a training
college for schoolmistresses at Swansea, schools for the blind at
Cardiff and Swaiiaa and for the deaf at Cardiff, Swansea and
Pontypridd.
Antique her.—-The antiquities of the ’county not already
mentioned inchade an unusually large number of castles, all
of which, except the earths of Morlais (near Merthyr Tydfil),
Carted Coch and Uantrioni, are between the hill country and
the sea. The finest tpo ri tiwn . is that of Caerphilly, but there
am also mom or less imposing ruin* at Oystermouth, Coity,
Newca s tle (at Bridgend), Llftbbthian, Bonnard and Swansea.
Among the restored castles, resided in by their present owner*,
am St Donat’s, “ the latest and most complete of the structures
built for defence,” Cardiff, the residence of the marque** of
Bute, St Fagan’s, Dunraven, Fonmou and Penrice. Of the
monastic buildings, that of Ewenay is best preserved, Neath
and Margam are mere ruins, while all the others have disappeared.
Almost all the older churches possess towers of a somewhgt
military character, and most of them, except in Gower, retain
some Norman masonry. Coity, Coyohurch mid Ewenay (all near
Bridgend) are fine examples of cross churches with embattled
towers characteristic of the county. There are interesting
monumental effigies at St Mary’s, Swansea, Oxwich, Ewenny,
Llantwit Major, Llantrisant, Coity mid other churches in the
Vale. There are from twenty-five to thirty sculptured stones,
of which some sixteen are both ornamented and inscribed, five
of the latter being at Mfofgam and three at Llantwit Major,
and dating from the 9th cemtuuy if not earlier.
Authorities.— The records of the Curia comitatus or County
Court of Glamorgan are supposed to have perished, so also have
the records of Neath. With these exceptions, the records of the
coonty have been well preserved: A collection edited by G. T.
Clark under the title Cartae et aha munimenta quae ad dominium de
Glamorgan pertinent was privately printed by him in four volumes
(1885-181*3). A Descriptive-Catalogue of the Penrice and Margam
Abbey MSS. in the Possession of Miss Talbot of Margam (6 vols.)
was privately issued (1893-1905) under the editorship of Dr de
Gray Birch, who has also published histories of the Abbeys of
Neath and Margam. The Book Of Llan D 4 f (edited by Dr Gweno-
gvryn Evans, 1903) contains documents illustrative of the early
history of the diocese of Llandaff. Cardiff has puWished its Records
in 5 vols., and there is a volume of Swansea charters. There is no
compute history of the county, except a modest but useful one
in Welsh— Hanes Morgmwg, by D. W. Jones (Dafydd Morganwg)
(187a); the chief contributions are Rice Merrick's Boohe of Glamorgan¬
shire's Antiquities, written in 1578, The Land of Morgan (1883)
(a history of the lordship of Glamorgan), by G. T. Clark, whose
Genealogies of Glamorgan (1886) and Medieval Military Architecture
(1884) are also indispensable; see also T. Nicholas, Annals and
Antiquities of the Counties and County Families of Wales (2 vols.,
1872). For Gower, see Gower (X). I.l_T.)
GLANDERS, or Farcy (Equima), a specific infective and
contagious disease, caused by a tissue parasite (Bacillus mallet),
to which certain, animals, chiefly the horse, ass and mule, are
liable, and which is communicable from them to man. Glanders
in the domesticated animals is dealt with under Veterinary
Science ; it i* happily a rare form of disease in man, there being
evidently less affinity for its development in the human subject
than in the equine species. For the pathology see the article
Parasitic Diseases. It occurs chiefly among those who from
their occupation are frequently in contact with horses, such as
grooms, coachmen, cavalry soldiers,veterinary surgeons, &q.; the
bacillus is communicated from a glandered animal either through
a wound or scratch or through application to the mucous mem¬
brane of the nose or mouth. A period of incubation, lasting
from three to five days, generally follows the introduction of
the virus into the. human system. This period, however, appears
sometimes to be of much longer duration, especially where there
has been no direct inoculation of the poison. The fast symptoms
are a general feeling of illness, accompanied with pains in the
limbs and joints resembling those of acute rheumatism. If
the disease fans been introduced by means of an abraded surface,
pain is felt at that point, and inflammatory swelling takes place
there, and extends along the neighbouring lymphatics. An
ulcer is fanned at the print of inoculation which discharges
an offensive ichor, and blebs appear in the inflamed skin, along
with diffuse abscesses, as inphbgmonous erysipelas. Sometimes
the disease stops short with these local manifestations, but
note commonly goes on rapidly accompanied with symptoms
of grave constitutional disturbance. Over the whole surface
of the body there appear nmoeroas red spots or pustules, which
breakand dischargee,thickmucausorsanguineousfluid. Besides
these there are laqpr swellings lying deeper in the subcutaneous
tissue, which at fast are extremely hard and painful, and to
which the term farcy “ bods ” or “ buttons ” is applied. These
ultimately open and become extensive Sloughing ulcers.
The mucous membranes participate in the same lesions as
GLANVILb-^GLAFTHORNE ft
am present in the side, and this is particularly the cam 1 with
fte interior of the nose, where indeed, in saar mstances, the
disease first of all shows itself. This organ becomes greatly
swollen and inflamed, while from one or both nostrils there
exudes a copious discharge of highly offensive purulent or
sanguineous matter. The fining membrane of the nostrils
is covered with papules similar in character to those on the
skin, which form ulcers, and may lead to the destruction of the
cartilaginous and bony textures of the nose. The diseased action
extends into the throat, mouth and eyes, while the whole face
becomes swollen and erysipelatous, and the lymphatic glands
under the jaws inflame and suppurate. Not uo frequently the
bronchial tubes become affected, and cough attended with
expectoration of matter similar to that discharged from the
nose is the consequence. The general constitutional symptoms
are exceedingly severe, and advance with great rapidity, the
patient passing into a state of extreme prostration. In the
acute form of the disease recovery rarely if ever occurs, and the
case generally terminates fatally in a period varying from two
or three days to as many weeks.
A chronic form of glanders and farcy is occasionally met with,
in which the symptoms, although essentially the same as those
above described, advance much mare slowly, and are attended
with relatively less urgent constitutional disturbance. Cases
of recovery from this form are on record; but m general the
disease ultimately proves fatal by exhaustion of the patient,
or by a sudden supervention, which is apt to occur, of the acute
form. On the other hand, aoute glanders is never observed
to become chronic.
In the treatment of this malady in human beings reliance
is mainly placed on the maintenance of the patient's strength
by strong nourishment and tonic remedies. Cauterization
should be resorted to if the point of infection is early known.
Abscesses may be opened and antiseptic lotions used. In all
cases of the outbreak of glanders it is of the utmost consequence
to prevent the spread of the disease by the destruction of affected
animals and the cleansing and disinfection of infected localities.
GLANVILL (or Glanvil), JOSEPH (1636- 16X0), English
philosopher, was horn at Plymouth in 1636, and was educated
at Exeter and Lincoln colleges, Oxford, where he graduated as
M.A. in 1658. After the Restoration he was successively rector
of Wimbush, Essex, vicar of Frome Selwood, Somersetshire,
rector of Streat and Walton. In >666 he was appointed to the
abbey church, Bath ; in 1678 he became prelxmdary of Wor¬
cester Cathedral, and acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charles II.
from 1672. He died at Bath in November 1680. Glanvill’s
first work (a passage in which suggested the theme of Matthew
Arnold’s Scholar Gipsy), The Vanity 0] Dogmatizing, or Con¬
fidence in Opinions, manifested in a Discourse 0/ the shortness
and uncertainly of our Knowledge, and its Causes, with Reflexions
on Peripateticism, and an Apology for Philosophy (1661), is
interesting as showing one special direction in which the new
method of the Cartesian philosophy might be developed. Pascal
had already shown how philosophical scepticism might be
employed as a bulwark for faith, and Glanvill follows in the
same track. The philosophic endeavour to cognize the whole
system of things by referring ali events to their causes appears
to him to be from the outset doomed to failure. For if we
inquire into this causal relation we find that though we know
isolated facts, we cannot perceive any such connexion between
them as that the one should give rise to the other. In the
words of Hudie, " they seem conjoined but never connected."
All causes then are but secondary, «>. merely the occasions
on which the one first cause operates. It is singular enough
that Glanvill who had not only shown, but even exaggerated,
the infirmity of human reason, himself provided an example of
its weakness ; for, after having combated scientific dogmatism,
he not only yielded to vulgar superstitions, but actually en¬
deavoured to accredit them both m his revised edition of the
Vanity of Dogmatizing, published as Scepsis scimtifica (1665,
ed. Rev. John Owen, 1885), and m his Philosophical Considera¬
tions concerning the existence of Sorcerers end Sorcery (1666).
.The latter work appears to have been based on the story Of the
drum which was alleged to have bean hetadevery night in *
house* Wiltshire (Tedworth, belonging to n Mr Moreputon),
a story -which made much noise in the year 1663, and which *
supposed to have furnished Addison with the idea «f his comedy
the Drummer . At his death Glanvill left a piece entitled Saddm-
asmus Triumphatus (printed in 1681, reprinted with some
additions in 1682, German trims. 1701). He had' there collected
twenty-six relations or stories ol the same description at that
of the drum, in order to establish, hv a series'of facts, the opinion
which he had expressed m his Philosophical Considerations,
Glanvill supported a much more honourable cause when he
undertook the defence of the Koval Society of London, Under
the title of Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement of
Science since the time of Aristotle (ioo.S), a work which shows
how thoroughly he was imbued with the ideas of the empirical
method.
Besides the works already noticed, C.I.im ill wrote I.ux ornnlatis
(>602); Phtlosophit pia (1671); Fssins on Several important
Sublets 111 Philosophy and Religion (107O); An Essay tonterning
Preaching 1 and Sermons. See C. 3 <enur,at, Hist, de ta. ph'il. en
Angleterrc, bk. iii. ch. xi.; W. 1 C. H. l.rckv, Rationalism in Europe
(1865), i. 120-128; Italian ii. Lite ratine of l.uropc, iii. 358-36*;
Tuliocb's Rational Theology, ii. 443-455.
GLANVILL, RANULF RE (sometimes written Glanvil,
Glanville) (d. 1190), chief justiciar of England and reputed
author of a book on English law, was born at Stratford in Suffolk,
but in wlmt year is unknown. There is but little information
regarding his early life. He first comes to the front as sheriff
o( Yorkshire from 1163 to 1170. In 1173 he became sheriff
of I-ancushrre and custodian of the honour of Richmond. In
1174 he was one of the English leaders at the battle of Alnwick,
and it was to him that the king of the Scots, Y\ illiam the Lion,
surrendered. In 1175 he was reappointed sheriff of Yorkshire,
in 1176 he liecame justice of the king's court and a justice
itinerant in the northern circuit, and in 1180 chief justiciar of
England. It was with his assistance that Henry IL completed
his judicial reforms, though the principal of them had been
carriud out before he oame into office. He became the king’s
right-hand man, and during Henry's frequent absences was in
effect viceroy of England. After the death of Henry in 1189,
Glanvill was removed from his office by Richard I., and im¬
prisoned till he had paid a ransom, according to one authority,
of £15,000. Shortly after obtaining his freedom he took the
cross, and he died at the siege ol Acre hi jiqo. At the instance,
it may be, of Henry IL, Glanvill wrote or superintended the
writing of the Tractatus dc legibus et consuetudi mbits regni
Angliae, which is a practical treatise on the forms of procedure
in the king's couth As the source of oujr knowledge regarding
the earliest form of tlie curia regis, and for the information it
affords regarding ancient customs and laws, it is of great value
to the student of English history. It is now generally agreed
that the work of Glanvill is of earlier date than the Scottish law
book known from its first words as kegiam Majesietem, a work
which bears a close resemblance to his.
The treatise ol Glanvill was first printed in 1554. An English
translation, with notes anil introduction by John Bournes, was
published at London in 1S12, A French version is found in various
MSS., but lias not yet been printed. (See also English Law ;
History of.)
GLAPTHORNE, HENRY (fi. 1635-1642), F.nglish poet and
dramatist, wrote in the reign of Charles I. All that is known
of him is gathered from his own work. He published Poems
(1639), many of them in praise of an unidentified “ Lucinda” ;
a poem in honour of his friend Thomas Beedome, whose Poems
Divine and Humane he edited in 1641 ; and Whitehall (1642),
dedicated to his “ noble friend and gossip, Captain Richard
lovelaee.” The first volume contains a poem in honour of the
duke of York, and Whitehall is a review of the past glories of
the English court, containing abundant evidences of the writer’s
devotion to the royal cause. Argalus and Parthema (1639) is a
pastoral tragedy founded on an episode in Sidney’s Arcadia;
Albert us Wallenstein (1639), his only attempt at historical tragedy,
represents Wallenstein as a monster of pride and cruelty. His
«8 ’ GLARUS
ether plays* are The Hollander (written 1635; printed 164a),
a romantic comedy of which the scene it laid in Genoa; Wit in a
Censiablef 1640), which it probably a version of an earlier piny,
and owe* something to Shakespeare's Much Ado about Nothing;
and Tht Ladies Privileige (1640). The Lady Mother (1635)
1 ms been identified (Fleay, Biog. Chron. of the Drama) with The
Noble Trial, one of the plays destroyed by Warburton’s cook,
and Mr A. H. Bullen prints it in vol. ii. of his Old English Plays
as most probably Glapthorne's work. The Paraside, or Revenge
for Honour (1654), entered at Stationers’ Hall in 1653 at Glap-
thome's, was printed in the next year with George Chapman's
name on the title-page. It should probably be included among
Glapthorne's plays, which, though they hardly rise above the
level of contemporary productions, contain many felicitous
isolated passages.
The Plays and Poems 0/ Henry Glapihorne (1874) contains an un¬
signed memoir, which, however, gives no information about the
dramatist’s life. There is no reason for supposing that the George
Glapthome of whose trial details are given was a relative of the poet.
GLARUS (Fr. Gluris), one of the Swiss cantons, the name
being taken from that of its chief town. Its area is 266-8 sq. m.,
of which 1731 sq, m. are classed as 11 productive ” (forests
covering 41 sq. m.), but it also contains 13-9 sq. m. of glaciers,
ranking as the fifth Swiss canton in this respect. It is thus a
mountain canton, the loftiest point in it being the Todi (11,887 ft.),
the highest summit that rises to the north of the upper Aar and
Vorder Rhine valleys. It is composed of the upper valley of
the Linth, that is the portion which lies to the south of a line
drawn from the Lake of Zurich to the Walensee. This river
rises in the glaciers of the Todi, und has carved out for itself a
deep bed, so that the floor of the valley is comparatively level,
and therefore is occupied by a numlier of considerable villages.
Glacier passes only lead from its head to the Grisons, save the
rough footpath over the Kisten Pass, while a fine new carriage
road over the Klausen Pass gives access to the canton of Uri.
The upper Linth valley is sometimes called the Grossthal (main
valley) to distinguish it from its chief (or south-eastern) tributary,
the Sernf valley or Kleinthal, which joins it at Schwanden, a
little above Glarus itself. At the head of the Kleinthal a mule
track leads to the Grisons over the l’anixer Pass, as also a foot¬
path over the Segnes Pass. Just below Glarus town, another
glen (coming from the south-west) joins the main valley, and is
watered by the Klon, while from its head the Pragel Pass
(a mule path, converted into a carriage road) leads over to
the canton of Schwyz. The Klon glen (uninhabited save in
summer) is separated from the main glen by the fine bold mass
of the Glarnisch (9580 ft.), while the Sernf valley is similarly cut
off from the Grossthal by the high ridge running northwards
from the Hausstock (10,342 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9177 ft.).
Tl»e principal lakes, the Klonthalersee and the Muttensee, are
of a thoroughly Alpine character, while there are several fine
waterfalls near the head of the main valley, such as those formed
by the Sandbach, the Schreienbach and the Fiitschbach. The
Pantcnbruckc, thrown over the narrow cleft formed by the
Linth, is one of the grandest sights of the Alps below the snow¬
line. There is a sulphur spring at Stachelberg, near Linthal
village, and an iron spring at Elm, while in the Sernf valley
there are the Plattenberg slate quarries, and just south of Elm
those of the Tschingclberg, whence a terrific landslip descended
to Elm (nth September 1881), destroying many houses and killing
115 persons. A railway runs through the whole canton from
north to south past Giants to Linthal village (i6| m.), while
from Schwanden there is un electric line (opened in 1903) up to
Elm (8f m.).
In 1900 the population of the canton was 32,349 (a decrease
on the 33.825 of 1888, this being the only Swiss canton which
shows a decrease), of whom 31,797 were German-speaking,
while there were 24,403 IJpotestants, 7918 Romanists (many in
Niifels) and 3 jews. After the capital, Glarus (17.11.), the largest
village* are Niifels (2557 inhabitants), Ennenda(3494 inhabitants,
opposite Glarus, of which it is practically a suburb), Netstal
(0003 inhabitants), Mollis (i|*a inhabitants) and Linththol
(1894 inhabitants). The slate industry is now the most-important
as the cotton manufacture has lately very greatly faden off,
this being the real reason of the diminution in the number of the
population. There is little agriculture, for it is a pastoral region
(owing to its height) and contains 87 mountain pastures (though
the finest of all within the limits of the canton, the Umerboden,
or the Glarus side of the Klausen Pass, belongs to Uri), which
can support 8054 cows, and are of an estimated capital value
of about £246,000. One of the most characteristic products
(though inferior qualities are manufactured elsewhere in Switzer¬
land) is the cheese called Schabsieger, Krauterkase, or green cheese,
made of skim milk (Zieger or serac), whether of goats or cows,
mixed with buttermilk and coloured with powdered Sleinklee
(Melilutus officinalis) or blatter Honigklee (Melilotus caerulea).
The curds are brought down from the huts on the pastures, and,
after being mixed with the dried powder, are ground in a mill,
then put into shapes and pressed. The cheese thus produced
is ripe in about a year, keeps a long time and is largely exported,
even to America. The ice formed on the surface of the Klon-
thalersee ip winter is stored up on its shore and exported. A
certain number of visitors come to the canton in the summer,
either to profit by one or other of the mineral springs men¬
tioned above, or simply to enjoy the beauties of nature, especially
at Obstaldcn, above the Walensee. The canton forms but a
single administrative district and contains 28 communes. It
sends to the Federal Stdnderath 2 representatives (elected by
the Landsgemcinde) and 2 also to the Federal Nationalrath. The
canton still keeps its primitive democratic assembly or Tands-
gemeinde (meeting annually in the open air at Glarus on the first
Sunday in May), composed of all male citizens of 20 years of age.
It acts as the sovereign body, so that no “ referendum " is
required, while any citizen can submit a proposal. It names the
executive of 6 members, besides the Landammann or president,
all holding office for three years. The communes (forming 18
electoral circles) elect for three years the Landrath, a sort of
standing committee composed of members in the proportion of
1 for every 500 inhabitants or fraction over 250. The present
constitution dates from 1887. (W. A. B. 0 .)
GLARUS (Fr. Claris), the capital of the Swiss canton of the
same name. It is a clean, modern little town, built on the left
bank of the Linth (opposite it is the industrial suburb of Ennenda
on the right bank), at the north-eastern foot of the imposing
rock peak of the Vorder Glarnisch (7648 ft.), while on the east
rises the Schild (6400 ft.). It now contains but few houses
built before 1861, for on the 10/n May 1861 practically the
whole town was destroyed by fire that was fanned by a violent
T'dhn or south wind, rushing down from the high mountains
through the natural funnel formed by the Linth valley. The
total loss is estimated ut about half a million sterling, of which
about £100,000 were made up by subscriptions that poured in
from every side. It possesses the broad streets and usual
buildings of a modern town, the parish church being by far the
most stately and well-situated building; it is used in common
by the Protestants and Romans. Zwingli, the reformer, was
parish priest here from 1506 to 1516, before he became a Pro¬
testant. The town is 1578 ft above the sea-level, and in 1900
had a population of 4877, almost all German-speaking, while
1248 were Romanists. For the Linth canals (1811 and 1816)
see Linth.
The District of Glarus is said to have lieen converted to
Christianity in the 6th century by the Irish monk, Fridolin,
whose special protector was St Hilary of Poitierf ; the former
was the founder, and both were patrons, of the Benedictine
nunnery of Sackingen, on the Rhine between Constance and
Basel, that about the 9th century became the owner of the
district which was then named after St Hilary. The Habsburgs,
protectors of the nunnery, gradually drew to themselves the
exercise of all the rights of the nuns, so tliat in 1352 Glarus
joined the Swiss Confederation. But the men of Glarus did not
gain their complete freedom till after they had driven back the
Habsburgs in the glorious battle of Niifels (1388), the comple¬
ment of Sempach, so that the Habsburgers gave up their rights
GLA8/ G.^-GLAS, J. 79
in 1398, white those of Sackingen were bought up in 1395, on
condition of a small annual payment. Glarus early adopted
Protestantism, but there were many struggles later mi between
the two parties, as the chief family, that of Tschudi, adhered to
the old faith. At last it was arranged that, besides the common
Landsgemeinde, each party should have its separate Lands-
gemeinde (1633) and'tribunals (1683), while it was not till 1798
that the Protestants agreed to accept the Gregorian calendar.
The slate-quarrying industry appeared early in the 17th century,
while cotton-spinning was introduced about 1714, and calico-
printing by 1750. In 1798, in consequence of the resistance
of Glarus to the French invaders, the canton was united to other
districts under the name of canton of the Linth, though in 1803
it was reduced to its former limits. In 1799 it was traversed
by the Russian army, under SuworofI, coming over the Pragel
Pass, but blocked by the French at Nafels, and so driven over
the Panixer to the Grisons. The old system of government was
set up again in 1814. But in 1836 by the new Liberal con¬
stitution one single Landsgemeinde was restored, despite the
resistance (1837) of the Romanist population at Nafels.
Authorities.— J. Babler, Die Alpmrtschaft 1 m K,mt.G. (Soleure,
1898) ; J. J. Biumcr article on the early history ol the canton in
vol. lii. (Zurich, 1844) of the Archiv /. schweie. Gesdiichte ; 11 . Buss
and A. Heim, Der Bergsture von Elm IrXSi) (Zilrich, 1881); W. A. B.
Coolidge, The Itange 0/ Ike Tiidi (London, 1894) ; j. G. Ebel, Schilde-
rung der Gebirgsvblker d. Schweie, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1798); Gottfried
Heer, Geschichte d. Landes Glarus (to 1830) 2 vols., Glarus, 1898-
1899) , Glarnerische Be/ormalionsgesihichle (Glarus, 1900), Zur 300
jtlhrigen Geddchtnisfeier der Schlacht hei Nd/els (/jA?) (Glarus, 1888)
and Die Ktrchen d. Kant. Glarus (Glarus, 1890) ; Oswald Heer and
J. J. Blumer-Hecr, Der Kant. Glarus (St Gall, 1846) ; J. J. Hottinger,
Conrad Esther von tier Linth (Zurich, 1832) ; Jahrbuch, published
annually since 18(15 by the Cantonal Historical Society; A. Jenny-
Trumpy, " Handel u. Industrie d. Kant. G.” (article in vol. xxxiil.,
1899, of the Jahrbuch) ; M. Schuler, Geschtckte d. Landes Glarus
(Zurich, 1836); E. Naf-Blumer, Clubjilhrer dutch die Glarner-Alpen
(Schwanden, 1002); Aloys Schulte, article on the true and legendary
early history of the Canton, published in vol. xviii., 1893, of the
Jahrbuch /. schweie. Geschichle (Zurich); J. J. Blumer, Slants- uni
Rechtsgeschichte d. schweie. Demokratien (3 vols., St Gall, 1830-
1839); H. Btyftel, Die schweie. Landegemeinden (Zurich, 1903);
R. von Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworoffs dutch die Schweie in
JJW (Stans, 1895). (W, A. B. C.)
GLAS, GEORGE (1735-1765), Scottish seaman and merchant
adventurer in West Africa, son of John (ilas the divine, was
bom at Dundee in 1725, and is Baid to have been brought up
as a surgeon. He obtained command of a ship which traded
between Brazil, the N. W. coasts of Africa and the Canary Islands.
During his voyages he discovered on the Saharan seaboard a
river navigable for some distance inland, and here he proposed
to found a trading station. The exact spot is not known with
certainty, but it is plausibly identified with Gueder, a place
in about 29 0 jo' N., possibly the haven where the Spaniards had
in the 15th and 16th centuries a fort called Santa Cruz de Mar
l’equena. Glas made an arrangement with the Lords of Trade
whereby he was granted £15,000 if he obtained free cession of
the port he had discovered to the British crown ; the proposal
was to be laid before parliament in the session of 1765.
Having chartered a vessel, Glas, with his wife and daughter,
sailed for Africa in 1764, reached his destination and made
a treaty with the Moors of the district. He named his settle¬
ment Port Hillsborough, after Wills Hill, earl of Hillsborough
(afterwards marquis of Downshire), president of the Board
of Trade and Plantations, 1763-1765. In November 1764
Glas and some companions, leaving his ship behind, went in
the longboat to Lanzarote, intending to buy a small barque
suitable for the navigation of the river on which was his settle¬
ment. From Lanzarote he forwarded to Ixindon the treaty
he had concluded for the acquisition of Port Hillsborough. A
few days later he was-geized by the Spaniards, taken to Teneriffe
and imprisoned at Santa Cruz. In a letter to the Lords of Trade
from Teneriffe, dated the 15th of December 1764, Glas said
he believed the reason for his detention was the jealousy of the
Spaniards at the settlement at Port Hillsborough “ because
from thence in time of war the English might ruin their fishery
•ad effectually gtop.tbe whole commerce of the Canary Islands.”
The Spaniards further looked upon the settlement as. a, step
toward* the conquest of the islands. “ They arc thekeftfo
contriving how to make out a claim to the port and > will; tinge
old manuscripts to prove their assertion” (Cdiendarof Home
Office Papers, 1760-1765). In March 1765 the ship’s company
at Port Hillsborough was attacked by the natives and Severn!
members of it killed. The survivors, including Mrs and Misa
Glas, escaped to Teneriffe. In October following, through the
representations of the British government, Glas was released
from prison. With his wife and child he set sail for England
on board the barque “ Earl of Sandwich.” On the 30th of
November Spanish and Portuguese members of the crew, who
had learned that the ship contained much treasure, mutinied,
killing the captain and passengers. Glas was stabbed to death,
and his wife and daughter thrown overboard. (The murderers
were afterwards captured and hanged at Dublin.) After the
death of Glas the British government appears to have taken
no steps to carry out his project.
In 1764 Glas published in London The Iltslorv 0/ the Discovery and
Conquest o/ the Canary Islands, which lie had translated from the
MS. of an Andalusian monk named Juan Abreu de Galindo, then
recently discovered at Palma. To this Glas added a description of
the islands, a continuation of the history and an account of the
manners, customs, trade, (to., of the inhabitants, displaying con¬
siderable knowledge of the archipelago.
GLAS, JOHN (1695-1773), Scottish divine, was born at
Auchtermuchty, Fife, where his father was parish minister,
on the 5th of October 1695. He wus educated at Kinclaven and
the grammar school, Perth, graduated A.M. at the university of
St Andrews in 1713, and completed his education for the ministry
at Edmhurgh. He was licensed as a preacher by the presbytery
of Dunkeld, and soon afterwards ordained by that of Dundee
as minister of the parish of Tealing (1710), where his effective
preaching soon secured a large congregation. Early in his
ministry he was “ brought to a stand ” while lecturing on the
“ Shorter Catechism ’’ by the question “ How doth Christ
execute the office of a king ? ” This led to an examination of
the New Testament foundation of the Christian Church, and in
1725, in a letter to Francis Archibald, minister of Guthrie,
Forfarshire, he repudiated the obligation of national covenants.
In the same year his views found expression in the formation of
a society “ separate from the multitude ” numbering nearly a
hundred, and drawn from his own and neighbouring parishes.
The members of this ecclesiola in ecclesia pledged themselves
“ to join together in the Christian profession, to follow Christ
the Lord as the righteousness of his people, to walk together
in brotherly love, and in the duties of it, in subjection to
Mr Glas as their overseer in the Lord, to observe the ordinance
of the Lord’s Supper once every month, to submit themselves
to the Lord's law for removing offences,” &c. (Matt, xviii.
15-20). From the scriptural doctrine of the essentially spiritual
nature of the kingdom of Christ, Glas in his public teaching
drew the conclusions: (1) that there is no warrant in the New
Testament for a national church; (3) that the magistrate as
such lias no function in the church; (3) that national covenants
are without scriptural grounds ; (4) that the true Reformation
cannot be carried out by political and secular weapons but by
the word and spirit of Christ only.
This argument is most fully exhibited in a treatise entitled
The Testimony of the King 0/ Martyrs (1739). For the promulga¬
tion of these views, which were confessedly at variance with the
doctrines of the standards of the national church of Scotland,
lie was summoned (1736) before his presbytery, where in the
course of the investigations which followed he affirmed still
more explicitly his belief that “ every national church established
by the laws of earthly kingdoms is antichristian in its constitution
and persecuting in its spirit," and further declared opinions
upon the subject of church government which amounted to a
repudiation of Presbyterianism and an acceptance of the puritan
type of Independency. For these opinions he was in 1728
suspended from the discharge of ministerial functions, and
finally deposed in 1730. The members of the society already
referred to, however, for the most part continued to adhere
GLASER+-G&A8G0W
3p
to hi*,- *lm* constituting <to tot “ Glassite ” or “Glaaite ”
etocfa. Tha «wt of this congregation «u shortly afterward*
transferred'to Dundee (whence Gtas subsequently removed to
Edinburgh), where he officiated for tome time at an “elder.”
He next labmaed in Perth fora lew years, where he waa joined
by Robert Sandeman (seeCtAsmts), who became his ton-in-law,
and eventually wet recognized as the leader and principal
exponent of Glas s views; these he developed in a direction
which kid them open to the charge of antinonfrianism. Ulti¬
mately in 17 y» Glat returned to Dundee, where the remainder
of his life was spent He introduced in his church the primitive
custom of the “ oscuhim pacts ” and the “ agape ” celebrated
as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congrega¬
tion was known as the “ kail kirk.” In 1739 the General
Assembly, without any application from him, removed the
sentence of deposition which had been passed against him, and
restored him to the character and function of a minister of the
gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the Established
Church of Scotland, declaring that he was not eligible for a
charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent
with the constitution of the church.
A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in
1761 (4 vols., Nvo), and again at Forth in 17m (5 vois., 8voj. He
died in 177.1.
(lias's published works boar witness to Ills vigorous miad and
scholarly attainments. His reconstruction of the True Discourse of
Celsus (1753), from Origin's reply to it, is a competent and learned
piece of work. The Testimony til the King of Martyrs concerning Hts
Kingdom (1749) is a classic repudiation of eraslianum and defence
of the spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His
common sense appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to
prove that the Bible anpplieN a complete system of physical science,
and his shrewdness in his Notes on Scripture Texts (1747). Hi
published a volume of Chnstiau hongs (Jl'urth, 1784). (D. Mjw.)
GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the
77th century, was a native of Basel, became demonstrator of
chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris and apothecary to
I.oui* XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is hist known by
his Traill tig U chymie (Paris, 1683), which went through some
ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was translated
into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was
an accomplice in the notorious poisonings curried out by the
marchioness dc Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is
doubtful. He appears to liave died some time before 1676.
The sal ptiyckrestwn Glasrri is normal potassium sulphate which
he prepared and used medicinally.
GLASGOW, a city’, county of a city, royal burgh and port of i
Lanarkshire, Scotland, situated on both hanks of the Clyde,
4orJ m. N.W. of l/indon bv the West Coast railway route, and
47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The
valley of the Clyde is closely confined by hills, and the city
extends far over these, the irregularity of its site making for
picturesquencss. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the
majority of important public buildings, lies on the north lank
of the river, which traverses the city' tram W.S.W. to E.N.E.,
and is crossed by a number of bridges. The uppermost is
Dahnamock Bridge, dating from 1891, and next below it is
Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, and superseding a structure
of 1775. St Andrew’s suspension bridge gives access to the Green
to the inhabitants of Hutchesdntown, a district which is ap¬
proached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading
from 1 the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and
weir, Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in iXto. taking
the place of the venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 134s,
which was demolished in 1847. Then follows a suspension bridge
(dating from 1833) by which foot-passengers from the south side
obtain access to 8t Enoch Square and, finally, the most important
bridge of all is reached, variously known as Glasgow, Jamaica
Street, or Broomielaw Bridge, built of granite from Telford’s
designs and first used in **35. Towards the dose of the century
it ’ was reconstructed, and reopened in 1899. At the busier
period* of the day it bean a very heavy traffic. The stream is
spanned between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge
belonging to the Glasgow dcSooth-Weitern railway and by two
bridges carrying the lines of the Caledonian railway, one below
Dabnamock Bridge and the other * massive work immediately
west of Glasgow Bridge.
BasMwgs.—George Square, in the heart of the city, is an
open space of which every possible advantage has been taken.
On its eastern side stand rise municipal buildings, a palatial
pile in Venetian renaissance style, from the designs of William
Young, a native of Paisley. They were opened in 1889 and cost
nearly £600,000. They form a square Mock four storeys high
and carry a domed turret at each end of the western facade,
from the centre of which rises a massive tower. The entrance
hall and grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting half
and reception rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not
unbecoming to the commercial and industrial metropolis of
Scotland. Several additional Mocks have been built or rented
for the accommodation of the municipal staff. Admirably
equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897, including a
bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till i8ro the town
council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved
to the fine classical structure at the foot of the Saltmarket,
which is now used as court-houses. This was vacated m 1842
for the county buildings in Wilson Street. Growth of business
compelled another migration to Ingram Street in 1875, and,
fourteen years later, it occupied its present quarters. On the
southern side of George Square the chief structure is the mussive
General Post Office. On the western side stand two ornate Italian
buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants’ House, the
head of which (the dean of gild), along with the bead of the
Trades’ House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been it jack)
member of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised
with a view to adjusting the frequent disputes between the two
gilds. Tlie Royal Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine
portico of columns in two rows, is an admired example of the
work of David Hamilton (1768-1843), a native of Glasgow, who
designed several of the public buildings and churches, and gained
the second prize for a design for the Houses of Parliament. The.
news-room of the excliange is a vast apartment, 130 ft. long.,
60 ft. wide. 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported
by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important
and handsome street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange,
the Western Club House (by David Hamilton) and the offices of
the Glasgow Herald. In Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art
Institute and the former Corporation Art Gallery. Argyll
Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied with shops,
leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are now
carefully, preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning
the pavement, stands the TYon Steeple, a stunted spire dating
from 1637. It is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was
burned down in 1793 during the revels of a notorious body
known as the Hell Fire Club. On the opposite side, at tiic corner
of High Street, stood the ancient tolbooth, -or prison, a turreted
building, five storeys high, with a fine Jacobean erown tower.
The only remnant of the structure is the tower known as the
Cross Steeple.
Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have
been swept away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation.
It stands in the north-eastern quarter of the city at a
height of 104 ft. above the level of the Clyde. It is a jjjJ)
beautiful example of Early English work, impressive cathedral.
in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, _ c
with imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft.,
and its width 63 ft.; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the
nave 85 ft. At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal
spire, 225 ft. high. The choir, locally known as the High Church,
serves as one of the city churches, and the extreme east end of it
forms the Lady chapel. The rich western doorway is French
in design but English in details. The chapter-house projects
from the north-eastern comer and somewhat mars the harmony
of the effect. It was built in the 15th century and has a groined
roof supported by a pillar 2a ft. high. Many citizens have
contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass,
executed at Munich, the government providing the eastern
GLASGOW &
window_m recognition of ■ttieir enterprise. The crypt beneath wus sufficiently advanced to be dedicated *1*1197. Other famous
the choir is not the least remarkable part of the edifice, brine bishops were Robert Wishart (d. 1316), appointed in 177a, who
without equal in Scotland. It is borne on 65 pillars and lighted was am one the first to join in the revolt of Wallace, and received
by 41 windows. The sculpture of the capitals of the columns Robert liruoe when he lay under the ban of the church far the
and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite and the whole murder of Comm ; John Cameron (d. 1446), appointed in 1478,
is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not a crypt, under whom the building as it stands was completed ; and
but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right William Turnbull (d. 1454), appointed in 1447, who founded the
bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named university in 1450. James Beaton or Bethune (1517-1603.)
from the constant dropping of water from the roof, St Mungo’s wss the last Roman Catholic archbiahop. He fled to France at
Well m the south-eastern comer was considered to possess the reformation in 1560, and took with him the treasures and
therapeutic virtues, and in the crypt a recumbent effigy', headless records of die see, including the Red Book of Glasgow dating
and handless, is faithfully accepted as tl»e tomb of Kentigern. from the reign of Robert 111 . The documents Were deposited
Ihe cathedral contains few monuments of exceptional merit, in the Soots College in Paris, were sent at the outbreak of the
but the surrounding graveyard is almost completely paved with Revolution for safety to St Omer, and were never recnvwed.
tombstones. Ift.1115 an investigation was ordered by David, This loss explains the paucity of the earlier annals of the city,
prince of Cumbria, into the lands and churches belonging to the The teal of the Reformers led them to threaten to mutilate the
bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is dear that at cathedral, but the building was saved by the prompt action of
that date a cathedral had already been endowed. When David the craftsmen, who mustered in force and dispersed the fanatics,
ascended the throne ip 1124 he gave to the see of Glasgow the Excepting the cathedral, none of the Glasgow churches
lands of Particle, besides restoring many possessions of which possesses iristorioal interest; and, speaking generally it s
it had been deprived. Jocelin (d. 1199), snade bishop in 1174, only the buildings that have been erected since the
was the first great bishop, and is memorable for his efforts to beginning of the 19th century that have pronounced
lepatce the qaTOedral built In ii36byBidi<j[7 John Achaius, which architectural merit. This was due largely to the long survival
had been destroyed by firm The crypt is his work, and he began of the severe sentiment of the Covenanter*, who discouraged,
the choir, lady chapel, and central tower. The new structure if they did not actually forbid, the raising nf temples of beautiful
GLASER+-G&A8G0W
3p
to hi*,- *lm* constituting <to tot “ Glassite ” or “Glaaite ”
etocfa. Tha «wt of this congregation «u shortly afterward*
transferred'to Dundee (whence Gtas subsequently removed to
Edinburgh), where he officiated for tome time at an “elder.”
He next labmaed in Perth fora lew years, where he waa joined
by Robert Sandeman (seeCtAsmts), who became his ton-in-law,
and eventually wet recognized as the leader and principal
exponent of Glas s views; these he developed in a direction
which kid them open to the charge of antinonfrianism. Ulti¬
mately in 17 y» Glat returned to Dundee, where the remainder
of his life was spent He introduced in his church the primitive
custom of the “ oscuhim pacts ” and the “ agape ” celebrated
as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congrega¬
tion was known as the “ kail kirk.” In 1739 the General
Assembly, without any application from him, removed the
sentence of deposition which had been passed against him, and
restored him to the character and function of a minister of the
gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the Established
Church of Scotland, declaring that he was not eligible for a
charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent
with the constitution of the church.
A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in
1761 (4 vols., Nvo), and again at Forth in 17m (5 vois., 8voj. He
died in 177.1.
(lias's published works boar witness to Ills vigorous miad and
scholarly attainments. His reconstruction of the True Discourse of
Celsus (1753), from Origin's reply to it, is a competent and learned
piece of work. The Testimony til the King of Martyrs concerning Hts
Kingdom (1749) is a classic repudiation of eraslianum and defence
of the spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His
common sense appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to
prove that the Bible anpplieN a complete system of physical science,
and his shrewdness in his Notes on Scripture Texts (1747). Hi
published a volume of Chnstiau hongs (Jl'urth, 1784). (D. Mjw.)
GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the
77th century, was a native of Basel, became demonstrator of
chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris and apothecary to
I.oui* XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is hist known by
his Traill tig U chymie (Paris, 1683), which went through some
ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was translated
into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was
an accomplice in the notorious poisonings curried out by the
marchioness dc Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is
doubtful. He appears to liave died some time before 1676.
The sal ptiyckrestwn Glasrri is normal potassium sulphate which
he prepared and used medicinally.
GLASGOW, a city’, county of a city, royal burgh and port of i
Lanarkshire, Scotland, situated on both hanks of the Clyde,
4orJ m. N.W. of l/indon bv the West Coast railway route, and
47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The
valley of the Clyde is closely confined by hills, and the city
extends far over these, the irregularity of its site making for
picturesquencss. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the
majority of important public buildings, lies on the north lank
of the river, which traverses the city' tram W.S.W. to E.N.E.,
and is crossed by a number of bridges. The uppermost is
Dahnamock Bridge, dating from 1891, and next below it is
Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, and superseding a structure
of 1775. St Andrew’s suspension bridge gives access to the Green
to the inhabitants of Hutchesdntown, a district which is ap¬
proached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading
from 1 the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and
weir, Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in iXto. taking
the place of the venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 134s,
which was demolished in 1847. Then follows a suspension bridge
(dating from 1833) by which foot-passengers from the south side
obtain access to 8t Enoch Square and, finally, the most important
bridge of all is reached, variously known as Glasgow, Jamaica
Street, or Broomielaw Bridge, built of granite from Telford’s
designs and first used in **35. Towards the dose of the century
it ’ was reconstructed, and reopened in 1899. At the busier
period* of the day it bean a very heavy traffic. The stream is
spanned between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge
belonging to the Glasgow dcSooth-Weitern railway and by two
bridges carrying the lines of the Caledonian railway, one below
Dabnamock Bridge and the other * massive work immediately
west of Glasgow Bridge.
BasMwgs.—George Square, in the heart of the city, is an
open space of which every possible advantage has been taken.
On its eastern side stand rise municipal buildings, a palatial
pile in Venetian renaissance style, from the designs of William
Young, a native of Paisley. They were opened in 1889 and cost
nearly £600,000. They form a square Mock four storeys high
and carry a domed turret at each end of the western facade,
from the centre of which rises a massive tower. The entrance
hall and grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting half
and reception rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not
unbecoming to the commercial and industrial metropolis of
Scotland. Several additional Mocks have been built or rented
for the accommodation of the municipal staff. Admirably
equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897, including a
bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till i8ro the town
council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved
to the fine classical structure at the foot of the Saltmarket,
which is now used as court-houses. This was vacated m 1842
for the county buildings in Wilson Street. Growth of business
compelled another migration to Ingram Street in 1875, and,
fourteen years later, it occupied its present quarters. On the
southern side of George Square the chief structure is the mussive
General Post Office. On the western side stand two ornate Italian
buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants’ House, the
head of which (the dean of gild), along with the bead of the
Trades’ House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been it jack)
member of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised
with a view to adjusting the frequent disputes between the two
gilds. Tlie Royal Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine
portico of columns in two rows, is an admired example of the
work of David Hamilton (1768-1843), a native of Glasgow, who
designed several of the public buildings and churches, and gained
the second prize for a design for the Houses of Parliament. The.
news-room of the excliange is a vast apartment, 130 ft. long.,
60 ft. wide. 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported
by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important
and handsome street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange,
the Western Club House (by David Hamilton) and the offices of
the Glasgow Herald. In Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art
Institute and the former Corporation Art Gallery. Argyll
Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied with shops,
leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are now
carefully, preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning
the pavement, stands the TYon Steeple, a stunted spire dating
from 1637. It is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was
burned down in 1793 during the revels of a notorious body
known as the Hell Fire Club. On the opposite side, at tiic corner
of High Street, stood the ancient tolbooth, -or prison, a turreted
building, five storeys high, with a fine Jacobean erown tower.
The only remnant of the structure is the tower known as the
Cross Steeple.
Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have
been swept away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation.
It stands in the north-eastern quarter of the city at a
height of 104 ft. above the level of the Clyde. It is a jjjJ)
beautiful example of Early English work, impressive cathedral.
in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, _ c
with imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft.,
and its width 63 ft.; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the
nave 85 ft. At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal
spire, 225 ft. high. The choir, locally known as the High Church,
serves as one of the city churches, and the extreme east end of it
forms the Lady chapel. The rich western doorway is French
in design but English in details. The chapter-house projects
from the north-eastern comer and somewhat mars the harmony
of the effect. It was built in the 15th century and has a groined
roof supported by a pillar 2a ft. high. Many citizens have
contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass,
executed at Munich, the government providing the eastern
GLASGOW
manufacturers aHke have been constant patrons of art, and their
liberality may have had some infinenee on the younger painters who,
towards the close of the 19th century, broke away from tradition
and. stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known
as the “ Glasgow school." The art gallery and museum in Kelvin-
grove PaTk, which was built at a cost of ,£130,000 (partly derived
from the profits of the exhibitions held in the park in 1888 and 1901),
is exceptionally well appointed. The collection originated in 1834
in the purchase of the works of art belonging to Archibald M'Lellan,
and was supplemented from time to time by numerous bequests of
important pictures. It was housed for many years in the Corpora¬
tion galleries in Sanchiehall Street. The Institute of Fine Arts, in
Sauchichall Street, is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of
modern art. There are alBO pictures on exhibition in the People's
Palace on Glasgow Green, which was built by the corporation in
1898 and combines an art gallery and museum with a conservatory
and winter garden, and in the museum at Carophill, situated
within the bounds of Queen’s Park. The library and Hunterian
museum in the university are mostly reserved for the use of students.
The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which is housed
in their hall, an Italian Renaissance building, in West George Street.
In Bath Street there are the Mechanics^ and the Philosophies!
Society's libraries, and the Physicians' is in St Vincent Street.
Miller Street contains the headquarters of the public libraries. The
premises once occupied by the water commission have been converted
to house the Mitchell library, which grew out of a bequest of /70,000
by Stephen Mitchell, largely reinforced by further gifts of libraries
and funds, and now contains upwards of 100,000 volumes. It is
governed by the city council and has been in use since 1877. Another
building in this street accommodates Ixith the Stirling and Haillle
libraries. The Stirling, with some 50,000 volumes, is particularly
rich in tracts of the Tilth and 17th centuries, and the Baillie was
endowed by George Baillie, a solicitor who, in 1863, gave £18,000
for educational objects. The Athenaeum m St George's Place, an
institution largely concerned with evening classes in various subjects,
contains an excellent library and reading-room.
Charities .—The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam
and opened in 1704, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of the
archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was removed towards
the close 01 the iBth century. The chief architectural feature of the
infirmary is the central dome forming the roof of the operating
theatre. On the northern side arc the buildings of the medical
school attached to the institution. The new infirmary commemor¬
ates the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. A little farther north,
in Castle Street, is the blind asylum. The Western Infirmary is to
some extent used for the purposes of clinical instruction in connexion
with the university, to which it stands ill immediate proximity.
Near it is the Royal hospital for sick children. To the south of
Queen's Park is Victoria Infirmary, and close to it the deaf and dumb
institution. On the bank of the river, not far from the south-eastern
boundary of the city, is the Belvedere hospital for infectious diseases,
and at Ruchill, in the north, is another hospital of the same character
opened in 1900. The Royal asylum at Gartnavel is situated near
jordanhill station, and the District asylum at Gartloch (with a
branch at West Muckroft) lies in the parish of Cadder beyond the
north-eastern boundary. There are numerous hospitals exclusively
devoted to the treatment of special diseases, and several nursing
institutions and homes. Hutcheson's Hospital, designed by David
Hamilton and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in
Ingram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has become
a very wealthy body. George Hutcheson (1580-1639), a lawyer in
the Trongate near the tolbooth, who afterwards lived in the Bishop's
castle, which stood close to the spot where the Kelvin enters the Clyde,
founded the hospital for poor old men, His brother Thomas (1589-
1641) established in connexion with it a school for the lodging and
education of orphan hoys, the sons of burgesses. The trust, through
the growth of its funds, has been enabled to extend its educational
scope and to subsidize schools apart from the charity.
Monuments .—Most of the statues have been erected in George
Square. They are grouped around a fluted pillar 80 ft. high, sur¬
mounted by a colossal statue of Sir Waiter Scott by John Ritchie
(1809-1850), erected in 1837, and include Queen Victoria and the
Prince Consort (both equestrian) by Baron Marochetti; James Watt
by Chantrey: Sir Robert Peel, Thomas Campbell the poet, who
was borfl in Glasgow, and David Livingstone, all by John Mossman ;
Sir John Moore, q native of Glasgow, by Flaxman, erected in I8ig ;
James Oswald, the first member returned to parliament for the city
after the Reform Act of 1832 ; Lord Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell),
also a native, by Foley, erected in 1868 ; Dr Thomas Graham,
master of the mint, another native, by Brodie ; Roliert Bums by
G. K. Ewing, erected in 1877, subscribed for in shillings by the work¬
ing men of Scotland ; and William Ewart Gladstone by Hamo
Thomycroft, unveiled by Lord Rosebery in 1902. In front of the
Royal Exchange stands the equestrian monument of the duke of
Wellington. In Cathedral Square are the statues of Norman
Madeod, James Whito and James Arthur, and in front of the Royal
Infirmary is that of Sir James Lumsden, lord provost and benefactor.
Nelson is commemorated by*an obelisk 143 ft. high on the Green,
which was erected in 1806 and is said to be a copy of that in the
Piaasa del Popolo at Roma. One of the most familiar statues is the
equestrian figure of William III. in the Trongate, which was presented
to the town in 1735 by James Macrae (1677-1744), a poor Ayrshire
lad who had amassed a fortune in India, where he was governor of
Madras from 1723 to 1730. ,
Recreations. —Of the theatres the chief are the Kings in Bath
Street,'the Royal and the Grand in Cowcaddens, the Royalty and
Gaiety in Sanchiehall Street, and the Princess's in Main street.
Variety theatres, headed by the Empire 111 Sanchiehall Street, are
found in various parts of the town. There is a circus in Waterloo
Street, a hippodrome in Saucluehall Street and a zoological garden
in New City Road. The principal concert halls are the great hall
of the St Andrew's Halls, a group of rooms belonging to the corpora*
tion ; the City Hall in Candleriggs, the People's Palace on the ween,
and Queen's Rooms close to Keivmgrove Park. Throughout winter
enormous crowds throng the football grounds of the Queen's Park,
the leading amateur club, and the Celtic, the Rangers,' the Third
Lanark and other prominent professional clubs.
Parks and Open Spaces. —-The oldest open space is the Green
(140 acres), on the right hank of the river, adjoining a densely-
populated district. It once extended farther west, but a portion
was built over at a time when public rights were not vigilantly
guarded. It is a favourite area for popular demonstrations, and
sections have been reserved for recreation or laid out in fiower-beda.
Kelvingrove Park, in the west end, has exceptional advantages, for
the Kelvin burn flows through it and the ground is iiuiurally terraced,
while the situation is beautified by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with
the university on its summit. The park wns laid out under the
direction of Sir Joseph Paxton, and contains the Stewart fountain,
erected to commemorate the labours of 1-ord Provost Stewart
and his colleagues in the promotion of the Loch Katrine water scheme.
The other parks on the right bank are, in the north, Ruchill (33
acres), acquired in 1891, and Spnngbum (33I acres), acquired in
1892, and, in tile east, Alexandra Park (120 acres), in which is laid
down a nine-hole golf-course, and Tollcross (82 j acres), beyond the
municipal boundary, acquired in 1897. On the left bank Queen's
Park (130 acres), occupying a commanding site, waR laid out by Sir
Joseph Paxton, and considerably enlarged in 1894 by the enclosure
of tile grounds of Campliill. Thu other southern parks arc Richmond
(44 acres), acquired m 1898, and named after Lord Provost Sir David
Richmond, wiio opened it in 1899 ; Maxwell, which was taken over
on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; Bellalmuston (176
acres), acquired in 1893; and Cathkin Braes (50 acres), 3J m. beyond
the south-eastern boundary, presented to the city in 1886 by Jame*
Dick, a manufacturer, containing " Queen Mary's stone,” a point
which commands a view of tiie lower valley of the Clyde. In the
north-western district of the town 40 acres between Great Western
Road and the Kelvin are devoted to the Royal Botanic Gardens,
which became public property in 1891. They are beautifully laid
out, and contain a great range of hothoures. The gardens owed
much to Sir William Hooker, who was regius professor of botany in
Glasgow University before his appointment to the directorship of
Kew Gardens.
Communications. —The North British railway terminus is situated
in Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line)
and a low-level station, used in connexion with the City & District
line, largely underground, serving the northern side of the town,
opened in 1886. The Great Northern and North-Eastern railways
use the high-level line of the N.B.R., the three companies forming the
East Coast Joint Service. The Central terminals of the Caledonian
railway in Gordon Street, served by the West Coast system (in
which the London & North-Western railway shares), also comprises
a high-level station for the main line traffic and a low-level station
for the Cathcart District railway, completed in J886 and made
circular for the southern side and suburbs in 1894, and also for the
connexion between Maryhill and Rutherglen, which is mostly under¬
ground. Both the underground lines communicate with certain
branches of the main line, either directly or by change of carriage.
The older terminus of the Caledonian railway in Buchanan Street
now takes the northern and eastern traffic. The terminus of the
Glasgow & South-Western railway company in St Enoch Square
serves the country indicated in its title, and also gives the Midland
railway of England access to the west coast and Glasgow. The
Glasgow Subway—an underground cable passenger line, 6J m. long,
worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde twice—was
opened in 1896. Since no more bridge-building wifi be sanctioned
west of the railway bridge at the Broomielaw, there are at certain
points steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying vehicles
across the harbour, and at Stobcross there is a subway for foot and
wheeled traffic. Steamers, carrying both goods and passengers,
constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and ports on
the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of Argyllshire.
The city is admirably served by tramways which penetrate every
populous district and cross the river by Glasgow and Albert bridges.
Trade. —Natural causes, such as proximity to the richest field of
coal and ironstone in Scotland and the vicinity of hill streams of pure
water, account for much of the great development of trade in Glasgow.
It was in textiles that the city showed its earliest predominance,
which, however, has not been maintained, owing, it is alleged, to
the shortage of female labour. Several cotton mills are still worked,
but the leading feature in the trade has always been the manufacture
GLASER+-G&A8G0W
3p
to hi*,- *lm* constituting <to tot “ Glassite ” or “Glaaite ”
etocfa. Tha «wt of this congregation «u shortly afterward*
transferred'to Dundee (whence Gtas subsequently removed to
Edinburgh), where he officiated for tome time at an “elder.”
He next labmaed in Perth fora lew years, where he waa joined
by Robert Sandeman (seeCtAsmts), who became his ton-in-law,
and eventually wet recognized as the leader and principal
exponent of Glas s views; these he developed in a direction
which kid them open to the charge of antinonfrianism. Ulti¬
mately in 17 y» Glat returned to Dundee, where the remainder
of his life was spent He introduced in his church the primitive
custom of the “ oscuhim pacts ” and the “ agape ” celebrated
as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congrega¬
tion was known as the “ kail kirk.” In 1739 the General
Assembly, without any application from him, removed the
sentence of deposition which had been passed against him, and
restored him to the character and function of a minister of the
gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the Established
Church of Scotland, declaring that he was not eligible for a
charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent
with the constitution of the church.
A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in
1761 (4 vols., Nvo), and again at Forth in 17m (5 vois., 8voj. He
died in 177.1.
(lias's published works boar witness to Ills vigorous miad and
scholarly attainments. His reconstruction of the True Discourse of
Celsus (1753), from Origin's reply to it, is a competent and learned
piece of work. The Testimony til the King of Martyrs concerning Hts
Kingdom (1749) is a classic repudiation of eraslianum and defence
of the spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His
common sense appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to
prove that the Bible anpplieN a complete system of physical science,
and his shrewdness in his Notes on Scripture Texts (1747). Hi
published a volume of Chnstiau hongs (Jl'urth, 1784). (D. Mjw.)
GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the
77th century, was a native of Basel, became demonstrator of
chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris and apothecary to
I.oui* XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is hist known by
his Traill tig U chymie (Paris, 1683), which went through some
ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was translated
into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was
an accomplice in the notorious poisonings curried out by the
marchioness dc Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is
doubtful. He appears to liave died some time before 1676.
The sal ptiyckrestwn Glasrri is normal potassium sulphate which
he prepared and used medicinally.
GLASGOW, a city’, county of a city, royal burgh and port of i
Lanarkshire, Scotland, situated on both hanks of the Clyde,
4orJ m. N.W. of l/indon bv the West Coast railway route, and
47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The
valley of the Clyde is closely confined by hills, and the city
extends far over these, the irregularity of its site making for
picturesquencss. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the
majority of important public buildings, lies on the north lank
of the river, which traverses the city' tram W.S.W. to E.N.E.,
and is crossed by a number of bridges. The uppermost is
Dahnamock Bridge, dating from 1891, and next below it is
Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, and superseding a structure
of 1775. St Andrew’s suspension bridge gives access to the Green
to the inhabitants of Hutchesdntown, a district which is ap¬
proached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading
from 1 the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and
weir, Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in iXto. taking
the place of the venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 134s,
which was demolished in 1847. Then follows a suspension bridge
(dating from 1833) by which foot-passengers from the south side
obtain access to 8t Enoch Square and, finally, the most important
bridge of all is reached, variously known as Glasgow, Jamaica
Street, or Broomielaw Bridge, built of granite from Telford’s
designs and first used in **35. Towards the dose of the century
it ’ was reconstructed, and reopened in 1899. At the busier
period* of the day it bean a very heavy traffic. The stream is
spanned between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge
belonging to the Glasgow dcSooth-Weitern railway and by two
bridges carrying the lines of the Caledonian railway, one below
Dabnamock Bridge and the other * massive work immediately
west of Glasgow Bridge.
BasMwgs.—George Square, in the heart of the city, is an
open space of which every possible advantage has been taken.
On its eastern side stand rise municipal buildings, a palatial
pile in Venetian renaissance style, from the designs of William
Young, a native of Paisley. They were opened in 1889 and cost
nearly £600,000. They form a square Mock four storeys high
and carry a domed turret at each end of the western facade,
from the centre of which rises a massive tower. The entrance
hall and grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting half
and reception rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not
unbecoming to the commercial and industrial metropolis of
Scotland. Several additional Mocks have been built or rented
for the accommodation of the municipal staff. Admirably
equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897, including a
bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till i8ro the town
council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved
to the fine classical structure at the foot of the Saltmarket,
which is now used as court-houses. This was vacated m 1842
for the county buildings in Wilson Street. Growth of business
compelled another migration to Ingram Street in 1875, and,
fourteen years later, it occupied its present quarters. On the
southern side of George Square the chief structure is the mussive
General Post Office. On the western side stand two ornate Italian
buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants’ House, the
head of which (the dean of gild), along with the bead of the
Trades’ House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been it jack)
member of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised
with a view to adjusting the frequent disputes between the two
gilds. Tlie Royal Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine
portico of columns in two rows, is an admired example of the
work of David Hamilton (1768-1843), a native of Glasgow, who
designed several of the public buildings and churches, and gained
the second prize for a design for the Houses of Parliament. The.
news-room of the excliange is a vast apartment, 130 ft. long.,
60 ft. wide. 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported
by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important
and handsome street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange,
the Western Club House (by David Hamilton) and the offices of
the Glasgow Herald. In Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art
Institute and the former Corporation Art Gallery. Argyll
Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied with shops,
leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are now
carefully, preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning
the pavement, stands the TYon Steeple, a stunted spire dating
from 1637. It is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was
burned down in 1793 during the revels of a notorious body
known as the Hell Fire Club. On the opposite side, at tiic corner
of High Street, stood the ancient tolbooth, -or prison, a turreted
building, five storeys high, with a fine Jacobean erown tower.
The only remnant of the structure is the tower known as the
Cross Steeple.
Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have
been swept away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation.
It stands in the north-eastern quarter of the city at a
height of 104 ft. above the level of the Clyde. It is a jjjJ)
beautiful example of Early English work, impressive cathedral.
in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, _ c
with imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft.,
and its width 63 ft.; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the
nave 85 ft. At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal
spire, 225 ft. high. The choir, locally known as the High Church,
serves as one of the city churches, and the extreme east end of it
forms the Lady chapel. The rich western doorway is French
in design but English in details. The chapter-house projects
from the north-eastern comer and somewhat mars the harmony
of the effect. It was built in the 15th century and has a groined
roof supported by a pillar 2a ft. high. Many citizens have
contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass,
executed at Munich, the government providing the eastern
GLA8GOW «5
at which exceeds 70 million cub. ft. a day. la 1893 the nnly
of electric light was alas undertaken, and since that date the city has
been partly lighted by electricity. The corporation also laid down
the tramways, which were leased by a company for twenty-three
years at a rental of £150 a mile per annum, when the lease expired
m 1894 the town aouadl took over the working ol the can. sake tout¬
ing overhead electric traction (or hone-power. One of the most
difficult problems that the corporation has had to deal with wae the
housing of the poor. By the lapse of time and the congestion of
population, certain quarter* of tne city, in old Glasgow especially,
had becorao slums and rookeries of the wont description. The
condition of the town was rapidly growing into a byword, when the
municipality obtained parliamentary powers in 1866 enabling it to
condemn for purchase over-crowded districts, to borrow money and
levy rates. The scheme of reform contemplated the demolition of
10,000 insanitary dwellings occupied by 30,000 persons, but the
corporation was required to provide accommodation for the dis¬
lodged whenever the numbers exceeded 500. In point of fact they
never needed to build, as private enterprise more than kept pace
with the operations of the improvement. The work was carried out
promptly and effectually, and when the act expired in 1881 whole
localities had beeu recreated and neatly 40,000 persons properly
housed. Under the amending act of 1881 the corporation began in
1888 to build tenement houses in which the poor could rent one or
more rooms at the most moderate rentals; lodging-houses for men
and women followed, and in 1806 a home was erected for the accom¬
modation of families in certain circumstances. The powers of the
improvement trustees were practically exhausted in 1896, when it
appeared that during twentv-nine years £1,935,550 bad l«*en spent
in buying and improving land ami buildings, and £131,500 in building
tenements and lodging-houses ; while, on the other side, ground
had been sold for £1,072,000, and the trustees owned heritable
property valued at £692,1x10, showing a deficiency of £423,050.
Assessment of ratepayers for the purposes of the trust had yielded
£593,000, and it was estimated that these operations, beneficial to
the city in a variety of ways, had cost the citizens £24,000 a year.
In 1807 an act was obtained for dealing in similar fashion with in¬
sanitary ami congested areas in the centre of the city, and on the
south side of the river, and for acquiring not more than 25 acres of
land, within or without the city, for dwellings for the poorest classes.
Along with these later improvements the drainage system was
entirely remodelled, the area being divided into three sections,
each distinct, with separate works for the disposal of its own sewage.
One section (authorized in 1891 and doubled in 1901) comprises 11
sip m.— one-half within the city north of the river, and the other m
the district in Lanarkshire—with works at Palmarnock; another
section (authorized in 1896) inUudes tlic area on the north hank
not provided tor in 1891, as well as the burghs of Partick and Clyde¬
bank and intervening portions of the shires of Renfrew and Dum¬
barton, tlie total area consisting of 14 sip m., with works at Dalmuir,
7 m. below Glasgow ; and the third suction (authorized in 1898)
embraces the whole municipal area on the south ride of the river,
the burghs of Rutberglcn, Polloksluws, Kinning Park and Govau,
and certain districts in tlie counties of Renfrew and 1 .anark—14
sq. m. in all, which may be extended by the inclusion of the burghs
of Renfrew and Paisley—with works at Braehead, 1 m. east of
Renfrew. Among other works in which it lias interests there may be
mentioned its representation on the board of the Clyde Navigation
Trust anil the governing body of tlie West of Scotland Technical
College. In respect of parliamentary representation the Reform
Act of 1832 gave two memliers to Glasgow, a third was added in
1868 (though each elector had only two votes), and in, 18B5 the city
was split up into seven divisions, each returning one member.
Population .—Throughout the 19th century the population grew
prodigiously. Only 77,385 in 1801, it was nearly doubled in twenty
years, being 147,043 in 1821, already outstripping Edinburgh. It
had become 395,503 in 1861, and in 1881 it Was 511,415. In 1891,
prior to extension of the boundary, it was 565,839, and, after ex¬
tension, 658,198, and in 1901 it stood at 761,709. The birth-rate
averages 33, and the death-rate 11 per rooo, but the mortality before
the city improvement scheme was carried out wan as high as 33
per 1000. Owing to its being convenient of access from the High¬
lands, a very considerable number of Gaelic-speaking persons live in
Glasgow, while the great industries attract an enormous number of
personafrom other parts of Scotland. The valuation of the city,
which m 1878-1879 was £3,420,697, now exceeds £5,000,000.
History .—There are several theories as to the origin of the
name of Glasgow,. One holds that it comes, from Gaelic words
meaning “ dark glen,” descriptive of the narrow ravine through
which the Molendinar flowed to the Clyde. But the more
generally accepted version is that the word is. .the Celtic Cluck*,
afterwards written Glesco or Glasghu, meaning “ dear green
spot ” (g las, green ;.ou or, ghu, dear), which, is supposed to have
been the name of the settlement that Kentigem found here
when he came to coirvert-tha Britons of Strathclyde. Mungo
became the patron-saint of Glasgow, and the motto and arms
of the city are -wholly identified with him—^“tk Ot awow
Flourish by the Preaching of the Word;” usually shortened #
“ Let Glasgow Flourish.” It is not till the jatfreentury, however,
that the history of the city becomes clear. About 1x78 Wiliam
the Lion made die town by charter a burgh of barony, and gave
it a market with freedom and customs. Amongst more or less
isolated episodes of which record has been preserved may be
mentioned the battle of the Bell o’ the Brae, on the site of High
Street, in which Wallace routed the English under Percy w
1300; the betrayal of Wallace to the English in 1305 in a bam
situated, according to tradition, in Robroyaton, just beyond the
north-eastern boundary of the city ; the ravages ofjthe plague in
1350 and thirty years later ; the regent Arran’s, sregp, ui 1544,
oftbe bishop's castle, garrisoned by the earl of Glencairn, and
the subsequent fight at the Butts (now the Gallowgate) when
the terms of surrender were dishonoured, in which the regent’s
men gained the day. Most of the inhabitants were opposed to
Queen Mary and many actively supported Murray in the battle
of Langside—the site of which is now occupied by the Queen’s
Park—on the 13th of May 1568, in which she lost crown and
kingdom. A memorial of the conflict was erected on the site
in 1887. Under James VI. the town became u royal burgh in
1636, with freedom of the river from tlie Broomieluw to the Gocb.
But the efforts to establish episcopacy aroused the fervent
anti-prelatical sentiment of the people, who made common
cause with the Covenanters to the end of their long struggle.
Montrose mulcted the citizens heavily ufter the battle of Kilsyth
in 1645, and three years later the provost uud bailies were deposed
for c.ontumucy to their sovereign lord. Plague and famine devast¬
ated the town in 1649, and in 1652 a conflagration luid a third
of the burgh in ashes. Even after the restoration its sufferings
were acute. It was the headquarters of the Whiggumores
of the west and its prisons were constantly filled with rebels
for conscience' sake. The government scourged the townsfolk
with an army of Highlanders, whose brutality only served to
strengthen the resistance at the battles of Drumclog and Bothwoll
Brig. With the Union, holly resented as it was ut the time,
the dawn of almost unbroken prosperity arose. By tlie treaty
of Union Scottish ports were placed, in respect of trade, on the
sume footing as English ports, and the situation of Glasgow
enabled it to acquire a full share of the ever-increasing Atlantic-
trade. Its commerce was already considerable and in population
it was now the second town in Scotland. It enjoyed a practical
monopoly of the sale of raw and refined sugars, had the right
to distil spirits from molasses free of duty, dealt largely in cured
herring and salmon, sent hides to English tanners and manu¬
factured soap and linen. It challenged Hie supremacy of Bristol
in the tobacco trade—fetching cargoes frorq Virginia, Maryland
and Carolina in its own fleet—so that by 1772 its importations
of tobacco amounted to more than half of the whole quantity
brought into the United Kingdom. The tobacco merchants
built handsome mansions and the town rapidly extended west¬
wards. With the surplus profits new industries were created,
which helped the city through the period of the American War.
Most, though not all, of the manufactures in which Glasgow
has always held a foremost place date from this period. It was
in 1764 that James Watt succeeded in repairing a hitherto
unworkable model of Newcomen’s fire (steam^engine in his small
workshop within the college precincts. Shipbuilding on a
colossal scale and the enormous developments in the iron in¬
dustries and engineering were practically the growth of the toth
century. The failure of the Western bank in 1857, the Civil
War in the United States, the collapse of the Gty of Glasgow
bank in 1878, among other disasters, involved heavy losses and
distress, but recovery was always rapid.
Authorities. —J. Cleland, Armais of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1816):
Duncan, Literary History of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1886) ; Registrant
Episcopates Glasgow (Maitland Club, 1843); Eagan, Bkstok of Em
History of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1847); Sir J. D. Marwick, Extracts
from the Burgh Records of Glasgow (Burgh Records Society); Charters
relating to Glasgow (Glasgow, 189T): River Clyde and Harbour Of
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1898); Glasgow Past and Present (Glasgow, 1884) ;
Mummenta Unsvenitatis Glasgow (Maitland Club, 18344 ; J. Strang,
86 • GLA&nm-GLASS
GUu§ywatti tit Clubs (Glsi^ew, 1864): Reid (" Senex "),Oli Glasgow
(Glasgow, 1864); A. Macztorge, Old Glasgow (Glasgow, 1888);
Dean, The River Clyde (Glasgow, 1881); Gale Lock Katrine Water¬
works (Glasgow, 1883); Mason, Public and Private Libraries of
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1885); J. Nicol, Vital, Social and Economic
Statistics 0/ Glasgow (1881,); J. B. Russell, Life in One Room (Glasgow,
>888) ; Ticketed Houses (Glasgow, j88q) ; T. Somerville, George
Municipal Organisation and Administration (Glasgow, 1896) ; Sir
D. Richmond, Notes on Municipal W. rk (Glasgow, 1899); J. M.
Lang, Glasgow and the Ilarony (Glasgow, 1895) ; Old Glasgow (Glasgow,
1890) J- n. Muir, Glasgow in ryot.
GLASITES, or Sandemanians, 1 a Christian sect, founded in
Scotland hy John Glas (q.v,). It spread into England and
America, hut is now practically extinct. Glas dissented from
the Westminster Confession only in his views as to the spiritual
nature of the church and the functions of the civil magistrate.
Hut his son-in-law Robert Sandeman added a distinctive doctrine
as to the nature of faith which is thus stated on his tombstone:
“ That the bare death of Jesus Christ without a thought or
deed on the part of man, is sufficient to present the chief of sinners
spotless before God.” In a Berios of letters to James Hervey,
the author of Thrron and Aspasia, he maintained that justifying
faith is a simple assent to the divine testimony concerning
Jesus Christ, differing in no way in its character from belief in any
ordinary testimony. In their practice the Glasite churches aimed
at a strict conformity witli the primitive type of Christianity
as understood hy them. Each congregation had a plurality of
elders, pastors or bishops, who were chosen according to what
were believed to be the instructions of Paul, without regard to
previous education or present occupation, and who enjoy a
perfect equality in office. To have been married a second time
disqualified for ordination, or for continued tenure of the office
of bishop. In all the action of the church unanimity was con¬
sidered to be necessary ; if any member differed in opinion from
the rest, he must cither surrender his judgment to that of the
church, or be shut out from its communion. To join in prayer
with any one not a mcmlxr of the denomination was regarded
as unlawful, and even to eat or drink with one who had been
excommunicated was held to be wrong. The Lord’s Supper
was observed weekly; and between forenoon and afternoon
service every Sunday a love feast was held at which every
member was required to lie present. Mutual exhortation was
practised at all the meetings for divine servire, when any member
who had the gift of speech was allowed to speak.
The practice of washing one another's feet was at one time
observed; and it was for a long time customary for each brother
and sister to receive new members, on admission, with a holy
kiss. “ Things strangled ” and “ blood ” were rigorously ab¬
stained from; the lot was regarded as sucred; the accumulation
of wealth they held to be unscriptural and improper, and each
member considered his property as liable to he called upon
at any time to meet the wants of the poor and the necessities
of the church. Churches of this order were founded in Paisley,
Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leith, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen.
Dunkeld, Leith, Cupar, Galashiels, Liverpool and London,
where Michael Faraday was long an elder. Their exclusiveness
in practice, neglect of education for the ministry, and the
antmomian tendency of their doctrine contributed to their
dissolution. Many Glasites joined the general body of Scottish
Congregationalists, and the sect may now be considered extinct.
The last of the Sondemanian churches in America ceased to
exist in 1890.
See Tames Ross. History 0/ Congregational Independency in
Scotland (Glasgow, tqoo). (D. Mn.)
GLASS (O.F.. glees, ct. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old
Teutonic root gla-, a variant of gin-, having the general sense of
shining, cf. “ glare,” " glow a hard substance, usually trans¬
parent or translucent, tghic.h irom a fluid condition at a high
temperature has passed' to a solid condition with sufficient
rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals. There
1 The name Glasites or Glaasites was generally used in Scotland ;
in England and America the rihme Sandemanians was more common.
are many varieties of glass differing widely in chemical com¬
position and in physical qualities. Most varieties, however,
have certain qualities in common. They pahs through a viscous
stage in cooling from a state of fluidity; they develop effects
of colour when the glass mixtures are fused with certain metallic
oxides ; they are, when cold, bad conductors both of electricity
and heat, they are easily fractured by a blow or shock and show a
conchoidal fracture ; they are but slightly affected hy ordinary
solvents, but are readily attacked by hydrofluoric acid.
The structure of glass has been the subject of repeated in¬
vestigations. The theory most widely accepted at present is
that glass is a quickly solidified solution, in which silica, silicates,
borates, phosphates and aluminates may be either solvents or
solutes, and metallic oxides and metals may be held either
in solution or in suspension. Long experience has fixed the
mixtures, so far as ordinary furnace temperatures are con¬
cerned, which produce the varieties of glass in common use. The
essential materials of which these mixtures are made are, for
English flint glass, sand, carbonate of potash and red lead;
for plate and sheet glass, sand, carbonate or sulphate of soda
and carbonate of lime ; and for Bohemian glass, sand, carbonate
of potash and carbonate of lime. It is convenient to treat
these glasses as ‘‘normal*’ glasses, but they are in reality
mixtures of silicates, and cannot rightly be regarded as definite
chemical compounds or represented by definite chemical
formulae.
The knowledge of the chemistry of glass-making has been
considerably widened by Dr F. 0 . Schott’s experiments at the
Jena glass-works. The commercial success of these works has
demonstrated the value ol pure science to manufactures.
The recent large increase in the number of varieties of glass
has been chiefly due to developments in the manufacture of
optical glass. Glasses possessing special qualities have been
required, and have been supplied by the introduction of new
combinations of materials, The range of the specific gravity
of glasses from 2'5 to s - o illustrates the effect of modified
compositions. In the same way glass can be rendered more or
less fusible, and its stability can be increased both in relation
to extremes of temperature and to the chemical action of
solvents.
The fluidity of glass at a high temperature renders possible
the processes of ladelling, pouring, casting and stirring. A
mass of glass in a viscous state can be rolled with an iron roller
like dough; can be rendered hollow by the pressure of the human
breath or hy compressed air ; can be forced hy air pressure, or
by a mechanically driven plunger, to take the shape and im¬
pression of a mould ; and can be almost indefinitely extended as
solid rod or as hollow tube. So extensible is viscous glass that
it can be drawn out into a filament sufficiently fine and clastic
to be woven into a fabric.
Glasses are generally transparent but may be translucent or
opaque. Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced
in many glasses by maintaining them for a long period at a
temperature just insufficient to cause fusion. In this way is pro¬
duced the crystalline, devitrified material, known as Reaumur's
porcelain. Semi-opacity and opacity arc usually produced
l>y the addition to the glass-mixtures of materials which will
remain in suspension in the glass, such as oxide of tin, oxide
of arsenic, phosphate of lime, cryolite or a mixture of felspar
and fluorspar.
Little is known about the actual cause of colour ill glass
beyond the fact that certain materials added' to and melted
with certain glass-mixtures will in favourable circumstances
produce effects of colour. The colouring agents are generally
metallic oxides. The same oxide may produce different colours
with different glass-mixtures, and different oxides of the same
metal may produce different colours. The purple-blue of cobalt,
the chrome green or yellow of chromium, the dichroic canary-
colour of uranium and the violet of manganese, are constant.
Ferrous oxide produces an olive green or a pale blue according
to the glass with which it is mixed. .Ferric oxide gives a yellow
colour, but requires the presence of an oxidizing agent to prevent
OLASS
Si
reduction to. the ferrous state. Lfead gives a pale yellow colour.
Silver oxide, mixed as a paint and spread on the surface of a
piece of glass and heated, gives a permanent yellow stain. Finely
divided vegetable charcoal added to a soda-lime glass gives a
yellow colour. It has been suggested that the colour is due to
sulphur, but the effect can be produced with a glass mixture
containing no sulphur, free or combined, and by increasing
the proportion of charcoal the intensity of the colour can be
increased until it reaches black opacity. Selenite* and selenates
give a pale pink or pinkish
yellow. Tellurium appears
to give a pale pink tint.
Nickel with a potash-lead
glass gives a violet colour,
and a brown colour with
a soda-lime glass. Copper
gives a peacock-blue which
becomes green if the pro¬
portion of the copper oxide
is increased. If oxide of
copper is added to a glass
mixture containing a strong
reducing agent, a glass is
produced which when first
taken from the crucible is
colourless but on being re¬
heated develops a deep
crimson - ruby colour. A
similar glass, if its cooling
is greatly retarded, produces throughout its substance minute
crystals of metallic copper, and closely resembles the mineral
called avanturine. There is also an intermediate stage in which
the glass has a rusty red colour by reflected light, and a purple-
blue colour by transmitted light. Glass containing gold behaves
in almost precisely the same way, but the ruby glass is less crimson
than copper ruby glass. J. E.C. Maxwell Garnett,who has studied
the optical properties of these glasses, has suggested that the
changes in colour correspond with changes effected in the
structure of the metals as they pass gradually from solution in
the glass to a state of crystallization.
Owing to impurities contained in the materials from which
glasses are made, accidental coloration or discoloration is often
produced. For this reason chemical agents are added to glass
mixtures to remove or neutralize accidental colour. Ferrous
oxide is the usual cause of discoloration. By converting ferrous
into ferric oxide the green tint is changed to yellow, which is
less noticeable. Oxidation may be effected by the addition to
the glass mixture of a substance which gives up oxygen at a
high temperature, such as manganese dioxide or arsenic trioxide.
With the same object, red lead and saltpetre are used in the
mixture for potash-lead glass. Manganese dioxide not only acts
as a source of oxygen, but develops a pink tint in the glass, which
is complementary to and neutralizes the green colour due to
ferrous oxide.
Glass is a bad conductor of heat. When boiling water is
poured into a glass vessel, the vessel frequently breaks, on
account of the unequal expansion of the inner and outer layers.
If in the process of glass manufacture a glass vessel is suddenly
cooled, the constituent particles are unable to arrange themselves
and thf vessel remains in a state of extreme tension. The surface
of the vessel may be hard, but the vessel is liable to fracture
on receiving a' trifling shock. M. de la Bastie’s process of
" toughening ” glass consisted in dipping glass, raised to a
temperature slightly below the melting-point, into molten
tallow. The surface of the glass was hardened, but the inner
layers remained in Unstable equilibrium. Directly the crust
was pierced the whole mass was shattered into minute fragments.
In all branches of glass manufacture the process of “ annealing,”
i.e. cooling the manufactured objects sufficiently slowly to allow
the constituent particles to settle into a condition of equilibrium,
is of vital importance. The desired result is obtained either by
moving the manufactured goods gradually away from a constant
■ource of heat, at bypladng.them ins heated kiln and allowing
the heat gradually tndie out.
The fnrnaces(hg. employed far melting glass are usually
heated with gas on the ‘‘ Siemens, 1 ’ or some similar system of
regenerative heating. In the United States natural gas is used
wherever it ii available. In some English works coal is still
employed for direct heating with various forms of mechanical
stokers. Crude petroleum and a thin tar, resulting from the
process of enriching water-gas with petroleum, have been used
Fig. i j.—S iemens's Continuous Tank Furnace.
both with compressed air and with steam with considerable
success. Electrical furnaces have not as yet been employed
for ordinary glass-making on a commercial scale, but the electrical
plants which have been erected for melting and moulding
quartz suggest the possibility of electric heating being employed
for the manufacture of glass. Many forms of apparatus have
been tried for ascertaining the temperature of glass furnaces.
It is usually essential that some parts of the apparatus shall be
made to acquire a temperature identical with the temperature
to be measured. Owing to the physical changes produced in the
material exposed prolonged observations of temperature are
impossible. In the F&y radiation pyrometer this difficulty
is obviated, as the instrument may be placed at a considerable
distance from the furnace. The radiation passing out from an
opening in the furnace falls upon a concave mirror in a telescope
and is focused upon a thermoelectric couple. The hotter the
furnace the greater is the rise of temperature of the couple.
The electromotive force thus generated is measured by a galvano¬
meter, the scale of which is divided and,figured so that the
temperature may lie directly read. (See Tbkrmometkv.)
In dealing with the manufacture of glass it is convenient
to group the various branches in the following manner:
Alanufaclurtd Glass.
I. Optical Glass
A. Tal
.Lie cl
I
II. Blown Glaus
I
B. Lube.
Special glasses
for thermo¬
meters, anil
other special
glasses.
C. Sheet
and crown
glass.
-1
D. Bottle*.
111. Mechanically Prcascd Glass
!--— 1 -!
A. Plate and rolled plate glass. B. Pressed table glass.
I. Optical Glass.—As regards both mode of production and
essential properties optical glass differs widely from all other
varieties. These differences arise primarily, from the fact that
glass for optical uses is required in comparatively large and thick
pieces, while for most other purposes glass is used m the form
of comparatively thin sheets; when, therefore, as a consequence
©LABS
68
•
of Dollond’s attention of achromatic telescope objectives®
1757, a demand first arose for optical glass, the industry was
unable to furnish sratable material. Flint glass particularly,
Which a ppe a red quite satisfactory when viewed in smaH pieces,
was found to be so for from homogeneous as to be useless for
lens construction. The first step towards overcoming this vital
defect in optical glass was taken by F. L. Guisand, towards the
end of the 18th century, by introducing the process of stirring
the molten glass by- means of a cylinder of fireclay. Guinand
was induced to migrate from bis home in Switzerland to Bavaria,
where he worked at the production of homogeneous flint glass,
first with Joseph von Utzschneiderand then with J. Fraunhofer ;
the latter ultimately attained considerable success and produced
telescope disks up to a8 centimetres (z i in.) diameter. Fraunhofer
further initiated the specification of refraction and dispersion
in terms of certain lines of the spectrum, and even attempted
an investigation of the effect of chemical composition on the
relative dispersion produced by glasses in different parts of the
spectrum. Guinand's process was further developed in France
by Guinand’s sun-, and subsequently by Bontemps and E. Foil.
In 1848 Bontemps was obliged to l«tve France for political
reasons and came to England, where he initiated the optical
glass manufacture at Chance’s glass works near Birmingham,
and this firm ultimately attained a considerable reputation in
the production of optical glass, especially of large disks for
telescope objectives. Efforts at improving optical glass had,
however, not been confined to the descendants and successors
of Guinand and Fraunhofer. In 1824 the Koyal Astronomical
Society of London appointed a committee on the subject, the
experimental work being carried out by Faraday. Faraday
independently recognized the necessity for mechanical agitation
of the molten glass in order to ensure homogeneity, and to
facilitate his manipulations he worked with dense lead borate
glasses which are very fusible, but have proved too unstable
for ordinary optical purposes. Later Mies of Clichy (France)
exhibited some “ zinc erown ” glass in small plates of optical
quality at the London Exhibition of 1851 ; and another French
glass-maker, Lamy, produced a dense thallium glass in 1867.
In 1834 W. V. Harcourt began experiments in glass-making,
in which he was subsequently joined by G. G. Stokes. Their
abject was to pursue the inquiry begun by Fraunhofer as to the
effect of chemical composition on the distribution of dispersion.
The specific effect of boric acid m this respect was correctly
ascertained by Stokes and Harcourt, but they mistook the effect
of titanic acid. J. Hopkinson, working at Chance’s glass works,
subsequently made an attempt to produce a titanium silicate
glass, but nothing further resulted.
The next and most mqxsrtaut forward step in the progress of
optiud glass manufacture was initiated by Ernst Abbe and
carried out jointly by him and O. Schott at Jena in Germany.
Aided by grants from the Prussian government, these workers
systematically investigated the effect of introducing a large
number of different chemical substances (oxides) into vitreous
fluxes. As a result a whole series of glasses of novel composition
and optical properties were produced. A certain number of the
most promising of these, from the purely optical point of view,
had unfortunately to be abandoned for practical use awing to
their chcmicul instability, and the problem of Fraunhofer, viz.
the production of pairs of glasses of widely differing refraction
and dispersion, but Imving a similar distribution of dispersion
in the various regions of the spectrum, was not in the first instance
solved. On the other hand, while in the older crown and flint
glasses the relation between refraction and dispersion had been
practically fixed, dispersion and refraction increasing regularly
with the density of the glass, in some of the new glasses introduced
by Abbe and Schott this relation is altered and a relatively
low refractive index is accompanied by a relatively high disper¬
sion, while in others a high refractive index is associated with
low dispersive power. ^
The initiative of Abbe and Schott, which was greatly aided
by tiie resources for scientific investigation available at the
Physikalische Reichsanstaltfcjfmperia] Physical Laboratory),
led to such impertast developments that similar work was
undertaken in France by- tin firm of Mantois, the successors
of *e£l, and somewhat hier by Chance in-England. The manu¬
facture of the new varieties of glass, originally known as “ Jena ”
glasses, is now carried; out extensively and with a considerable
degree of commercial success in France, and also- to a less extent
in England, but none of the other makers of optical glass has
as yet contributed to the progress of the industry to anything
like the same extent as the Jena firm.
The older optical glasses, now generally known as the
“ ordinary ” crown and flint glasses, are aU of the nature of pure
silicates, the basic constituents being, in the case of crown
glasses, lime and soda or lime and potash, or a mixture of both,
and in the case of flint glasses, lead and either (or both) soda and
potash. With the exception of the heavier flint (lead) glasses,
these can be produced so as to be free both from noticeable
colour and from such defects as bubbles, opaque inclusions or
“ striae,” but extreme care in the choice of all the raw materials
and in all the manipulations is required to ensure this result.
Further, these glasses, when made from properly proportioned
materials, possess a very considerable degree of chemical stability,
which is amply sufficient for most optical purposes. The newer
glasses, on the other hand, contain a much wider variety of
chemical constituents, the most important being the oxides of
barium, magnesium, aluminium and zinc, used either with or
without the addition of the bases already named in reference
to the older glasses, and—among acid bodies—boric anhydride
(B./)„) which replaces the silica of the older glasses to a varying
extent. It must be admitted that, by the aid of certain of these
new constituents, glasses can be produced which, as regards
purity of colour, freedom from defects and chemical stability are
equal or even superior to the best of the- “ ordinary ” glasses, but
it is a remarkable fact that when this is the case the optical
properties of the new glass do not fall very' widely outside
the limits set by the older glasses. On -the other hand, the more
extreme the optical properties of these new glasses, t.e. the
further they depart from the ratio nf refractive index to dispersive
power found in the older glasses, the greater the difficulty found
in obtaining them of either sufficient purity or stability to be of
practical use. It is, in fact, admitted that some of the glasses,
most useful optically, the dense barium crown glasses, which
are so widely used in modem photographic, lenses, cannot be
produced entirely free either from noticeable colour or from
numerous small bubbles, while the chemical nature of these
glasses is so sensitive that considerable care is required to protect
the surfaces of lenses made from them if serious tarnishing is to
be avoided. In practice, however, it is not found that the presence
either of a decidedly greenish-yellow colour or of numerous
small bubbles interferes at all seriously with the successful use
of the lenses for the majority of purposes, so that it is preferable
to sacrifice the perfection of the glass in order to secure valuable
optical properties.
It is a further striking fact, not unconnected with those just
enumerated, that the extreme range of optical properties covered
even by the relatively large number of optical glasses nowavailable
is in reality very smalt. The refractive indice of all glasses at
present available lie between 1-46 and i-tjo, whereas transparent
minerals are known having refractive indices lying considerably
outside these limits; at least one of these, fluorite (calcium
fluoride), is actually used by opticians in the construction of
certain lenses, so that probably progress is to be looked for in a
considerable widening of the limits of available optical material ;
possibly such progress may lie in the direction of the artificial
production of large mineral crystals.
The qualities required in optical glasses have already been
partly referred to, but may now be summarized:—
I. Transparency and Freedom from Colour. —These qualities can
be readily judged by inspection of the glass hi pieces of considerable
thickness, aad they may be quantitatively measured by means of the
spectro-photometec.
t. Homogeneity — The optical desideratum is uniformity of re¬
fractive index and dispersive power threfeghout the massed the glass.
This is probably sever completely attained, variations in the sixth
GLASS
significant fignre of the refractive index being observed in diferent
parts of tingle huge blocks of the most perfect glass. While such
minute and gradual variations are harmless for most optical purposes,
sudden variations which generally take the form of striae or veins
are fatal defects in all optical glass. In their coarsest forms sod)
striae are readily visible to the unaided eye, but liner ones escape
detection unless special means are taken for rendering them visible ;
such special means conveniently take the form of an apparatus for
examining the glass in a beam of parallel light, when the striae
scatter the light and appear as either dark or bright lines according
to the position oi the eye. Plate glass of the usual quality, which
appears to be perfectly homogeneous when looked at in the ordinary
way, is seen to be a mass of fine striae, when a considerable thickness
is examined in parallel light. Plate glass is, nevertheless, consider¬
ably used for the cheaper forms of lenses, where die scattering of
the light and loss of definition arising from these fine striae is not
readily recognized.
Bubbles and enclosures of opaque matter, although more readily
observed, do not constitute sucn serious defects ; their presence in a
lens, to a moderate extent, does not interfere with its performance
(see above).
3. Hardness and Chemical Stability .—These properties contribute
to the durability of lenses, and are specially desirable in the outer
members of lens combinations which arc likely to be subjected to
lrequent handling or are exposed to the weather. As a general rule,
to which, however, there are important exceptions, Isoth these
qualities are iound to a greater degree, the lower the refractive index
oi the glass. The chemical stability, i.e. thr power of resisting the
disintegrating effects of atmospheric moisture and carbonic acid,
depends largely upon the quantity of alkalis contained in the glass
and their proportion to the lead, lime or barium present, the stability
being generally less the higher the proportion of alkali. A high
silica-content tends towards both hardness and chemical stability,
and this can be further increased by the addition of small proportions
of boric acid ; in larger quantities, however, the latter constituent
produces the opposite effect.
4. Absence 0/ Internal .Sham.—Internal strain in glass arises from
the unequal contraction of the outer and inner portions of masses
of glass during cooling. Processes of annealing, or very gradual
cooling, are intended to relieve these strains, but such processes are
only completely effective when the cooling, particularly through
those ranges of temperature where tlie glass is just losing the last
traces of plasticity, is extremely gradual, a rate measured in hours
per degree Centigrade being required. The existence of internal
strains in glass can be readily recognized by examination in polarized
light, any signs of double refraction indicating the existence of strain.
If the glass is very badly annealed, the lenses made from it may fly
to pieces during or after manufacture, but apart from such extreme
cases the optical effects of internal strain are not readily observed
except in large optical apparatus. Very perfectly annealed optical
glass is now, however, readily obtainable.
5. Refraction and Dispersion .—The purely optical properties of
refraction and dispersion, although of the greatest importance,
cannot be dealt with in any detail here ; for an account of the optical
properties required in glasses for various forms of lenses see the
articles Lens and Aberration : II. In Optical Systems. As typical
of the range of modern optical glasses Table I. is given, which
constituted the list of optical glasses exhibited by Messrs Chance
at the Optical Convention in London in 1903. In this table a is the
Table I.— Of
refractive index of the glass for sodium light (the D Una of th» retag
spectrum), while the letters C, F and G' refer to lines in the hydrogen
spectrum by which dispersion is now generally specified. The
symbol r represents the inverse of the dispersive power, Its value
being (up - i)/(C- F). The very much longer hsta of German and
French firms contain only a few types not represented in this table-
Manufacture of Optical Glass .—In its earlier stages, the process
for the production of optical glass closely resembles that used in
the production of any other glass of the highest quality. The raw
materials are selected with great care to assure chemical purity,
but whereas in most glasses the only impurities to be dreaded
are those that are either infusible or produce a colouring effect
upon the glass, for optical purposes the admixture of other
glass-forming bodies than those which arc intended to be present
must be avoided on account of their effect in modifying the
optical constants of the glass. Constancy of composition of the
raw materials and their careful and thorough admixture ill con¬
stant proportions are therefore essential to the production of the
required glasses. The materials are generally used m the form
either of oxides (lead, zinc, silica, &c.) or of salts readily decom¬
posed by heat, such as the nitrates or carbonates. Fragments of
glass of the same composition as that aimed at are generally
incorporated to a limited extent with the mixed raw materials
to facilitate their fusion. The crucibles or pots used for the
production of optical glass very closely resemble those used in the
manufacture of flint glass for other purposes ; they are " covered ”
and the molten materials are thus protected from the action of
the furnace gases by the interposition of a wall of fireclay, but
as crucibles for optical glass arc used for only one fusion and are
then broken up, they are not made so thick and heavy as those
used in flint-glass making, since the hitter remain in the furnace
for many weeks. On the other hand, the chemical and physical
nature of the fireclays used in the manufacture of such crucibles
requires careful attention in order to secure the best results.
The furnace used for the production of optical glass is generally
constructed to take one crucible only, so that the heat of the
furnace may be accurately adjusted to the requirements of the
particular glass under treatment. These small furnaces are
frequently arranged for direct coal firing, but regenerative gas-
fired furnaces arc also employed. The. empty crucible, having
first been gradually dried and heated to a bright red heat in a
subsidiary furnace, is taken up by means of massive iron tongs
and introduced into the previously heated furnace, the tempera¬
ture of which is then gradually raised. When a suitable tempera¬
ture for the fusion of the particular glass in question has been
attained, the mixture of raw materials is introduced in com¬
paratively small quantities at a time. In this way the crucible
is gradually filled with a mass of molten glass, which is, however,
*
ical Properties.
Factory
Number.
Name.
»u.
V.
r
Medium
Dispersion, i
(‘.-F. j
C-I).
Partial and Relative Partial Dispersions.
C-D | ! D-F J
C-F. I P - F - !C~F. 1 T ' G -
F-G'
C-F.
c. 644
Extra Hard Crown
I 4959
64-4
•00770 j
•00228
■296
•00542
i '”‘‘4
•00431
•560
B. 646
Boro-silicate Crown
15096
633
•00803 7
•00236
•294
•OO562
1 -700
•00446
•535
A. 605
Hard Crown
1J17S
60-5
•00856
•OO252
•294
■00604
1 -706
■00484
•554
C. 577
Medium Barium Crown
1 -3738
57-9
•00990
•OO293
•296
•00697
! -704
•00552
•557
C. 579
Densest Barium Crown
1-6065
57-9
•01046
-00308
j ‘294
•00738
, -705.
-00589
•563
A. 569
Soft Crown .
,
I-5IJZ
56-9
-0090b
-00264
■291
■00642
-708
•00517
•570
B. 563
Medium Barium Crown
1-5660
56-3
■01006
•00297
•295
•00709
•704
•00576
•572
B.* 535
Barium Light Flint
1 -5451
53-5
•01020 1
•00298
•292
•00722
•7OI
•OO582
•570
A. 490
Ejctra Light Flint
1-5316
49-o
•OI085 1
•OO313
•*88
•00772
-711
•OO63O
■580
Extra Light Flint
1-5333
4«-5
•01099
•OO322
< *293
•00777
j *7°7
. *00640
■58*
C. 474
Boro-silicatr Flint
•
l-36i3
47-4
■01187
•00343
1
•OO844
•711
•00693
584
B. 466
Barium Light Flint
1 *5833
+6-6
•0X251
•OO362
•288
•OO889
■711
•00721
■576
B. 458
Soda Flint
1-548*
43-8
•01195 ,
•00343
1 -287
■00852
■713
•00690
•577
A. 458
Light Flint .
1-5472
45-8
•01196 1
•00348
I -Z91
-OO848
709
•00707
•Mi
A. 43Z
Light Flint .
.
1-3610
43-2
•01299
•OO372
| ‘*87
•00927
•713
•00770
•393
A. 410
Light Flint .
1-5760
41 0
•01404 ,
•OO402
i -286
•0X002
•713
•OO84O
B. 407
Light Flint .
15787
40-7
•OI420
*00404
1 J »4
•OIOI6
•7'5
•OO84O
PI
A. 370
Dense Flint .
1-6118
369
•01657
•OO47O
-284
•or187
■716
•OTOOi
•606
A. 3 L
Dense Flint i
1-6214
36-1
■01722 1
•OO49I
1 -*85
•01231
•7'5
•0X046
•608
A. 360
Dense Flint .
T-6**5
360
•OI729
■00493
i '*86
■01236
•715
•01054 I
•699
A. 337
Extra Dense Flint
1-6469
33'7 !
•01917 .
•00541
1 ' 2 ®S !
■0137b
■7 1 0 ,
•0X170 |
•635
A. *99
Densest Flint
•
1-7129
29 *9
■02384
•00670
, ^ I
■01714
•789
•OI66I | '678
$0
GLASS
m of bubble* of «H sizes. The* bubbles arise partly from the are dwsen, and are heated to a temperature just *uffiaent to
sir endoiedbetween the particles of raw materials and partly soften the glass, when the lamps are caused toassume the shape
fasTST gaseous decomposition product* of the material ! of moulds made of iron or fireclay either by the natural flow of
twelve. In the next stage of the process, the glass is raised the softened glass under gravity, or by pressure from suitable
toahhrh temperature in order to render it sufficiently fluid to ] tools or presses. The glass, now m its approxunate form, is
aUow ofthe complete elimination of these bubbles j the actual placed in a heated chamber where it is allowed to cool very
temnerature required varies with the chemical composition of gradually-the minimum time of cooling from a dull red heat
th.TL# a bright red heat sufficing for the most fusible glasses, being six days, while for “ fine annealing ” a much longer period
white with others the utmost capacity of the best furnaces is required (see above). At the end of the annealing process the
is required to attain the necessary temperature. With these glass issues in the shape of disks or slabs slightly larger than
cruciuir iwwy iwiuil iu iu> umuu^ww.. ~ -.- --I * .v * *
glass. The stages of the process so far described generally occupy | entirely or at least the defective part must be cut out and the
from 36 to 60 hours, and during this time the constant care and ; slab remoulded or ground down to a smaller size. For the purpose
watchfulness of those attending the furnace is required. This is of rendering this minute examination possible, opposite plane
still more the case in the next stage. The examination of small surfaces of the glass are ground approximately flat and polished,
test-pieces of the glass withdrawn from the crucible by means the faces to be polished being so chosen as to allow of a view
of an iron rod having shown that the molton mass is free from | through the greatest possible thickness of glass; thus in slabs
bubbles, the stirring process may be begun, the object of this
manipulation Ixiing to render the glass as homogeneous as possible I
and to secure the absence of veins or striae in the product. For
this purpose a cylinder of fireclay, provided with a square axial
hok' at the upper end, is heated in a small subsidiary furnace and
is then introduced into the molten glass. Into the square social
hole fits tile square end of a hooked iron bar wlticli projects
several yards beyond the mouth of the furnucc ; by means of
this bar a workman moves the fireclay cylinder about in the glass
with a steady circular sweep. Although the weight of the iron
bar is carried by a support, such as an overhead chain or a swivel
roller, this operation is very laborious and trying, more especially
during the earlier stages when the heat radiated from tne open
mouth of the crucible is intense. The men who manipulate the
stirring bars are therefore changed at short intervals, while the
bars themselves have also to be changed at somewhat longer
intervals, as they rapidly become oxidized, and accumulated
scale would tend to full off them, thus contaminating the glass
below. The stirring process is begun wlicn the glass is perfectly
fluid at a temperature little short of the highest attained in its
fusion, but as the stirring proceeds the glass is allowed to cool
gradually and thus becomes more and mure viscous until finally
the stirring cylinder can scarcely be moved. When the gloss has
acquired this degree of consistency it is supposed that no fresh
movements can occur witliin its mass, so that if homogeneity has
the narrow edges are polished.
It will be readily understood from the above account of the
process of production that optical glass, relatively to other
kinds of glass, is very expensive, the actual price varying from
3s. to 303. per lb in small slabs or disks. The price, however,
rapidly increases with the total bulk of perfect glass required in
one piece, so that large disks of glass suitable for telescope
objectives of wide aperture, or blocks for large prisms, become
exceedingly costly. The reason for this high cost is to be found
partly in the fart, that the yield of optically perfect glass even
in large and successful meltings rarely exceeds 20 % of the total
weight of glass melted. Further, all the subsequent processes
of cutting, moulding and annealing become increasingly difficult,
owing to the greatly increased risk of breakage arising from
either external injury or internal strain, as the dimensions of
the individual piece of glass increase. Nevertheless, disks of
optical glass, both crown and flint, have been produced up to
39 in. in diameter.
II. Blown Glass. (A) Table-ware and Vases .—-'The varieties
of glass used for the manufacture of table-ware and vases arc
the potash-lead glass, the soda-lime glass and the potash-lime
glass. These glasses may be colourless or coloured. Venetian
glass is a soda-lime glass; Bohemian glass is a potash-lime
glass, The potash-lead glass, which was first used on a com¬
mercial scale in England for the manufacture of table-ware,
and which is known as “ flint ” glass or 11 crystal,” is also largely
"' ' ‘ " Table 11.
Tabu, II.
been attained the glass will preserve it permanently. The stirring
is therefore discontinued and the clay cylinder is either left 1 used in France, Germany and the United States,
embedded in the glass, or by the exercise of considerable force ! shows the typical composition of these glasses,
it may lie gradually withdrawn. The crucible
with the semi-solid glass which it contains is now
allowed to cool considerably in the melting furnace,
or it may be removed to another slightly heated
furnace. When the glass has cooled so far as
to become hard and solid, the furnace is hermetic¬
ally scaled up and allowed to cool very gradually
to the ordinary temperature. If the cooling is very
gradual—occupying several weeks—it sometimes
SiO,,.
K,0.
i 1
PbO. ; Na., 0 . j CaO.
1 " !
MgO.
Fc 9 O a
and
A1.0,.
l’otash-lead (flint) glass .
Soda-lime (Venetian) glass .
! Potash-lime (Bohemian) glass
5 .fi 7 ;
7.V40 1 ..
71-70 ! 12-70
32-95 1 ! ••
.. , 18-58 i 5-06
, 2*50 | 10*30
!
.. 1 3- 4 8
. . ( 0-1)0
happens that the entire contents of a large crucible, weighing I
perhaps 1000 lb, are iound intact as a single mass of glass, hut I
more frequently the mass is found broken up into a number of [
fragments of various sizes. From the large masses great lenses
and mirrors may lx- produced, while the smaller pieces arc used
for the production of the disks and slabs of moderate size, in
which the optical glass of commerce is usually supplied. In order
to allow of the removal of the glass, the cold crucible is broken
For melting the leadless glasses, open, bowl-shaped crucibles
are used, ranging from 12 to 40 in. in diameter. Glass mixtures
containing lead are melted in covered, beehive-shaped crucibles
holding from 12 to 18 cwt. of glass. They have a hoode^ open¬
ing on one side near the top. This opening serves for the intro¬
duction of the glass-mixture, for the removal of the melted
glass and as a source of heat for the processes of manipulation.
The Venetian furnaces in the island of Murano are small
up and tlie glass carefully separated from the fragments of fire- tow structures heated with wood. The heat passes from the
clay. The pieces of glass are then examined for the detection of 1 melting furnace into the annealing kiln. In Germany, Austria
the grossei defects, and obviously defective pieces are rejected, and the United States, gas furnaces are generally used. In
As tne fractured surfacw of the glass in this condition are un- j England directly-heated coal furnaces are still in common use,
suitable for delicate examination a good deal of glass that passes
this inspection has yet ultimately to be rejected. The next stage
in the preparation of the glass is the process of moulding and
annealing. Lumps of glasa*bf approximately the right weight
which in many cases are stoked by mechanical feeders. There
are two systems of annealing. The manufactured goods are
either removed gradually from a constant source of heat fay means
of a train of small iron trucks drawn along a tramway by an
GLASS
end leu chain, or are placed in a heated kiln in which the fire is
allowed gradually to (tie out The second system is especially
used for annealing large and heavy objects. The manufacture
of table-ware is carried on by small gangs of men and boys. In
England each “ gang ” or “ chair ” consists of three mot and one
boy. In works, however, in which most of thegoodsaremoulded,
and where less skilled labour is required, the proportion of boy
labour is increased. There are generally two shifts of workmen,
each shift working six hours, and the work is carried on continu¬
ously from Monday morning until Friday morning. Directly
work is suspended the glass remaining in die crucibles is ladled
into water, drained and dried. It is then mixed with the glass
mixture and broken glass (“ cullet ”), and replaced in the
a
B-r
r
Flo. 16,—Fontils and Blowing Iron,
a, Pnntoe ; 6, spring puntee; c, blowing iron.
crucibles. The furnaces are driven to a white heat in order to
fuse the mixture and expel bubbles of gas and air. Before work
begins the temperature is lowered sufficiently to render the glass
viscous. In the viscous state a mass of glass can be coiled upon
the heated end of an iron rod, and if the rod is hollow can be
blown into a hollow bulb. The tools used are extremely primitive
—hollow iron blowing-rods, solid rods for holding vessels during
manipulation, spring tools, resembling sugar-tongs in shape,
with sted or wooden blades for fashioning the viscous glass,
callipers, measure-sticks, and a variety of moulds of wood,
carbon, cast iron, gun-metal and plaster of Paris (figs. 16 and 17).
The most important tool, however, is the bench or " chair ”
on which the workman sits, which serves as ltis lathe. He sits
i, “ Sugar-tongs " tool with wooden /, Pincers,
ends. g, Scissors.
I, e, " Sugar-tongs ” tools with cutting, A, Battledore.
edges. i, Marking compass.
between two rigid parallel arms, projecting forwards and back¬
wards and sloping slightly from back to front. Across the arms
he balances the iron rod to which the glass bulb adheres, and
rolling it backwards and forwards with the fingers of his left
hand fashions the glass between the blades of his sugar-tongs
tool, grasped in his right hand. The hollow bulb is worked into
the shape it is intended to assume, partly by blowing, partly by
gravitation, and partly by the workman’s tool. If the Wowing
iron is held verticallywith the bulb uppermost the bulb becomes
flattened and shallow, if the bulb is allowed to hang downwards
it becomes elongated and reduced in diameter, and if the end of
the bulb is pierced and the iron is held horizontally and Bharply
trundled, as a mop is treadled, the bulb opens out into a flattened
disk. •
During the process of manipulation, whether on the chair
or whilst the glass a being reheated, the rod must be constantly
and gently trundled to prevent the collapse of the bulb or vessel.
Every natural development of the spherical form can be obtained
by blowing andfashioning by hand. A non-spherical fonn can only
be produced by blowing the hollmv bulb into a 'mould of tire
required shape. Moulds are used both for giving shape to vessels
ami also for impressing patterns on their surface. Although
spherical forms can be obtained without the use of moulds,
moulds are now largely used, for even the simplest kinds 0 i table¬
ware in order to economize time and skilled labour. In France,
Germany and the United States it is rare to find a piece of table¬
ware which has not received its shape in a mould. The old and
the new systems of making a wine-glass illustrate almost all the
ordinary processes of gloss working. Sufficient glass is. first
“ gathered ” on the end of a blowing iron to form the bowl of
the wine-glass. The mere act of roiling an exact weight of
molten gluss round the end of a rod 4 tl. in length requires
considerable skill. The mass of glass is rolled on a polished
slab of iron, the “ marvur,” to solidify it, and it is then slightly
hollowed by blowing. Under the old system the form of the bowl
is gradually developed by blowing and bv shaping the bulb with
the sugar-tongs tool. The leg is either pulled out from the
substance of die base of the bowl, or from a small lump of glass
added to the base. The foot starts as a small independent bulb
on a separate blowing iron. One extremity of this bulb is made
to adhere to the end of the leg, and the other extremity is broken
away from its Wowing iron. The fractured end is heated, and by
the comhined action of heat and centrifugal force opens out
into a flat foot. The bowl is now severed from its blowing iron
and the unfinished wine-glass is supported by its foot, which is
attached to the end of a working rod by a metal clip or by a seal
of glass. The fractured edge of the bowl is heated, trimmed
with scissors and melted so us to be perfectly smooth und even,
and the bowl itself receives its final form from the sugar-tongs
tool.
Under the new system the bowl is fashioned by blowing the
slightly hollowed mass of gloss into a mould. The leg is formed
and a small lump of molten glass is attached to its extremity
to form the foot. The blowing iron is constantly trundled, und
the small lump of glass is squeezed and flattened into the shape
of a foot, either between two slabs of wood hinged together,
or by pressure against an upright board. The bowl is severed
from the blowing iron, and the wine-glass is sent to the an¬
nealing oven with a bowl, longer than that of the finished gbas,
and with a rough fractured edge. When the glass is cold the
surplus is removed either by grinding, or by applying heat to a
line scratched with a diamond round the bowl. The fractured
edge is smoothed by the impact of a gas flame.
In the manufacture of a wine-glass the ductility of glass is
illustrated on a small scale by the process of pulling out the leg.
It is more strikingly illustrated in the manufacture of glass canc
and tube. Cane is produced from a solid mass of molten glass,
tube from a mass hollowed by blowing. One workman holds
the blowing iron with the masB of glass attached to it, and
another fixes an iron rod by means of a seal of glass to the
extremity of the mass. The two workmen face each other
and walk backwards. The diameter of the cane or tube is
regulated by the weight of glass carried, and by the distance
covered by the two workmen. It is a curious property of viscous
glass that whatever form is given to the mass of glass before it
is drawn out is retained by the finished cane or tube, however
small its section may be. Owing to this- property, tubes or
canes can be produced with a square, oblong, oval or triangular
section. Exceedingly fine canes of milk-white glass play an
important part in the masterpieces produced by the Venetian
glass-makers of the 16th century. Vases and drinking cups
were produced of extreme lightness, in the walls of which were
embedded patterns rivalling lace-work in fineness and intricacy.
The canes from which the patterns are formed are either simple
or complex. The latter ore made by dipping a small mass o t
molten colour less glass into an iron cup around the inner watt
of which short lengths of white cane have been arranged at
GLASS
9*
regular mtervak The canes adhere to the molten glase, and
tiw eaa— ji first twisted and then drawn out into fine cane,
which contains white threads arranged in endless spirals. The
process can be almost indefinitely repeated and canes formed
of extreme complexity. A vase decorated with these simple
or complex canes is produced by embedding short lengths of
the cane on the surface of a mass of molten glass and blowutg
and fashioning the mass into the required shape.
Table-ware and vases may be .wholly coloured or merely
decorated with colour. Touches of colour may be added to
vessels in course of manufacture by means of seals of molten
glass, applied like sealing-wax; or by causing vessels to wrap
themselves round with threads or coils of coloured glass. By
the application of a pointed iron hook, while the glass is still
ductile, the parallel coils can be distorted into bends, loops or
zigxags. Hie surface of vessels may be spangled with gold or
platinum by rolling the hot glass on metallic leaf, or iridescent,
by the deposition of metallic tin, or by the corrosion caused
by the chemical action of acid fumes. Gilding and enamel
deooration are applied to vessels when cold, and fixed by
heat.
Cutting and engraving are mechanical processes for producing
decorative effects by abrading the surface of the glass when cold.
The abrasion is effected by pressing the glass against the edge
of wheels, or disks, of hard material revolving on horizontal
spindles. The spindles of cutting wheels are driven by steam
or electric power. The wheels for making deep cuts are made
of iron, and are fed with sand and water. The wheels range
in diameter from 18 in. to 3 in. Wheels of carborundum are
•Iso used. Wheels of fine sandstone fed with water are used
for making slighter cuts and for smoothing the rough surface
left by the iron wheels. Polishing is effected by wooden wheels
fed with wet pumicc-powder and rottonstone and by brushes
fed with moistened putty-powder. Patterns are produced by
combining straight and curved cuts. Cutting brings out the
brilliancy of glass, which is one of its intrinsic qualities. At
the end of the 18 th century English cut glass was unrivalled
for design and beauty. Gradually, however, the process was
applied without restraint and the products lost all artistic
quality. At the present time cut glass is steadily regaining
favour.
Engraving is a process of drawing on glass by means of small
copper wheels. The wheels range from 1 in. to 2 in. in diameter,
and are fed with a mixture of fine emery and oil. The spindles
to which the wheels are attached revolve in a lathe worked by
a foot treadle. The true use of engraving is to add interest to
vessels by means of coats of arms, crests, monograms, inscriptions
and graceful outlines. The improper use of engraving is to
hide defective material. There are two other processes of
marking patterns on glass, but they possess no artistic value.
In the “ sandblast ” process the surface of the glass is exposed
to a stream of sharp sand driven by compressed air. The parts
of the surface which are not to lie blasted are covered by adhesive
paper. In the “ etching ” process the surface of the glass is
etched by the chemical action of hydrofluoric acid, the parts
which are not to be attacked being covered with a resinous paint.
The glass is first dipped in this protective liquid, and when the
paint has set the pattern is scratched through it with a sharp
point. The glass is then exposed to the acid.
Glass steppers are fitted to bottles by grinding. The mouth
of the bottle is ground by a revolving iron cone, or mandrel,
fed with sand and water and driven by steam. The head of the
stopper is fastened in a chuck and the peg is ground to the size
of the mouth of the bottle by means of sand and water pressed
against the glass by bent strips of thin sheet iron. The mouth
of the bottle is then pressed by hand on the peg of the stopper,
and the mouth and peg are ground together with a medium of
very fine emery and water until an air-tight joint is secured.
The revival in recent years of the craft of glass-blowing in
England must he attributed to William Morris and T. G. Jackson,
R.A. (PI. 11 . figs. 11 and tal They, at any rate, seem to have
been the first to grasp the Ilea that a wine-glass is not merely
a bowl, a stem and a foot, but that, whilst retaining simplicity
of form, it may nevertheless possess decorative effect. They,
moreover, suggested the introduction for the manufacture of
table-glass of a material similar in texture to that used by the
Venetians, both colourless and tinted.
The colours previously available for English table-glass were
ruby, canary-yellow, emerald-green, dark peacock-green, light
peacock-blue, dark purple-blue and a dark purple. About
1870 the “ Jackson ” table-glass was made in a light, dull green
glass. The dull green was followed successively by amber, white
opal, blue opal, straw opal, sea-green, hom colour and various
pale tints of soda-lime glass, ranging from yellow to blue. Ex¬
periments were also tried with a violet-coloured glass, a violet
opal, a transparent black and with glasses shading from red
to blue, red to amber and Hue to green.
In the Paris Exhibition of 1900 surface decoration was the
prominent feature of all the exhibits of table-glass. The carved
or “ cameo ” glass, introduced by Thomas Webb of Stourbridge
in 1878, had been copied with varying success by glass-makers
of all nations. In many specimens there were three or more
layers of differently coloured glass, and curious effects of blended
colour were obtained by cutting through, or partly through,
the different layers. The surface of the glass had usually been
treated with hydrofluoric acid so as to have a satin-like gloss.
Some vases of this charactei, shown by Emile Gall6 and Daum
FrAres of Nancy, possessed considerable beauty. Hie “ Favrile ”
glass of Louis C. Tiffany of New York (PI. II. fig. 13) owes its
effect entirely to surface colour and lustre. The happiest speci¬
mens of this glass almost rival the wings of butterflies in the
brilliancy of their iridescent colours. Hie vases of Karl Koepping
of Berlin are so fantastic and so fragile that they appear to be
creations of the lamp rather than of the furnace. An illustration
is also given of some of Powell’s “ Whitefriars ” glass, shown at
the St Louis Exhibition, 1904 (PI. II. fig. 14). The specimens
of “ p&te de verre ” exhibited by A. L. Dammouse, of St'vres,
in the Musfie des Arts decorutifs in Paris, and at the London
Franco-British Exhibition in 1908, deserve attention. They
have a semi-opaque body with an “ egg-shell ” surface and are
delicately tinted with colour. The shapes are exceedingly
simple, but some of the pieces possess great beauty. The material
and technique suggest a close relationship to porcelain.
(B) Tube. —The process of making tube has already been
described. Although the bore of the thermometer-tube is
exceedingly small, it is made in the same way as ordinary
tube. The white line of enamel, which is seen in some thermo¬
meters behind the bore, is introduced before the mass of glass
is pulled out. A flattened cake of viscous glass-enamel is welded
on to one side of the mass of glass after it has been hollowed by
blowing. The mass, with the enamel attached, is dipped into
the crucible and covered with a layer of transparent glass ;
the whole mass is then pulled out into tube. If the section of
the finished tube is to be a triangle, with the enamel and bore
at the base, the molten mass is pressed into a V-shaped mould
before it is pulled out.
In modern thermometry instruments of extreme accuracy
are required, and researches have been made, especially in
Germany and France, to ascertain the causes of variability
in mercurial thermometers, and how such variability is to be
removed or reduced. In all mercurial thermometers there
is a slight depression of the ice-point after exposure to high
temperatures ; it is also not uncommon to find that the readings
of two thermometers between the ice- and boiling-points
fail to agree at any intermediate temperature, although the
ice- and boiling-points of both have been determined together
with perfect accuracy, and the intervening spaces have been
equally divided. It has been proved that these variations
depend to a great extent on the chemical nature of the glass of
which the thermometer is made. Special glasses have therefore
been produced by Toncelot in France and at the Jena glass¬
works in Germany expressly for the manufacture of thermometers
for accurate physical measurements y the analysis of these are
shown in Table III.
GLASS
Tabu III.
-1-
SiO r No/).
Kp . | CaO. 1 AL.O,.
1 J
MgO. BA.
Depression !
ZnO. of 1
Ice-point. !
Tonuelot's. “ Verre dur ”
70.96! 12 02
0 36 j 14.40 1-44
0-40
• • ; 0-07 ,
. . .
67-3 ! 14-0
.. I 70 2-3
'
.. 1 2-0
7-0 0-03 |
59- lit ■
72-0 : n-o
•• J 3 -o ! S’O
.. ; i2-o
. . 1 0*02 1
1 J
Since the discover;’ of the Rontgen rays, experiments have
been made to ascertain the effects of the different constituents
of glass on the transparency of glass to X-rays. The oxides
of lead, barium, line and antimony are found perceptibly to
retard the rays. The glass tubes, therefore, from which the
X-ray bulbs are to be fashioned, must not contain any of these
oxides, whereas the glass used for making the funnel-shaped
shields, which direct the rays upon the patient and at the same
time protect the hands of the operator from the action of the
rays, must contain a large proportion of lead.
Among the many developments of the Jena Works, not the
least important are the glasses made in the form of a tube,
from which gas-chimneys, gauge-glasses and chemical apparatus
are fashioned, specially adapted to resist sudden changes of
temperature. One method is to form the tube of two layers
of glass, one being considerably more expansible than the other.
(C) Sheet and Crown-glass. —Sheet-glass is almost wholly
a soda-lime-silicate glass, containing only small quantities of
iron, alumina and other impurities. The raw materials used
in this manufacture are chosen with considerable care, since the
requirements as to the colour of the product are somewhat
stringent. The materials ordinarily employed are the following:
sand, of good quality, uniform in grain and free from any
notable quantity of iron oxide ; carbonate of lime, generally
in the form of a pure vnriety of powdered limestone; and
sulphate of soda. A certain proportion of soda ash (carbonate
of soda) is also used in some works in sheet-glass mixtures, while
“ decolorizers ” (substances intended to remove or reduce the
colour of the glass) are also sometimes added, those most generally
used being manganese dioxide and arsenic. Another essential
ingredient of all glass mixtures containing sulphate of soda
is some form of carbon, which is added either as coke, charcoal
or anthracite coal; the carbon so introduced aids the reducing
substances contained in the atmosphere of the furnace in bringing
about the reduction of the sulphate of soda to a condition in
which it combines more readily with the silicic acid of the sand.
The proportions in which these ingredients are mixed vary
according to the exact quality of glass required and with the
form and temperature of the melting furnace employed. A
good quality of sheet-glass should show, on analysis, a composi¬
tion approximating to the following: silica (Si 0 2 ), 72 % ;
lime (CaO), 13 % ; soda (Na., 0 ), 14 % ; and iron and alumina
(Fe./Jj.AljO,,), 1 %. The actual composition, however, of a
mixture that will give a glass of this composition cannot be
directly calculated from these figures and the known composition
of the raw materials, owing to the fact that considerable losses,
particularly of alkali, occur during melting.
The fusion of sheet-glass is now generally carried out in
gas-fired regenerative tank furnaces. The glass in process
of fusion is contained in a basin or tank built up of large blacks
of fire-clay and is heated by one or more powerful gas flames
which enter the upper part of the furnace chamber through
suitable apertures or “ ports.” In Europe the gas burnt in
these furnaces is derived from special gas-producers, while in
some parts of America natural gas is utilized. With producer
gas it is necessary to pre-teat both the gas and the air which
is supplied for its combustion by passing both through heated
regenerators (for an account of the principles of the regenerative
furnace see article Furnace). In many respects the glass¬
melting tank resembles the open-hearth steel furnace, but there
are certain interesting differences. Thus the dimensions of the
largest glass tanks greatly exceed those of the hugest steel
furnaces; glass furnaces containing up to a;o tons of molten
99
glass have been successful^ oper¬
ated, and owing to the relatively
low density of glass this involves
very large dimensions. The tem¬
perature required in the fusion of
sheet-glass and of other glasses
produced in tank furnaces is much
lower than that attained in steel
furnaces, and it is consequently pos¬
sible to work glass-tanks continuously for many months together;
on the otter hand, glass is not readily freed from foreign bodies
that may become admixed with it, so that the absence of detach¬
able particles is much more essential in glass than in steel melting.
Finally, fluid steel can be run or poured off, since it is perfectly
fluid, while glass cannot lie thus treated, but is withdrawn from
the furnace by means of either a ladle nr a gatherer’* pipe,
and the temperature required for this purpose is much lower than
that at which the glass is melted. In a sheet-glass tank there
is therefore a gradient of temperature and a continuous passage
of material from the hotter end of the furnace where the raw
materials are introduced to the cooler end where the glass,
free from bubbles and raw material, is withdrawn by the
gatherers. For the purpose of the removal of the glass, the
cooler end of the furnace is provided with a number of suitable
openings, provided with movable covers or shades. The
“ gatherer ’’ approaches one of these openings, removes the
shade and introduces his previously heated “ pipe.” This
instrument is an iron tube, some 5 ft. iong, provided at one end
with an enlarged butt and at the otter with a wooden covering
acting as handle and mouthpiece. The gatherer dips the butt
of the pipe into the molten “ metal ” and withdraws upon it a
small ball of viscous glass, which he allows to coo! in the air
while constantly rotating it so as to keep the mass as nearly
spherical in shape as he can. When the first ball or “ gathering ”
has cooled sufficiently, the whole is again dipped into the molten
glass and a further layer adheres to the pipe-end, thus forming
a larger ball. This process is repeated, with slight modifications,
until the gathering is of the proper size and weight to yield the
sheet which is to be blown. When this is the case the gathering
is carried to a block or half-open mould in which it is rolled
and blown until it acquires, roughly, the shape of a hemisphere,
the flat side being towards the pipe and the convexity away
from it; the diameter of this hemisphere is so regulated as to
be approximately that of the cylinder which is next to be formed
of the viscous mass. From the hemispherical shape the mass
of glass is now gradually blown into the form of a short cylinder,
and then the pipe with the adherent mass of glass is handed
over to the blower proper. This workman stands upon a platform
in front of special furnaces which, from their shape and purpose,
are called “ blowing holes.” The blower repeatedly heats
the lower part of the mass of glass and keeps it distended by
blowing while he swings it over a deep trench which is provided
next to his working platform. In this way the glass is extended
into the form of a long cylinder dosed at the lower end. The
size of cylinder which can be produced in this way depends
chiefly upon the dimensions of the working platform and the
weight which a man is able to handle freely. The lower end of
the cylinder is opened, in the case of small and thin cylinders,
by the blower holding his thumb over the mouthpiece of the
pipe and simultaneously warming the end of the cylinder in the
furnace, the expansion of the imprisoned air and the softening
of the glass causing the end of the cylinder to burst open. The
blower then teats the end of the cylinder again and rapidly
spins the pipe about its axis; the centrifugal effect is sufficient
to spread the soft glass at the end to a radius equal to that of the
rest of the cylinder. In the case of large and thick cylinders,
however, another process of opening the ends is generally
employed: an assistant attaches a small lump of hot glass to the
domed end, and the teat of this added glass softens the cylinder
sufficiently to enable the assistant to cut the end open with a
pair of shears; subsequently the open end is spun out to the
diameter of the whole as described above. The finished cylinder
94
GLASS
is unturned to a rack and the pipe detached from it by applying
a cold iron to the neck of thick hot glass which connects pipe-butt
and cylinder, the neck cracking at the touch. Next, the rest
o| the connecting neck ie detached from the cylinder by the
application of a heated iron to the chilled glass. This leaves a
cylinder with roughly parallel ends ; these ends are cut by the
use of a diamond applied internally and then the cylinder is
split longitudinally by the same means. The split cylinder is
passed to the flattening furnace, where it is exposed to a red heat,
sufficient to soften the glass ; when soft the cylinder is laid upon
a smooth flat slab and flattened down upon it by the careful
application of pressure with some form of rubbing implement,
which frequently takes the form of a block of charred wood.
When flattened, the sheet is moved away from the working
opening of the furnace, and pushed to a system of movable
grids, by means of which it is slowly moved along a tunnel,
away from a source of heat nearly equal in temperature to that
of the flattening diumber. The glass thus cools gradually as it
passes down the tunnel and is thereby adequately annealed.
The process of sheet-glass manufacture described above is
typical of that in use in a large number of works, but many
modifications are to be found, particularly in the furnaces in
which the glass is melted. In some works, the older method
of melting the glass in large pots or crucibles is still adhered to,
although the old-fashioned uoal-fired furnaces have nearly
everywhere given place to the use of producer gas and re¬
generators. For the production of coloured sheet-glass, however,
the employment of pot furnaces is still almost universal, prob¬
ably because the quantities of glass required of any on* tint
are insufficient to employ even a small tank furnace continuously;
the exact control of the colour is also more readily attained with
the smuller hulk of glass which has to be dealt with in pots. The
general nature of the colouring ingredients employed, and the
colour effects produced by them, have already been mentioned,
in coloured sheet-glass, two distinct kinds are to be recognized;
in one kind the colouring matter is contained in the body of the
gloss itself, while in the other the coloured sheet consists of
ordinary white glass covered upon one side with a thin coating of
intensely coloured glass. The latter kind is known as “ flashed,”
and is universally employed in the case of colouring matters
whose effect is so intense that in any usual thickness of glass
they would cause almost entire opacity. Flashed glass is
produced by taking either the first or the last gathering in the
production of a cylinder out of a crucible containing the coloured
"metal,” the other gatherings being taken out of ordinary
white sheet-glass. It is important that the thermal expansion
of the two materials which are thus incorporated should be
nearly alike as otherwise warping of the finished sheet is liable
to result.
Mechanical Processes for the Production of Sheet-glass. —The
complicated and indirect process of sheet-glass manufacture
has led to numerous inventions aiming at a direct method of
production by more or less mechanical means. All the earlier
attempts in this direction failed on account of the difficulty of
bringing the glass to tlie machines without introducing air-bells,
which are always formed in molten glass when it is ladled or
poured from one vessel into another. More modem inventors
have therefore adopted the plan of drawing the glass direct from
the furnace. In an American prooess the glass is drawn direct
from the molten mass in the tank in a cylindrical form by means
of an iron ring previously immersed in the glass, and is kept
in shape by means of special devices for cooling it rapidly as it
leaves the molten bath. In this process, however, the entire
operations of splitting and flattening are retained, and although
the mechanical process is said to be in successful commercial
operation, it has not as yet made itself felt as a formidable rival
to hand-made sheet-glass. An effort at a more direct mechanical
process is emhodied in the inventions of Foucault which are at
present being developed in Germany and Belgium; in this
proem the glass is drawn from the molten bath in the shape of
flat sheeto, by the aid of a bar of iron, previously immersed in the
glass, the glass receiving its fan by being drawn through slots
in large fire-bricks and being kept in shape by rapid chilling
produced by the action of air-blasts. The mechanical operation
1$ quite successful for thick sheets, but it is not as yet available
for the thinner sheets required for the ordinary purposes of
sheet-glass, since with three excessive breakage occurs, while
the sheets generally show grooves or lines derived from small
irregularities of the drawing orifice. For the production of thick
sheets which are subsequently to be polished the process may
thus claim considerable success, but it is not as yet possible
to produce satisfactory sheet-glass by such means.
Cram-glass has at the present day almost disappeared from
the market, and it has been superseded by sheet-glass, the more
modern processes described above being capable of producing
much larger sheets of glass, free from the knob or “ bullion ”
which may still be seen in old crown-glass windows. For a
few isolated purposes, however, it is desirable to use a glass
which has not been touched upon either surface and thus pre¬
serves the lustre of its “ fire polish ” undiminished ; this can
be attained in crown-glass but not in sheet, since one side of
the latter is always more or Ires marked by the rubber used
in the process of flattening. One of the few uses of crown-glass
of this kind is the glass slides upon wliich microscopic specimens
are mounted, as well as the thin glass slips with which such
preparations are covered. A full account of the process of
blowing crown-glass will be found in all older books and articles
on the subject, so that it need only be mentioned here that the
glass, instead of .being blown into a cylinder, is blown into a
flattened sphere, which is caused to burst at the point opposite
the pipe and is then, by the rapid spinning of the glass in front
of a very hot furnace-opening, caused to expand into a flat disk
of large diameter. This only requires to be annealed and is then
ready for cutting up, but the lump of glass by which the original
globe was attached to the pipe remains as the bullion in the centre
of the disk of glass.
Coloured Class forMosaicWindotes. —Theproductionof coloured
glass for “ mosaic ” windows has become a separate branch
of glass-making. Charles Winston, after prolonged study
of the coloured windows of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries,
convinced himself that no approach to the colour effect of these
windows could be made with glass which is thin and even in
section, homogeneous in texture, and made and coloured with
highly refined materials. To obtain the effect it was necessary
to reproduce as far as possible the conditions under which the
early craftsmen worked, and to create scientifically glass which
is impure in colour, irregular in section, and non-homogeneous
in texture. The glass is made in cylinders and in “ crowns ” or
circles. The cylinders measure about 14 in. in length by 8 in.
in diameter, and vary in thickness from J to i in. The crowns
are about 15 in. in diameter, and vary in thickness from i to £ in.,
the centre being the thickest. These cylinders and crowns
may be either solid colour or flashed. Great variety of colour
may Ire obtained by flashing one colour upon another, such as
blue on green, and ruby on blue, green or yellow.
£. J. Prior has introduced an ingenious method of making
small oblong and square sheets of coloured glass, which are thick
in the centre and taper towards the edges, and which have one
surface slightly roughened and one brilliantly polished. Glass is
blown into un oblong box-shaped iron mould, about is in. in depth
and 6 in. across. A hollow rectangular bottle is formed, the hase
and sides of which are converted into sheets. The outer surface
of these sheets is slightly roughened by contact with uie iron
mould.
(D) Bottles and mechanically blown Class. —The manufacture
of bottles has become an industry of vast proportions. The
demand constantly increases, and, owing to constant improve¬
ments in material in the moulds and in the methods of working,
the supply fully keeps pace with the demand. Except for
making bottles of special colours, gas-heated tank furnaces are
in general use. Melting and working are carried on continuously.
The essential qualities of a bottle are strength and power to resist
chemical corrosion. The materials are selected with a view to
tocure these qualities. For the highest quality of bottles, which
GLASS
95
an practically colourless, sand, limestone and sulphate and
carbonate of soda are used The Mowing is a typical analysis
of high quality bottle-glass: SiO„ 69-15%; NaA 13-00%;
CaO, 15-00%; A 1 , 0 „ 2-so%; and Fe, 0 „ 0 65%. For the
commoner grades of dark-coloured bottles the glass mixture
is cheapened fay substituting common salt for part of the sulphate
of soda, and by the addition of felspar, granite, granulite,
furnace slag and other substances fusible at a high temperature.
Bottle moulds are made of cast iron, cither in two pieces, hinged
together at the base or at one side, or in three pieces, one
forming the body and two pieces forming the neck.
A bottle gang or “ shop ” consists of five persons. The
“ gatherer ” gathers the glass from the tank furnace on the end
of the blowing-iron, rolls it on a slab of iron or stone, slightly
expands the glass by blowing, and hands the blowing iron and
glass to the “blower.” The blower places the glass in the mould,
closes the mould by pressing a lever with his foot, and either
blows down toe blowing iron or attaches it to a tube connected
with a supply of compressed air. When the air has forced the
glass to take the form of the mould, toe
mould is opened and toe blower gives the
blowing iron with the bottle attached to
it to tiie “ wetter off.” The wetter off
touches the top of the neck of the bottle
with a moistened piece of iron and by
tapping the blowing iron detaches the
bottle and drops it into a wooden trough.
He then grips the body of the bottle with
a four-pranged clip, attached to an iron
rod, and passes it to the “bottle maker.”
The bottle maker heats toe fractured neck
of the bottle, binds a band of molten glass
round the end of it and simultaneously
shapes the inside and the outside of the
neck by using the tool shown in fig. 18.
The finished bottle is taken by the “ taker
in ” to the annealing furnace. The bottles
are stacked in iron trucks, which, when
full, are moved slowly away from a constant
■source of heat.
The processes of manipulation which have
been described, although in practice they
are very rapidly performed, are destined
to be replaced by the automatic working
of a machine. Bottle-making machines,
based on Ashley’s original patent, are
already being largely used. They ensure
absolute regularity in form and save both
A bottle-making machine combines the
process of pressing with a plunger with that of blowing by
compressed air. The neck of the bottle is first formed by the
plunger, and the body is subsequently blown l>y compressed air
admitted through the plunger. A sufficient weight of molten
glass to form a bottle is gathered and placed in a funnel-shaped
vessel which serves as a measure, and gives access to the mould
which shapes the outside of the neck. A plunger is forced
upwards into toe glass in the neck-mould and forms the neck.
The funnel is removed, and toe plunger, neck-mould and the
mass of molten glass attached to the neck are inverted. A bottle
mould rises and envelops the mass of molten glass. Com¬
pressed air admitted through the plunger forces the molten glass
to take the form of the bottle mould and completes the bottle.
In toe case of the machine patented by Michael Owens of
Toledo, U.S.A., for making tumblers, lamp-chimneys, and other
goods of similar character, toe manual operations required are
(1) gathering toe molten glass at the end of a blowing iron;
(a) placing the blowing iron with the glass attached to it in toe
machine ; (3) removing toe blowing iron with the blown vessel
attached. Each machine (fig. 19) consists of a revolving table
carrying five or six moulds. The moulds are opened and closed by
cams actuated by compressed air. As soon as a blowing iron is in
connexion with an air jet toe sections of the mould close upon the
Fig. 18.—Tool for
moulding the inside
and outside of the
neck of a bottle.
C, liottle.
A, Conical piece of
iron to form the
inside of toe
neck.
B, B, Shaped pieces
of iron, which can
be pressed upon
the outside of
the neck by the
spring-handle H.
time and labour.
molten glass, and the compressed air forces the glass to take the
form of the mould. After removal from the machine toe tumb le r
is severed from the blowing iron und its fractured edge trimmed.
Compressed air or steam is also used for fashioning very large
vessel?, baths, dishes and reservoirs by the “ Sievert ” process.
Molten glass is spread upon a large iron plate of the required
shape and dimensions. The flattened mass of glass is held by
a rim, connected to the edge of the plate. The plate with the glam
attached to it is inverted, and compressed air or steam is intro¬
duced through openings in the plate. The mass of glass, yielding
to its own weight and the pressure of air or steam, sinks down¬
wards and adapts itself to any mould or receptacle beneath it
The processes employed in the manufacture of the glass bulbs
for incandescent electric lamps are similar to toe qla-fashioned
processes of bottle making. The mould is in two pieces hinged
together; it Is heated and toe inner surface is rubbed over with
finely powdered plumbago. When the glass is being blown in the
mould the blowing iron is twisted round and round so that the
finished bulb may not be marked by the joint of toe mould.
III. Mechanically Pressed Glass. (A) Plate-glass .—The
glass popularly known as “ plate-glass ” is made by casting and
rolling. The following are typical analyses :
1 SiO,.
CaO.
Na-jO.
[ AW
FW
French .
English .
71-80
7064
157°
r<v 27
11*10
11-47
1*26
1 0*70
0-14 %
e -49 %
The raw materials for the production of plate-glass are chosen
with great care *0 as to secure a product as free from colour
as possible, since toe relatively great thickness of the sheets
94
GLASS
is unturned to a rack and the pipe detached from it by applying
a cold iron to the neck of thick hot glass which connects pipe-butt
and cylinder, the neck cracking at the touch. Next, the rest
o| the connecting neck ie detached from the cylinder by the
application of a heated iron to the chilled glass. This leaves a
cylinder with roughly parallel ends ; these ends are cut by the
use of a diamond applied internally and then the cylinder is
split longitudinally by the same means. The split cylinder is
passed to the flattening furnace, where it is exposed to a red heat,
sufficient to soften the glass ; when soft the cylinder is laid upon
a smooth flat slab and flattened down upon it by the careful
application of pressure with some form of rubbing implement,
which frequently takes the form of a block of charred wood.
When flattened, the sheet is moved away from the working
opening of the furnace, and pushed to a system of movable
grids, by means of which it is slowly moved along a tunnel,
away from a source of heat nearly equal in temperature to that
of the flattening diumber. The glass thus cools gradually as it
passes down the tunnel and is thereby adequately annealed.
The process of sheet-glass manufacture described above is
typical of that in use in a large number of works, but many
modifications are to be found, particularly in the furnaces in
which the glass is melted. In some works, the older method
of melting the glass in large pots or crucibles is still adhered to,
although the old-fashioned uoal-fired furnaces have nearly
everywhere given place to the use of producer gas and re¬
generators. For the production of coloured sheet-glass, however,
the employment of pot furnaces is still almost universal, prob¬
ably because the quantities of glass required of any on* tint
are insufficient to employ even a small tank furnace continuously;
the exact control of the colour is also more readily attained with
the smuller hulk of glass which has to be dealt with in pots. The
general nature of the colouring ingredients employed, and the
colour effects produced by them, have already been mentioned,
in coloured sheet-glass, two distinct kinds are to be recognized;
in one kind the colouring matter is contained in the body of the
gloss itself, while in the other the coloured sheet consists of
ordinary white glass covered upon one side with a thin coating of
intensely coloured glass. The latter kind is known as “ flashed,”
and is universally employed in the case of colouring matters
whose effect is so intense that in any usual thickness of glass
they would cause almost entire opacity. Flashed glass is
produced by taking either the first or the last gathering in the
production of a cylinder out of a crucible containing the coloured
"metal,” the other gatherings being taken out of ordinary
white sheet-glass. It is important that the thermal expansion
of the two materials which are thus incorporated should be
nearly alike as otherwise warping of the finished sheet is liable
to result.
Mechanical Processes for the Production of Sheet-glass. —The
complicated and indirect process of sheet-glass manufacture
has led to numerous inventions aiming at a direct method of
production by more or less mechanical means. All the earlier
attempts in this direction failed on account of the difficulty of
bringing the glass to tlie machines without introducing air-bells,
which are always formed in molten glass when it is ladled or
poured from one vessel into another. More modem inventors
have therefore adopted the plan of drawing the glass direct from
the furnace. In an American prooess the glass is drawn direct
from the molten mass in the tank in a cylindrical form by means
of an iron ring previously immersed in the glass, and is kept
in shape by means of special devices for cooling it rapidly as it
leaves the molten bath. In this process, however, the entire
operations of splitting and flattening are retained, and although
the mechanical process is said to be in successful commercial
operation, it has not as yet made itself felt as a formidable rival
to hand-made sheet-glass. An effort at a more direct mechanical
process is emhodied in the inventions of Foucault which are at
present being developed in Germany and Belgium; in this
proem the glass is drawn from the molten bath in the shape of
flat sheeto, by the aid of a bar of iron, previously immersed in the
glass, the glass receiving its fan by being drawn through slots
in large fire-bricks and being kept in shape by rapid chilling
produced by the action of air-blasts. The mechanical operation
1$ quite successful for thick sheets, but it is not as yet available
for the thinner sheets required for the ordinary purposes of
sheet-glass, since with three excessive breakage occurs, while
the sheets generally show grooves or lines derived from small
irregularities of the drawing orifice. For the production of thick
sheets which are subsequently to be polished the process may
thus claim considerable success, but it is not as yet possible
to produce satisfactory sheet-glass by such means.
Cram-glass has at the present day almost disappeared from
the market, and it has been superseded by sheet-glass, the more
modern processes described above being capable of producing
much larger sheets of glass, free from the knob or “ bullion ”
which may still be seen in old crown-glass windows. For a
few isolated purposes, however, it is desirable to use a glass
which has not been touched upon either surface and thus pre¬
serves the lustre of its “ fire polish ” undiminished ; this can
be attained in crown-glass but not in sheet, since one side of
the latter is always more or Ires marked by the rubber used
in the process of flattening. One of the few uses of crown-glass
of this kind is the glass slides upon wliich microscopic specimens
are mounted, as well as the thin glass slips with which such
preparations are covered. A full account of the process of
blowing crown-glass will be found in all older books and articles
on the subject, so that it need only be mentioned here that the
glass, instead of .being blown into a cylinder, is blown into a
flattened sphere, which is caused to burst at the point opposite
the pipe and is then, by the rapid spinning of the glass in front
of a very hot furnace-opening, caused to expand into a flat disk
of large diameter. This only requires to be annealed and is then
ready for cutting up, but the lump of glass by which the original
globe was attached to the pipe remains as the bullion in the centre
of the disk of glass.
Coloured Class forMosaicWindotes. —Theproductionof coloured
glass for “ mosaic ” windows has become a separate branch
of glass-making. Charles Winston, after prolonged study
of the coloured windows of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries,
convinced himself that no approach to the colour effect of these
windows could be made with glass which is thin and even in
section, homogeneous in texture, and made and coloured with
highly refined materials. To obtain the effect it was necessary
to reproduce as far as possible the conditions under which the
early craftsmen worked, and to create scientifically glass which
is impure in colour, irregular in section, and non-homogeneous
in texture. The glass is made in cylinders and in “ crowns ” or
circles. The cylinders measure about 14 in. in length by 8 in.
in diameter, and vary in thickness from J to i in. The crowns
are about 15 in. in diameter, and vary in thickness from i to £ in.,
the centre being the thickest. These cylinders and crowns
may be either solid colour or flashed. Great variety of colour
may Ire obtained by flashing one colour upon another, such as
blue on green, and ruby on blue, green or yellow.
£. J. Prior has introduced an ingenious method of making
small oblong and square sheets of coloured glass, which are thick
in the centre and taper towards the edges, and which have one
surface slightly roughened and one brilliantly polished. Glass is
blown into un oblong box-shaped iron mould, about is in. in depth
and 6 in. across. A hollow rectangular bottle is formed, the hase
and sides of which are converted into sheets. The outer surface
of these sheets is slightly roughened by contact with uie iron
mould.
(D) Bottles and mechanically blown Class. —The manufacture
of bottles has become an industry of vast proportions. The
demand constantly increases, and, owing to constant improve¬
ments in material in the moulds and in the methods of working,
the supply fully keeps pace with the demand. Except for
making bottles of special colours, gas-heated tank furnaces are
in general use. Melting and working are carried on continuously.
The essential qualities of a bottle are strength and power to resist
chemical corrosion. The materials are selected with a view to
tocure these qualities. For the highest quality of bottles, which
Glass
97
glass shows a pattern in high relief andfjpves a very brilliant
effect.
The various varieties of rolled plate-glass an now produced
for some purposes with a reinforcement of wire netting which is
embedded in the mass of the glass. The wire gives the glass
great advantages in the event of fracture from a blow or from
fire, but owing to the difference in thermal expansion between
wire and glass, there is a strong tendency for such “ wired glass ”
to crack spontaneously.
Patent Plate-glass. —This term is applied to blown sheet-glass,
whose surface has been rendered plane and brilliant by a process
of grinding and polishing. The name “ patent plate " arose from
the fact that certain patented devices originated by James
Chance of Birmingham first made it possible to polish com¬
paratively thin glass in this way.
(B) Pressed Glass. —The technical difference between pressed
and moulded glass is that moulded glass-ware has taken its form
from a mould under the pressure of a workman’s breath, or of com¬
pressed air, whereas pressed glass-ware has taken its form from a
mould under the pressure of a plunger. Moulded glass receives
the form of the
mould on its in¬
terior as well as on
its exterior surface.
In pressed glass the
exterior surface is
modelled by the
mould, whilst the
interior surface is
modelled by the
plunger (fig. 20).
The process of
pressing glass was
introduced to meet
the demand for
cheap table-ware.
Pressed glass,
which is necessarily
thick and service¬
able, has well met
this legitimate de¬
mand, but it also
caters for the less
legitimate taste for
cheap imitations of
hand-cut glass. An
American writer
Pm. 20.—Modem American Glass-Press. has^ expressed Ivis
satisfaction that
the day-labourer can now have on his table at a nominal price
glass dishes of elaborate design, which only an expert can dis¬
tinguish from hand-cut crystal. The deceptive effect is in some
cases heightened by cutting over and polishing by hand the
pressed surface.
The glass for pressed ware must be colourless, and, when
molten, must be sufficiently fluid to adapt itself readily to the
intricacies of the moulds, which are often exceedingly complex.
The materials employed are sand, sulphate of soda, nitrate of
soda, calcspar and in some works carbonate of barium. The
following is an analysis of a specimen of English pressed glass :
®°*> T*' 68 % ! Na, 0 , ,8-38 % ; CaO, 5-45 % ; BaO, 4-17 % 1
Al/Jn, 0-33 %; and Fe 2 0 ,, 0-20%. Tanks and pots are both used
for melting the glass. The moulds are made of cast iron. They
are usually in two main pieces, a base and an upper part or collar
of hinged sections. The plunger is generally worked by a hand
lever. The operator knows by touch when the plunger has
pressed the glass far enciugh to exactly fill the mould. Although
the moulds are heated, the surface of the glass is always slightly
ruffled by contact with the mould. For this reason every piece
of pressed glass-ware, as soon as it is liberated from the mould,
is exposed to a sharp heat in a small subsidiary furnace ia order
that the ruffled surface may be removed by melting. These
small furnaces are usually heated by an «fl spray* sindto the
.pressure of steam or compressed air.
See Antonio Non, Art vitraria, cum MetrrHti obeervOtionibus
(Amsterdam, 1668) (Neri’s work was translated Into English by C.
U_.re._1 XL. X_1„ rt. A _S -J o m k.'si a flljaua mar
Pellatt, Curiosities of GUus-mahtng (London, 1849 ); : A. Sansfty,
Marvels 0/ Glass-maktng (from the French) (London, 1869).; 0 .
Bontemps, Guide du venter (Pahs, 1868); E. Peligot, Le Vena,
sou histoire, sa fabrication (Paris, 1878) , W. Stein, "Die Glaefabrt-
kation," in Bolley’s Technologic, vol. iii. (Brunswick, 1862}; H.'E.
Benrath, Die Glasfabrikation (Brunswick. 1873) ; J. Falck tnd L.
Lobmeyr, Die GlaUndustrie (Vienna, 1873) ; D. If. Hoveetadt,
Jenaer Glas (Jena, 1900; Eng. trans. by J. D. and A.'Everett,
Macmillan, 1907); J. Henrivaux, Le Venr ct le cristal (Baris, 1887),
and La Vmerit au XX• stick (1903) : Chance, Harris and Fow«l,
Principks of Glass-making (London, 1883) ; Moritr V. Rohr, Theorie
und Geschichte der pkotograpkiseken Objective (Berlin, 1899)1 C. E.
Guillaume, Iraiic pratique de la thermomBrie de precision (Paris,
1880) ; Louis Coflignal, Verves el nnau 1 (Paris, 1000) ; R. Gerner,
Die Glasfabrikation (Vienna, 1897) ; C. Wetzel, Herslellung grosset
Glaskorper (Vienna, 1900); C. Wetsel, Bear bet lung von Glaskdrpern
(Vienna, 1901) ; E. Tsclicuschner, Handbuch der Glasfabrikation
(Weimar, 1885) ; R. Dralle, Anlage und Betrieb der Glasfabriken
(Leipzig, 1886) ; G. Tammann, Kristallisieren und Sckmelsen
(Leipzig, 1903); W. Rosenhain, " Some Properties of Glass,” Trans.
Optical Sanely (London, 1903), " Possible Directions of Progress in
Optical Glass,” Proc. Optical Convention (London, 1905) and Glass
Manufacture (London, 1908) ; Introduction to section 'i, Catalogue
of the Optical Convention (London, 1905). (H. J. P. ; W. Rn.)
History of Glass Manufacture.
The great, similarity in form, technique and decoration of
the earliest known specimens of gtkss-ware suggests thut the
craft of glass-making orginated from a sinrle centre. It has
been generally assumed that Egypt was ‘he birthplace of the
glass industry. It is true that many conditions existed in Egypt
favourable to the development of the craft. The Nile supplied u
waterway for the conveyance of fuel and for the distribution
of the finished wares. Materials were available providing the
essential ingredients of glass. The Egyptian potteries afforded
experience in dealing with vitreous glazes and vitreous colours,
and from Egyptian alabaster-quarries veined vessels were
wrought, which may well have suggested the decorative arrange¬
ment of zigzag lines (see I’late I. figs. 1,2,41 J) so frequently
found on early specimens of glass-ware. In Egypt, however,
no traces have at present been found of the industry in a rudi¬
mentary condition, and the vases which have been classified
as “ primitive ” bear witness to an elaboration of technique
far in advance of the experimental period. The earliest specimens
of glass-ware which can be definitely claimed as Egyptian
productions, and the glass manufactory discovered by T>r
Flinders Petrie at Tell el Amama, belong to the period of the
XVIIIth dynasty. The comparative lateness of this period
makes it difficult to account for the wall pointing at Beni Hasan,
which accurately represents the process of glass-blowing, and
which is attributed to the period of the XIth dynasty. Dr
Petrie surmounts the difficulty by saying thut the process
depicted is not glass-blowing, but some metallurgical process
in which reeds were used tipped with lumps of clay. It is possible
that the picture does not represent Egyptian glass-blowers, but
is a traveller’s record of the process of ((lass-blowing seen in some
foreign or subject country. The scarcity of specimens of early
glass-ware actually found in Egypt, and the advanced technique
of those which have been found, lead to the supposition that
glass-making was exotic and not a native industry. The
tradition, recorded by Pliny [Nat. Hist, xxxvl. 65), assigns the
discovery of glass to Syria, and the geographical position of that
country, its forests as a source of fuel, and its deposits of sand
add probability to the tradition. The story that Phoenician
merchants found a glass-like substance under their cooking pots,
which had been supported on blocks of natron, need not be
discarded as pure fiction. The fire may well have caused the
natron, an impure form of carbonate of soda, to combine with
the surrounding sand to form silicate of soda, which, although
not a permanent glass, is sufficiently glass-like to suggest the
xn. 4
$6 GLASS
possibility of ewating a permanent transparent material. Horn-
over, Pliny (xxxvi. 66) actually records the discovery which
effected the conversion of deliquescent silicate of soda into
permanent glass. The words are "Coestus Addi magnes lapis.”
There have been many conjectures as to the meaning of the
words “ magnet lapis." The material has been considered by
some to be magnetic iron ore and by others oxide of manganese.
Oxides of iron and manganese can only be used in glass manu-
facture in comparatively small quantities for the purpose of
colouring or neutralizing colour in glass, and their introduction
would not be a matter of sufficient importance to be specially
recorded. In chapter *5 of the same book Pliny describes five
varieties of "magnes lapis." One of these he says is found in
magnesia, is white in colour, does not attract iron and is like
pumice stone. This variety must certainly be magnesian
limestone. Magnesian limestone mixed and fused with sand and
an alkaline carbonate produces a permanent glass. The scene
of the discovery of glass is placed by Pliny on the banks of the
little river Belus, under the heights of Mount Carmel, where
sand suitable for glass-making exists anil wood for fuel is
abundant. Jh this neighbourhood fragments and lumps of glass
am still constantly being dug up, and analysis proves that the
gloss contains a considerable proportion of magnesia. The
district was a glass-making centre in Roman times, and it is
probable that the Romans inherited and perfected an indigenous
industry of remote antiquity. Pliny has so accurately recorded
the stages by which a permanent glass was develo;«d that it
may be assumed that he had good reason for claiming for Syria
the discovery of glass. Between Egypt and Syria there was
frequent intercourse both of conquest and commerce. It was
customary’ for the victor after a successful raid to carry off
skilled artisans as captives. It is recorded that Tahutmes III,
sent Syrian artisans to Egypt. Glass-blowers may have been
amongst their captive craftsmen, and may have started the
industry in Egypt. The claims of Syria and Egypt are at the
present time so equally balanced that it is advisable to regard
the question of the birthplace of the glass industry as one that
has still t«. he settled.
The “ primitive ’’ vessels which have been found in Egypt are
small in size and consist of columnar stibium jars, flattened
bottles and amphorae, all decorated with zigzag lines, tiny
wide-mouthed vases on feet and minute jugs. The vessels
of later date which have been found in considerable quantities,
principally in the coast towns and islands of the Mediterranean,
are amphorae and alabastm, also decorated with zigzag lines.
The amphorae (Plate I. figs, r and 2) terminate with a point,
or with an unfinished extension from the terminal point, or with
a knob. The alabustra have short necks, arc slightly wider at
the base than at the shoulder and have rounded bases. Dr
Petrie has called attention to two technical peculiarities to be
found in almost every specimen of early glass-ware. The
inner surface is roughened (Plate I. fig. 4 r), and has particles
of sand adhering to it. as if the vessel had been filled with sand
and subjected to heat, and the inside of the neck has the impres¬
sion of a metal rod (Plate I. fig. 4 a), -which appears to have
been extracted from the neck with difficulty. From this evidence
1 )r Petrie has assumed that the vessels were not blown, but
formed upon a core of sandy paste, modelled upon a copper rod,
the rod being the core of the neck (see Egypt: Art and
Archaeology). The evidence, however, hardly warrants the
abandonment of the simple process of blowing in favour of a
process which is so difficult that it may almost he said to be
impossible, and of which there is no record or tradition except
in connexion with the manufacture of small beads. The technical
difficulties to which Dr Petrie has called attention seem to
admit of a somewhat less heroic explanation. A modern glass-
blower, when making an amphora-shaped vase, finishes the hase
first, fixes an iron rod'to the finished base with a seal of glass,
seven the vase from the blowing iron, and finishes the mouth,
whilst he holds the vase by the iron attached to its base. The
*‘ primitive ” glass-worker reversed this process. Having blown
the body of the vase, he (Wished the mouth and neck part, and
fixed a small, probsray hollow, copper rod inside the
neck by pressing the neck upon the rod (Plate I. fig. 4 b). Having
severed the body of the vase from the blowing iron, he heated
and closed the fractured base, whilst holding the vase by m»a«.
of the rod fixed in the neck. Nearly every specimen shows
traces of the pressure of a tool on the outside of the neak, as
well as signs of the base having been closed by melting. Occasion¬
ally a knob or excrescence, formed by the residue of the glass
beyond the point at which the base has been pinched together
remains as a silent witness of the process.
If glass-blowing had been a perfectly new invention of Graeco-
Egyptian or Roman times, some specimens illus trating the
transition from core-moulding to Mowing must have been
discovered. The absence of traces of the transition strengthens
the supposition that the revolution in technique merely consisted
in the discovery that it was more convenient to finish the base
of a vessel before its mouth, and such a revolution would leave
no trace behind. The roughened inner surface and the adhering
particles of sand may also be accounted for. The vessels
especially those in which many differently coloured glasses were
incorporated, required prolonged annealing. It is probable that
when the metal rod was withdrawn the vessel was filled with
sand, to prevent collapse, and buried in heated ashes to anneal.
The greater the heat of the ashes the more would the sand
adhere to and impress the inner surface of the vessels. The
decoration of zigzag lines was probably applied directly after
the body of the vase had been blown. Threads of coloured
molten glass were spirally coiled round the body, and, whilst
still viscid, were dragged into zigzags with a metal hook.
Egypt.—The glass industry flourished in Egypt in Graeco-
Egyptiun and Roman times. All kinds of vends were blown,
both with and without moulds, and both moulding and cutting
were used as methods of decoration. The great variety of these
vessels is well shown in the illustrated catalogue of Graeco-
Egyptian glass m the Cairo museum, edited by C. C. Edgar.
Another specie? of glass manufacture in which the Egyptians
would appear to have been peculiarly skilled is the so-called
mosaic glass, formed by the union of rods of various colours
in such a manner as to form a pattern ; the rod so formed was
then reheated and drawn out until reduced to a very small size,
1 sq. in. or less, and divided into tablets by being cut trans¬
versely, each of these tablets presenting the pattern traversing
its substance and visible on each face. This process was no
doubt first practised in Egypt, and is never seen in such per¬
fection as in objects of a decidedly Egyptian character. Very
beautiful pieces of ornament of an architectural character are
met with, which probably once served as decorations of caskets
or other small pieces of furniture or of trinkets; also tragic
masks, human faces and birds. Some of the last-named are
represented with such truth of colouring and delicacy of detail
that even the separate feathers of the wings and tail are well
distinguished, although, as in an example in the British Museum,
a human-headed hawk, the piers: which contains the figure
may not exceed J in. in its largest dimension. Works of this
description probubly belong to the period when Egypt passed
under Roman domination, as similar objects, though of inferior
delicacy, appear to have been made in Rome.
Assvna. -Early Assyrian glass is represented in the British
Museum hv a vase of transparent greenish glass found in the
north-west palace of Nineveh. On one side of this a lion is
engraved, and also a line of cuneiform characters, iff which
is the name of Sargon, king of Assyria, 722 b.c. Fragments of
coloured glasses were also found there, but our materials are
too scanty to enable us to form any decided opinion as to the
degree of perfection to which the art was carried in Assyria. Many
of the specimens discovered by Layarti at Nineveh have all the
appearance of being Rinnan, and were no doubt derived from
the Roman colony, Niniva Qaudiopolis, which occupied the same
site.
Roman Glass .—In the first centuries of our era the art of glass¬
making was developed at Rome and other cities under Roman
rule in a most remarkable manner, and it reached a point of
GLASS
Plate 1 .
J’latf II,
glAss
excellence which in some respects has never been excelled or
even perhaps equalled. It may appear a somewhat exaggerated
assertion that glass was used for more purposes, and in one sense
more extensively, by the Romans of the imperial period than
by ourselves in the present day; but it is one which can be
borne out by evidence. 11 is true that the use of glass for windows
was only gradually extending itself at the time when Roman
civilization sank under the torrent of German and Hunnish
barbarism, and that its employment for optical instruments
was only known in a rudimentary stage; but for domestic
purposes, for architectural decoration and for personal orna¬
ments glass was unquestionably much more used than at the
present day. It must be remembered that the Romans possessed
no fine porcelain decorated with lively colours and a beautiful
glaze ; Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery
which was then made. Coloured and ornamental glass held
among them much the same place for table services, vessels for
toilet use and the like, as that held among us by porcelain.
Plinv (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26,67) tells us that for drinking vessels
it was even preferred to gold and silver.
Glass was largely used in pavements, and in thin plates as a
coating for walls. It was used in windows, though by no means
exclusively, mica, alabaster and shells having been also em¬
ployed. Glass, in flat pieces, such as might be employed for
windows, has been found in the mins of Roman houses, both in
England and in Italy, and in the house of the faun at Pompeii
a small pane in a bronze frame remains. Most of the pieces
have evidently been made by casting, but the discovery of
fragments of sheet-glass at Silchest.cr proves that the process
of making sheet -gluss was known to tire Romans. When the
window openings were large, as was the case in basilicas and
other public buildings, and even in houses, the pieces of glass
were, doubtless, fixed in pierced slabs of marble or in frames
of wood or bronze. The Roman glass-blowers were masters
of all the ordinary methods of manipulation and decoration.
Their craftsmanship is proved by the large cinerary urns, by
the jugs with wide, deeply ribbed, scientifically fixed handles,
and by vessels and vases as elegant in form and light in weight
as any that have been since produced at Murano. Their moulds,
both for blowing hollow vessels and for pressing ornaments, were
as perfect for the purposes for which they were intended as those
of the present time. Their decorative cutting (Plate I. figs. 5
and 6), which took the form of simple, incised lines, or bands of
shallow oval or hexagonal hollows, was more suited to the
material than the deep prismatic cutting of comparatively
recent times.
The Romans had at their command, of transparent colours,
blue, green, purple or amethystine, amber, brown and rose ;
of opaque colours, white, black, red, blue, yellow, green and
orange. There are many shades of transparent blue and of
opaque blue, yellow and green. In any large collection of
fragments it would be easy to find eight or ten varieties of opaque
blue, ranging from lapis lazuli to turquoise or to lavender and
six or seven of opuque green. Of red the varieties arc fewer;
the finest is a crimson red of very beautiful tint, and there are
various gradations from this to a dull brick red. One variety
forms the ground of a very good imitation of porphyry ; and
there is a dull semi-transparent red which, when light is passed
through it, appears to be of a dull green hue. With these
colours the Roman mtrarius worked, either using them singly
or blending them in almost every conceivable combination,
sometimes, it must be owned, with a rather gaudy and inharmo¬
nious effect.
The glasses to which the Venetians gave the name “ mille
fiori ” were formed by arranging side by side sections of glass
cane, the canes themselves being built up of differently coloured
rods of glass, and binding them together by heat. A vast
quantity of small cups and paterae were made by this means in
patterns which bear considerable resemblance to the surfaces of
madrepores. In these eveiv colour and every shade of colour
seem to have been tried in great variety of combination with
effects more or less pleasing, but transparent violet or purple
99
appears to have been the most common ground colour. Although
most of the vessels of this mille fiori glass were small, some were
m»rie as large as 10 in. in diameter. Imitations of natural
stones were made by stirring together in a crucible glasses of
different colours, or by incorporating fragments of differently
coloured glasses into a mass of molten glass by rolling. One
variety is that in which transparent brown gluss is so mixed
with opaque white and blue as to resemble onyx. This was
sometimes done with great success, and very perfect imitations
of the natural stone were produced. Sometimes purple glass
is used in place of brown, probably with the design of imitating
the precious murrhine. Imitations of porphyry, of serpentine,
and of granite are also met with, but these were used chiefly
in pavements, and for the decoration of walls, for which pur¬
poses the onyx-glass was likewise employed.
The famous cameo glass was formed by covering a mass of
molten glass with one or more coatings of u differently coloured
glass. The. usual process was to gather, first, a small quantity
of opaque white glass ; to coat this with a thick layer of trans¬
lucent blue glass ; and, finally, to cover the blue glass with a
coating ot the white glass. The outer coat was then removed
from that portion which was to constitute the ground, leaving
the white for the figures, foliage or other ornamentation ; these
were then sculptured by means of the gem-engraver’s tools.
Pliny no doubt means to refer to this when he says (Nat. Hist.
xxxvi. 26. 66), “ aliud argenti modo caelatur,” contrasting it
with the process of cutting gloss by the help of a wheel, to which
he refers in the words immediately preceding, “ aliud torno
teritur.”
The Portland or Barbcrini vase in the British Museum is the
finest example of this kind of work which has come down to us,
and was entire until it was broken into some hundred pieces by a
madman. The pieces, however, were joined together by Mr
Doubleday with extraordinary skill, and the lieauty of design
and execution may still be appreciated. The two other most
remarkable examples of this cameo glass are an amphora at
Naples and the Auldjo vase. The amphora measures 1 ft. J in.
in height, j ft. in. in circumference ; it is shaped like the
earthen amphoros with a foot far too small to support it, and
must no doubt have hod a stand, probably of gold ; the greuter
part is covered with a most exquisite design of garlands and
vines, and two groups of boys gathering and treading grapes
and plat ing on various instruments of music ; below these
is a line of sheep end gouts in varied attitudes. The ground
is blue and the figures white, it was found in a house in the
Street of Tombs at Pompeii in the year 1839, and is now in the
Royal Museum at Naples. It is well engraved in Richardson's
Studies of Ornamental Design. The Auldjo* vase, in the British
Museum, is an oenochoe about 9 in. high ; the ornament consists
mainly of a most beautiful hand of foliage, chiefly of the vine,
with bunches of grapes; the ground is blue and the ornaments
white ; it was found at Pompeii in the house of the faun. It also
has been engraved by Richardson. The same process was used
in producing large tablets, employed, no doubt, for various
decorative purposes. In the South Kensington Museum is a
fragment of such a tablet or slab ; the figure, a portion of which
remains, could not have been less than about 14 in. high. The
ground of these cameo glasses is most commonly transparent
blue, but sometimes opaque blue, purple or dark brown. The
superimposed layer, which is sculptured, is generally opaque
white. A very few specimens have been met with in which
several colours are employed.
At a long interval after these beautiful objects come those
vessels which were ornamented either by means of coarse threads
trailed over their surfaces and forming rude iMttems, or by
coloured enamels merely placed on them in lumps ; and these,
doubtless, were cheap and common wares. But a modification
of the first-named process was in use in the 4th and succeeding
centuries, showing great ingenuity and manual dexterity,—that,
namely, in which the added portions of glass are united to the
body of the cup, not throughout, but only at points, and then
shaped either by the wheel or by the hand (Plate I. fig. 3). The,
100
GLASS
attached portions form in some instances inscriptions, as on a
cup found at Strassburg, which bears the name of the emperor
Maximian (a.d. 386-310), on another in the Vereinigte Samm-
lungen at Munich, and on a third in the Trivuiri collection at
Milan, where the cup is white, the inscription green and the
network blue. Probably, however, the finest example is a
silula, 10J in, high by 8 in. wide at the top and 4 in. at the
bottom, preserved in the treasury of St Mark at Venice. This
is of glass of a greenish hue ; on the upper part is represented,
in relief, the chase of a lion by two men on horseback accompanied
by dogs ; the costume appears to be Byzantine rather than
Roman, and the style is very bad. The figures are very much
undercut. The lower part has four rows of circles united to the
vessel at those points alone where the circles touch each other.
All the other examples have the lower portion covered in like
manner by a network of circles standing nearly a quarter of an
inch from the body of the rup. An example connected with the
specimens just described is the cup belonging to Baron Lionel
de Rothschild ; though externally of an opaque greenish colour,
it is by transmitted light of u deep red. On the outside, in very
high telief, are figures of Bacchus with vines and panthers,
some portions being hollow from within, others fixed on the
exterior. The changeability of colour may remind us of the
" oalices versicolores ” which Hadrian sent to Servianus.
So few examples of glass vessels of this period which have
been painted in enamel have come down to us that it has been
questioned whether that art was then practised ; but several
specimens have been described which can leave no doubt on the
point ; decisive examples are afforded by two cups found at
Vaspelec, in Denmark, engravings of which are published in
the Annaler for Nnrdisk Oldkyndeghrd for 1861, p. 305. These
are small cups, 3 in. and 3) in. high. 3} in. and 3 in. wide, with
feet and straight sides ; on the larger are a lion and a bull, on
the smaller two birds with grapes, und on each some smaller
ornaments. On the latter are the letters DVB . R. The colours
are vitrified and slightly in relief; green, blue and brown muy
Ik: distinguished. They were found with Roman bronze vessels
and other articles.
The art of glass-making no doubt, like all other art, deteriorated
during thr decline ol the Roman empire, hut it is probable that
it continued to be practised, though with constantly decreasing
skill, not only in Rome but in the provinces. Roman technique
was to he found in Byzantium and Alexandria, in Syria, in Spain,
in Germany, France and Britain.
Early Christian and liyianlinc (Hass .—The process of embed
ding gold and silver leaf between two layers ol glass originated
as early as the 1st century, probably in Alexandria. The process
consisted in spreading the leaf on a thin film of blown glass and
pressing molten glass on to the leaf so that the molten glass
c ohered with the film of glass through the pores of the metallic-
leaf. If before this application of the molten glass the metallic-
leaf, whilst resting on the thin film of blown glass, was etched
with a sharp point, patterns, emblems, inscriptions and pictures
could he embedded and rendered permanent by the double
coating of glass. The plaques thus formed could he reheated
and fashioned into the bases of bowls and drinking vessels.
In this way the so-called “ fondi d’oro ' of the catacombs in Rome
were made. They are the broken liases of drinking vessels
containing inscriptions, emblems, domestic scenes and portraits
etched in gold leaf. Very few have any reference to Christianity,
hot they served as imlcstruetible marks for indicating the position
of interments in the eataeombs. The fondi d’oro suggested the
manufacture of plaques of gold which could be broken up into
tesserae for use in mosaics.
Some of the Roman artificers in glass no doubt migrated
to Constantinople, and it is certain that the art was practised
there to a very great extent during the middle ages. One
of the gates near the r port took its name from the adjacent
glass houses. St Sofia when erected by Justinian had vaults
covered with mosaics and immense windows filled with plates
of glass fitted into' pierced marble frames ; some of the plates,
7 to 8 in. wide and 9 to itin. high, not blown but cast, which
are in the windows may possibly date from the building of the
church. It is also recorded that pierced silver disks were sus¬
pended by chains and supported glass lamps “ wrought by fire.”
Glass for mosaics was also largely made and exported. In the
8th century, when peace was made between the caliph Walid
and the emperor Justinian II., the former stipulated for a
quantity of mosaic for the decoration of the new mosque at
Damascus, and in the 10th century the materials for the decora¬
tion of the niche of the kibla at Cordova were furnished by
Roman us II. In the nth century Desiderius, abbot of Monte
Casino, sent to Constantinople for workers in mosaic.
We have in the work of the monk Theophilus, Dtversarum
artium schedula, and in the probably earlier work of Eraciius,
about the nth century, instructions as to the art of glass making
in general, and also as to the production of coloured and enamelled
vessels, which these writers speak of as being practised by the
Greeks. The only entire enamelled vessel which we can con¬
fidently attribute to Byzantine art is a small vase preserved in
the treasury of St Mark's at Venice. This is decorated with
circles of rosettes of blue, green and red enamel, each surrounded
by lines of gold; within the circles are little figures evidently
suggested by antique originals, and precisely like similar figures
found on carved ivory boxes of Byzantine origin dating from
the nth or 12th century. Two inscriptions in Cufic characters
surround the vase, but they, it would seem, are merely ornamental
and destitute of meaning. The presence of these inscriptions
may perhaps lead to the inference that the vase was made
in Sicily, but by Byzantine workmen. The double-handled
blue-glass vase in the British M useum .dating from the 5 th century,
is probably a chalice, as it closely resembles the chalices re¬
presented on early Christian monuments.
Of uncoloured glass brought from Constantinople several
examples exist in the treasury of St Mark’s at Venice, part of
the plunder of the imperial city when taken by the crusaders
in 1204. The glass in all is greenish, very thick, with many
bubbles, and has been cut with the wheel ; in some instances
circles and cones, and in one the outlines of the figure of a
leopard, have been left standing up, the rest of the surface having
been laboriously cut away. The intention would seem to have
been to imitate vessels of rock crystal. The so-called “ Hedwig ”
glasses may also have originated in Constantinople. These are
small cups deeply and rudely cut with conventional representa¬
tions of eagles, lions and griffins. Only nine specimens are known.
The specimen in the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam has an eagle
and two lions. The specimen in the Germanic Museum at
Nuremberg has two lions and a griffin.
Saracrnic Glass. The Saracenic invasion of Syria and Egypt
did not destroy th - industry of glass-making. The craft survived
and flourished under the Saracenic regime in Alexandria, Cairo,
Tripoli, Tyre, Aleppo and Damascus. In inventories of the 14th
century both in England and in France mention may frequently
be found of glass vessels of the manufacture of Damascus. A
writer in the early part of the 15th century’ states that “ glass¬
making is an important industry at Haleb (Aleppo).” Edward
Dillon (Glass, 1902) has \ ery properly laid stress on the import¬
ance of the enamelled Saracenic glass of the 13th, 14th and
15th centuries, pointing out that, whereas the Romans and
Byzantine Greeks made some crude and ineffectual experiments
in enamelling, it was under Saracenic influence that the processes
of enamelling and gilding on glass vessels were perfected. An
analysis of the glass of a Cairene mosque lamp shows that it is a
soda-lime glass and contains as much as 4 % of magnesia. This
large proportion of magnesia undoubtedly supplied the stability-
required to withstand the process of enamelling. The enamelled
Saracenic glasses take the form of flasks, vases, goblets, beakers
uid mosque lamps. The enamelled decoration on the lamps is
restricted to lettering, scrolls and conventional foliage ; on other
objects figure-subjects of all descriptions are freely used. C. H.
Read has pointed out a curious feature in the construction of the
enamelled beakers. The base is double but the inner lining has
an opening in the centre. Dillon harf suggested that this central
recess may have served to support a wick. 11 is possible, however.
101
GLASS
that it served no useful purpose, but that the construction
is a survival from the manufacture of vessels with fondi d’oro.
The bases containing the embedded gold leaf must have been
welded to the vessels to which they belonged, in the same way
as the bases are welded to the Saracenic beakers. The enamelling
process was probably introduced in the early part of the 13th
century; most of the enamelled mosque lamps belong to the
14th century.
Venetian Glass. — Whether refugees from Padua, Aquileia
or other Italian cities carried the art to the lagoons of Venice
in the 5th century, or whether it was learnt from the Greeks
of Constantinople at a much later date, has been a disputed
question. It would appear not improbable that the former
was the case, for it must be remembered that articles formed
of glass were in the later days of Roman civilization in constant
daily use, and that the making of glass was carried on, not as
now in large establishments, but by artisans working un a small
scale. It seems certain that some knowledge of the art was
preserved in France, in Germany and in Spain, and it seems
improbable that it should have been lost in that archipelago,
where the traditions of ancient civilization must have lieen
better preserved than in almost any other place. In 523
Cassiodorus writes of the “ innumorosa navigia ” belonging
to Venice, and where trade is active there is always a probability
that manufactures will flourish. However this may be, the
earliest positive evidence of the existence at Venice of a worker
in glass would seem to Ire the mention of Petrus Flavianus,
phiolarius, in the ducale of Vitale Faber in the year 1090. In
1224 twenty-nine persons are mentioned us fritilari (i.e. phiolari),
and in the same century “ mariegole,” or codes of trade regulu
tions, were drawn up (Monografia della utraria Veneziana e
Muranese, p. 21 9). The manufacture had then no doubt attained
considerable proportions: in 1268 the glass-workers liccamc
an incorporated body; in their processions they exhibited
decanters, scent-bottles and the like ; in 1279 they made, among
other things, weights and measures. In the latter part of this
century the glass-houses were ulmost entirely transferred to
Murano. Thenceforward the manufacture continued to grow
in importance; glass vessels were made in large quantities,
as well as glass for windows. The earliest example which has
as yet been described- a cup of blue glass, enamelled and gilt—
is, however, not earlier than about 1440. A good many other
examples have been preserved which may be assigned to the
same century : the earlier of these bear a resemblance in form
to the vessels of silver made in the west of Europe; in the later
an imitation of classical forms becomes apparent. Enamel
and gilding were freely used, in imitation no doubt of the much-
admired vessels brought from Damascus. Dillon has pointed
out that the process of enamelling had probably been derived
from Syria, with which country Venice hud considerable com¬
mercial intercourse. Many of the ornamental processes which
we admire in Venetian glass were already in use in this century,
as that of mille fiori, and the beautiful kind of glass known as
“ vitro di trina " or lace glass. An elaborate account of the
processes of making the vitro di trina and the vasi a roticelli
(Plate I., fig. 7) is given in Bontemps’s Guide du verner, pp.
602-612. Many of the examples of these processes exhibit
surprising skill and taste, and are among the most lieautiful
objects produced at the Venetian furnaces. That peculiar
kind oT glass usually called schmelz, an imperfect imitation of
calcedony, was also made at Venice in the 15th century. Avan-
turine glass, that in which numerous small particles of copper
are diffused through a transparent yellowish or brownish mass,
was not invented until about 1600.
The peculiar merits of the Venetian manufacture are the
elegance of form and the surprising lightness and thinness of
the substance of the vessels produced. The highest perfection
with regard both to form and decoration was reached in the
16th oentury ; subsequently the Venetian workmen somewhat
abused their skill by giving>extravagant forms to vessels, making
drinking glasses in the forms of ships, lions, birds, whales and
the like.
Besides the making of vessels of all kinds the factories of
Murano had for a long period almost an entire monopoly of
two other branches of the art—the making of mirrors and of
beads. Attempts to make mirrors of glass were made as early
as a.d. 1317, but even in the 16th century mirrors of steel were
still in use. To make a really good mirror of glass two things
are required—a plate free from bubbles and striae, and a method
of applying a film of metal with a uniform bright surface free
from defects. The principle of applying metallic films to glass
seems to have been known to the Romans and even to the
Egyptians, and is mentioned by Alexander Neckam in the 12th
century, but it would appear that it was not until the 16th
century that the process of “ silvering ” mirrors by, the use of an
amalgam of tin and mercury had been perfected.' During the
16th and 17 th centuries Venice exported a prodigious quantity of
mirrors, but France and England gradually acquired knowledge
and skill in the art, and in 1772 only one glass-house at Murano
continued to moke mirrors. ,
The making of beads was probably practised at Venice from
a very early period, but the earliest documentary evidence
bearing on the subject does not appear to be of earlier date than
the 14th century, when prohibitions were directed against those
who made of glass such objects as were usually made of crystal
or other hard stones. In the 16th century it had become a trade
of great importance, and about 1764 twenty-two furnaces were
employed in the production of beads. Towards the end of the
same century from 600 to 1000 workmen were, it is stated,
employed on one branch of the art, tliat of ornamenting beads
by the help of the blow-pipe. A very great variety of patterns
was produced; a tariff of the year 1800 contains an enumeration
of 562 species and a vast number of sub-species.
The efforts made in France, Germany and England, in the
17th ami 18th centuries, to improve the manufacture of glass
in those countries had a very injurious effect on the industry
of Murano. The invention of colourless Bohemian glass brought
in its train the practice of cutting glass, a method of ornamenta¬
tion for which Venetian glass, from its thinness, was ill adapted.
One remarkable man, Giuseppe Briati, exerted himself, with
much success, both in working in the old Venetian method and
also in imitating the new fashions invented in Bohemia. He
was especially successful in making vases and circular dishes of
vitro di trina ; one of the latter in the Corrcr collection at Venice,
believed to have been made in his glass-house, measures 55
centimetres (nearly 23 in.) in diameter. The vases made by
him are as elegant in form as the best of the Cinquecento period,
but may perhaps be distinguished by the superior purity and
brilliancy of the glass. He also made with great taste and
skill large lustres und mirrors with frames *of glass ornamented
either in intaglio or with foliage of various colours. He obtained
a knowledge of the methods of working practised in Bohemia
by disguising himself as a porter, and thus worked for three
years in a Bohemian glass-house. In 1736 he obtained a patent
at Venice to manufacture glass in the Bohemian manner. He
died in 1772.
The full of the republic was accompanied by interruption of
trade and decay of manufacture, and in the last years of the
18th and beginning of the 19th century the glass-making of
Murano was at a very low ebb. In the year 1838 Signor Bussolin
revived several of the ancient processes of glass-working, and
this revival was carried on by C. Pietro Biguglia in 1845, and
by others, and later by Salviati, to whose successful efforts the
modern renaissance of Venetian art glass is principally due.
The fame of Venice in glass-making so completely eclipsed
that of other Italian cities that it is difficult to leant much
respecting their progress in the art. Hartshome and Dillon have
drawn attention to the important part played by the little
Ligurian town, Altare, as a centre from which glass-workers
migrated to all parts oFEuropc. It is said that the glass industry
was established at Altare, in the nth century, by French
craftsmen. In the 14th century Muranese glass-workers settled
there and developed the industry. It appears that as early
as 1295 furnaces had been established at Treviso, Vicenza,'
102
GLASS
Padua, Mantua, Ferrara, Ravenna and Bologna. In 1634
there were tw 0 glass-houses m Rome and one in Florence ; but
whether any of these produced ornamental vessels, or only articles
of common uae and window glass, would not appear to have as
yet been ascertained.
Germany. —Glass - making in Germany during the Roman
period seems to have been carried on extensively in the neighbour¬
hood of (ologne. The Cologne museum contains many specimens
of Roman glass, some of which are remarkable for their cut
decoration. The craft survived the downfall of the Roman
power, and a native industry was developed. This industry
must have won some reputation, for in 758 the abbot of Jarrow
appealed to the bishop of Mainz to send him a worker in glass.
There are few records of glass manufacture in Germany before
the beginning of the rftth century. The positions of the factories
were determined bv the supply of wood for fuel, and subse¬
quently, when the craft of glass-cutting was introduced, by the
accessibility of water-power. The vessels produced by the
16th-century glass-workers in Germany, Holland and the Low
Countries are closely allied in form and decoration. The glass
is coloured (generally green) and the decoration consists of glass
threads and glass studs, or prunts (“ Nuppen ”). The use of
threads and prunts is illustrated by the development of the
“ Kocmcr,” so popular as a drinking-glass, and as a feature
in Dutch studios of still life. The “ Igel,” a squat tumbler
covered with prunts, gave rise to the “ Krautsrunk,” which is
like the “ Igel,” but longer and narrow-waisted. The “ Roemer ”
itself consists of a cup, a short waist studded with prunts and
a foot. The foot at first was formed by coiling a thread of
glass round the base of the waist; but, subsequently, an open
glass cone was joined to the base of the waist, and a glass thread
was roiled upon the surface of the cone. The “ Passglas,”
another popular drinking-glass, is cylindrical in form and marked
with horizontal rings of glass, placed ut regular intervals, to
indicate the quantity of liquor to lie token at a draught.
In the edition of 1581 of the lie re metallica by Georg Agricola,
there is a woodcut showing the interior of a German glass
factory, and glass vessels both finished and unfinished.
In 14*8 a Muranese glass-worker set up a furnace in Vienna,
and another furnace was built in the same town by an Italian
in i486. In 1531 the town council of Nuremberg granted a
subsidy to attract teachers of Venetian technique. Many
specimens exist of German winged and enamelled glasses of
Venetian character. The Venetian influence, however, was
indirect rather than direct. The native glass-workers adopted
the process of enamelling, but applied it to a form of decoration
characteristically German. On tall, roomy, cylindrical glasses
they painted portraits of the emperor and electors of Germany,
nr the imperial eagle (tearing on its wings the arms of the. states
composing the empire. The earliest-known example of these
enamellrd glasses (tears the date 1553. They were immensely
popular and the fashion for them lasted into the 18th century.
Some of the later specimens have views of cities, battle scenes
and processions painted in grisaille.
A more important outcome, however, of Italian influence was
the production, in emulation of Venetian glass, of a glass made
of refined potash, lime and sand, which was more colourless
than the material it was intended to imitate. This colourless
potash-lime glass has always hcen known as Bohemian glass.
It was well adapted for receiving cut and engraved decoration,
and in these processes the German craftsmen proved themselves
to lie exceptionally skilful. At the end of the 16th century
Rudolph II. brought Italian rock-crystal cutters from Milan
to take control of the crystal and glass-cutting works he had
established at Prague. It was at Prague that Caspar Lehmann
and Zachary Belzer learnt the craft of cutting glass. George
Schwanhart, a pupil of Caspar Lehmann, started glass-cutting
at Ratisbon, and aboift 1690 Stephen Schmidt and Hermann
Schwinger introduced the crafts of cutting and engraving
glass in Nuremberg. To the Germans must be credited the
discovery, or developmet^, of colourless potash-lime glass,
the wintroduction of the crafts of cutting and engraving on
glass, the invention by H. Schwanhart of the process of etching
on glass by means of hydrofluoric acid, and the rediscovery by
J. Kunkel, who was director of the glass-houses at Potsdam in
1679, of the method of .making copper-ruby glass.
Line Countries and the United Provinces.—The gl«« industry
of the Low Countries was chiefly influenced by Italy and Spain,
whereas German influence and technique predominated in the
United Provinces. The history of glass-making in the provinces
is almost identical with that of Germany, in the 17 th and
18th centuries the processes of scratching, engraving and etching
were brought to.great perfection.
The earliest record of glass-making in the Low Countries
consists in an account of payments made in 1453-1454 on behalf
of Philip the Good of Burgundy to “ Gossiun de Vieuglise,
Maitre Vorrier de Lille ” for a glass fountain and four glass
plateaus. Schuermans has traced Italian glass-workers to
Antwerp, Li^ge, Brussels and Namur. Antwerp appears to
have been the headquarters of the Muranese, mid Liege the
headquarters of the Altarists. Guicciardini in his description
ot the Netherlands, in 1563, mentions glass as among the chief
articles of export to England.
In 1599 the privilege of making “ Voires de cristal k la faschon
Venise,’’ was granted to Philippe de Gridolphi of Antwerp.
In 1623 Anthony Miotti, a Muranese, addressed a petition to
Philip IV. of Spain for permission to make glasses, vases and
cups of fine crystal, equal to those of Venice, but to be sold at
one-third less than Venetian glasses. In 1642 Jean Savonetti
“ gentilhomme Verrier de Murano " obtained a patent for
making glass in Brussels. The Low Country glasses are closely
copied from Venetian models, but generally are heavier and
less elegant. Owing to the fashion of Dutch and Flemish painters
introducing glass vases and drinking-glasses into their paintings
of still life, interiors and scenes of conviviality, Holland ami
Belgium at the present day possess more accurate records of
the products of their ancient glass factories than any other
countries.
Spain .—During the Roman occupation Pliny states that glass
was made “ per Hispanias ” (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26. 66). Traces
of Roman glass manufactories have been found in Valencia
and Murcia, in the valleys which run down to the coast of Cata¬
lonia, and near the mouth of the Ebro. Little is known about
the condition of glass-making in Spain between the Roman
period and the 13th century. In the .13th century the craft of
glass-making was practised by the Moors in Almeria, and was
probably a survival from Roman times. The system of decorat¬
ing vases and vessels by means of strands of glass trailed upon
the surface in knots, zigzags and trellis work, was adopted by
the Moors and is characteristic of Roman craftsmanship. Glass¬
making was continued at Pinar de la Vidriera and at A 1 Castril
de la Penn into the 17th century. The objects produced show
no sign of Venetian influence, but arc distinctly Oriental in form.
Many of the vessels have four or as many as eight handles, and
are decorated with serrated ornamentation, and with die trailed
strands of glass already referred to. The glass is generally of a
dark-green colour.
Barcelona has a long record as a centre of the glass industry.
In 1324 a municipal edict was issued forbidding the erection
of glass-furnaces within the city. In 1455 the glass-makers of
Barcelona were permitted to form a gild. J eronimo Paulo, writing
in 1401. says that glass vessels of various sorts were sent Whence
to many places, and even to Rome. Marineus Siculus, writing
early in the 16th century, says that the best glass was made at
Barcelona: and Gaspar Baneiros, in his Chronographia, published
in 1562, states that the glass made at Barcelona was almost
equal to that of Venice and that large quantities were exported.
The author of the Atlante espaml, writing at the end of the
18th century-, says that excellent glass was still made at Barcelona
on Venetian models. The Italian influence was strongly felt
in Spain, but Spanish writers have given no precise information
as to when it was introduced or whsnee it came. Schuermans
has, however, discovered the names of more than twenty Italians
who found their way into Spain, in some cases by way of Flanders,
GLASS
either from Aitare or from Venice. The Spanish glass-makers
were very successful in imitating the Venetian style, and many
specimens supposed to have originated from Muruno are really
Spanish. In addition to the works at Barcelona, the works
which chiefly affected Venetian methods were those of Cadalso
in the province of Toledo, founded in the i6th century, and the
works established in 1680 at San Martin de Valdeiglesias in
Avila. There were also works at Valdemaqueda and at Villa-
franca. In 1680 the works in Barcelona, Valdemaqueda and
Vihafranca are named in a royal schedule giving the prices at
which glass was to be sold in Madrid. In 177s important glass
works were established at Recueneo in the province of Cuenca,
mainly to supply Madrid. The royal glass manufactory of La
Granja de San lldefonso was founded about 1715 ; in the first
instance for the manufacture of mirror plates, but subsequently
for the production of vases and tahle-ware in the French style.
The objects produced are mostly of white clear glass, cut,
engraved and gilded. Engraved flowers, views and devices
are often combined with decorative cutting. Don Sigismundo
Brun is credited with the invention of permanent gilding fixed
by heat. Spanish glass is well represented in the Victoria and
Albert Museum.
France .—Pliny states that glass was made in Gaul, and there j
is reason to believe that it was made in many parts of die country
and on a considerable scale. There were glass-making districts
both in Normandy and in Poitou.
Little information can be gathered concerning the glass
industry between the Roman period and the 14th century.
It is recorded that in the 7th century the abbot of Wearmouth
in England obtained artificers in glass from France ; and there
is a tradition that in the nth century glass-workers migrated
from Normandy and Brittany and set up works at Aitare near
Genoa.
In 1302 window glass, probably crown-glass, was made at
Beza lc Foret in the department of the Eure. In 1416 these
works were in the hands of Robin and Leban Guichard, but
passed subsequently to the Le Vaillants.
In 1338 Humbert, the dauphin, granted a part of the forest
of Chamborant to a glass-worker named Guionet on the condition
that Guionet should supply him with vessels of glass.
In 1466 the abbess of St Croix of Poitiers received a gross
of glasses from the glass-works of La F'errifre, for the privilege
of gathering fern for the manufacture of potash.
In France, as in other countries, efforts were made to intro¬
duce Italian methods of glass-working. Schuennans in his
researches discovered that during the 15th and 16th centuries
many glass-workers left Aitare and settled in France,—the
Saroldi migrated to Poitou, the Ferri to Provence, the Massari to
Lorraine and the Bormioli to Normandy. In 1551 Henry II.
of France established at St Germain en Laye an Italian named
Mutio ; he was a native of Bologna, but of Aitare origin. In
1598 Henry IV. permitted two “gentil hommes verriers” from
Mantua to settle at Rouen in order to make “ verres de cristal,
verres dorse emaul et autres ouvrages qui se font en Venisc.”
France assimilated the craft of glass-making, and her crafts¬
men acquired a wide reputation. Lorraine and Normandy
appear to have been the most important centres. To Lorraine
belong the well-known names Hennczel, de Thietry, du Thisac,
de Houx ; and to Normandy the names de Bongar. de Caoqueray
le Vaillant and de Brossard.
In the 17th century the manufacture of mirror glass became
an important branch of the industry. In 1665 a manufactory
was established in the Faubourg St Antoine in Paris, and another
at Tour-la-Ville near Cherbourg.
Louis Lucas de Nefiou, who succeeded de Cacqueray at the
works at Tour-la-Ville, moved in 1675 to the works in Paris.
Here, in 1688, in conjunction with A. Thevart, he succeeded
m perfecting the process of casting plate-glass. Mirror plates
previous to the invention had been made from blown “ sheet ”
glass, and were consequently very limited in size. De Nehou’s
process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table rendered
the manufacture of very large plates possible.
*05
The Manufacture Royale des Glaces was removed In 1693 to
the Chateau de St Go bain.
In the 18th century the manufacture of votes -de omit had
become so neglected that the Academy of Sciences in .17&
offered a prise for an essay on the means by which the industry
might be revived (Labarte, Histaire des arts industrids).
The famous Baccarat works, for making crystal glass, were
founded in 1818 by d'Artigues.
English Glass. —The records of glass-making in England art
exceedingly meagre. There is reason to believe that during the
Roman occupation the craft was carried on in several parts of
the country. Remains of a Roman glass manufactory of con¬
siderable extent were discovered near the Manchester Ship
Canal at Warrington. Wherever the Romans settled glass
vessels and fragments of glass have been found. Them is no
evidence to prove that the industry survived the withdrawal
of the Roman garrison.
It is probable that the glass drinking-vessels, which have been
found in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon tombs, were introduced
from Germany. Some are elaborate in design and bear witness
to advanced technique of Roman character. In 675 Benedict
Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, was obliged to obtain glass-workers
from France, and in 758 Cuthliert, abbot of Jarrow, appealed
to the bishop of Mainz to send him artisans to manufacture
“ windows and vessels of glass, because the English were ignorant
and helpless.” F.xcept for the statement in Bede that the French
artisans, sent tiy Benedict Biscnp, taught their craft to the
English, there is at present no evidence of glass having been made
in England between the Roman period and the 13th century.
In some deeds relating to the parish of Chiddingfold, in Surrey,
of a date not later than 1230, a grant is recorded of twenty
acres of land to Iawrence “ vitrearius,” and in another deed,
of about 1280, the “ ovenhusveld ” is mentioned as a boundary.
This field has been identified, and pieces of crucible and fragments
of glass have been dug up. There is another deed, dated tjoo,
which mentions (me William “ le verir ” of Chiddingfold.
About 1350 considerable quantities of colourless flat glass
were supplied by John Alemayn of Chiddingfold for gluing
the windows in St George’s chapel, Windsor, and in the chapel
of St Stephen, Westminster. The name Alemayn (Aleman)
suggests a foreign origin. In 1380 John Glasewryth, a Stafford¬
shire glass-worker, came to work at Shuerewode, Kirdford,
and there made brode-glas and vessels for Joan, widow of
John Shertere.
There were two kinds of flat glass, known respectively as
“ brode-glas ” and “ Normandy ” glass. The former was made,
as described by Theophilus, from cylinders, which were split,
reheated and flattened into square sheets. It was known as
Lorraine glass, and subsequently as “ German sheet ” or sheet-
glass. Normandy glass was made from glass circles or disks.
When, in after years, the process was perfected, the glass was
known as “ crown ” glass. In 1447 English flat glass is
mentioned in the contract for the windows of the Beauchamp
chapel at Warwick, but disparagingly, u the contractor binds
himself not to use it. In i486, however, it is referred to in such
a way as to suggest that it was superior to “ Dutch, Venice or
Normandy glass.” The industry does not seem to have prospered,
for when in 1567 an inquiry was made as to its condition, it was
ascertained that only small rough goods were being made.
In the 16th century the fadiion for using glass vessels of
ornamental character spread from Italy into France and England.
Henry VIII. had a large collection of glass driaking-vesiols
chiefly of Venetian manufacture. The increasing demand for
Venetian drinking-glasses suggested die possibility of snaking
similar glass in England, and various attempts were made to
introduce Venetian workmen and Venetian methods of manu¬
facture. In i;;o eight Muraneae glass-blowers were working in
or near the Tower of London. They had left Munuu owing to
sleekness of trade, but had been recalled, and appealed to the
Council of Tan in Venice to be allowed to complete their contract
in London. Sevan of these glass-worker* left London in the
following year, but one, Josephs Caaselari, remained and joined
GLASS
X04 '
Thomas Cavato, a Dutchman. In 1574 Jacob Verzellini, a
fugitive Venetian, residing in Antwerp, obtained a patent for
making-drinking glasses in London “ such as are made in
Murano.” He established works in Crutched Friars, and to him
is probably due the introduction of the use of soda-ash, made
from seaweed and .seaside plants, in place of the crude potash
made from fern and wood ashes. His manufactory was burnt
down in 1575, but was rebuilt. He afterwards moved his works
to Winchester House, Broad Street. There is a small goblet
(PI. I. fig. 8,) in the British Museum which is attributed to
Verzellini. It is Venetian in character, of a brownish tint, with
two white enamel rings round the body. It is decorated with
diamond or steel-point etching, and bears on one side the date
1586, mid on the opposite side the words “ In God is al mi trust.”
Verzellini died in 1606 and was buried at Down in Kent. In
159s the Broad Street works had been taken over by Jerome
Bowes. They afterwards passed into the hands of Sir R. Mansel,
and in 1618 James Howell, author of Epistolac Hu-elianae, was
acting as steward. The works continued in operation until 1641.
During excavations in Broad Street in 1874 many fragments
of glass were found; amongst them were part of a wine-glass,
a square scent-bottle and a wine-glass stem containing a spiral
thread of white enamel.
A greater and more lasting influence on English glass-making
came from France and the Low Countries. In 1567 James
Carr6 of Antwerp stated that he had erected two glass-houses
at “ Fernefol ” (Femfold Wood in Sussex) for Normandy and
Lorraine glass for windows, and had brought over workmen.
Fran this period began the records in England of the great
glass-making families of Hennezel, de Thietry, du Thisac and du
Houx from. Lonaine, and of de Bongar and de Cacqueray from
Normandy. About this time glass-works were established at
Ewhurst and Alford in Surrey, Loxwood, Kirdford, Wisborough
and Petworth in Sussex, and Sevenoaks and Penshurst in Kent.
Beginning in Sussex, Surrey and Kent, where wood for fuel
was plentiful, the foreign glass-workers and their descendants
migrated from place to place, always driven by the fuel-hunger
of their furnaces. They gradually made their way into Hamp¬
shire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Staffordshire, Northumberland,
Scotland and Ireland. They can be traced by cullet heaps and
broken-down furnaces, and by their names, often mutilated,
recorded in parish registers.
In 1610 a patent was granted to Sir W. Slingsby for burning
coal in furnaces, and coal appears to have been used in the
Broad Street works. In 1615 all patents for glass-making
were revoked and a new patent issued for making glass with
coal as fuel, in the names of Mansel, Zouch, Thelwall, Kellaway
and Percival. To the last is credited the first introduction of
covered crucibles to protect the molten glass from the products
of burning coal.
Simultaneously with the issue of this patent the use of wood
for melting glass was prohibited, and it was made illegal to import
gla-iB from abroad. About 1617 Sir R. Mansel, vice-admiral
and treasurer of the navy, acquired the sole rights of making
glass in England. These rights he retained for over thirty years.
During the protectorate ajl patent rights virtually lapsed,
and mirrors and drinking-glasses were once more imported from
Venice. In 1663 the duke of Buckingham, although unable to
obtain a renewal of die monopoly of glass-making, secured the
prohibition of the importation of glass for mirrors, coach plates,
spectacles, tubes and lenses, and contributed to the revival of
the glass industry in all its branches. Evelyn notes in his
Diary a vistt.in 1673 to the Italian glass-house at Greenwich,
“ where glass wee blown offiner metal than that of Murano,” and
a visit in 1677 to'the duke of Buckingham’s glass-works, where
they made huge vases of meltai as cleare, ponderous and
thick as chrystal; alto looking-basses far larger and better
tha» any that esme from Venice.”
'Some,light is thrown on'the condition of the industry at the
end of the 17th cestory bjJfee Houghton letters , on the improve¬
ment of trade and 1 commerce, which appeared in 1696. A few
Of these letters deal with the glass trade, and in one a list is
given of the glass-works then in operation. There were 88 glass
factories in England which are thus classified:
Bottles.39
Looking-glass plates .... 2
Crown and plate-glass .... 5
Window glass.13
Flint and ordinary glass ... 27
88
It is probable that the flint-glass of that date was very different
from the flint-glass of to-day. The term flint-glass is now
understood to mean a glass composed of the silicates of potash
and lead, it is the most brilliant and the most colourless
of all glasses, and was undoubtedly first perfected in England.
Hartshome has attributed its discovery to a London merchant
named Tilson, who in 1663 obtained a patent for making
11 crystal glass.” E. W. Hulme, however, who has carefully
investigated the subject, is of opinion that flint-glass in its
present form was introduced about 1730. The use of oxide of
lead in glass-making was no new thing; it had been used,
mainly as a flux, both by Romans and Venetians. The invention,
if it may be regarded as one, consisted in eliminating lime from
the glass mixture, substituting refined potash for soda, and using
a very large proportion of lead oxide. It is probable that flint-
glass was not invented, but gradually evolved, that potash-lead
glasses were in use during the latter part of the 17th century,
hut that the mixture was not perfected until the middle of the
following century.
The 18th century saw a great development in all branches of
glass-making. Collectors of glass are chiefly concerned with the
drinking-glasses which were produced in great profusion and
adapted for every description of beverage. The most noted
are the glasses with stout cylindrical legs (Plate 1 . fig. 9), con¬
taining spiral threads of air, or of white or coloured enamel.
To this type of glass belong many of the Jacobite glasses which
commemorate the old or the young Pretender.
In 1746 the industry was in a sufficiently prosperous condition
to tempt the government to impose am excise duty. The report
of the commission of excise, dealing with glass, published in 1835
is curious and interesting reading. So burdensome was the duty
and so vexatious were the restrictions that it is a matter for
wonder that the industry survived. In this respect England
was more fortunate than Ireland. Before 1825, when the excise
duty was introduced into Ireland, there were flourishing glass¬
works in Belfast, Cork, Dublin and Waterford. By 1850 the
Irish glass industry had been practically destroyed. Injurious
as the excise duty undoubtedly was to the glass trade generally,
and especially to the flint-glass industry, it is possible that it
may have helped to develop the art of decorative glass-cutting.
The duty on flint-glass was imposed on the molten glass in the
crucibles and on the unfinished goods. The manufacturer had,
therefore, a strong inducement to enhance by every means in his
power the selling value of his glass after it had escaped the
exciseman's clutches. He therefore employed the best available
art and skill in improving the craft of glass-cutting. It is
the development of this craft in connexion with the perfecting
of flint-glass that makes the 18th century the most important
period in the history of English glass-making. Glass-cutting
was a craft imported from Germany, but the English material
so greatly surpassed Bohemian glass in brilliance that the
Bohemian cut-glass was eclipsed. Glass-cutting was carried on
at works in Birmingham, Bristol, Belfast, Cork, Dublin, Glas¬
gow, London, Newcastle, Stourbridge, Whittington and Water¬
ford. The most important centres of the craft were London,
Bristol, Birmingham and Waterford (see Plate L, fig. 10, for
oval cut-glass Waterford bowl). The finest specimens of cut-
glass belong to the period between 1780 and 1810. Owing
to the sacrifice of form to prismatic brilliance, cut-glass gradually
lost its artistic value. Towards the middle of the 19th century
it became the fashion to regard all cut-glass as barbarous, and
services of even toe hest, period were neglected and dispersed.
At the present time scarcely anything is known about the
origin of the few specimens of. i8thrc£ntury English cut-glass
GLASS, STAINED
which have been preserved in public collections. It is strange
that so little interest has been taken in a craft in which for
some thirty years England surpassed all competitors, creating
a wave of fashion which influenced the glass industry throughout
the whole of Europe.
In the report of the Excise Commission a list is given of the
glass manufactories which paid the excise duty in 1833. There
were 105 factories in England, 10 in Scotland and 10 in Ireland.
In England the chief centres of the industry were Bristol,
Birmingham, London, Manchester, Newcastle, Stourbridge
and York. Plate-glass was made by Messrs Cookson of New¬
castle, and by the British Plate Glass Company of Ravenhead.
Crown and German sheet-glass were made by Messrs Chance &
Hartley of Birmingham. The London glass-works were those
of Apsley Pellatt of Blackfriars, Christie of Stangate, and William
Holmes of Whitefriars. In Scotland there were works in Glasgow,
Leith and Portobello. In Ireland there were works in Belfast,
Cork, Dublin and Waterford. The famous Waterford works
were in the hands of Gatchell & Co.
India .—Pliny spites (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26. 66) that no glass
was to be compared to the Indian, and gives as a reason that it
was made from broken crystal; and in another passage (xii.
19, 4 1) he says that the Troglodytes brought to Ocelis (Ghella
near Bab-el-Mandeb) objects of glass. We have, however,
very little knowledge of Indian glass of any considerable antiquity.
A few small vessels have been found in the “ topes,” as in that
at Manikiala in the Punjab, which probably dates from about
the Christian era; but they exhibit no remarkable character,
and fragments found at Brahmanabad are hardly distinguishable
from Roman glass of the imperial period. The chronicle of the
Sinhalese kings, the Mahavomsu, however, asserts that mirrors
of glittering glass were carried in procession in 306 B.C., and heads
like gems, and windows with ornaments like jewels, are also
mentioned at about the. same date. If there really was an
important manufacture of glass in Ceylon at this early time,
that island perhaps furnished the Indian glass of Pliny. In the
later part of the 17th century some glass decorated with enamel
was made at Delhi. A specimen is in the Indian section of the
South Kensington Museum. Glass is made in several parts of
India- -as Patna and Mysore—by very simple and primitive
methods, and the results are correspondingly defective. Black,
green, red, blue and yellow glasses are made, which contain a
large proportion of alkali and are readily fusible. The greater
part is worked into bangles, but some small bottles are blown
(Buchanan, Journey through Mysore, i. 147, iii. 369).
Persia .—No very remarkable specimens of Persian glass are
known in Europe, with the exception of some vessels of blue
glass richly decorated with gold. These probably date from
the 17th century, for Chardin tells us that the windows of the
tomb of Shah Abbas II. (oh. 1666). at Kum, were “ de cristal
peint d’or et d’azur." At the present day bottles and drinking-
vessels arc made in Persia which in texture and quality differ
little from ordinary Venetian glass of the 16th or 17th centuries,
while in form they exactly resemble those which may be seen
in the engravings in Chardin’s Travels.
China .—The history of the manufacture of glass in China is
obscure, but the common opinion that it was learnt from
the Europeans in the 17th century seems to be erroneous. A
writer in the Memoires concernant Its Chinois (ii. 46) states
on the authority of the annals of the Han dynasty that the
emperor Wu-ti (140 n.c.) had a manufactory of the kind of glass
called “lieou-li ” (probably a form of opaque glass), that in the
beginning of the 3rd century of our era the emperor Tsaou-tsaou
received from the West a considerable present of glasses of all
colours, and that soon after a glass-maker came into the country
who taught the art to the natives.
The Wei dynasty, to which Tsaou-tsaou belonged, reigned in
northern China, and at this day a considerable manufacture
of glass is carried on at Po-shan-hien in Shantung, which it
would seem has existed for a long period. The Rev. A. William¬
son (Journeys in North China, i. 131) says that the glass is
extremely pure, and is made from the rocks in the neighbourhood.
105
The rocks are probably of quartz, i.e. rock crystal, a correspond¬
ence with-Pliny’s statement respecting Indian glass which seems
deserving of attention.
Whether the making of glass in China was an original dis¬
covery of that ingenious people, or was derived via Ceylon from
Egypt, cannot perhaps be now ascertained; the manufacture
has, however, never greatly extended itself in China. The case
has been the converse of that of the Romans ; the latter had no
fine pottery, and therefore employed glass as the material for
vessels of an ornamental kind, for table services and the like,
The Chinese, on the contrary, having from an early period had
excellent porcelain, have been careless about the manufacture of
glass. A Chinese writer, however, mentions the manufacture
of a huge vase in a.d. 627, and in 1154 Edrisi (first dimate, tenth
section) mentions Chinese glass. A glass vase about a foot high
is preserved at Nara in Japan, and is alleged to have been placed
there in the 8th century. It seems probable that this is of
Chinese manufacture. A writer in the Memoires concernant
les Chinois (ii. 463 and 477), writing about J770, says that
there was then a glass-house at Peking, where every year a
good number of vases were made, some requiring great labour
because nothing was blown (rien n’est souffle), meaning no doubt
that the ornamentation was produced not by blowing and mould¬
ing, but by cutting. This factory was, however, merely an
appendage to the imperial magnificence. The earliest articles
of Chinese glass the date of which has been ascertained, which
have been noticed, are some hearing the name of the emperor
Kienlung (1735-1795), one of which is in the Victoria and Albert
Museum.
In the manufacture of ornamental glass the leading idea
in China seems to be the imitation of natural stones. The
coloured glass is usually not of one bright colour throughout,
but semi-transparent and marbled ; the colours in many instances
are singularly fine and harmonious. As in 1770, carving or cut¬
ting is the chief method by which ornament is produced, the
vessels being blown very solid.
Bibliography. —Georg Agricola, De re metallica (Basel, 1558) ;
Percy Bate, English Table Glass (n.d.); G. Bontemps, Guide du verner
(Paris, 1868} ; Edward Dillon, Glass (London, 1907) ; C. C. Edgar,
'' Graeco-Egyptian Glass,” Catalogue du Musie du Caire (1903) ;
Sir A. W. Pranks, Guide to Glass Room in British Museum (1888) ;
Rev. A. Hallen, " Glass-making in Sussex,” Scottish Antiquary,
No, 28 (1893) ; Albert Hartshome, Old English Glasses (London) ;
E. W. Hulme," English Glass-making in XVI. and XVII. Centuries,”
The Antiquary, Nos. 39, 60, 63, 64, 65 ; Alexander Nesbitt, " Glass,”
Art Handbook, Victoria and Albert Museum ; E. Peligot, Le Ferre,
son histoire, sa fabrication (Paris, 1878); Apslev Pellatt, Curiosities
of Glass-making (London, 1849) ; F. Petrie, TeU-cl-Amama, Egypt
Exploration Fnnd (1894); "Egypt,” sect. Art ; H. J. Powell,
" Cut Glass,” Journal Society of Arts, No. 2795 ;* C. H. Read, " Sara¬
cenic Glass,” Archaeologia , vol. 38, part 1.; Juan F. Riano,
“ Spanish Arts,” Art Handbook, Victoria and Albert Museum;
H. Schucrmans, “ Muranese and Altarist Glass Workers,” eleven
letters: Bulletins des commissions royales (Brussels, 1883, r8or)
For the United States, sec voi. x. of Reports of the lath Census, pp.
949-1000, and Special Report of Census of Manufactures (1905), Part
III., pp. 837-935. (A. Ne. ; H. J. P.)
GLASS, STAINED. All coloured glass is, strictly speaking,
“ stained ” by some metallic oxide added to it in the process
of manufacture. But the term “ stained glass ” is popularly,
as well as technically, used in a more limited sense, and is under¬
stood to refer to stained glass windows. Still the words “ stained
glass ” do not fully descrilie what is meant; for the glass in
coloured windows is for the most part not only stained but
painted. Such painting was, however, until comparatively
modern times, used only to give details of drawing and to define
jorm. The colour in a stained glass window was not painted
on the glass but incorporated in it, mixed with it in the making—
whence the term “ pot-metal ” by which self-coloured glass is
known, i.e. glass coloured in the melting pot.
A medieval window was consequently a patchwork of variously
coloured pieces. And the earlier its date the more surely was
it a mosaic, not in the form of tesserae, but in the manner
known as “ opus sectile.” Shaped pieces of coloured glass were,
that is to say, put together like the parts of a puzzle. The
xii. 4 a
GLASS, STAINED
106
nearest approach to an exception to this rule is a fragment at
the Victoria and Albert Museum, in which actual tesserae are
fused together into a solid slab of many-coloured glass, m effect
a window panel, through which the light shines with all the
brilliancy of an Early Gothic window. But apart from the fact
that the design proves in this case to be even more effective
with the light upon it, the use of gold leaf in the tesserae con¬
firms the presumption that this work, which (supposing it to
be genuine) would be Byzantine, centuries earlier than anv
coloured windows that we know of, and entirely different from
them in technique, is rather a specimen of fused mosaic that
happens to be translucent than part of a window designedly
executed in tesserae.
The Eastern (and possibly the earlier) practice was to set
chips of coloured glass in a heavy fretwork of stone or to imbed
them in plaster. In a medieval window they were held together
by strips of lead, in section something like the letter H, the
upright strokes of which represent the “ tapes ” extending on
either side well ovet the edges of the glass, and the crossbar the
connecting “ core ” between them. The leading was soldered
together at the points of junction, cement or putty was rubbed
into the crevices between glass and lead, and the window was
attached (by means of copper wires soldered on to the leads)
to iron saddle-bars let into the masonry.
Stained glass was primarily the art of the glazier; but the
painter, called in to help, asserted himself more and more, and
eventually took it almost entirely into his own hands. Between
the period when it was glazier's work eked out by painting
and when it was painter's work with the aid of the glazier lies
the entire development of stained and painted window-making.
With the eventual endeavour of the glass painter to do without
the glazier, and to get the colour bv painting in translucent
enamel upon colourless glass, we have the beginning of a form of
art no longer monumental and comparatively trivial.
This evolution of the painted window from a patchwork of
little pieces of coloured glass explains itself when it is remembered
that coloured glass was originally not made in the big sheets
produced nowadays, but at first in jewels to look as much as
possible like rubies, sapphires, emeralds and other precious
stones, and afterwards in rounds and sheets of small dimensions.
Though some of the earliest windows were in the form of pure
glazing (“ leaded-lights ”), the addition of painting seems to have
been customary from the very first. It was a means of render¬
ing detail not to he got in lead. Glazing affords by itself scope
for beautiful pattern work ; but the old glaziers never carried their
art as far as they might have done in the direction of ornament;
their aim was always in the. direction of picture; the idea was to
make windows serve the purpose of coloured story books. That
was beyond the art of the glazier. It was easy enough to repre¬
sent the drapery of a saint by red glass, the ground on which he
stood by green, the sky above by blue, his crown by yellow,
the scroll in his hand by white, and his flesh by brownish pink ;
but when it came to showing the folds of red drapery, blades of
green grass, details of goldsmith’s work, lettering on the scroll,
the features of the face—the only possible way of doing it was
by painting. The use of paint was confined at first to an opaque
brown, used, not as colour, hut only as a means of stopping out
light, and in that way defining comparatively delicate details
within the lead lines. These themselves outlined and defined
the main forms of the design. The pigment used by the glass
painter was of course vitreous : it consisted ot powdered glass
and sundry metallic oxides (copper, iron, manganese, &c.),
so that, when the pieces of painted glass were made red hot in
the kiln, the powdered glass became fused to the surface, and
with it the dense colouring matter also. When the pieces of
painted glass were afterwards glazed together and seen against
the light, the design appeared in the brilliant colour of the glass,
its forms drawn in me uniform black into which, at a little
distance, leadwork and painting lines became merged.
It needed solid painting to stop out the light entirely : thin
paint only obscured it. And, even in early glass, thin paint was
used, whether to subdue crude colour or to indicate what little
shading a 13th-century draughtsman might desire. In the.
present state of old glass, the surface often quite disintegrated,
it is difficult to determine to what extent thin paint was used for
either purpose. There must always have been the temptation to
make tint do instead of solid lines; but the more workmanlike
practice, and the usual one, was to get difference of tint, as u
pen-draughtsman does, by lines of solid opaque colour. In
comparatively colourless glass (grisaille) the pattern was often
made to stand out by cross-hatching the background; and
another common practice was to coat the glass with paint all
over, and scrape the design out of it. The effect of either
proceeding was to lower the tone of the glass without dirtying
the colour, as a smear of thin paint would do.
Towards the 14th century, when Gothic design took a more
naturalistic direction, the desire to get something like modelling
made it necessary to carry painting farther, and they got rid
to some extent of the ill effect of shading-colour smeared on the
glass by stippling it. This not only softened the tint and allowed
of gradation according to the amount of stippling, but let some
light through, where the bristles of the stippling-tool took up
the pigment. Shading of this kind enforced by touches of strong
brushwork, cross-hatching and some scratching out of high
lights was the method of glass painting adopted in the 14th
century.
Glass was never at the best a pleasant surface to paint on;
and glass painting, following the line of least resistance,
developed in the later Gothic and early Renaissance periods
into something unlike any other form of painting. The outlines
continued to be traced upon the glass and fixed in the fire ; but,
after that, the process of painting consisted mainly in the
removal of paint. The entire surface of the glass was coated with
an even “ matt ” of pale brown ; this was allowed to dry ; and
then the high lights were rubhed off, and the modelling was got
by scrubbing away the paint with a dry hog-hair brush, more
or less, according to the gradations required. Perfect modelling
was got by repeating the operation -how often depended upon
the dexterity of the painter. A painter's method is partly the
outcome of his individuality. One man would float on his colour
and manipulate it to some extent in the moist state; another
would work entirely upon the dry matt. Great use was made
of the pointed stick with which sharp lines of light were easily
scraped out; and in the 16th century Swiss glass painters,
working upon a relatively small scale, got their modelling
entirely with a needle point, scraping away the paint just as an
etcher scratches away the varnish from his etching plate. The
practice of the two craftsmen is, indeed, identical, though the
one scratches out what are to be black lines and the other lines
of light. In the end, then, though a painter would always use
touches of the brush to get crisp lines of dark, the manipulation
of glass painting consisted more in erasing lights than in painting
shadows, more in rubbing out or scraping off paint than in putting
it on in brush strokes.
So far there was no thought of getting colour by means of
paint. The colour was in the glass itself, permeating the mass
(“• pot-metal ”). There was only one exception to this—ruby
glass, the colour of which was so dense that red glass thick
enough for its purpose would have been practically obscure;
and so they made a colourless pot-metal coated on one side
only with red glass. This led to a practice which forms an ex¬
ception to the rule that in “ pot-metal ” glass every change of
colour, or from colour to white, is got by the use of a separate
piece of glass. It was possible in the case of this “ flashed”
ruby to grind away portions of the surface and thus obtain
white on red or red on white. Eventually they made coated
glass of blue and other colours, with a view to producing similar
effects by abrasion. (The same result is arrived at nowadays
by means of etching. The skin of coloured glass, in old days
laboriously ground or cut away, is now easily eaten off by fluoric
acid.) One other exceptional expedient in colouring had very
considerable effect upon the development of glass design from
about the beginning of the 14th century. The discovery that
a solution of silver applied to glass would under the action of the
GLASS, STAINED
fire stain it yellow enabled the glass painter to get yellow upon
colourless glass, green upon grey-blue, and (by staining only
the abraded portions) yellow upon blue or ruby. This yellow was
neither enamel nor pot-metal colour, but stain—the only staining
actually done by the glass painter as distinct from the glass
maker. It varied in colour from pale lemon to deep orange, and
was singularly pure in quality. As what is called “ white "
glass became purer and was employed in greater quantities it
was lavishly used ; so much so that a brilliant effect of silvery
white and golden yellow is characteristic of later Gothic
windows.
The last stage of glass painting was the employment of enamel
not for stopping out light but to get colour. It began to be used
in the early part of the 16th century—at first only in the form of a
flesh tint; but it was not long before other colours were introduced.
This use of colour no longer j'» the glass but upon it marks quite
a new departure in technique. Enamel colour was finely powdered
coloured glass mixed with gum or some such substance into a
pigment which could be applied with a brush. When the glass
painted with it was brought to a red heat in the oven,the powdered
glass melted and was fused to it, just like the opaque brown
employed from the very beginning of glass-painting.
This process of enamelling was hardly called for in the interests
of art. Even the red flesh-colour (borrowed from the Limoges
enamellers upon copper) did not in the least give the quality of
flesh, though it enabled the painter to suggest by contrast the
whiteness of a man’s heard. As for the brighter enamel colours,
they had nothing like the depth or richness of “ stained ” glass.
What enamel really did was to make easy much that had been
impossible in mosaic, as, for example, to represent upon the
very smallest shield of arms any number of “ charges ’’ all in
the correct tinctures. It encouraged the minute workmanship
characteristic of Swiss glass painting ; and, though this was not
altogether inappropriate to domestic window panes, the painter
was tempted by it to depart from the simplicity and breadth of
design inseparable from the earlier mosaic practice. In the end
he introduced coloured glass only where he could hardly help it,
and glased the great part of his window in rectangular panes of
clear glass, upon which he preferred to paint his picture in opaque
brown and translucent enamel colours.
Enamel upon glass has not stood the test of time. Its presence
is usually to be detected in old windows by specks of light shining
through the colour. This is where the enamel has crumbled off.
There is a very good reason for that. Enamel must melt at a
temperature at which the glass it is painted on keeps its shape.
The lower the melting-point of the powdered glass the more easily
it is fused. The painter is consequently inclined to use enamel of
which the contraction and expansion is much greater than that of
his glass—with the result that, under the action of the weather,
the colour is apt to work itself free and expose the bare white
glass beneath. The only enamel which has held its own is that of
the Swiss glass painters of the 16th and 17th centuries. The
domestic window panes they painted may not in all cases have
been tried by the sudden changes of atmosphere to which church
windows are subject; but credit must be given them for ex¬
ceptionally skilful and conscientious workmanship.
The story of stained glass is bound up with the history of
architecture, to which it was subsidiary, and of the church,
which was its patron. Its only possible course of development
was in the wake of church building. From its very inception it
was Gothic and ecclesiastical. And, though it survived the
upheaval of the Renaissance and was turned to civil and domestic
use, it is to church .windows that we must go to see what stained
glass really was—or is; for time has been kind to it. The charm
of medieval glass lies to,a great extent in the material, and especi¬
ally in the inequality of it. Chemically impure and mechanic¬
ally imperfect, it was rarely crude in tint or even in texture. It
shaded off from light to dark according to its thickness ; it was
speckled with air bubbles; it was streaked and clouded ; and all
these imperfections of manufacture went to perfection of colour.
And age has improved it: the want of homogeneousness in the
material has led to the disintegration of its surface; soft particles
in it have been dissolved away by the action of the weather, and
the surface, pitted like an oyster-shell, refracts the light in a way
which adds greatly to the effect; at the same time there is
roothold for the lichen which (like the curtains of black cobwebs)
veils and gives mystery to the colour. An appreciable part of the
beauty of old glass is the result of age and accident. In that
respect no new glass can compare with it. There is, however, no
such thing as “ the lost secret ” of glass-making. It is no secret
that age mellows.
Stained and painted glass is commonly apportioned to its
“ period," Gothic .or Renaissance, and further to the particular
phase of the style to which it belongs. C. Winston, who was the
first to inquire thoroughly into English glass,, adopting T.
Rickman’s classification, divided Gothic windows into Early
English (to c. 1280), Decorated (to c. 1380) and Perpendicular
(to c. 133°). These dates will do. But the transition from one
phase of design to another is never so sudden, nor so easily
defined, as any table of dates would lead us to suppose. The old
style lingered in one district long after the new fashion was
flourishing in another. Besides, the English periods do not quite
coincide with those of other countries. France, Germany and
the Low Countries count for much in the history of stained glass ;
and in no two places was the pace of progress quite the same.
There was, for example, scarcely any 13th-century Gothic in
Germany, where the “ geometric ” style, equivalent to our
Decorated, was preceded by the Romanesque period ; in France
the Flamboyant took the place of our Perpendicular; and in
Italy Gothic never properly took root at all. All things con¬
sidered, a rather rough and ready division presents the least
difficulty to the student of old glass ; and it will be found con¬
venient to think of Gothic glass as (1) Early, (2) Middle and (3)
Late, and of the subsequent windows as (i) Renaissance and (2)
Late Renaissance. The three periods of Gothic correspond
approximately to the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The
limits of the two periods of the Renaissance are not so easily
defined. In the first part of the 16th century (in Italy long
before that) the Renaissance and Gothic periods overlapped ; in
the latter part of it, glass painting was already on the decline ;
and in the 17th and 18th centuries it sank to deeper depths of
degradation.
The likeness of early windows to translucent enamel (which is
also glass) is obvious. The lines of lead glazing correspond
absolutely to the “ cloisons ” of Byzantine goldsmith’s work.
Moreover, the extreme minuteness of the leading (not always
either mechanically necessary or architecturally desirable)
suggests that the starting point of all this gorgeous illumination
was the idea of reproducing on a grandiose scale the jewelled
effect produced in small by cloisonn' enhmellers. In other
respects the earliest glass shows the influence of Byzantine
tradition. It is mainly according to the more or less Byzantine
character of its design and draughtsmanship that archaeologists
ascribe certain remains of old glass to the r 2th or the 11 th century.
Apart from documentary or direct historic evidence, it is not
possible to determine the precise date of any particular fragment.
In the “ restored ” windows at St Denis there are remnants of
glass belonging to the year 1108. Elsewhere in France (Reims,
Anger, Le Mans, Chartres, &c.) there is to be found very early
glass, some of it probably not much later than the end of the 10th
century, which is the date confidently ascribed to certain
windows at St Remi (Reims) and at Tegemsee. The rarer the
specimen the greater may be its technical and antiquarian
interest. But, even if we could be quite sure of its date, there is
not enough of this very early work, and it does not sufficiently
distinguish itself from what followed, to count artistically for
much. The glory of early glass belongs to the 13th century.
The design of windows was influenced, of course, by the con¬
ditions of the workshop, by the nature of glass, the difficulty
of shaping it, the way it could be painted, and the necessitv
of lead glazing. The place of glass in the scheme of church
decoration led to a certain seventy in the treatment of it. The
growing desire to get more and more light into the churches,
and the consequent manufacture of purer and more transparent
GLASS, STAINED
106
nearest approach to an exception to this rule is a fragment at
the Victoria and Albert Museum, in which actual tesserae are
fused together into a solid slab of many-coloured glass, m effect
a window panel, through which the light shines with all the
brilliancy of an Early Gothic window. But apart from the fact
that the design proves in this case to be even more effective
with the light upon it, the use of gold leaf in the tesserae con¬
firms the presumption that this work, which (supposing it to
be genuine) would be Byzantine, centuries earlier than anv
coloured windows that we know of, and entirely different from
them in technique, is rather a specimen of fused mosaic that
happens to be translucent than part of a window designedly
executed in tesserae.
The Eastern (and possibly the earlier) practice was to set
chips of coloured glass in a heavy fretwork of stone or to imbed
them in plaster. In a medieval window they were held together
by strips of lead, in section something like the letter H, the
upright strokes of which represent the “ tapes ” extending on
either side well ovet the edges of the glass, and the crossbar the
connecting “ core ” between them. The leading was soldered
together at the points of junction, cement or putty was rubbed
into the crevices between glass and lead, and the window was
attached (by means of copper wires soldered on to the leads)
to iron saddle-bars let into the masonry.
Stained glass was primarily the art of the glazier; but the
painter, called in to help, asserted himself more and more, and
eventually took it almost entirely into his own hands. Between
the period when it was glazier's work eked out by painting
and when it was painter's work with the aid of the glazier lies
the entire development of stained and painted window-making.
With the eventual endeavour of the glass painter to do without
the glazier, and to get the colour bv painting in translucent
enamel upon colourless glass, we have the beginning of a form of
art no longer monumental and comparatively trivial.
This evolution of the painted window from a patchwork of
little pieces of coloured glass explains itself when it is remembered
that coloured glass was originally not made in the big sheets
produced nowadays, but at first in jewels to look as much as
possible like rubies, sapphires, emeralds and other precious
stones, and afterwards in rounds and sheets of small dimensions.
Though some of the earliest windows were in the form of pure
glazing (“ leaded-lights ”), the addition of painting seems to have
been customary from the very first. It was a means of render¬
ing detail not to he got in lead. Glazing affords by itself scope
for beautiful pattern work ; but the old glaziers never carried their
art as far as they might have done in the direction of ornament;
their aim was always in the. direction of picture; the idea was to
make windows serve the purpose of coloured story books. That
was beyond the art of the glazier. It was easy enough to repre¬
sent the drapery of a saint by red glass, the ground on which he
stood by green, the sky above by blue, his crown by yellow,
the scroll in his hand by white, and his flesh by brownish pink ;
but when it came to showing the folds of red drapery, blades of
green grass, details of goldsmith’s work, lettering on the scroll,
the features of the face—the only possible way of doing it was
by painting. The use of paint was confined at first to an opaque
brown, used, not as colour, hut only as a means of stopping out
light, and in that way defining comparatively delicate details
within the lead lines. These themselves outlined and defined
the main forms of the design. The pigment used by the glass
painter was of course vitreous : it consisted ot powdered glass
and sundry metallic oxides (copper, iron, manganese, &c.),
so that, when the pieces of painted glass were made red hot in
the kiln, the powdered glass became fused to the surface, and
with it the dense colouring matter also. When the pieces of
painted glass were afterwards glazed together and seen against
the light, the design appeared in the brilliant colour of the glass,
its forms drawn in me uniform black into which, at a little
distance, leadwork and painting lines became merged.
It needed solid painting to stop out the light entirely : thin
paint only obscured it. And, even in early glass, thin paint was
used, whether to subdue crude colour or to indicate what little
shading a 13th-century draughtsman might desire. In the.
present state of old glass, the surface often quite disintegrated,
it is difficult to determine to what extent thin paint was used for
either purpose. There must always have been the temptation to
make tint do instead of solid lines; but the more workmanlike
practice, and the usual one, was to get difference of tint, as u
pen-draughtsman does, by lines of solid opaque colour. In
comparatively colourless glass (grisaille) the pattern was often
made to stand out by cross-hatching the background; and
another common practice was to coat the glass with paint all
over, and scrape the design out of it. The effect of either
proceeding was to lower the tone of the glass without dirtying
the colour, as a smear of thin paint would do.
Towards the 14th century, when Gothic design took a more
naturalistic direction, the desire to get something like modelling
made it necessary to carry painting farther, and they got rid
to some extent of the ill effect of shading-colour smeared on the
glass by stippling it. This not only softened the tint and allowed
of gradation according to the amount of stippling, but let some
light through, where the bristles of the stippling-tool took up
the pigment. Shading of this kind enforced by touches of strong
brushwork, cross-hatching and some scratching out of high
lights was the method of glass painting adopted in the 14th
century.
Glass was never at the best a pleasant surface to paint on;
and glass painting, following the line of least resistance,
developed in the later Gothic and early Renaissance periods
into something unlike any other form of painting. The outlines
continued to be traced upon the glass and fixed in the fire ; but,
after that, the process of painting consisted mainly in the
removal of paint. The entire surface of the glass was coated with
an even “ matt ” of pale brown ; this was allowed to dry ; and
then the high lights were rubhed off, and the modelling was got
by scrubbing away the paint with a dry hog-hair brush, more
or less, according to the gradations required. Perfect modelling
was got by repeating the operation -how often depended upon
the dexterity of the painter. A painter's method is partly the
outcome of his individuality. One man would float on his colour
and manipulate it to some extent in the moist state; another
would work entirely upon the dry matt. Great use was made
of the pointed stick with which sharp lines of light were easily
scraped out; and in the 16th century Swiss glass painters,
working upon a relatively small scale, got their modelling
entirely with a needle point, scraping away the paint just as an
etcher scratches away the varnish from his etching plate. The
practice of the two craftsmen is, indeed, identical, though the
one scratches out what are to be black lines and the other lines
of light. In the end, then, though a painter would always use
touches of the brush to get crisp lines of dark, the manipulation
of glass painting consisted more in erasing lights than in painting
shadows, more in rubbing out or scraping off paint than in putting
it on in brush strokes.
So far there was no thought of getting colour by means of
paint. The colour was in the glass itself, permeating the mass
(“• pot-metal ”). There was only one exception to this—ruby
glass, the colour of which was so dense that red glass thick
enough for its purpose would have been practically obscure;
and so they made a colourless pot-metal coated on one side
only with red glass. This led to a practice which forms an ex¬
ception to the rule that in “ pot-metal ” glass every change of
colour, or from colour to white, is got by the use of a separate
piece of glass. It was possible in the case of this “ flashed”
ruby to grind away portions of the surface and thus obtain
white on red or red on white. Eventually they made coated
glass of blue and other colours, with a view to producing similar
effects by abrasion. (The same result is arrived at nowadays
by means of etching. The skin of coloured glass, in old days
laboriously ground or cut away, is now easily eaten off by fluoric
acid.) One other exceptional expedient in colouring had very
considerable effect upon the development of glass design from
about the beginning of the 14th century. The discovery that
a solution of silver applied to glass would under the action of the
GLASS, STAINED
Plate I.
I.
ii.
in.
iv. v. vi.
I. EARLY GLAZING. From S. Serge, Angers, Grisaille, with
colour introduced in the small circles.
II. AN EARLY BORDER. From S. Kunihert, Cologne.
•III. PORTION OF AN EARLY MEDALLION WINDOW.
From Canterbury, showing the plan of the design and the
ornamental details.
IV. AN EARLY FIGURE FROM LYONS. Showing the leading
o( the eyes, hair, nimbus, and drapery.
V. DECORATED LIGHTS. From S. IJrbain, Troyes, showing
both the influence of the early period in the figures, and
the beginning of the architectural canopy.
VI. TYPICAL DECORATED CANOPY. From Exeter.
Nos. I,, II., Ill,, IV., VI. are taken from illustrations in Lewis F. Day, Windows, by permission of 11. T. Batsford.
XII 108
Plate II.
GLASS, STAINED
I. A TYPICAL PERPENDICULAR CANOPY (from Lewis F. Day, Windows, by permission of,B. T. Batsforrl).
II. A WINDOW FROM AUCH. Illustrating the transition from Perpendicular to Renaissance.
III. A SIXTKENTtT-CENTURY JESSE WINDOW. Prom Beauvais (source as in Fig. 1 ,).
IV. PORTION OF A RENAISSANCE WINDOW'. From Montmorency, showing the perfection of glass painting.
From Lucien Magne, Oeuvre despeintrts verrirn/ran feus, by permission of Firmin-Didot ct C 1 *.
GLASS, STAINED
behind, the millions. The expansion to a {picture right across
the window was only a question of time. Not that the artist
ventured as yet to disregard the architectural setting of his
picture—that happened later on—but that he often composed
it with such cunning reference to intervening stonework that it
did not interfere with it. It has been argued that each separate
light of a window ought to be complete in itself. On the other
hand it has proved possible to make due acknowledgment of
architectural conditions without cramping design in that way.
There can be no doubt as to the variety and breadth of treatment
gained by accepting the whole window as field for a design. And,
when a number of lights go to make a window, it is the window,
and no separate part of it, which is the main consideration.
By the end of the Gothic period, glass painters proceeded on
an entirely different method from that of the 13th century.
The designer of early days began with glazing: he thought in
mosaic and leadwork; the lines he first drew were the lines of
glazing; painting was only a supplementary process, enabling
him to get what lead lines would not give. The Late Gothic
draughtsman began with the idea of painting; glazing was to him
of secondary importance ; he reached a stage (Creation window,
Great Malvern) where it is clear that he first sketched out his
design, and then bethought him how to glaze it in such wise that
the leadwork (which once boldly outlined everything) should not
interfere with the picture. The artful way in which he would
introduce little bits of colour into a window almost entirely
white, makes it certain that he had always at the back of his
mind the consideration of the glazing to come. So long as he
thought of that, and did not resent it, all was fairly well with
glass painting, but there came a point where he found it difficult,
if not impossible, to reconcile the extreme delicacy of his painting
upon white glass with the comparatively brutal strength of
his lead lines. It is here that the conditions of painting and
glazing clash at last.
It must not be supposed that Late Gothic windows were never
by any chance rich in colour. Local conservatism and personal
predilection prevented anything like monotonous progress in
a single direction. There is (St Sebald, Nuremberg) Middle
Gothic glass as dense in colour as any 13th-century work, and
I .ate Gothic (Troyes cathedral) which, from its colour, one might
take at first to be a century earlier than it is. In Italy (Florence)
and to some extent in Spain (Seville) it was the custom to make
canopywork so rich in colour that it was more like part of the
picture than a frame to it But that was by exception. The
tendency was towards lighter windows. Glass itself was less
deeply stained when painters depended more upon their power
of deepening it by paint. It was the seeking after delicate
effects of painting, quite as much as the desire to let light into
the church, which determined the tone of later windows. The
clearer the glass the more scope it gave for painting.
It is convenient to draw a line between Gothic art and Renais¬
sance. Nothing is easier than to say that windows in which
crocketed canopywork occurs are Gothic, and that those with
arabesque are Renaissance. But that is an arbitrary distinction,
which does not really distinguish. Some of the most beautiful
work in glass, such for example as that at Auch, is so plainly
intermediate between two styles that it is impossible to describe
it ns anything but “ transitional.” And, apart from particular
instances, we have only to look at the best Late Gothic work to
see that it is informed by the new spirit, and at fine Renaissance
glass to observe how it conforms to Gothic traditions of workman¬
ship. The new idea gave a spurt to Gothic art; and it was
Gothic impetus which carried Renaissance glass painting to the
summit of accomplishment reached in the first half of the 16th
century. When that subsided, and the pictorial spirit of the age
at last prevailed, the bright days of glass were at an end. If we
have to refer to the early Renaissance as the culminating period
of glass painting, it is because the technique of an earlier period
found in it freer and fuller expression. With the Renaissance,
design broke free from the restraints of tradition.
An interesting devclopmSnt of Renaissance design was the
framing of pictures in golden-yellow arabesque ornament,
109
scarcely architectural enough to be called canopywork, and
reminiscent rather of beaten goldsmith’s work than of stone
carving, This did for the glass picture what a gilt frame does for
a painting in oil. Very often framework of any kind was dispensed
with. The primitive idea of accepting bars and muHions as
boundaries of design, and filling the compartments formed by
them with a medley of little subjects, lingered on. The result
was delightfully broken colour, but inevitable confusion; for
iron and masonry do not effectively separate glaas pictures.
There was no longer in late glass any pretence of preserving the
plane of the window. It was commonly designed to suggest that
one saw out of it. Throughout the period of the Renaissance,
architectural and landscape backgrounds play aft important
part in design. An extremely beautiful feature in early 16th-
century French glass pictures (Rouen, &c.) is the little peep of
distant country delicately painted upon the pale-blue,glass which
represents the sky. In larger work landscape and architecture
were commonly painted upon white (King’s College, Cambridge).
The landscape effect was always happiest when one or other of
these conventions was adopted. Canopywork never went quite
out of fashion. For a long while the plan was still to frame
coloured pictures in white. Theoretically this is no less effectually
to be done by 1 talian than by Gothic shrinework. Practically the
architectural setting assumed in the 16th century more and more
the aspect of background to the figures, and, in order that it
should take its place in the picture, they painted it so heavily that
it no longer told as white. Already in van Orley’s magnificent
transept windows at St Gudule, Brussels, the great triumphal arch
behind the. kneeling donors and their patron saints (in late glass
donors take more and more the place of holy personages) tells
dark against the clear ground. There came a time, towards the
end of the century, when, as in the wonderful windows at Gouda,
the very quality of white glass is lost in heavily painted shadow.
The pictorial ambition of the glass painter, active from the
first, was kept for centuries within the bounds of decoration.
Medallion subjects were framed in ornament, standing figures in
canopywork, and pictures were conceived -with regard to the
window and its place in architecture. Severity of treatment in
design may have been due more to the limitations of technique
than to restraint on the part of the painter. The point is that it
led to unsurpassed results. It was by absolute reliance upon the
depth and brilliancy of self-coloured glass that all the beautiful
effects of early glass were obtained. We need not compare early
mosaic with later painted glass ; each was in its way admirable;
but the early manner is the more peculiar to glass, if not the more
proper to it. The ruder and more archaic design gives in fullest
measure the glory of glass—for the loss of 4 which no quality of
painting ever got in glass quite makes amends. The pictorial
effects compatible with glass design are those which go with pure,
brilliant and translucent colour. The ideal of a “ primitive ”
Italian painter was more or less to be realized in glass : that of a
Dutch realist was not. It is astonishing what glass painters did
in the way of light and shade. But the fact remains that heavy
painting obscured the glass, that shadows rendered in opaque
surface-colour lacked translucency, and that in seeking before all
things the effects of shadow and relief, glass painters of the 17th
century fell short of the qualities on the pne hand of glass and on
the other of painting.
The course of glass painting was not so even as this general
survey of its progress might seem to imply. It was quickened
here, impeded there, by historic events. The art made a splendid
start in France; but its development was stayed by the disasters
of war, just when in England it was thriving under the Planta-
genets. It revived again under Francis I. In Germany it was
with the prosperity of the free cities of the Empire that glass
painting prospere’d. In the Netherlands it blossomed out under
the favour of Charles V. In the Swiss Confederacy its direction
was determined by civil and domestic instead of church patron¬
age. In most countries there were in different' districts local
schools of glass painting,each with some character of its own. To
what extent design was affected by national temperament it is not
easy to say. The marked divergence of the Flemish from the
no
GLASS, STAINED
French treatment of glass in the 16th century is not entirely due
to a preference on the one part for colour and on the other for
light and shade, but is partly owing to the circumstance that,
whilst in France design remained in the hands of craftsmen,
whose trade was glass painting, in the Netherlands it was
entrusted by the emperor to his court painter, who concerned
himself as little as possible with a technique of which he knew
nothing. If in France we come also upon the names of well-
known artists, they seem, like Jean Cousin, to have been closely
connected with glass painting: they designed so like glass
painters that they might have begun their artistic career in the
workshop.
The attribution of fine windows to famous artists should not
be too readily accepted; for, though it is a foible of modern
times to father whatever is noteworthy upon some great name,
the masterpieces of medieval art are due to unknown craftsmen.
In Italy, where glass painting was not much practised, and it
seems to have been the custom either to import glass painters as
they were wanted or to get work done abroad, it may well be
that designs were supplied by artists more or less distinguished.
Ghiberti and Donatello may have had a hand in the cartoons for
the windows of the Duomo at Florence; but it is not to any
sculptor that we can give the entire credit of design so absolutely
in the spirit of colour decoration. The employment of artists not
connected with glass design would go far to explain the great
difference of Italian glass from that of other countries. The 14th-
century work at Assisi is more correctly described as “ Trecento ”
than as Gothic, and the “ Quattrocento ” windows at Florence
are as different as could be from Perpendicular work. One
compares them instinctively with Italian paintings, not with
glass elsewhere. And so with the 15th-century Italian glass.
The superb 16th-century windows of William of Marseilles at
Arezzo, in which painting is carried to the furthest point possible
short of sacrificing the pure quality of glass, are more according
to contemporary French technique. Both French and Italian
influence may be traced in Spanish glass (Avila, Barcelona,
Burgos, Granada, Leon, Seville, Toledo). Some of it is said to
have been executed in France. If so it must have been done to
'Spanish order. The coarse effectiveness of the design, the
strength of the colour, the general robustness of the art, are
cliaracteristically Spanish; and nowhere this side of the Pyrenees
do we find detail on a scale so enormous.
We have passed by, in following the progressive course of
craftsmanship, some forms of design, peculiar to no one period
but very characteristic of glass. The “ quarry window,” barely
referred to, its diamond-shaped or oblong panes painted, richly
bordered, relieved by bosses of coloured ornament often heraldic,
is' of constant occurrence. Entire windows, too, were from
first to last given up to heraldry. The “ Jesse window ” occurs
in every style. According to the fashion of the time the “ Stem
of Jesse ” burst out into conventional foliage, vine branches
or arbitrary scrollwork. It appealed to the designer by the
scope it gave for freedom of design. He found vent, again,
for fantastic imagination in the representation of the “Last
Judgment,” to which the west window was commonly devoted.
And there are other schemes in which he delighted; but this
is not the place to dwell upon them.
The glass of the 17th century does not count for much. Some
of the best in England is the work of the Dutch van Linge family
(Wadham and Balliol Colleges, Oxford). What glass painting
came to in the 18th century is nowhere better to be seen than in
the great west window of the ante-chapel at New College, Oxford.
That is all Sir Joshua Reynolds and the best china painter of
his day could do between them. The very idea of employing a
china painter shows how entirely the art of the glass painter
had died out.
It re-awoke in England with the Gothic revival of the 19th
century; and the rSothic revival determined the direction
modem glass should take. Early Victorian doings are interesting
only as marking the Steps of recovery (cf. the work of T. Willement
in the choir of the Tempfe-church; of Ward and Nixon, lately
removed from the soutlf transept of Westminster Abbey; of
Waite). Better things begin with the windows at Westminster
inspired by A. C. Pugin, who exercised considerable influence
over his contemporaries. John Powell (Hardman & Co.) was
an able artist content to walk, even after that master's death,
reverently in his footsteps. Charles Winston, whose Hints
on Glass Painting was the first real contribution towards the
understanding of Gothic glass, and who, by the aid of the Powells
(of Whitefriars) succeeded in getting something very like the
texture and colour of old glass, was more learned in ancient
ways of workmanship than appreciative of the art resulting
from them. (He is responsible for the Munich glass in Glasgow
cathedral.) So it was that, except for here and there a window
entrusted by exception to W. Dyce, E. Poynter, D. G. Rossetti,
Ford Madox Brown or E. Bume-Jones, glass, from the beginning
of its recovery, fell into the hands of mep with a strong bias
towards archaeology. The architects foremost in the Gothic
revival (W. Butterfield, Sir G. Scott, G. E. Street, &c.) were all
inclined that way; and, as they had the placing of commissions
for windows, they controlled the policy of glass painters.
Designers were constrained to work in the pedantically archaeo¬
logical manner prescribed by architectural fashion. Unwillingly
as it may have been, they made mock-medieval windows, the
interest in which died with the popular illusion about a Gothic
revival. But they knew their trade; and when an artist like
John Clayton (master of a whole school of later glass painters)
tookawindowin hand (St Augustine’s, Kilbum; Truro cathedral;
King’s College Chapel, Cambridge) the result was a work of art
from which, tradework as it may in a sense be, we may gather
what such men might have done had they been left free to follow
their own artistic impulse. It is necessary to refer to this because
it is generally supposed that whatever is best in recent glass is
due to the romantic movement. The charms of Burne-Jones’s
design and of William Morris’s colour, place the windows done
by them among the triumphs of modem decorative art; but
Morris was neither foremost in the reaction, nor quite such a
master of the material he was working in as he showed himself
in less exacting crafts. Other artists to be mentioned in con¬
nexion with glass design are: Clement Heaton, Bayne, N. H. J.
Westlake and Henry Holiday, not to speak of a younger genera¬
tion of able men.
Foreign work shows, as compared with English, a less just
appreciation of glass, though the foremost draughtsmen of
their day were enlisted for its design. In Germany, King Louis
of Bavaria employed P. von Cornelius and W. von Kaulbach
(Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Glasgow); in France the Bourbons
employed J. A. D. Ingres, F. V. E. Delacroix, Vemet and J. H.
Flandrin (Dreux); and the execution of their designs was
entrusted to the most expert painters to be procured at Munich
and Sevres ; but all to little effect. They either used potmctal
glass of poor quality, or relied upon enamel—with the result
that their colour lacks the qualities of glass. Where it is not
heavy with paint it is thin and crude. In Belgium happier
results were obtained. In the chapel of the Holy Sacrament at
Brussels there is one window by J. B. Capronnier not unworthy
of the fine series by B. van Orley which it supplements. At the
best, however, foreign artists failed to appreciate the quality
of glass; they put better draughtsmanship into their windows
than English designers of the mid-Victorian era, and painted
them better ; but they missed the glory of translucent colour.
Modem facilities of manufacture make possible many things
which were hitherto out of the question. Enamel colours are
richer; their range is extended; and it may be possible, with
the improved kilns and greater chemical knowledge we possess,
to make them hold permanently fast. It was years ago demon¬
strated at Sevres how a picture may be painted in colours upon
a sheet of plate-glass measuring 4 ft. by 2} ft. We are now no
doubt in a position to produce windows painted on much larger
sheets. But the results achieved, technically wonderful as they
are, hardly warrant the waste of time and labour upon work so
costly, so fragile, so lacking in the qualities of a picture on the
one hand and of glass on the other. ‘
In America, John la Farge, finding European material not
GLASS, STAINED
hi
restrained from self-expression. Moreover, the recognition of
the artistic position of craftsmen in general makes it possible
for a man to devote himself to glass without sinking to the rank
of a mechanic; and artists begin to realize the scope glass offers
them. What they lack as yet is experience in their craft, and
Examples 0/ Important Historical Stained Glass.
dense enough, produced potmetal more heavily charged with
colour. This was wilfully streaked, mottled and quasi-
accidentally varied ; some of it was opalescent; much of it was
more like agate or onyx than jewels. Other forms of American
enterprise were: the making of glass in lumps, to be chipped
into flakes; the ruckling it;
the shaping it in a molten T
ef-nt* nr t-ki it „< There are remains of the earliest known glass : in France—at Le Mans, Chartres, Ch&lons-sur-Mame,
, ' T P uuln 8 lc ° u • °* Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims : in England—at
Shape, it takes an artist Of York minster (fragments): in Germany—at Augsburg and Stiassburg cathedrals: in Austria—in the
some reserve to make judicious cloisters of Heiligen Kreur.
use of glass like this. La Farge Tlle lowing ls a classified list of some of the most.characteristic and important windows, omitting
and T C Tiffanv bn w. ir * or most P art isolated examples, and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair
* k ' .'•/ 1 y . rumea 11 amount of glass remaining ; the country in which at each period the art throve best is put first,
to beautiful account; but even v 1
they have put it to purposes
more pictorial than it' can . . France -
properly fulfil. The design it gi 2 £|
calls for is a severely abstract Bourges l cathedrals,
form of ornament verging upon Reims
the barbaric. Auxerre ]
Of late years each country churcWSt J^n-aux-Bois.
has been learning so much
from the others that the England.
newest effort is very much in York minster,
one direction. It seems to be Ely cathedral,
agreed that the art of the
window - maker begins with
glazing, that the all-needful
thing is beautiful glass, that
painting may be reduced to a
minimum, and on occasion
(thanks to new developments
Wells cathedral.
Tewkesbury abbey.
Italy.
Church of St Francis, Assisi.
Church of Or San Michele,
Florence.
Early Gothic
England.
Canterburyj
Salisbury !- cathedrals.
Lincoln J
York minster.
Middle Gothic
Germany.
Church of St Sebald, N uremberg.
Strassburg
Regensburg
Augsburg ■ cathedrals.
Erfurt
Freiburg
Church of Nieder Haslach.
Germany.
Church of St Kunibert, Cologne
(Romanesque).
Cologne cathedral.
France.
Evreux cathedral.
Church of St Pierre, Chartres.
Cathedral and church of St
Urbain, Troyes.
Church of Ste Radegonde, Poitiers.
Cathedral and church of St Ouen,
Rouen.
Spain.
Toledo cathedral.
in the making of glass) dis- Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.
pensed with altogether. A
tendency has developed itself England.
in the direction not merely of New College, Oxford.
mosaic, but of carrying the Gloucester cathedral.
glazier’s art farther than has York minster and other churches.
r , . r , , Great Malvern abbey.
been done before and render- Church of st Mary, Shrewsbury.
mg landscapes and even figure Fairford church.
subjects in unpainted glass.
When, however, it comes to
the representation of the
human face, the limitations
of simple lead-glazing arc at
once apparent A possible St Vincent)
way out of the difficulty was st Patrice 1
shown at the Paris Exhibition St Godard j
of rqoo by M. Toumel, who, £j lurc f 1 °* ft Fpy, Conches,
by fusing together coloured Church of st £tienne-du-Mont,
tesserae on to larger pieces of Paris,
colourless glass, anticipated the Church of St Martin, Mont-
discovery of the already men- morency.
tioned fragment of Byzantine of sSne, Beauvais,
mosaic now in the Victoria Church of St Nizier, Troyes,
and Albert Museum. He may Church of Brou, Bourg-en-
have seen or heard of some- Bresse.
thing of the sort. There would The Chateau de chant >“y-
be no advantage in building
up whole windows in this Netherlands.
way ; but for the rendering of Groote Kjrk. Gouda.^
the flesh and sundry minute
France.
Rouen.
Choir of Brussels cathedral.
Antwerp cathedral.
Late Gothic
France.
Church of Notre Dame. Alenin.
Italy.
The Duomo, Florence.
Transition Period
The choir of the cathedral at Auch.
Renaissance
Netherlands.
Brussels cathedral.
Church o( St Jacques)
Church of St Martin Lifegc.
Cathedral
Italy.
Milan 0 } cathwlrals -
Certosa di Pavia.
Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.
Church of Sta Maria Novella,
Florence.
Germany.
Freiburg cathedral.
Late Renaissance
France.
Church of St Martin-As-Vignes,
Troyes.
Nave and transepts of Auch
cathedral.
Switzerland.
Most museums.
Germany.
Cologne)
Ulm V cathedrals.
Munich J
Church of St Lorenz, Nuremberg.
Spain.
Toledo cathedral.
Switzerland.
Lucerne and most of the other
principal museums.
Granada)
Seville /
* Spain.
cathedrals.
Cam-
England.
King’s College chapel,
bridge.
Lichfield cathedral.
St George's church, Hanover
Square, London.
St Margaret's church, West¬
minster.
England.
Wadham)
Balliol > colleges, Oxford.
New j '
details in a window for the
most part heavily leaded, this
fusing together of tesserae,
and even of little pieces of
glass out carefully to shape, seems to supply the want of some- ; perhaps due workmanlike respect for traditional ways of wor¬
thing more in keeping with severe mosaic glazing than painted j manship. When the old methods come to be superseded
flesh proves to be.
Glass painters are allowed to-day a freer hand than formerly.
They are no longer exclusively engaged upon ecclesiastical work;
domestic glass is an important industry ; and a workman once
comparatively exempt from pedantic control is not so easily
When the old
it will be only by new ones evolved out of them. At present the
conditions of glass painting remain very much what they were.
The supreme beauty of glass is still in the purity, the brilliancy,
the translucency of its colour. To make the most of this the
designer must be master of his trade. The test of window design
112 GLASSBRENNER-
is, now as ever, that it should have nothing to lose and everything
to gain by execution in stained glass.
Bibliography.— Theophilua, Arts of tie Middle Ages (London,
1847) ; Charles Winston, An Inquiry into the Difference of Style
observable in Ancient Glass Painting , especially in England (Oxford,
1847), and Memoirs illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting (London,
1865) ; N. H. J. Westlake, A History of Design m Painted Glass
(4 vois., London, 1881-181)4) ; L. F. Day, Windows, A Book about
Stained and Painted Glass (London, 1909), and Stained Glass (London,
1903) ; A. W. Franks, A Booh of Ornamental Glazing Quarries
(London, 1849); A Books of Sundry Draughtes, principaly serving
for Glasiers (London, 1613, reproduced lyoo) ; F. G. Joyce, The
Fairford Windows (coloured plates) (London, 1870) ; Divers Works
of Early Masters in Ecclesiastical Decoration, edited by John Weale
(2 vols., London, 1846) ; Ferdinand de Lasteyrie, Histoire de la
peinture sur verre d'apris ses monuments en France (2 vols., Paris,
1852) , and Quelques mots sur la thione de la peinture sur verre (Paris,
1853) ; L. Magne, Qiuvre des peinlres verrurs frangais (2 vols., Paris,
1885) ; Viollet le Due, " Vitrail," vol. ix. of the Dktionnaire raisonni
dc l’architecture (Paris, 1868) ; O. Merson, '' Les Vitraux," Biblio-
thf.que de t’enseignement des beaux-arls (Paris, 1895) ; E. Levy and
J. B. Capronmer, Histoire de la petnture sur verre (coloured plates)
(Brussels, i860) : Ottin, Le Vitrail, son histoire a tracers les dges
(Paris) ; Pierre le Vied, L'Art de la peinture sur verre et de la vilrene
(Paris, 1774) ; C. Cahier and A. Martin, Vitraux points de Bourges
du SHF sihle (2 vols., Paris, 1841-1844); S. Clement and A.
Guitard, Vitraux du XIIP stiile de la cathcdrale de Bourges (Bourges,
1900) ; M. A. Gessert, Geschivhte der Glasmalerei in Deutschland
und den Niedertanden, FrankreiLh, England, cr., von ihrem Vrsprung
bis auf die neueste Zeit (Tubingen and Stuttgart, 1839 ; also an
English translation, London, 1851) ; F. Goiges, Der alte Fenster-
schmuch des Freiburger Miinsters, 5 parts (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1902, &c.) ; A. Hafner, Chefs-d'oeuvre de la peinture suissc sur verre
(Berlin). (L. F. D.)
GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF (1810-1876), German humorist
and satirist, was bom at Berlin on the 27th of March 1810.
After being for a short time in a merchant’s office, he took to
journalism, and in 1831 edited Don Quixote, a periodical which
was suppressed in 1833 owing to its revolutionary tendencies.
He next, under the pseudonym Adolf Brennglas, published a
series of pictures of Berlin life, under the titles Berlin wie es
ist und — trinkt (30 parts, with illustrations, 1833-1849), and
Buntes Berlin (14 parts, with illustrations, Berlin, 1837-1858),
and thus became the founder of a popular satirical literature
associated with modern Berlin. In 1840 he married the actress
Adele Peroni (1813-1895), and removed in the following year
to Neustrelitz, where his wife had obtained an engagement at
the Grand ducal theatre. In 1848 Glassbrenner entered the
political arena and became the leader of the democratic party
in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Expelled from that country in 1850,
he settled in Hamburg, where he remained until 1858; and then
he became editor of the Monlagsseilung in Berlin, where he died
on the 25th of September 1876.
Among Glassbrenner's other humorous ami satirical writings may
be mentioned : Leben und Treiben der feinen Welt (1834) ; Hilde.r
und Tr&ume aus Wien (2 vols., 1836) ; Genu hie (1851, 3th ed. 1870) ;
the comic epics, Neuer Reineke Fuchs (1846, 4th ed. 1870) and
Die verkehrte Welt (1857, 6th ed. 1873); also Berliner Volhsleben
(3 vols., illustrated; Leipzig, 1847-1851). Glassbrenner has
published some charming books lor children, notably Lachenie Kinder
(14th ed., 1884), and Sprechende Tiere (20th ed., Hamburg, 1899).
See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, “ Adolf Glassbrenner,” in Unsere Zeit
(1881).
GLASS CLOTH, a textile material, the name of which indicates
the use for which it was originally intended. The cloths are in
general woven with the plain weave, and the fabric may be all
white, striped or checked with red, blue or other coloured
threads; the checked cloths are the most common. The real
article should he all linen, but a large quantity is made with
cotton warp and tow weft, and in some cases they are composed
entirely of cotton. The short fibres of the cheaper kind are
easily detached from the cloth, and hence they are not so satis¬
factory for the purpose for which they are intended.
GLA8SIUS, SALOMO (1593-1656), theologian and biblical
critic, was bom at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schware-
btng-Sondershausen, 'On the 20th of May 1593. In 1612 he
entered the university of Jena. In r6xs, with the idea of studying
law,'ll)! mofred to Wittenberg. In consequence of an illness,
however, he returned to Iena after a year. Here, as a student
Of theology under Joharm Gerhard, he directed his attention
-GLASTONBURY
especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was
made an “ adjunctus ” of the philosophical faculty, and some
time afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of
Hebrew. From r625 to 1638 he was superintendent in Sonders¬
hausen ; but shortly after toe death of Gerhard (1637) he was,
in accordance with Gerhard’s last wish, appointed to succeed
him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest invitation of
Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court preacher
and general superintendent in the execution of important reforms
which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational
establishments of the duchy. The delicate duties attached to
this office he discharged with tact and energy; and in the
‘ syncretistic ” controversy, by which Protestant Germany
was so long vexed, he showed an unusual combination of firmness
with liberality, of loyalty to the past with a just regard to the
demands of the present and the future. He died on the 27th of
July 1656.
His principal work, Philologia sacra (1623), marks the transition
from the earlier views on questions ol biblical criticism to those of
the school ot Spener. It was more than once reprinted during his
lifetime, and appeared in a new and revised form, edited by J. A.
Dathe (1731-1791) and G. L. Bauer at Leipzig. Glassius succeeded
Gerhard as editor of the Weimar BibelwerU , and wrote the commentary
on the poetical books of the Old Testament for that publication. A
volume ol lus Opuscula was printed at Leiden in 1700.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyhlopadie.
GLASSWORT, a name given to Salicornia herbacea (also
known as marsh samphire), a salt-marsh herb with succulent,
jointed, leafless stems, in reference to its former use in glass¬
making, when it was burnt for barilla. Salsola Kali, an allied
plant with rigid, fleshy, spinous-pointed leaves, which was used
for the same purpose, was known as prickly glasswort. Both
plants are members of the natural order Chenopodiarcae.
GLASTONBURY, a market town and municipal borough in
the Eastern parliamentary division ol Somersetshire, England,
on the main road from London to Exeter, 37 m. S.W. of Bath by
the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop. (1901) 4016. The town
lies in the midst of orchards and water-meadows, reclaimed from
the fens which encircled Glastonbury Tor, a conical height once
an island, but now, with toe surrounding flats, a peninsula washed
on three sides by the river Brue.
The town is famous for its abbey, the ruins of which are frag¬
mentary, and as the work of destruction has in many places
descended to the very foundations it is impossible to make out
the details of the plan. Of the vast range of buildings for the
accommodation of the monks hardly any part remains except the
abbot's kitchen, noteworthy for its octagonal interior (the ex¬
terior plan being square, with the four corners filled iti with fire¬
places and chimneys), the porter’s lodge and the abbey barn.
Considerable portions are standing of the so-called chapel of St
Joseph at the west end, which has been identified with the Lady
chapel, occupying the site of the earliest church. This chapel,
which is the finest part of the ruins, is Transitional work of the
12to century. It measures about 66 ft. from east to west and
about 36 from north to south. Below the chapel is a crypt of the
15th century inserted beneath a building which had no previous
crypt. Between the chapel and the great church is an Early
English building which appears to have served as a Galilee porch.
The church itself was a cruciform structure with a choir, nave
and transepts, and a tower surmounting the centre of intersection.
From east to west the length was 410 ft. and the breadth of the
nave was about 80 ft. The nave had ten bays and the choir six.
Of the nave three bays of the south side are still standing, and toe
windows have pointed arches externally and semicircular arches
internally. Two of the tower piers and a part of one arch give
some indication of the grandeur of the building. The foundations
of the Edgar chapel, discovered in 1908, make the whole church
the longest of cathedral or monastic churches in toe country. The
old clock, presented to the abbey by Adam de Sodbury (1322-
133s)) and noteworthy as an early example of a dock striking the
hours automatically with a count-wheel, was once in Wells
cathedral, but is now preserved iri the Victoria and Albert
Museum.
GLASTONBURY
The Glastonbury thorn, planted, according to the legend, by
Joseph of Arimathea, has been the object of considerable com¬
ment It is Baid to be a distinct variety, flowering twice a year.
The actual thorn yisited by the pilgrims was destroyed about the
Reformation time, but specimens of the same variety are still
extant in various parts of the country.
The chief buildings, apart from the abbey, are the church of St
John Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some
15th-century monuments; St Benedict’s, dating from 1495-1524;
St John’s hospital, founded-1246 ; and the George Inn, built in
the time of Henry VII. or VIII. The present stone cross replaced
a far finer one of great age, which had fallen into decay. The
Antiquarian Museum contains an excellent collection, including
remains from a prehistoric village of the marshes, discovered in
1892, und consisting of sixty mounds within a space of five acres.
There is a Roman Catholic missionaries’ college. In the i6th
century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of
Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the 18th
century. Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of
boots and sheep-skin rugs are practised.' The town is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5000 acres.
The lake-village discovered in 1892 proves that there was a
Celtic settlement about 300-200 n.c. on an island in the midst of
swamps, and therefore easily defensible. British earthworks
and Roman roads and relics prove later occupation. The name
of Glastonbury, however, is of much later origin, being a corrup¬
tion of the Saxon Glastyngabyrig. By the Britons the spot
seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized as Avallonia)
or Ynysvitrin (see Avalon), and it became the local habitation of
various fragments of Celtic romance. According to the legends
which grew up under the care of the monks, the first church of
Glastonbury was a little wattled building erected by Joseph of
Arimathea as the leader of the twelve apostles sent over to
Britain from Gaul by St Philip. About a hundred years later,
according to the same authorities, the two missionaries, Phaganus
and 1 leruvianus, who came to king Lucius from Pope Eleutherius,
established a fraternity of anchorites on the spot, and after three
hundred years more St Patrick introduced among them a regular
monastic life. The British monastery founded about 601 was
succeeded by a Saxon abbey built by Ine in 708. From the
decadent state into which Glastonbury was brought by the
Danish invasions it was recovered by Dunstan, who had been
educated within its walls and was appointed its abbot about 946.
The church and other buildings of his erection remained till the
installation, in 1082, of the first Norman abbot, who inaugurated
the new epoch by commencing a new church. His successor
Herlewin (1101-1120), however, pulled it down to make way for
a finer structure. Henry of Blois (1126-1172) added greatly to
the extent of the monastery. In 1184 (on 25th May) the whole of
the buildings were laid in ruins by fire ; but Henry II. of England,
in whose hands the monastery then was, entrusted his chamberlain
Rudolphus with the work of restoration, and caused it to be
carried out with much magnificence. The great church of which
the ruins still remain was then erected. In the end of the 12th
century, and on into the following, Glastonbury was distracted
by a strange dispute, caused by the attempt of Savaric, the
ambitious bishop of Bath, to make himself master of the abbey.
The conflict was closed by the decision of Innocent III., that the
abbacy should be merged in the new see of Bath and Glastonbury,
and that Savaric should have a fourth of the property. On
Savaric’s death his successor gave up the joint bishopric and
allowed the monks to elect their own abbot. From this date to the
Reformation the monastery, one of the chief Benedictine abbeys
in England, continued to flourish, the chief events in its history
being connected with the maintenance of its claims to the
possession of the bodies or tombs of Ring Arthur and St Dunstan.
From early times through the middle ages it was a place of
pilgrimage. As early at least as the beginning of the nth
century the tradition that Arthur was buried at Glastonbury
appears to have taken shape;- and in the reign of Henry II.,
according to Ginldus CamBrensis and others, the abbot Henry de
Blois, causing search to be made, discovered at the depth of 16
ft. a massive oak trunk with an inscription “ Hie jaoet sepaltos
inditus rex Arthurus in insula Avalonia.” After the fire of 1x84
the monks asserted that they were in possession of the remains of
St Dunstan, which had been abstracted from Canterbury after the
Danish sack of 10x1 and kept in concealment ever since. The
Canterbury monks naturally dented the assertion, and the contest
continued for centuries. In 1508 War ham and Golds ton having
examined the Canterbury shrine reported that it contained all the
principal bones of the saint, but the abbot of Glastonbury in
reply as stoutly maintained that this was impossible. The day
of such disputes was, however, drawing to a close. In 1539 the
last and 60th abbot of Glastonbury, Robert \Vhyting, was
lodged in the Tower on account of “ divers and sundry treasons.”
“ The ‘ account ’ or ‘ bode ’ of his treasons.seems to be lost,
and the nature of the charges .... can only be a matter of specu¬
lation ” (Gairdner, Cal. Pap. on Hen. VIII., xiv. ii. pref. xxxii).
He was removed to Wells, where he was “ arraigned and next
day put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church.” The
execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was
quartered and his head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker
passage does not occur in the annals of the English Reformation
than this murder of an able and high-spirited man, whose worst
offence was that he defended as best he could from the hand of the
spoiler the property in his charge.
In 1907, the site of the abbey with the remuins of the buildings,
which had been in private hands since the granting of the estate
to Sir Peter Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought by Mr
Ernest Jardine for the purpose of transferring it to the Church
of England. Bishop Kennion of Bath and Wells entered into
an agreement to raise a sum of £31,000, the cost of the purchase;
this was completed, and the site and buildings were formally
transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to the Diocesan
Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and manage the
property according to a deed of trust. This deed provided for
the appointment of an advisory council, consisting of the arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and four
other bishops, each with power to nominate one clerical and
one lay member. The council has the duty of deciding the
purpose for which the property is to be used “ in connexion with
and for the benefit of the Church of England.” To give time for
further collection of funds and deliberation, the property was
re-let for five years to the original purchaser.
In the 8th century Glastonbury was already a borough owned
by the abbey, which continued to be overlord till the Dissolution.
The abbey obtained charters in the 7th century, but the town
received its first charter from Henry II., who exempted the men
of Glastonbury from the jurisdiction of royal officials and freed
them from certain tolls. This was confirmed by Henry III. in
1227, by Edward 1 . in 1278, by Edward II. in 1313 and by
Henry VI. in 1447. The borough was incorporated by Anne in
1706, and the corporation was reformed by the act of 1835.
In 1319 Glastonbury received a writ of summons to parliament,
but made no return, and has not since been represented. A
fair on the 8th of September was granted in 1127 ; another on
the 29th of May was held under a charter of 1282. Fairs known
as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now held on the second
Mondays in September and October and are chiefly important
for the sale of horses and cattle. The market day every other
Monday is noted for the sale of -cheese. Glastonbury owed its
medieval importance to its connexion with the abbey. At the
Dissolution the introduction of woollen manufacture checked
the decay of the town. The cloth trade flourished for a century
and was replaced by silk-weaving, stocking-knitting and gbve-
nmking, all of which have died out.
See Abbot Gasquet, Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries (1906),
and The Last Abbot of Glastonbury (1895 and 1908) ; William of
Malmesbury, " De antiq. Glastoniensis rcclesiae,” in Rerum Angli-
carum script, vet. tom.i. (1684) (alio printed by Heame and Migne);
John of Glastonbury, Chronica s/ive de hist, de rebus Glast., ed. by
Heame (2 vols., Oxford, 1726) ; Adam of Domferham, Ve rebus
gestis Glast., ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1727) ; Hist, and Antig.
of Glast. (London, 1807) ; Avalonian Guide to the Town of Glastonbury
(8th ed., 1839) ; Warner, Hitt, of the Abbey and Town (Bath, 1826) ;
Rev. F. Warre, “ Glastonbury Abbey,” in Pros, of Somersetshire
11 4 ‘ GLATIGNY-
Archaeol. and Nat. Hist. Soc., 1849; Rev. F. Warn, " Notice of
Ruins of Glastonbury Abbey,” ib. 1859; Rev. W. A. Jones,
” On the Reputed Discovery of King Arthur’s Remains at Glaston¬
bury,” ib. 1859; Rev. J. R. Green, " Dunstan at Glastonbury "
and “Giso and Savaric," ib. 1863; Rev. Canon Jackson, "Savaric,
Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury," ib. 1862, 1863; E. A, Free¬
man, ” King Ine,” ib. 1872 and 1874; Dr W. Beattie, in Journ.
of Dr it. Archaeol. Ass. vol. xii., 1856 Rev. R. Willis, Architectural
History of Glastonbury Abbey (1866); W. H. P. Greswell, Chapters
on the Early History of Glastonbury Abbey (1909). Views and plans
of the abbey building will be found in Dugdale’a Monasticon (1655);
Stevens's Monasticon (1720): Stukeley, Utnerarium curiosum (1724);
Grose, A ntiquities (1754); Carter, Ancient Architecture (1800); Storer,
Antiq. and Topogr. Cabinet, ii., iv., v. (1807), &c.; Britton’s Archi¬
tectural Antiquities, iv. (1813); Veiusta monumenta, iv. (1815); and
New Monasticon, i. (1817).
GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE (1839-1873),
French poet, was bom at Lillebonne (Seine Inf6rieure) on the
21st of May 1839. His father, who was a carpenter and after¬
wards a gendarme, removed in 1844 to Bemay, where Albert
received an elementary education. Soon after leaving school
he was apprenticed *0 a printer at Pont Audemer, where he pro¬
duced a three-act play at the local theatre. He then joined a
travelling company of actors to whom he acted as prompter.
Inspired primarily by the study of Theodore de Banville, he
published his Vignes folles in 1857 ; his best collection of lyrics,
Les Fleches d'or, appeared in 1864; and a third volume, Gilles
et pasquins, in 1872. After Glatigny settled in Paris he improvised
at caf6 concerts and wrote several one-act plays. On an
expedition to Corsica with a travelling company he was on one
occasion arrested and put in irons for a week through being
mistaken by the police for a notorious criminal. His marriage
with Emma Dennie brought him great happiness, but the hard¬
ships of his life weakened his health and he died at Sevres on
the 16th of April 1873.
See Cat u lie Mend6s, Ligende du Parnasse contetnporain (1884), and
Glatigny, drame funambulesquc (1906).
GLATZ (Slav. Kladsko), a fortified town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Silesia, in a narrow valley on the left bank
of the Neisse, not far from the Austrian frontier, 58 m. S.W.
from Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 16,051. The town with its
narrow streets winds up the fortified hill which is crowned by
the old citadel. Across the river, on the Schaferberg, lies a
more modem fortress built by the Prussians about 1750. Before
the town on both banks of the river there is a fortified camp by
which bombardment from the neighbouring heights can be
hindered and which affords accommodation for 10,000 men.
The inner eeinture of walls was razed in 1891 and their site is
now occupied by new streets. There are a Lutheran and two
Roman Catholic churches, one of which, the parish church,
contains the monuments of seven Silesian dukes. Among the
other buildings the principal are the Royal Catholic gymnasium
and the military' hospital. The industries include machine
shops, breweries, and the manufacture of spirits, linen, damask,
cloth, hosiery, beads and leather.
Glatz existed as early as the 10th century, and received
German settlers about 1250. It was besieged several times
during the Thirty Years’ War and during the Seven Years’
War and came into the possession of Prussia in 1742. In 1821
and 1883 great devastation was caused here by floods. The
county of Glatz was long contended for by the kingdoms of Poland
and of Bohemia. Eventually it became part of the latter country,
and in 1534 was sold to the house of Habsburg, from whom it
was taken by Frederick the Great during his attack on Silesia.
See Ludwig, Die Grafschaft Gluts in Wort und Bild (Breslau, 1897);
Kutzen, Die Grafschaft Glats (C.logau, 1873); and Geschichtsquellen
der Grafschaft Glats, edited by F. Volkmer and Hohaus (1883-1891).
GLADBER, JOHANN RUDOLF (1604-1668), German chemist,
was bom at Karlstadt, Bavaria, in 1604 and died at Amsterdam
in 1668. Little more, is known of his life than that he resided
successively in Vienna, Salzburg, Frankfurt and Cologne before
settling in Holland, wlfere he made his living chiefly by the sale
of •secret chemical and medicinal preparations. Though his
writings, abound in universal solvents and other devices of the
alchemists, he made somegeal contributions to chemical know¬
ledge. Titus he cleatiy described the preparation of hydrochloric
-GLAUCHAU
acid by the action of oil of vitriol on common salt, the manifold
virtues of sodium sulphate— sal miraMc, Glauber’s salt—formed
in the process being one of the chief themes of his Miraculum
mundt; and he noticed that nitric acid was formed when
nitre was substituted for the common salt. Further he prepared
a large number of substances, including the chlorides and other
salts of lead, tin, iron, zinc, copper, antimony and arsenic, and
he even noted some of the phenomena of double decomposition.
He was always anxious to turn his knowledge to practical account,
whether in preparing medicines, or in furthering industrial arts
such as dyeing, or in increasing the fertility of the soil by artificial
manures. One of his most notable works was his Teuischlands
WoUjarih in which he urged that the natural resources of
Germany should be developed for the profit of the country and
gave various instances of how this might be done.
His treatises, about 30 in number, were collected and published
at Frankfort in 1658-1659, at Amsterdam in 1661, and, in an English
translation by Facke, at London in 1689.
GLAUBER'S SALT, decahydrated sodium sulphate,
Na 2 SO 4 , 10 H„O. It is said by J. Kunkel to have been known
as an arcanum or secret medicine to the electoral house of
Saxony in the middle of the 16th century, but it was first described
by J. R. Glauber (De natura solium, 1658), who prepared it
by the action of oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid on common salt,
and, ascribing to it many medicinal virtues, termed it sal mirabile
Glauberi. As the mineral thenardite or mirabilite, which
crystallizes in the rhombic system, it occurs in many parts of
the world, as in Spain, the western states of North America
and the Russian Caucasus; in the last-named region, about
25 m. E. of Tiflis, there is a thick bed of the pure salt about 5 ft.
below the surface, and at Balalpashinsk there are lakes or ponds
the waters of which are an almost pure solution. The substance
is the active principle of many mineral waters, e.g. Fredericks-
hall; it occurs in sea-water and it is a constant constituent
of the blood. In combination with calcium sulphate, it con¬
stitutes the mineral glauberite or brongniartite, Na 2 S 0 4 -CaS 0 4 ,
which assumes forms belonging to the monoclinic system and
occurs in Spain and Austria. It has a bitter, saline, but not
acrid taste. At ordinary temperatures it crystallizes from
aqueous solutions in large colourless monoclinic prisms, which
effloresce in dry air, and at 35° C.melt in their water of crystalliza¬
tion. At ioo° they lose all their water, and on further heating
fuse at 843°. Its maximum solubility in water is at 34 0 ; above
that temperature it ceases to exist in the solution as a deca-
hydrate, but changes to the anhydrous salt, the solubility of which
decreases with rise of temperature. Glauber's suit readily forms
supersaturated solutions, in which crystallization takes place
suddenly when a crystal of the salt is thrown in ; the same effect
is obtained by exposure to the air or by touching the solution
with a glass rod. In medicine it is employed as an aperient,
and is one of the safest and most innocuous known. For children
it may be mixed with common salt and the two be used with the
food without the child being conscious of any difference. Its
simulation of the taste of common salt also renders it suitable
for administration to insane patients and others who refuse to
take any drug. If, however, its presence is recognized sodium
phosphate may be substituted.
GLAUCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
on the right bank of the Mulde, 7 m. N. of Zwickau and 17 W. of
Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1875) 21,743; (1905) 24,556. It has
important manufactures of woollen and half-woollen goods,
in regard to which it occupies a high position in Germany.
There are also dye-works, print-works, and manufactories
of paper, linen, thread and machinery. Glauchau possesses a
high grade school, elementary schools, a weaving school, an
orphanage and an infirmary. Some portions of the extensive
old castle date from the rath century, and the Gtittesacker church
contains interesting antiquarian relics. Glauchau was founded
by a colony of Sorbs and Wends, and belonged to the lords of
Schonburg as early as the nth century.
See R. Hofmann, RilckbUck Hbtr He Geschichte der Stadt Glauchau
(i* 97 ).
GLAUCONITE—GLAUCUS
GLAUCONITE, a mineral, green in colour, and chemically a
hydrous silicate of iron and potassium. It especially occurs in the
green sands and muds which are gathering at the present time on
the sea bottom at many different places. The wide extension of
these sands and muds was first made known by the naturalists of
the “ Challenger,” and it is now found that they occur in the
Mediterranean as well as in the open ocean, but they have not
been found in the Black Sea or in any fresh-water lakes. These
deposits are not in a true sense abyssal, but are of terrigenous
origin, the mud and sand being derived from the wear of the con¬
tinents, transported by marine ourrents. The greater part of the
mass consists in all cases of minerals such as quartz, felspar
(often labradorite), mica, chlorite, with more or less calcite which
is probably always derived from shells or other organic sources.
Many accessory minerals such as tourmaline and zircon have
been identified also, while augite, hornblende and other volcanic
minerals occur in varying proportion as in all the sediments of the
open sea. The depth in which they accumulate varies a good,
deal, viz. from 200 up to 2000 fathoms, but as a rule is less than
1000 fathoms, and it is believed that the most common situations
are where the continental shores slope rather steeply into moderate
depths of water. Many of the blue muds, which owe their colour
to fine particles of sulphide of iron, contain also a small quantity
of glauconite ; in Glohigerina oozes this substance has also been
found, and in fact there exists every gradation between the
glauconitic deposits and the other types of sands and muds which
are found at similar depths.
The colouring matter is believed in every case to be glauconite.
Other ingredients, such as lime, alumina and magnesia are
usually shown to be present by the analyses, but may perhaps be
regarded as non-essential: it is impossible to isolate this substance
in a pure state as it occurs only in fine aggregates, mixed with
other minerals. The glauconite, though crystalline, never occurs
well crystallized but only as dense clusters of very minute
particles which react feebly on polarized light. They have one
well-marked characteristic inasmuch as they often form rounded
lumps. In many cases it is certain that these are casts, which
fill up the interior of empty shells of Foraminifera. They may be
seen occupying these shells, and when the shell is dissolved away
perfect casts of glauconite are set free. Apparently in some
manner not understood, the decaying organic matter in the shell
of the dead organism initiated or favoured the chemical reactions
by which the glauconite was formed. That the mineral originated
on the sea bottom among the sand and mud is quite certainly
established by these facts; moreover, since it is so soft and
friable that it is easily powdered up by pressure with the fingers,
it cannot have been transported from any great distance by
currents. Small rounded glauconite lumps, which are common
on the sands but show no trace of having filled the chambers of
Foraminifera, may have arisen by a re-deposit of broken-down
casts such as have been described ; probably slight movement of
the deposits, occasioned by currents, may have broken up the
glauconite casts and scattered the soft material through the
water. Films or stains of glauconite on shells, sand grains and
phosphate nodules are explained by a similar deposit of frag¬
mental glauconite.
In a small number of Tertiary and older rocks glauconite occurs
as an essential component. It is found in the Pliocene sands of
Holland, the F.ocene sands of Paris and the “ Molasse ” of
Switzerland, but is much more abundant in the Lower Cret¬
aceous rocks of N. Europe, especially in the subdivision known
as the Greensand. Rounded lumps and casts like those of the
green sands of the present day are plentiful in these rocks, dnd it
is obvious that the mode of formation was in all respects the
same. The green sgnd when weathered is brown or rusty
coloured, the glauconite being oxidized to limonite. Calcareous
sands or impure limestones with glauconite are also by no
means rare, an example being the well-known Kentish Rag.
In the Chalk-rock ana Chalk-marl of some parts of England
glauconite is rather frequent, and glauconitic chalk is known also
m the north of France. 'Among the oldest rocks which contain
this mineral are the Lower Silurian of the St Petersburg district,
' but it is very rare in the Palaeozoic formations, possibly because it
undergoes crystalline change and is also liable to be oxidized
and converted into other ferruginous minerals. It has been
suggested that certain deposits of iron ores may owe their origin
to deposits of glauconite, as for example those of the Mesabi
range, Minnesota, U.S.A. (j. s. F.)
GLAUCOUS (Gr. yAawtos, bright, gleaming), a word meaning of
a sea-green colour, in botany covered with bloom, like a plum or a
cabbage-leaf.
GLAUCUS (“ bright ”), the name of several figures in Greek
mythology, the most important of which are the following :
1. Glaucus, sumamed Pontius, a sea divinity. Originally a
fisherman and diver of Anthedon in Boeotia, having eaten of a
certain magical herb sown by Cronus, he leapt into the sea, where
he was changed into a god, and endowed with the gift of unerring
prophecy. According to others he sprang into the sea for love
of the sea-god Melicertes, with whom he was oflen identified *
(Athenaeus vii. 296). He was worshipped not only at Anthedon,
but on the coasts of Greece, Sicily and Spain, where fishermen
and sailors at certain seasons watched for his arrival during the
night in order to consult him (Pausanias ix. 22). In art he is
depicted as a vigorous old man with long hair and beard, his body
terminating in a scaly tail, his breast covered with shells and sea¬
weed. He was said to have been the builder and pilot of the
Argo, and to have been changed into a god after the fight between
the Argonauts and Tyrrhenians. He assisted the expedition in
various ways (Athenaeus, loc. cit .; see also Ovid, Metam. xiii. 904).
Glaucus was the subject of a satyric drama by Aeschylus. He
was famous for his amours, especially those with Scylla and Circe.
See the exhaustive monograph by R. Gaedechens, Glaukos der
Meergott (i860), and article by the same in Roscher's Lexikon der
Mythulogie ; and for Glaucus and Scylla, E. Vinet in Annuli del-
l' Instiliito di Correspondents archeologica, xv. (1843).
2. Glaucus, usually sumamed Potnieus, from Potniae near
Thebes, son of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon.
According to the legend he was lorn to pieces by his own mares
(Virgil, Georgies, iii. 267 ; Hyginus, Fab. 250, 273). On the
isthmus of Corinth, and also at Olympia and Nemea, he was
worshipped as Taraxippus (“ terrifier of horses ”), his ghost being
said to appear and frighten the horses at the games (Pausanias
vi. 20). He is closely akin to Glaucus Pontius, the frantic horses
of the one probably representing the stormy waves, the other
the sea in its calmer mood. He also was the subject of a lost
drama of Aeschylus.
3. Glaucus, the son of Minos and Pasiphae. When a child,
while playing at ball or pursuing a mouse, he fell into a jar of
honey and was smothered. His father, after a vain search for
him, consulted the oracle, and was referred to the person who
should suggest the aptest comparison for one of the cows of
Minos which had the power of assuming three different colours.
Polyidus of Argos, who had likened it to a mulberry (or bramble),
which changes from white to red and then to black, soon after¬
wards discovered the child ; but on his confessing his inability
to restore him to life, he was shut up in a vault with the corpse.
Here he killed a serpent which was revived by a companion,
which laid a certain herb upon it. With the same herb Polyidus
brought the dead Glaucus back to life. According to others,
he owed his recovery to Aesculapius. The story was the subject
of plays by the three great Greek tragedians, and was often
represented in mimic dances.
See Hyginus, Fab. 136; Apollodorus iii. 3. 10; C. IlOck, Kveta,
iii. 1829; C. Eckermann, Melampus, 1840.
4 . Glaucus, son of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophon,
mythical progenitor of the kings of Ionia. He was a Lycian
prince who, along with his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Priam in
the Trojan War. When he found himself opposed to Diomedes,
with whom he was connected by ties of hospitality, they ceased
fighting and exchanged armour. Since the equipment of Glaucus
was golden and that of Diomedes brazen, the expression “ golden
for brazen ” (Iliad, vi. 236) came to be used proverbially for a
bad exchange. Glaucus was afterwards slain by Ajax.
All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch
and Gruber's Allgemtine Encyclopidie,
n 6 GLAZING
GLAZING. —The business of the glazier may be confined to
the mere fitting and setting of glass (<?.«.), even the cutting up
of the plates into squares being generally an independent art,
requiring a degree of tact and judgment not necessarily possessed
by the building artificer. The tools generally used by the glazier
are the diamond for cutting, laths or straight edges, tee square,
measuring rule, glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer, duster,
sash tool, two-foot rule and a glazier’s cradle for carrying the
glass. Glaziers’ materials are glass, putty, priming or paint,
springs, wash-leather or india-rubber for door panels, size, black.
The glass is supplied by the manufacture - and cut to the sizes
required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is made
of whiting and linseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs
of i or i cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over,
and when found to be getting hard in the keg a little oil
should be put on it to keep it moist. Priming is a thin coat of
paint with a small amount of red lead in it. In the majority
of cases after the sashes lot the windows are fitted they are
sent to the glazier's and primed and glazed, and then returned
to the job and hung in their pro)>er positions. When priming
sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed,
else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted
requires before being primed to have the knots coated with
knotting. When the priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted
into its place ; each pane should fit easily with about T ’ B th in.
play all round. The glazier runs the putty round the rebates
with his hands, and then beds the glass in it, pushing it down
tight, and then further secures it by knocking in small nails,
called glaziers’ sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims up
the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on
the rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife. The sash
is then ready for painting. Large squares and plate-glass are
usually inserted when the sashes are hung to avoid risks of
breakage. For inside work the panes of glass are generally
secured with beads (not with putty), and in the best work
these heads are fixed with brass screws and caps to allow of easy
removal without breaking the beads and damaging the paint,
&c. In the case of glass in door panels where there is much
vibration and slamming, the glass is bedded in wash-leather
or india-rubber and secured with beads as before-mentioned.
The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet
in varying thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz, per sq.
Varhtin can * ,f ‘ * 1I1C * * n severa ' qualities of English
ailin'* or foreign manufacture. But there are many other
varieties—-obscured, fluted, enamelled, coloured and
ornamental, rolled and rough plate, British polished plate,
patent plate, fluted rolled, quarry rolled, chequered rough, and
a variety of figured rolled, and stained glass, and crown-glass
with bulls’-eyes in the centre.
Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares
of glass, which are held together hv reticulations of lead; these
are secured by means of copper wire to iron saddle bars, which
are let bto mortices in the wood frames or stone jambs. This
is formed with strips of lead, soldered at the angles ; the glass
is placed between the strips and the lead flattened over the
edges of glass to secure it. This is much used in public build¬
ings and private residences. In Weldon's method the saddle
bars are liedded in the centre of the strips of lead, thus
strengthening the frame of lead strips and giving a better
appearance.
Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate, usually ) in. thick, has
wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling
b the case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern
and skylights, screens and doors on the staircases of public
and warehouse buildings, in accordance with the London Building
Act. It is also used for the decks of ships and for port and cabb
lights, as it is much stronger than plab glass, and if fractured is
held together by the wit*.
Patent prismatic rolled glass, or “refrax ” (fig. 1), consists of an
effectual application of the well-known properties of the prism;
it absorbs all the light th^ strikes the windpw opening, and
diffuses it in the most effieffint manner possible in the darkest
portions of the apartment. It can be fixed in the eiditiary
way or placed over the existing glass.
Pavement fights (fig. 2) and stallboard lights are constructed
with iron frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic
glass, and are used to light basements. They
are placed on the pavement and under shop
fronts in the portion called the stallboard, and
are also inserted in iron coal plates.
Great skill has of late years been displayed b
the ornamentation of glass such as is seen in
public saloons, restaurants, for instance,
b bevelling the edges, silvering, brilliant cutting,
embossbg, bending, cutting shelving to fancy
shapes and polishing, and in glass ventilators.
There are several patent methods of root glazing,
such as are applied to railway stations, studios
and printing and other factories requir- „ .
ing light. Some of the first patents of
this kind were erected with wood glazing * la * la l-
bars ; these wore unsightly, since they required to
be of large sectional area when spanning a distance
of 7 or 8 ft., and also required to be constantly
painted. This was a source of trouble; the roof
was eonstanfiy leaking and, moreover, it was not
fire-resisting.
Of subsequent patents one includes the use of
steel T-bars, in which the glass is bedded and Fm. 1.—Prism
covered with a capping of copper or zinc secured Window Glass,
with bolts and nuts. Another employs steel bars
covered with lead ; and this is a very good method, as the bars are
of small section, require no painting, and arc also fiie-resisting.
There is one reason for preferring wood to steel, namely, that wood
does not expand and contract like steel does. After tin sun has been
on steel bars, especially those in long lengths, they tend to buckle
and then when cold contract, thus getting out of shape; there is also
the possibility liiat when expanding they may break the glass.
This is more noticeable in the case of non ventilating frames in this
glazing, which after having weathered for a year or two will begin
to get out of shape and so give trouble in opening and closing.
Care should be taken not to fit the glass in iron bars tightly, but
Fig. 2.-—Section through Prism Pavement Light, the direction of
light rays being indicated by arrows.
a good Jth in. play all round should be allowed. A few of the
systems of patent roof glazing will be described in the following
pages, together with illustrations.
The system of glazing known as the " British Challenge " (fig. 3),
with steel bars encased with a sheeting of 4-lb lead, is very simple
and durable, needs no painting, and can be fixed at as much as 8 ft.
clear bearings, with the bars spaced 2 ft. apart. The ends of the
bars rest on the wood or steel purlins or plates, and are cither notched
and screwed down, or simply fitted with a bracket which is screwed.
The bar is of T section with condensation grooves, and the lead
wings on top are turned down on to the glass after fitting. This
lead-covered steel liar
is a great improve¬
ment on the plain steel
bar as it is entirely
unaffected by smoke,
acids or exhaust fumes
from steam engines;
this is important in
the case of a railway
station, where the Fie. 3.—" British Flo. 4.—MeUowes'
fumes would otherwise Challenge " Glazing. Glazing,
eat the steel away and
so weaken the bars that in time they would snap. Another somewhat
similar system is known as "Mellowes' Eclipse Roof Glazing" (fig. 4).
It consists oi steel T-bars having lead wings on top to turn on to the
glass in a similar manner to the last, the top wings being double and
the underside of the bar having an additional wing to catch the con¬
densation. The Heywood combination gystem (fig. 3) is composed
of galvanized steel T-bars, sometimes encased in lead and sometimes
partly encased. It has a capping and condensation gutters of lead,
GLAZUNOV—GLEE
Fig. 5.—Haywood's
Glazing.
and the glass is bedded on asbestos packing to get a better bearing
edge, so as to be held more securely. Hope’s glazing is very similar,
but the bars are cither T or cross according to the span. The
" Perfection " glazing used by Messrs Helliwell & Co. (fig. 6) is com¬
posed of steel shaped T bars with copper capping, secured with bolts
and nuts ana having asbestos packing cm
top of tlie glass under the edges of the
capping. Pennycook's glazing is composed
of steel shaped T bars encased with lead
and lead wmgs. Rendle’s “ Invincible ”
glazing (fig. 7) is composed of steel T bars
with specially shaped coppor water and con¬
densation channels, all formed in the one
piece and resting on top of the X steel;
the glass rests on the zinc channel, and a
copper capping is fixed over the edges of
the glass and socured with bolts and nuts.
Deard's glazing is very similar, and is com¬
posed of T steel encased with lead; it
claims to save all drilling for fixing to iron
roofs. There are also other systems com-
Pcrfection " Glazing, posed of wood bars with condensation gutter
and capping of copper secured with bolts
and nuts, and asbestos packing with slight
differences in some minor matters, but these
systems arc but little used.
Cloisonne glass is a patent ornamental
glass formed by placing two pieces flat
against each other enclosing a species of
glass mosaic. Designs are worked and
shaped in gilt wire and placed on one sheet
of glass; the space between the wire is
then filled in with coloured beads, and
another sheet of glass is placed on top of
it to keep them in position, and the edges
of the glass are bound with linen, <Sc.,
to keep them firmly together.
Flo. 0 .—Helliwell’s
Fig. 7. —liendle's
" Invincible ’’ Glazing.
Glass is now used for decorative purposes, such as wall tiling
and ceilings ; it is coloured and decorated in almost any shade
Unla and presents a very effective appearance. An invention
building. * las been patented for building houses entirely of
glass: the walls are constructed of blocks or bricks
of opaque glass, the several walls being varied in thickness
according to the constructional requirements.
It is certainly true that daylight has much to do with the
sanitary condition of all buildings, and this being so the proper
distribution of daylight to a building is of the greatest possible
importance, and must be effected by an ample provision of
windows judiciously arranged. The heads of all windows should
be kept as near the ceiling as possible, as well to obtain easy
ventilation as to ensure good lighting. As far as is practicable
a building should be planned so that each room receives the
sun’s rays for some part of the day. This is rarely an easy
matter, especially in towns where the aspect of the building
is out of the architect’s hands. The best sites for light are
found in streets running north and south and east and west,
and lighting areas or courts in buildings should always if possible
be arranged on these lines. The task of adequately lighting
lofty city buildings has been greatly minimized by the introduc¬
tion of many forms of reflecting and intensifying contrivances,
which are used to deflect light into those apartments into which
daylight does not directly penetrate, and which would otherwise
require the use of artificial light to render them of any use;
the most useful of these inventions are the various forms of
prism glass already referred to and illustrated in this article.
See L. F. Day, Stained and Painted Glass ', and W. Eckstein,
Interior Lighting. (J. Bt.)
GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH (1865- ),
Russian musical composer, was bom in St Petersburg on the
10th of August 1865, his father being a publisher and bookseller.
He showed an early talent for music, and studied for a year or
so with Rimsky-Korsakov. At the age of sixteen he composed
a symphony (afterwards elaborated and published as op. 5),
but his opus 1 was a quartet in D, followed by a pianoforte
suite on S-a-c-h-a, the diminutive of his name Alexander. In
1884 he was taken up by Liszt, and soon became known as a
composer. His first symphony was played that year at Weimar,
and he appeared as a conductor at the Paris exhibition in 1889.
In 1897 his fourth and fifth symphonies were performed in London
under his own conducting. In 1900 he became professor at the
St Petersburg conservatoire. His separate works, including
orchestral symphonies, dance music and songs, make a long
list. Glazunov is a leading representative of the modem Russian
school, and a master of orchestration; his tendency as compared
with contemporary Russian composers is towards classical form,
and he was much influenced by Brahms, though in “ programme
music ” he is represented by such works as his symphonic poems
The Forest, Stenka Rosin, The Kremlin and his suite Aus dem
Mittelalter. His ballet music, as in Raymonds, achieved much
popularity.
GLEBE (Lat. glaeba, g leha, clod or lump of earth, hence soil,
land), in ecclesiastical law the land devoted to .the maintenance
of the incumbent of a church. Bum (Ecclesiastical Law, s.v.
“ Glebe Lands ”) says : “ Every church of common right is
entitled to house and glebe, and the assigning of, them at the
first was of such absolute necessity that without them no church
could be regularly consecrated. The house and glebe are both
comprehended under the word manse, of which the rule of the
canon law is, sancitum est ul unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus
integer absque ullo servitio tribuotur." In the technical language
of English law the fee-simple of the glebe is said to be in abeyance,
that is, it exists “ only in the remembrance, expectation and
intendment of the law.” But the freehold is in the parson,
although at common law he could alienate the same only with
proper consent,---that is, in his case, with the consent of the bishop.
The disabling statutes of Elizabeth (Alienation by Bishops,
1559, and Dilapidations, &c„ 1571) made void all alienations
by ecclesiastical persons, except leases for the term of twenty-
one years or three lives. By an act of 1842 (5 & 6 Viet, c. 27,
Ecclesiastical Leases) glebe land and buildings may be let on
lease for farming purposes for fourteen years or on an improving
lease for twenty years. But the parsonage house and ten acres
of glebe situate most conveniently for occupation must not be
leased. By the Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts of 1842 (5 & 6
Viet. c. 108) and 1858 glebe lands may be let on building leases
for not more than ninety-nine years and on mining leases for
not more than sixty years. The Tithe Act 1842, the Glebe
Lands Act 1888 and various other acts make provision for the
sale, purchase, exchange and gift of glebe lands. In Scots
ecclesiastical law, the manse now signifies the minister’s dwelling-
house, the glebe being the land to which he is entitled in addition
to his stipend. All parish ministers appear to be entitled to a
glebe, except the ministers in royal burglis proper, who cannot
claim a glebe unless there be a landowner's district annexed ;
and even in that case, when there arc two ministers, it is only
the first who has a claim.
See PhilUmore, Ecclesiastical Law (2nd ed.) ; Cripps, Law of
Church and Clergv ; Leach, Tithe Acts (6th ed.) ; Dart, Vendors and
Purchasers (7th ed.).
GLEE, a musical term for a part-song of a particular kind.
The word, as well as the thing, is essentially confined to England.
The technical meaning has been explained in different ways;
but there is little doubt of its derivation through the ordinary
sense of the word (i.e. merriment, entertainment) from the A.S.
gleov, gleo, corresponding to Lat. gaudium, delectamentum, hence
ludus musicus ; on the other hand, a musical “ glee ” is by no
means necessarily a merry composition. Gieeman (A.S. “gleo-
man ”) is translated simply as “ musicus ” or “ cantor,” to which
the less distinguished titles of “ minus, jocista, scurra,” are
frequently added in old dictionaries. The accomplishments
and social position of the gieeman seem to have been as varied
as those of the Provencal “ joglar.” There are early examples of
the word “ glee ” being used as synonymous with harmony or
concerted music. The former explanation, for instance, is
given in the Promptorium parvulorum, a work of the 15th century.
Glee in its present meaning signifies, broadly speaking, a piece
of concerted vocal music, generally unaccompanied, and for
male voices, though exceptions are found to the last two restric¬
tions. The number of voices ought not to be less than three.
As regards musical form, the glee is little distinguished from the
catch,—the two terms being often used indiscriminately for the
n 6 GLAZING
GLAZING. —The business of the glazier may be confined to
the mere fitting and setting of glass (<?.«.), even the cutting up
of the plates into squares being generally an independent art,
requiring a degree of tact and judgment not necessarily possessed
by the building artificer. The tools generally used by the glazier
are the diamond for cutting, laths or straight edges, tee square,
measuring rule, glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer, duster,
sash tool, two-foot rule and a glazier’s cradle for carrying the
glass. Glaziers’ materials are glass, putty, priming or paint,
springs, wash-leather or india-rubber for door panels, size, black.
The glass is supplied by the manufacture - and cut to the sizes
required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is made
of whiting and linseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs
of i or i cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over,
and when found to be getting hard in the keg a little oil
should be put on it to keep it moist. Priming is a thin coat of
paint with a small amount of red lead in it. In the majority
of cases after the sashes lot the windows are fitted they are
sent to the glazier's and primed and glazed, and then returned
to the job and hung in their pro)>er positions. When priming
sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed,
else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted
requires before being primed to have the knots coated with
knotting. When the priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted
into its place ; each pane should fit easily with about T ’ B th in.
play all round. The glazier runs the putty round the rebates
with his hands, and then beds the glass in it, pushing it down
tight, and then further secures it by knocking in small nails,
called glaziers’ sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims up
the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on
the rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife. The sash
is then ready for painting. Large squares and plate-glass are
usually inserted when the sashes are hung to avoid risks of
breakage. For inside work the panes of glass are generally
secured with beads (not with putty), and in the best work
these heads are fixed with brass screws and caps to allow of easy
removal without breaking the beads and damaging the paint,
&c. In the case of glass in door panels where there is much
vibration and slamming, the glass is bedded in wash-leather
or india-rubber and secured with beads as before-mentioned.
The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet
in varying thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz, per sq.
Varhtin can * ,f ‘ * 1I1C * * n severa ' qualities of English
ailin'* or foreign manufacture. But there are many other
varieties—-obscured, fluted, enamelled, coloured and
ornamental, rolled and rough plate, British polished plate,
patent plate, fluted rolled, quarry rolled, chequered rough, and
a variety of figured rolled, and stained glass, and crown-glass
with bulls’-eyes in the centre.
Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares
of glass, which are held together hv reticulations of lead; these
are secured by means of copper wire to iron saddle bars, which
are let bto mortices in the wood frames or stone jambs. This
is formed with strips of lead, soldered at the angles ; the glass
is placed between the strips and the lead flattened over the
edges of glass to secure it. This is much used in public build¬
ings and private residences. In Weldon's method the saddle
bars are liedded in the centre of the strips of lead, thus
strengthening the frame of lead strips and giving a better
appearance.
Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate, usually ) in. thick, has
wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling
b the case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern
and skylights, screens and doors on the staircases of public
and warehouse buildings, in accordance with the London Building
Act. It is also used for the decks of ships and for port and cabb
lights, as it is much stronger than plab glass, and if fractured is
held together by the wit*.
Patent prismatic rolled glass, or “refrax ” (fig. 1), consists of an
effectual application of the well-known properties of the prism;
it absorbs all the light th^ strikes the windpw opening, and
diffuses it in the most effieffint manner possible in the darkest
portions of the apartment. It can be fixed in the eiditiary
way or placed over the existing glass.
Pavement fights (fig. 2) and stallboard lights are constructed
with iron frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic
glass, and are used to light basements. They
are placed on the pavement and under shop
fronts in the portion called the stallboard, and
are also inserted in iron coal plates.
Great skill has of late years been displayed b
the ornamentation of glass such as is seen in
public saloons, restaurants, for instance,
b bevelling the edges, silvering, brilliant cutting,
embossbg, bending, cutting shelving to fancy
shapes and polishing, and in glass ventilators.
There are several patent methods of root glazing,
such as are applied to railway stations, studios
and printing and other factories requir- „ .
ing light. Some of the first patents of
this kind were erected with wood glazing * la * la l-
bars ; these wore unsightly, since they required to
be of large sectional area when spanning a distance
of 7 or 8 ft., and also required to be constantly
painted. This was a source of trouble; the roof
was eonstanfiy leaking and, moreover, it was not
fire-resisting.
Of subsequent patents one includes the use of
steel T-bars, in which the glass is bedded and Fm. 1.—Prism
covered with a capping of copper or zinc secured Window Glass,
with bolts and nuts. Another employs steel bars
covered with lead ; and this is a very good method, as the bars are
of small section, require no painting, and arc also fiie-resisting.
There is one reason for preferring wood to steel, namely, that wood
does not expand and contract like steel does. After tin sun has been
on steel bars, especially those in long lengths, they tend to buckle
and then when cold contract, thus getting out of shape; there is also
the possibility liiat when expanding they may break the glass.
This is more noticeable in the case of non ventilating frames in this
glazing, which after having weathered for a year or two will begin
to get out of shape and so give trouble in opening and closing.
Care should be taken not to fit the glass in iron bars tightly, but
Fig. 2.-—Section through Prism Pavement Light, the direction of
light rays being indicated by arrows.
a good Jth in. play all round should be allowed. A few of the
systems of patent roof glazing will be described in the following
pages, together with illustrations.
The system of glazing known as the " British Challenge " (fig. 3),
with steel bars encased with a sheeting of 4-lb lead, is very simple
and durable, needs no painting, and can be fixed at as much as 8 ft.
clear bearings, with the bars spaced 2 ft. apart. The ends of the
bars rest on the wood or steel purlins or plates, and are cither notched
and screwed down, or simply fitted with a bracket which is screwed.
The bar is of T section with condensation grooves, and the lead
wings on top are turned down on to the glass after fitting. This
lead-covered steel liar
is a great improve¬
ment on the plain steel
bar as it is entirely
unaffected by smoke,
acids or exhaust fumes
from steam engines;
this is important in
the case of a railway
station, where the Fie. 3.—" British Flo. 4.—MeUowes'
fumes would otherwise Challenge " Glazing. Glazing,
eat the steel away and
so weaken the bars that in time they would snap. Another somewhat
similar system is known as "Mellowes' Eclipse Roof Glazing" (fig. 4).
It consists oi steel T-bars having lead wings on top to turn on to the
glass in a similar manner to the last, the top wings being double and
the underside of the bar having an additional wing to catch the con¬
densation. The Heywood combination gystem (fig. 3) is composed
of galvanized steel T-bars, sometimes encased in lead and sometimes
partly encased. It has a capping and condensation gutters of lead,
GLEIWITZ—
A. Sauer in 1882. A good selection of Gleim’s poetry will be found
in F. Muncker, AnakrtonHher uni preuszisck-patnotische Lyrihtr
(1804). See W. K6rte, Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen uni Schriflen
(1811). His correspondence with Hcinse was published in 2 vols.
(1894-1896), with Uz (1889), in both cases edited by C. Schfiddekopf.
GLEIWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, on the Klodnitz, and the railway between Oppeln and
Cracow, 40 m. S.E. of the former town. Pop. (1875) 14,156;
(1905) 61,324. It possesses two Protestant and four Roman
Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining school, a convent, a
hospital, two orphanages, and barracks. Gleiwitz is the centre of
the mining industry of Upper Silesia. Besides the royal foundry,
with which are connected machine manufactories and boiler-
works, there are other foundries, meal mills and manufactories
of wire, gas pipes, cement and paper.
See B. Nietsche, Gesohichte der Stadt Gleiwitz (1886); and Seidel,
Die kdnigltche Eisengiesserei zu Gleiwitz (Berlin, 1896).
GLENALHOND, a glen of Perthshire, Scotland, situated to the
S.E. of Loch Tay. It comprises the upper two-thirds of the
course of the Almond, or a distance of 20 m. For the greater
part it follows a direction east by south, but at Newton Bridge
it inclines sharply to the south-east for 3 m., and narrows to such
a degree that this portion is known as the Small (or Sma’) Glen.
At the end of this pass the glen expands and runs eastwards as
far as the well-known public school of Trinity College, where it
may be considered to terminate. The most interesting spot in
the glen is that traditionally known as the grave of Ossian. The
district east of Buchanty, near which are the remains of a Roman
camp, is said to be the Drumtochty of Ian Maclaren’s stories.
The mountainous region at the head of the glen is dominated by
Ben y Hone or Ben Chonzie (3048 ft. high).
GLENCAIRN, EARLS OP. The rst earl of Glencaim in the
Scottish peerage was Alexander Cunningham (d. 1488), a son
of Sir Robert Cunningham of Kilmaurs in Ayrshire. Made a lord
of the Scottish parliament as Lord Kilmaurs not later than 1469,
Cunningham was created earl of Glencaim in 1488 ; and a few
weeks later he was killed at the battle of Sauchiebum whilst
fight ing for King J ames III. against his rebellious son, afterwards
James IV. His son and successor, Robert (d. c. 1490), was
deprived of his earldom by James IV., but before 1505 this had
been revived in favour of Robert's son, Cuthbert (d. c. 1540),
who became 3rd earl of Glencaim, and whose son Wili.iam
(c, 1490-1547) was the 4th earl. This noble, an early adherent of
the Reformation, was during his public life frequently in the
pay and service of England, although he fought on the Scottish
side at the battle of Solway Moss (1542), where he was taken
prisoner. Upon his release early in 1543 he promised to adhere
to Henry VIII., who was anxious to bring Scotland under his
rule, and in 1544 he entered into other engagements with Henry,
undertaking inter alia to deliver Mary queen of Scots to the
English king. However, he was defeated by James Hamilton,
earl of Arran, and the project failed; Glencaim then deserted
his fellow-conspirator, Matthew Stewart, earl of Lennox, and
came to terms with the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, and her
party.
William’s son, Alexander, the 5th earl (d. 1574), was a more
pronounced reformer than his father, whose English sympathies
he shared, and was among the intimate friends of John Knox.
In March 1557 he signed the letter asking Knox to return to
Scotland; in the following December he subscribed the first
“ band ” of the Scottish reformers ; and he anticipated Lord
James Stewart, afterwards the regent Murray, in taking up arms
against the regent, Mary of Guise, in 1558. Then, joined by
Stewart and the lords of the congregation, he fought against
the regent, and took part in the attendant negotiations with
Elizabeth of England; whom he visited in London in December
1560. When in August 1561 Mary queen of Scots returned to
Scotland, Glencaim was made a member of her council; he
remained loyal to her after she had been deserted by Murray,
but in a few weeks rejoined Murray and the other Protestant
lords, returning to Mary’s side in 1566. After the queen had
married the earl of Bothtell she was again forsaken by Glen-
cairn, who fought against her at Carberry Hill and at Langside.
GLENCORSE ii 9
The earl, who was always to the fore in destroying churches,
abbeys and other “ monuments of idolatry,” died on the 23rd of
November 1574. His short satirical poem against the Grey Friars
is printed by Knox in his History of the Reformation.
JAmes, the 7th earl (d. e. 1622), took part in the seizure of
James VI., called the raid of Ruthven in 1582. William, the
9th earl (c. 1610-1664), a somewhat lukewarm Royalist during
the Civil War, was a party to the “ engagement ” between the
king and the Scots in 1647 ; for this proceeding the Scottish
parliament deprived him of his office as lord justice-general,
and nominally of his earldom. In March 1653 Charles II.
commissioned the earl to command the Royalist forces in Scotland,
pending the arrival of General John Middleton, and the insurrec¬
tion of this year is generally known as Glencaim’s rising. After
its failure he was betrayed and imprisoned, but although excepted
from pardon he was not executed; and when Charles II. was
restored he became lord chancellor of Scotland. After a dispute
with his former friend, James Sharp, archbishop of St Andrews,
he died at Belton in Haddingtonshire on the 30th of May 1664.
This earl’s son John (d. 1703), who followed his brother Alexander
as nth earl in 1670, was a supporter of the Revolution of 1688.
His descendant, James, the 14th earl (1749—1791), is known as
the friend and patron of Robert Bums. He performed several
useful services for the poet; and when he died on the 30th of
January 1791 Bums wrote a Lament beginning, “ The wind
blew hollow frae the hills,” and ending with the lines, “ But
I’ll remember thee, Glencaim, and a’ that thou hast done for me.”
The 14th earl was never married, and when his brother and
successor, John, died childless in September 1796 the earldom
became extinct, although it was claimed by Sir Adam Fergusson,
Bart., a descendant of the 10th earl.
GLENCOE, a glen in Scotland, situated in the north of Argyll¬
shire. Beginning at the north-eastern base of Buchaille Etive,
it takes a gentle north-westerly trend for 10 m. to its mouth
on Loch l.even, a salt-water arm of Ixich Linnhe. On both sides
it is shut in by wild and precipitous mountains and its bed is
swept by the Coe—Ossian’s “ dark Cona,”—which rises in the
hills at its eastern end. About half-way down the glen the
stream forms the tiny Loch Triochatan. Towards Invercoe
the landscape acquires a softer beauty. Here Lord Strathcona,
who, in 1894, purchased the heritage of the Macdonalds of
Glencoe, built his stately mansion of Mount Royal. The principal
mountains on the south side are the various peaks of Buachaille
Etive, Stoh Dearg (3345 ft.), Bidean nam Bian (3756 ft.) and
Meall Mor (2215 ft.), and on the northern side the Pap of Glencoe
(2430 ft.), Sgor nam Fiannaidh (3168 ft.) and Meall Dearg
(3118 ft.). Points of interest are the DeviJ’s Staircase, a steep,
boulder-strewn “cut” (1754 ft. high) across the hills to Fort
William ; the Study : the cave of Ossian, where tradition says
that he was born, and the Iona cross erected in 1883 by a
Macdonald in memory of his clansmen who perished in the
massacre of 1692. About 1 m. beyond the head of the glen is
Kingshouse, a relic of the old coaching days, when it was
customary for tourists to drive from Ballachulish via Tyndrum
to Loch Lomond. Now the Glencoe excursion is usually made
from Oban—by rail to Achnacloich, steamer up Loch Etive,
coach up Glen Etive and down Glencoe and steamer at
Ballachulish to Oban. One mile to the west of the Glen lies the
village of Ballachulish (pop. 1143). It is celebrated for its
slate quarries, which have been worked since 1760. The industry
provides employment for 600 men and the annual output
averages 30,000 tons. The slate is of excellent quality and is
used throughout the United Kingdom. Ballachulish is a station
on the Callander and Oban extension line to Fort William
(Caledonian railway). The pier and ferry arc some 2 m. W. of
the village.
GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS, Lord (1810-189]), Scottish
judge, son of a minister, was bom at Edinburgh on the 21st of
August 1810. From Glasgow University he went to Balliol
College, Oxford. He was admitted a member of the Faculty
of Advocates, and soon became known as an eloquent and
successful pleader. In 1852 he was made solicitor-general for
GLENDALOUGH—GLENDOWER, OWEN
120
Scotland in Lord Derby’s first ministry, three months later
becoming I-ord Advocate. In 1858 he resumed this office in
Lord Derby’s second administration, being returned to the
House of Commons as member for Stamford. He was responsible
for the Universities of Scotland Act of 1858, and in the same
year he war elevated to the bench as lord justice clerk. In i86j
he was made lord justice general of Scotland and lord president
of the court of session, taking the title of Lord Glencorse.
Outside his judicial, duties he was responsible for much useful
public work, particularly in the department of higher education.
In i860 he was elected chancellor of Edinburgh University,
having already been rector of the university of Glasgow. He
died on the 20th August 1891.
GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF, a mountain glen of Co.
Wicklow, Ireland, celebrated and frequently visited both on
account of its scenic beauty and, more especially, because of the
collection of ecclesiastical remains situated in it. Fortunately
for its appearance, it is not approached by any railway, but
services Wf cars ar* maintained to several points, of which
Rathdrum, 8J m. S.E., is the nearest railway station, on the
Dublin & South-Eastern. The glen is traversed by the stream
of Glenealn, a tributary of the Avonmore, expanding into small
loughs, the Upper and the Lower. The former of these is
walled by the abrupt heights of Camaderry (2296 ft.) and
Lugduff (2176 ft.), and here the extreme narrowness of the valley
adds to its grandeur; while lower down, where it widens, the
romantic character of the scenery is enhanced by the scattered
ruins of the former monastic settlement. These ruins have
the collective name of the “ Seven Churches.” The settlement
owed its foundation to the hermit St Kevin, who is reputed to
have died on the 3rd of June 618 ; and it rapidly became a scat
of learning of wide fame, but suffered much at the hands of the
Danes and the Anglo-Normans. In close proximity to an hotel,
and to one another, in an enclosure, are a round tower, one of the
finest in Ireland, no ft. high and 52 in circumference ; St Kevin's
kitchen or church (closely resembling the house of St Columba at
Kells), which measures 25 ft. by 15, with a high-pitched roof and
round belfry—supposed to be the earliest example of its type ;
and the cathedral, about 73 ft. in total length by 51 in width.
This possesses a good square-headed doorway, and an east
window of ornate character (the chancel being of later date
than the nave), and there are also some early tombs, but the
whole is in a decayed condition. In the enclosure are also a
Lady chapel, chiefly remarkable for its doorway of wrought
granite, in a style of architecture resembling Greek ; a priest’s
house (restored), and slight remains of St Chiaran’s church.
Here is also St Kevin's cross, a granite monolith never completed;
and the enclosure is entered by a fine though dilapidated gateway.
Other neighbouring remains are Trinity or the Ivy Church,
towards Laragh, with beautiful detailed work ; St Saviour’s
monastery, carefully restored under the direction of the Board
of Works, with a chancel arch of three orders (re-erected);
while on the shores of the upper lough are Reefert Church,
the burial-place of the O’Toole family, and Teampull-na-skellig,
the church of the rock. St Kevin’s bed is a cave approachable
with difficulty, above the lough, probably a natural cavity
artificially enlarged, to which attaches the legend of St Kevin's
hermitage. Along the valley there are a number of monuments
and stone crosses of various sizes and styles. The whole collec¬
tion forms, with the possible exception of Clonmacnoise in King’s
county, the most striking monument of monasticism in Ireland.
GLENDOWER, OWEN (r. 1359-1415), the last to claim the
title of an independent prince of Wales, more correctly described
as Owain ab Gruffydd, lord of Giyndyvrdwy in Merioneth, was
a man of good family, with two great houses, Sycharth and
Giyndyvrdwy in the north, besides smaller estates in south
Wales. His father was called Gruffydd Vyctaan, and his mother
Helen ; on both sides He had pretensions to be descended from
the old Welsh princes. 'Owen was probably bom about 1359,
studied law at Westminster, was squire to the earl of Arundel,
and a witness for Grosvenor in the famous Scrope and Grosvenor
lawsuit in 1386. Afterward%he was in the service of Henry of
Bolingbroke, the future king, though by an error it has been
commonly stated that he was squire to Richard II. Welsh
sjrmpathies were, however, on Richard's side, and combined
with a personal quarrel to make Owen the leader of a national
revolt.
The lords of Giyndyvrdwy had an ancient feud with their
English neighbours, die Greys of Ruthin. Reginald Grey
neglected to summon Owen, as was his duty, for the Scottish
expedition of 1400, and then charged him with treason for
failing to appear. Owen thereupon took up arms, and when
Henry IV. returned from Scotland in September he found north
Wales ablaze. A hurried campaign under the king’s personal
command was ineffectual. Owen’s estates were declared forfeit
and vigorous measures threatened by the English government.
Still the revolt gathered strength. In the spring of 1401 Owen
was raiding in soutli Wales, and credited with the intention of
invading England. A second campaign by the king in the
autumn was defeated, like that of the previous year, through
bad weather and the Fabian tactics of the Welsh. Owen had
already been intriguing with Henry Percy (Hotspur), who
during 1401 held command in north Wales, and with Percy’s
brother-in-law, Sir Edmund Mortimer. During the winter of
1401-1402 his plans were further extended to negotiations with
the rebel Irish, the Scots and the French. In the spring he had
grown so strong that he attacked Ruthin, and took Grey prisoner.
In the summer he defeated the men of Hereford under Edmund
Mortimer at Pilleth, near Brynglas, in Radnorshire. Mortimer
was taken prisoner und treated with such friendliness as to
make the English doubt his loyalty; within a few months he
married Owen’s daughter. In the autumn the English king
was for the third time driven ‘‘ bootless home and weather¬
beaten back.” The few English strongholds left in Wales were
now hard pressed, and Owen boasted that he would meet his
enemy in the field. Nevertheless, in Muy 1403 Henry of Mon¬
mouth was allowed to sack Sycharth and Giyndyvrdwy un¬
opposed. Owen had a greater plot in hand. The Percies were
to rise in arms, and meeting Owen at Shrewsbury, overwhelm
the prince before help could arrive. But Owen’s share in the
undertaking miscarried through his own defeat near Carmarthen
on the 12til of July, and Percy was crushed at Shrewsbury ten
days later. Still the Welsh revolt was never so formidable.
Owen styled himself openly prince of Wales, established a regular
government, and called a parliament at Machynlleth. As a
result of a formal alliance the French sent troops to his aid, and
in the course of 1404 the great castles of Harlech and Aberystwith
fell into his hands. ,
In the spring of 1405 Owen was at the height of his power ;
but the tide turned suddenly. Prince Henry defeated the Welsh
at Grosmont in March, and twice again in May, when Owen’s
son Griffith and his chancellor were made prisoners. Scrape’s
rebellion in the North prevented the English from following
up their success. The earl of Northumberland took refuge in
Wales, and the tripartite alliance of Owen with Percy and
Mortimer (transferred by Shakespeare to an earlier occasion)
threatened a renewal of danger. But Northumberland's plots
and the active help of the French proved ineffective. The
English under Prince Henry gained ground steadily, and the
recovery of Aberystwith, after a long siege, in the autumn of
1408 marked the end of serious warfare. In February 1409
Harlech was also recaptured, and Owen’s wife, daughter and
grandchildren were taken prisoners. Owen himself still held
out and even continued to intrigue with the French. In July
1415 Gilbert Talbot had power to treat with Owen and his
supporters and admit them to pardon. Owen’s name does not
occur in the document renewing Talbot's powers in February
1416; according to Adam of Usk he died in 1415. Later English
writers allege that he died of starvation in the mountains ; but
Welsh legend represents him as spending a peaceful old age with
his sons-in-law at Ewyas and Monington in Herefordshire, till
his death and burial at the latter place. The dream of an
independent and united Wales was never nearer realization than
under Owen’s leadership. The disturbed state of England
121
GLENEDG—GLEYRE
helped him, but he was indeed a remarkable personality, and
has not undeservedly become a national hero. Sentiment and
tradition have magnified his achievements, and confused his
career with tales of portents and magical powers. Owen left
many bastard children; his legitimate representative in 1433
was his daughter Alice, wife of Sir John Scudamore of Ewyas.
The facts of Owen’s life mast be pieced together from scattered
references in contemporary .chronicles and documents; p or haps the
most important are Adam of Usk’s Chronicle and Ellis’s Original
Letters. On the Welsh side something is given by the bards lolo
Goch and Lewis Glyn Cothi. For modem accounts consult J. H.
Wylie’s History of England render Henry IV. (4 vols., 1884-1898) ;
A. C. Bradley's popular biography; and Professor Tout’s article in the
Dictionary of National Biography. (C. L. K.)
GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT, Baron (1778-1866), eldest
son of Charles Grant (?.».), chairman of the directors of the
East India Company, was born in India on the 26th of October
1778, and was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, of
which he became a fellow in 1802. Called to the bar in 1807,
he was elected member of parliament for the Inverness burghs
in 1807, and having gained some reputation as a speaker in the
House of Commons, he was made a lord of the treasury in
December 1813, an office which he held until August 1819, when
he became secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland and a -
privy councillor. In 1823 he was appointed vice-president of
the board of trade; from September 1827 to June 1828 he was
president of the board and treasurer of the navy ; then joining
the Whigs, he was president of the board of control under Earl
Grey and Lord Melbourne from November 1830 to November
1834. At the board of control Grant was primarily responsible
for the act of 1833, which altered the constitution of the govern¬
ment of India. In April 1833 he became secretary for war and
the colonies, and was created Baron Glenelg. His term of office
was a stormy one. His differences with Sir Benjamin d’Urban
(?•*'•)> governor of Cape Colony, were serious; but more so were
those with King William IV. and others over the administration
of Canada. He was still secretary when the Canadian rebellion
broke out in 1837 ; his wavering and feeble policy was fiercely
attacked in parliament; he became involved in disputes with
the carl of Durham, and the movement for his supercession found
supporters even among his colleagues in the cabinet. In February
1839 he resigned, receiving consolation in the shape qf a pension
of £2000 a year. From 1818 until he was made a peer Grant
represented the county of Inverness in parliament, and he has
been called “the last of the Canningites.” Living mainly
abtpad during the concluding years of his life, he died unmarried
at Cannes on the 23rd of April 1866 when his title became
extinct.
Glenelg’s brother, Sir Robert Grant (1779-1838), who was
third wrangler in 1801, was, like his brother, a fellow of Magdalene
College, Cambridge, and a barrister. From 1818 to 1834 he
represented various constituencies in parliament, where he was
chiefly prominent for his persistent efforts to relieve the dis¬
abilities of the Jews. 1 In June 1834 he was appointed governor
of Bombay, and he died in India on the 9th of July 1838. . Grant
wrote a Sketch of the History of the East India Co. (1813), and is
also known as a writer of hymns.
GLENELG, a municipal town and watering-place of Adelaide
county, South Australia, on Holdfast Bay, 6J m. by rail S.S.W.
of the city of Adelaide. Pop. (1901) 3949. It is a popular
summer resort, connected with Adelaide by two lines of railway.
In the vicinity is the “ Old Gum Tree ” under which South
Australia was proclaimed British territory by Governor Hind-
marsh in 1836.
GLENGARRIFT, or Glengariff (“Rough Glen ”), a celebrated
resort of tourists in summer and invalids in winter, in the west
riding of county Cork, Ireland, on Glengarriff Harbour, an inlet
on the northern side of Bantry Bay, n m. by coach road from
Bantry on the Cork, Bandon & South Coast railway. Beyond
its hotels, Glepgarriff is only a small village, but the island-
studded harbour, the narrow, glen at its head and the surrounding
(Sir S. Walpole ( History of England, vol. v.) is wrong in stating
that Charles Grant introduced bills to remove Jewish disabilities in
1833'and 1834. They were introduced by his brother Robert.
of mountains, afford most attractive views, and its situation on
the “ Prince of Wales’ ” route travelled by King Edward VII.
in 1848, and on a fine mountain coach road from Macroom,
brings it into the knowledge of many travellers to Killamey.
Thackeray wrote enthusiastically of the harbour. The glaciated
rocks of the glen are clothed with vegetation of peculiar luxuri¬
ance, flourishing in the mild climate which has given Glengarriff
its high reputation as a health resort for those suffering from
pulmonary complaints.
GLEN GREY, a division of the Cape province south of the
Stormberg, adjoining on the east the Transkeian Territories. Fop.
(* 9 ° 4 ) 5S,i°7- Chief town Lady Frere, 32 m. NJL of Queens¬
town. The district is well watered and fertile, and targe quantities
of cereals are grown. Over 96 % of the inhabitants are of the
Zulu-Xosa (Kaffir) race, and a considerable part of the'district
was settled during the Kaffir wars of Cape Colony by Tembu
(Tambookies) who were granted a location by the colonial
government in recognition of their loyalty to the .British.
Act No. 25 of 1894 qf the Cape parliament, passed at the instance
of Cecil Rhodes, which laid down the basis upon which is effected
the change of land tenure by natives from communal to indii idual
holdings, and also dealt with native local self-government and
the labour question, applied in the first instance to this division,
and is known as the Glen Grey Act (see Cape Colony : History).
The provisions of the act respecting individual land tenure and
local self-government were in 1898 applied, with certain modifica¬
tions, to the Transkeian Territories. The division is named
after Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony 1854-1861.
GLENS FALLS, a village of Warren county, New York, U.S.A.,
55 m. N. of Troy, on the Hudson river. Pop. (1890) 9509;
(1900) 12,613, of whom 1762 were foreign-bom; (roro, census)
15,243. Glens Falls is served by the Delaware & Hudson and
the Hudson Valley (electric) railways. The village contains a
state armoury, the Crandall free public library, a Y.M.C.A.
building, the Park hospital, an old ladies' home, and St Mary’s
(Roman Catholic) and Glens Falls (non-sectarian) academies.
There arc two private parks, open to the public, and a water¬
works system is maintained by the village. An iron bridge
crosses the river just below the falls, connecting Glens Falls and
South Glens Falls (pop. in 1905, 2097). The falls of the Hudson
here furnish a fine water-power, which is utilized, in connexion
with steam and electricity, in the manufacture of lumber, paper
and wood pulp, women’s clothing, shirts, collars and cuffs, &c.
In 1905 the village's factory products were valued at $4,780,331.
About 12 m. above Glens Falls, on the Hudson, a massive stone
dam has been erected ; here electric power, distributed to a large
area, is generated. In the neighbourhood*of Glens Falls are
valuable quarries of black marble and limestone, and lime,
plaster and Portland cement works. Glens Falls was settled
about the close of the French and Indian War (1763), and was
incorporated as a village in 1839.
GLENTILT, a glen in*the extreme north of Perthshire, Scotland.
Beginning at the confines of Aberdeenshire, it follows a north¬
westerly direction excepting for the last 4 m., when it runs
due S. to Blair Atholl. It is watered throughout by the Tilt,
which enters the Garry after a course of 14 m., and receives on
its right the Tarff, which forms some beautiful falls just above
the confluence, and on the left the Fender, which has some
fine falls also. The attempt of the 6th duke of Atholl (1814-
1864) to dose the glen to the public was successfully contested
by the Scottish Rights of Way Society. The group of mountains—
Cam nan Gabhar (3505 ft.), Ben y Gloe (367 r) and Cam Liath
(3193)—on its left side dominate the lower half of the glen.
Marble of good quality is occasionally quarried in the glen, and
the rock formation has attracted the attention of geologists
from the time of James Hutton.
GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL (1806-1874), French
painter, of Swiss origin, was bom at Chevilly in. the canton of
Vaud on the 2nd of May 1806. His father and mother died
while he was yet a boy of some eight or nine years of age; and
he was brought up by an uncle at Lyons, who sent him to the
industrial school of that city. Gomg up to Paris a lad of
122
GLIDDON—GLINKA, M. I.
seventeen or nineteen, he spent four years in close artistic study—
in Herseni's studio, in Suisse's academy, in the galleries of the
Louvre. To this period of laborious application succeeded
four years of meditative inactivity in Italy, where he became
acquainted with Horace Vernet and Leopold Robert; and six
years more were consumed in adventurous wanderings in Greece,
Egypt, Nubia and Syria. At Cairo he was attacked with
ophthalmia, and in the Lebanon he was struck down by fever;
and he returned to Lyons in shattered health. On his recovery
he proceeded to Paris, and, fixing his modest studio in the rue
de University, began carefully to work out the conceptions which
had been slowly shaping themselves in his mind. Mention is
made of two decorative panels—“ Diana leaving the Bath," and
a “ Young Nubian ”—as almost the first fruits of his genius;
but these did not attract public attention till long after, and the
painting by which he practically opened his artistic career was
the “ Apocalyptic Vision of St John," sent to the Salon of 1840.
This was followed in 1843 by “ Evening,” which at the time
received a medal of the second class, and afterwards became
widely popu lar under the title of the Lost I Uusions. It represents
a poet seated on the bank of a river, with drooping head and
wearied frame, letting his lyre slip from a careless hand, and
gazing sadly at a bright company of maidens whose song is
slowly dying from his ear as their boat is borne slowly from his
sight.
In spite of the success which attended these first ventures,
Gleyre retired from public competition, and spent the rest of
his life in quiet devotion to his own artistic ideals, neither seeking
the easy applause of the crowd, nor turning his art into a means
of aggrandizement and wealth. After 1845, when he exhibited
the “ Separation of the Apostles,” he contributed nothing to
the Salon except the “ Dance of the Bacchantes ” in 1849. Yet
he laboured steadily and was abundantly productive. He had
an “ infinite capacity of taking pains,” and when asked by what
method he attained to such marvellous perfection of workman¬
ship, he would reply, “ En y pensant loujours.” A long series
of years often intervened between the first conception of a piece
and its embodiment, and years not unfrequendy between the
first and the final stage of the embodiment itself. A landscape
was apparently finished; even his fellow artists would consider
it done; Gleyre alone was conscious that he had not “ found
his sky." Happily for French art this high-toned kboriousness
became influential on a large number of Gleyre’s younger
contemporaries; for when Delaroche gave up his studio of
instruction he recommended his pupils to apply to Gleyre, who
at once agreed to give them lessons twice a week, and character¬
istically refused to take any fee or reward. By instinct and
principle he was a confirmed celibate: “ Fortune, talent, health,
—he had everything; but he was married,” was his lamentation
over a friend. Though he lived in almost complete retirement
from public life, he took a keen interest in politics, and was a
voracious reader of political journals. Fqf a time, indeed, under
Louis Philippe, his studio had been the rendezvous of a sort
of liberal dub. To the last—amid all the disasters that befell
his country—he was hopeful of the future, “ la raison iinira bien
par avoir raison.” It was while on a visit to the Retrospective
Exhibition, opened on behalf of the exiles from Alsace and
Lorraine, that he died suddenly on the 5th of May 1874. He
left unfinished the “ Earthly Paradise," a noble picture, which
Taine has described as “ a dream of innocence, of happiness
and of beauty—Adam and Eve standing in the sublime and
joyous landscape of a paradise enclosed in mountains,”—a
worthy counterpart to the “Evening,” Among the other
productions of his genius are the “ Deluge,” which represents
two angels speeding above the desolate earth, from which the
destroying waters have just begun to retire, leaving visible
behind them the rum Hey have wrought ; the “ Battle of the
Lerapne,” a piece of elaborate design, crowded but not cumbered
rift l pw, and giving fine expression to the movements of
the vwbus bands of combatants and fugitives; the “ Prodigal
Son,” in which die artist Has ventured to add to the parable
the new element of mother’s love, greeting the repentant youth
with a welcome that shows that the mother's heart thinks 1ms
of the repentance than of the return; “Ruth and Boaz”;
“ Ulysses and Nausicaa ”; “ Hercules at the feet of Qmphale ”.;
the “ Young Athenian,” or, as it is popularly called, “ Sappho ” ;
“ Minerva and the Nymphs ” ; “ Venus trav%tos ” ; “ Daphnis
and Chloe ” ; and “ Love and the Parcae.” Nor must it be
omitted that he left a considerable number of drawings and water¬
colours, and that we are indebted to him for a number of portraits,
among which is the sad face of Heine, engraved in the Revue des
deux niondes for April 1852. In Clement’s catalogue of. his
works there are 683 entries, including sketches and studies.
See Fritz Berthoud in Ribliathtque universelle de Gentve (1874) ;
Albert de Montet, Diet, biograhhique des Gsnmois et des Vdudois
{1877) ; and Vie de Charles Gleyre (1877), written by his friend,
Charles Cl&nent, and illustrated by 30 plates from his works.
GLIDDON, GEORGE ROBINS (1809-1857), British Egyptolo¬
gist, was bom in Devonshire in 1809. His father, a merchant,
was United States consul at Alexandria, and there Gliddon
was taken at an early age. He became United States vice-
consul, and took a great interest in Egyptian antiquities. Sub¬
sequently he lectured in the United States and succeeded in
rousing considerable attention to the subject of Egyptology
'generally. He died at Panama in 1857. His chief work was
Ancient Egypt (1850, ed. 1853). He wrote also Memoir on the
Cotton of Egypt (1841); Appeal to die Antiquaries of Europe
on the Destruction of the Monuments of Egypt (1841); Discourses
on Egyptian Archaeology (1841); Types of Mankind (1854),
in conjunction with J. C. Nott and others: Indigenous Races
of the Earth (1857), also in conjunction with Nott and others.
GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAEVICH (1788-1849), Russian poet
and author, was bom at Smolensk in 1788, and was specially
educated for the army. In 1803 he obtained a commission
as an office^, and two years later took part in the Austrian cam¬
paign. His tastes for literary pursuits, however, soon induced
him to leave the service, whereupon he withdrew to his estates
in the government of Smolensk, and subsequently devoted
most of his time to study or travelling about Russia. Upon the
invasion of the French in 1812, he re-entered the Russian army,
and remained in active service until the end of the campaign
in 1814. Upon the elevation of Count Milarodovich to the military
governorship of St Petersburg, Glinka was appointed colonel
under his command. On account of his suspected revolutionary
tendencies 1 m was, in 1826, banished to Petrozavodsk, but he
nevertheless retained his honorary post of president of the
Society «f the Friends of Russian Literature, and was after a
time allowed to return to St Petersburg. Soon afterwards he
retired completely from public life, and died on his estates in
1849.
Glinka's martial songs have special reference to the Russian
military campaigns of his time. He is known also as the author of
the descriptive poem Kareliya, Ac. ( Caretia , or the Captivity of
Martha Jouncnma) {1830), and of a metrical paraphrase of the book
of Job. His fame as a military author is chiefly due to his Pisma
Russkago Ofttsera ( Letters of a Russian Officer) (8 vols., 1815-1816).
GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1803-1857), Russian
musical composer, was bom at Novospassky, a village in the
Smolensk government, on the 2nd of June 1803. Hii early
life he spent at home, but at the age of thirteen we find him
at the Blagorodrey Pension, St Petersburg, where he studied
music under Carl Maier and John Field, the Irish composer and
pianist, who had settled in Russia. We are told that in his
seventeenth year he had already begun to compose romances
and other minor vocal pieces; but of these nothing now is known.
His thorough musical training did not begin till the year 1830,
when he went abroad and stayed for three years in .Italy, to study
the works of old and modem Italian masters. His thorough
knowledge of the requirements of the voice may be connected
with this course of study, His training as a composer was
finished under the contrapuntist Dehn, with whom Glinka
stayed for several months at. Berlin, In 1833 he returned to
Russia, and devoted himself to operatic composition. On the
27th of September (9th of October) 1836, took place the first
representation of his opera Life for the Tsar (the libretto by Baron
GLINKA, S. N.—
de Rosen). This was the turning-point in Glinka’s life,—-for
the work was not only a great success, but in a manner became
the origin and basis of a Russian school of national music.
The story is taken' from the invasion of Russia by the Poles
early in the 17th century, and the hero is a peasant who sacrifices
his life for the tsar. Glinka has wedded this patriotic theme ‘
to inspiring music. His melodies, moreover, show distinct
affinity to the popular songs of the Russians, so that the term
“ national ” may justly be applied to them. His appointment
as imperial chapelmaster and conductor of the opera of St Peters¬
burg was the reward of his dramatic successes. His second opera
Russian and Lyudmila, founded on Pushkin’s poem, did not
appear till 1842; it was an advance upon Life for the Tsar
in its musical aspect, but made no impression upon the public.
In the meantime Glinka wrote an overture and four entre-actes
to Kukolnik’s drama Prince Kholmsky. In 1844 he' weat to
Paris, and his Jota Arragonesa (1847), and the symphonic work
on Spanish themes, VneNuit a Madrid, reflect the musical results
of two years’ sojourn in Spain. On his return to St Petersburg
he wrote and arranged several pieces for the orchestra, amongst
which the so-called Kamarinskaya achieved popularity beyond
the limits of Russia. He also composed numerous songs and
romances. In 1857 he went abroad for the third time; he now
wrote his autobiography, orchestrated Weber’s Invitation a la
valse, and began to consider a plan for a musical version of
Gogol’s Tarass-Boulba. Abandoning the idea and becoming
absorbed in a passion for ecclesiastical music he went to Berlin
to study the ancient church modes. Here he died suddenly
on the 2nd of February 1857.
GUNKA, 8ERGT NIKOLAEVICH (1774-1847), Russian
author, the elder brother of Fedor N. Glinka, was bom at
Smolensk in 1774. In 1796 he entered the Russian army, but
after three years’ service retired with the rank of major. He
afterwards employed himself in the education of youth and in
literary pursuits, first in the Ukraine, and subsequently at
Moscow, where he died in 1847. His poems are spirited and
patriotic ; he wrote also several dramatic pieces, and translated
Young’s Night Thoughts.
Among his numerous prose works the most important from an
historical point of view are: Russhoe Chtenie (Russian Reading :
Historical Memorials of Russia in the /Sth and jgth CentunesJ {2
vols., 1845); Istonya Rossii, &c. (History of Russia lor the use a)
Youth) (10 vols., 1817-1819, 2nd e(l. 1822, 3rd ed. 1824) ; Istoriya
Armyan, &c. (History of the Migration of the Armenians of Aeerbijan
from Turkey to Russia) (1831); and his contributions to the Russky
Vyestnik (Russian Messenger), a monthly periodical, edited by him
from 1808 to 1820.
GLOBE-FISH, or Sea-Hedgehog, the names by which some
sea-fishes are known, which have the remarkable faculty of
inflating their stomachs with air. They belong to the families
Diodontidae and Tetrodontidae. Their jaws resemble the sharp
beak of a parrot, the bones and teeth being coalesced into one
mass with a sharp edge. In the Diodonts there is no mesial
division of the jaws, whilst in the Tetrodonts such a division
exists, so that they appear to have two teeth above and two
•Fla. 1 .—Diodon maculatus.
below. By means of these jaws they are able to break off
branches of corals, and to masticate other hard substances
on which they feed. Usually they are of a short, thick, cylindrical
shape, with powerful fins'(fig. 1). Their body is covered with
(hick skin, without scales, but provided with variously formed
spines, the size and extent of which vary in the different species.
When they inflate their capacious stomachs with air, they assume
a globular form, and the spines protrude, forming a more or less
formidable defensive armour (fig. b). A fish thus blown out
GLOCKENSPIEL 123
turns over and floats belly upwards, driving before the wind
and waves. Many of these fishes are highly poisonous when
eaten, and fatal accidents have occurred from this cause. It
appears that they acquire poisonous qualities from their food,
which frequently consists of decomposing or poisonous animal
matter, such as would impart, and often does impart, similar
Fig. 2 .—Diodon maculatus (inflated).
deleterious qualities to other fish. They are most numerous
between the tropics and in the seas contiguous to them, but a
few species live in large rivers, as, for instance, the Tetrodon
fahaka, a fish well known to all travellers on the Nile. Nearly
roo different species are known.
GLOBIGERINA, A. d’Orbigny, a genus of Perforate Fora-
minifera (g.v.) of pelagic habit, and formed of a conical spiral
aggregate of spheroidal chambers with a crescentic mouth. The
shells accumulate at the bottom of moderately deep seas to form
“ Globigerina ooze ” and are preserved thus in the chalk.
Hastigerina only differs in the “ flat ” or nautiloid spiral.
GLOCKENSPIEL, or Orchestral Bells (Fr. carillon ; Ger.
Glockenspiel, Stahlharmonika ; Ital. campaneUi; Med. Lat.
tintinnabuLum, cymbalum, bombulum), an instrument of percussion
of definite musical pitch, used in the orchestra, and made in
two or three different styles. The oldest form of glockenspiel,
seen in illuminated MSS. of the middle ages, consists of a set
of bells mounted on a frame and played by one performer by
means of steel hammers. The name “ bell ” is now generally
a misnomer, other forms of metal or wood having been found
more convenient. The pyramid-shaped glockenspiel, formerly
used in the orchestra for simple rhythmical effects, consists
of an octave of semitone, hemispherical bells, placed one above
the other and fastened to an iron rod which passes through the
centre of each, the bells being of graduated sizes and diminishing
in diameter as the pitch rises. The lyre-shaped glockenspiel,
or steel harmonica ( Stahlharmonica ), is a newer model, which has
instead of bells twelve or more bars of steel, graduating in size
according to their pitch. These bars are fastened horizontally
across two bars of steel set perpendicularly in a steel frame in
the shape of a lyre. The bars are struck by little steel hammers
attached to whalebone sticks.
Wagner has used the glockenspiel with exquisite judgment in the
fire scene of the last act of Die Walhiire and in the peasants' waltz
in the last scene of Die Meistersinger. When chords are written for
the glockenspiel, as in Mozart's Magic Flute, the keyed harmonica 1
is used. It consists at a keyboard having a little hammer attached
to each key, which strikes a bar of glass or steel when the key is
depressed. The performer, being able to use both hands, can play
a melody with full harmonies, scale and arpeggio passages in single
and double notes. A peal of hemispherical bells was specially
constructed for Sir Arthur Sullivan's Golden Legend. It consists of
four bells constructed of bell-metal about r in. thick, the hugest
measuring 27 in. in diameter, the smallest 23. They are fixed on a
stand one above the other, with a clearance at about } in. between
them ; the rim of the lowest and largest bell is 15 in. from the foot
of the stand. The bells aTe struck by mallets, Which are of two
kinds— a pair of hard wood for forte passages, and a pair covered
1 See " The Keyed Harmonica improved by H. Klein of Press burg,"
article in the Attg. musih. Ztg., Bd. i. pp. 675-699 (Leipzig, 17 *&)!
also Becker, p. 254, Bartel.
GLOGAU—GLOSS, GLOSSARY
with wash-leather for piano effects. The peal was unique at the
time it was made for the Golden Legend, but a smaller bell of the same
shape, l in. thick, with a diameter measuring about 16 in., specially
made for the performance of Liszt’s St Elisabeth, when conducted
by the composer in London, evidently suggested the idea for the
peal (K. S.)
GLOGAU, a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, 59 m. N.W. from Breslau, on the railway to Frankfort-
on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 23,461. It is built partly on an island
and partly on the left bank of the Oder; and owing to the
fortified enceinte having been pushed farther afield, new quarters
have been opened up. Among; its most important buildings
are the cathedral, in the Gothic, and a castle (now used as a
courthouse), in the Renaissance style, two other Roman Catholic
and three Protestant churches, a new town-hall, a synagogue,
a military hospital, two classical schools (Gymnasirn) and
several libraries. Owing to its situation on a navigable river
and at the junction of several lines of railway, Glogau carries
on an extensive tfade, which is fostered by a variety of local
industries, embracing machinery - building, tobacco, beer, oil,
sugar and vinegar. It has also extensive lithographic works,
and its wool market is celebrated.
In the beginning of the nth century Glogau, even then a
populous and fortified town, was able to withstand a regular
siege by the emperor Henry V.; but in 1157 the duke of Silesia,
finding he could not hold out against Frederick Barbarossa,
set it on fire. In 1252 the town, which had been raised from its
ashes by Henry I., the Bearded, became the capital of a princi¬
pality of Glogau, and in 1482 town and district were united to
the Bohemian crown. In the course of the Thirty Years’ War
Glogau suffered greatly. The inhabitants, who had become
Protestants soon after the Reformation, were dragooned into
conformity by Wallenstein’s soldiery; and the Jesuits received
ermission to build themselves a church and a college. Captured
y the Protestants in 1632, and recovered by the Imperialists
in 1633, the town was again captured by the Swedes in 1642,
and continued in Protestant hands till the peace of Westphalia
in 1648, when the emperor recovered it. In 1741 the Prussians
took the place by storm, and during the Seven Years’ War it
formed an important centre of operations for the Prussian forces.
After the battle of Jena (1806) it fell into the hands of the French;
and was gallantly held by Enplane, against the Russian and
Prussian besiegers, after the battle of Katzbach in August 1813
until the 17th of the following April.
See Minsbcrg, Gesrhichte der Stadt uni Feslung Glogau's (2 vols.,
Glogau, 1853); and H. von Below, Zur Geschichte des Jahres 1806.
(Hogan's Belagerung und Verteidigung (Berlin, 1893).
GLORIOSA, in botany, a small genus of plants belonging to
the natural order Liliaceae, native of tropical Asia and Africa.
They aTe bulbous plants, the slender stems of which support
themselves by tendril-like prolongations of the tips of some
of the narrow generally lanceolate leaves. The flowers, which
are borne in the leaf-axils at the ends pf the stem, are very
handsome, the six, generally narrow, petals are bent back and
stand erect, and are a rich orange yellow or red in colour; the
six stamens project more or less horizontally from the place
of insertion of the petals. They are generally grown in cultiva¬
tion as stove-plants.
GLORY (through the 0. Fr. glorie, modem gloire, from Lat.
gloria, cognate with Gr. kAcos, kAiW), a synonym for fame,
renown, honour, and thus used of anything which reflects honour
and renown on its possessor. In the phrase “ glory of God ”
the word implies both the honour due to the Creator, and His
majesty and effulgence. In liturgies of the Christian Church
are the Gloria Patri, the doxology beginning “ Glory be to the
Father,” the response Gloria tibi, Dmine, “ Glory be to Thee,
0 Lord,” sung or said after the giving out of the Gospel for
tile day, and the Gforio jn txcelsis, “ Glory be to God on
high,” sung during the Mass and Communion service. A
glory ” to the term often used as synonymous with halo,
nimbus or aureola (4.11.) for the ring of light encircling the
head or figure in a pictlrial or other representation of sacred
persons.
GUMS, GLOSSARY, &c. The Greek word yAfic nra (whence
our “ gloss ”), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or
dialect, gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial,
technical or otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist.
Rhet. iii. 3. 2). The making of collections and explanations 1 of
< such yAuowu was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized
form of literary activity. Even in the 5th century b.c., among
the many writings of Abdera was included a treatise entitled
llept 'Opsjpov fi opdaiirth)s sal yktoacritov. It was not, however,
until the Alexandrian period that the ykwrtroypaifioc, glosso-
graphers (writers of glosses), or glossators, became numerous.
Of many of these perhaps even the names have perished ; but
Athenaeus the grammarian alone (r. a.d. 250) alludes to no
fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was Philetas of Cos
(d. c. 290 b.c.), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus dedicated
the treatise IIpos ’FiAj/tSv : he was the compiler of a lexico¬
graphical work, arranged probably according to subjects, and
entitled ’Aranra or rA<iWai (sometimes 'AraicTot yA Zxrtrai).
Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 280 b.c.), one of
the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of I’Aukrcrat
'OptfptKai : Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil
Aristophanes of Byzantium ( c . 200 b.c.), whose great compilation
II e/,<. A (£eu>v (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known
to have included ’A-msal Atgets, AaKionKat ykSxrenu, and the
like. From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one
glossographer of name,—Diodorus, Artemidorus (F AdWiu, and
a collection of Ae£«s 6 \f/apTvnxai), Nicander of Colophon
(l’Acumrai, of which some twenty-six fragments still survive),
and Aristarchus (r. 210 b.c.), the famous critic, whose numerous
labours included an arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary
(At£ew) in the order of the books. Contemporary with the
last named was Crates of Mallus, who, besides making some
new contributions to Greek lexicography and dialectology,
was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar investigations
in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school proceeded
Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of’Effeunu A«£tisoryAoWai.,
a work said to have been designed chiefly to support the views
of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical interpretation of
Homer. 2 Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, r. 50 B.c.),
whp made collections of A«£«s TpaytoRov/ievai Kiopinal, &r.; Apol¬
lonius Sophista (<-. 20 b.c,), whose Homeric Lexicon has come
down to modem times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as
0 ykuxr<roypa<f>o%. In the beginning of the 1st century of the
Christian era Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome
during the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours
of Aristarchus and other predecessors with rAdWat 'OpijpiKul,
and a treatise Hep! ri/s Prupauojs SmXcktov : Heliodorus or
Herodorus was another almost contemporary glossographer;
Erotian also, during the reign of Nero, prepared a special glossary
for the writings of Hippocrates, still preserved. To this period
also Pamphilus, the author of the Aei/rwv, from which Diogenian
and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so largely, most probably
belonged. In the following century one of the most prominent
workers in this department of literature was Aelius Herodianus,
whose treatise ITe/n poyypovf A«£«ws has been edited in modem
times, and whose’Em fupurpol we still possess in an abridgment;
also Pollux, Diogenian (A<£« jram>8amj), Julius Vestinus
(’li?ri Topr) r<ov UapejtlXov ykoxnriav), and especially Phrynichus,
who flourished towards the close of the and centuiry, and whose
Eclogac nominim et verborum Atticonm has frequently been
edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria
(c. 389), who wrote ITc/ii opouov xal oia</idpo)i< A«£{<ih', a dictionary
of words used in senses different from those in which they hail
1 The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given
rise to the common English use of the word to mean an interpretation,
especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way ; the form " gloze,”
more particularly associated with explaining away, palliating or
talking speciously, is -simply an alternative spelling. The word has
thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by, the meaning
of the etymologically different " gloss ” = lustrous surface (from the
same root as " glass ’*; cf. “ glow "), fti its extended sense of “ out¬
ward fair seeming.”
9 See Matthaei, Glossaria Graeco (Moscow, 1774/5).
GLOSS, GLOSSARY
been employed by older and approved writers. Of somewhat
later date is the well-known Hesychius, whose often-edited
Aefunlt' superseded all previous works of "the kind; Cyril, the
celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also contributed somewhat
to the advancement of glossography by his Swaywy^ r£>v irpbs
8 ii<j>opov errfpatxlav 8 ta$ 6 pu>s rovovpevav Afjjtcoi' ; while Orus,
Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this
period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the
Etymologicum magnum, to which might be added the Lexica
Sangermania and the Lexica Segueriana, are referred to in the
artide Dictionary.
To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large
and important class of works relating to the law-compilations of
Justinian. Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties
all commentaries (virupvypaTa) on his legislation (Const. Deo
Auctore, sec. 12 ; Const. Tanta, sec. 21), yet indices (iVSucts)
and references (irapdrirKa), as well as translations (ippxfvsuu
Kara iriiSa) and paraphrases (eppr/vtuu els 7r Autos), were
expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the
numerous compilers of alphabetically arranged Ac£«s 'Pu/uaiWat
or AareiviKat, and yAwomu vopixal (glossae nomicae),
Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted ; but the authors
Of wapaypatjia!, or rrrffiuuKreis, whether i£u>&cv or eaiaSev
Kelpevai, are too* numerous to mention. A collection of these
irapaypaijuu twv jraAiuah', combined with i'«u irapaypa<\>ai on
the revised code called to jiairikma, was made about the middle
of the 12th century by a disdple of Michael Hagiotheodorita.
This work is known as the Glossa ordinaria rmv fhurckiKiov . 1
In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy,
various glossae (glosae) and srholia on the Justinian code were
produced 2 * ; particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny),
to which, apart from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is
usually assigned. After the total extinction of the Byzantine
authority in the West the study of law became one of the free
arts, and numerous schools for its cultivation were instituted.
Among the earliest of these was that of Bologna, where Pepo
(1075) and Imerius (1100-1118) began to give their expositions.
They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering exegetical
lectures (“ ordinariae ” on the Digest and Code, “ extraordin-
ariae ” on the rest of the Corpus juris civilis), also wrote
Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal. 8 The scries
of these glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the com¬
pilation known as the Glossa ordinaria or magistralis, the
authority of which soon became very great, so that ultimately
it came to be a recognized maxim, “ Quod non agnoscit glossa,
non agnoscit curia.” 4 * * * For some account of the glossators on
the canon law, see Canon I.aw,
In late classical and medieval Latin, glosa was the vulgar and
romanic (e.g. in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the
late 8th century Leiden Glossary), glossa the learned form
(Varro, De ling. Lat. vii. 10 ; Auson. Epigr. 127. 2 (86. 2), written
in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34). The diminutive glossula occurs in
Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The same meaning has glossarium
(Gell. xviii. 7. 3 glosaria-ykatmrdpwv), which also occurs in the
modem sense of “ glossary ” (Papias, “ unde glossarium dictum
quod omnium fere partium glossas contineat ”), as do the words
glossa, glossae, glossulae, glossemata (Steinmeyer, Alth. Gloss, iv.
408, 410), expressed in later times by dictionarium, dictionarius,
vocabtdarium, vocabtdarius (see Dictionary). Glossa and
1 See Labbf, Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in Basilicis
reperiuntur (1606) ; Otto, Thesaurus juris Romani, iii. (1697) ;
Stephens, Thesaurus linguae Graecae, viii. (1825).
5 See Biener, Geschichte der Novellen, p. 229 sqq.
8 Imerius himsolf is with some probability believed to have been
the author of the Brachylogua (q.v.).
4 Thus Fil. Viliani (De Engine civitatis Florentiae, ed. 1847, p. 23),
speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae that “ tantae
auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice appro-
barentur, et reiectis aliis. quibuscumque penitus abolitis, solac
juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine contro-
versia pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus quam
textui, Glossu Accursii confraire.” For similar testimonies see
Bayle's Dictionnaire, s.v. " Accursius," and Rudorff, Rom. Rechts-
geschiehte, i. 338 (1837).
glossema (Varro vii. 34.107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet, De gramm.
22; Fest. i66 b . 8,181*. 18; Quint, i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms,
signifying (a) the word which requires explanation; or (i)
such , a word (called lemma) together with the interpretation
(interpretamentum); or (c) the interpretation alone (so first
in the Anecd. Helv.).
Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the
practical wants of students and teachers, of whose names we
only know a few. No doubt even in classical times collections
of glosses (“ glossaries ”) were compiled, to which allusion seems
to be made by Varro (De ling. Lat. vii. 10, “ tesca, aiunt sancta esse
qui glossas scripserunt ”) and Verrius-Festus (i66\ 6, “naucum
. . . glossematorum . . . scriptores fabae grani quod haereat in
fabulo ”), but it is not known to what extent Varro, for instance,
used them, or retained their original forms. The seriptores
glossematorum were distinguished from the learned glossographers
like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his Musae, ap. Suet. De gramm. 6;
Gell. i. 25. 17 ; Varro vii. 50,65, 67, 70, 79,106), Servius Clodius
(Varro.vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose liber
glossematorum Festus mentions (181*. 18).
Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have
preserved many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to
us. He copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein ,'' Verr. Forsch.,” in vol. i.
of Breslauer philol. Abhanal., p. 88 ; Kriegshammer, Comm. phil.
len. vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise
De obscuris Catonis (Reitzenstein, ib. 56. 92). He often made use of
Varro (Wiliers, De Verrio Flacco , Halle, 1898), though not of his
ling. lat. (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with
later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the glossae asbestos
(Goetz, Corpus, iv. ; id., Rhein. Mus. xl. 328). Festus was used by
Ps.-Philoxcnus (Dammaim, " De Festo Ps,-Philoxeni auctore,’’
Comm. Jen. v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the glossae ab absens (Goetz,
" De Astrabae PI. fragments," Ind. len., 1893, iii, sqq.). The
distinct connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing,
as Plinius and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, De Non. Marc,
auett. gramm. 145 ; Nettleship, Lat. and Ess. 229 ; Frohde, De Non.
Marc, et Verrio Flacco, 2 ; W. M. Lindsay, “ Non. Marc., 1 ' Did. of
Repub. Latin, loo, &c.).
The bilingual (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early
period, and were used by the grammarians (t) to explain the peculi¬
arities ( idiomata) of the Latin language by comparison with the
Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254.
9, 291. 7, 292. iG sqq.; Marschall, De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm. 22 ;
Goetz, Corp. gloss, lat. ii. G).
For the purposes of grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans,
Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a trans¬
lation of Dositheus and the so-called Hermeneutica, parts of which
may be dated as early as the 3rd century a.d., and lexica (cf.
Schoenemann, De lexicis ant. 122 ; Knaack, in Phil. Rundsch., 18S4,
372 : Traube, in Byzant. Ztschr. iii. 605; David, Comment. Jen. v.
197 sqq-)-
The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-
known lexica ; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly,
see Kudorfl, in Abh. Ahad. Bert., 1865, 220 sq. ; Locwe, Prodr. 183,
igo ; Mommsen, C.I.L. v. 8120 ; A. Dammann, De Festo Pseudo -
philoxeni auctore , 12 sqq.; Goetz, Corp. ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus
consul a.d. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries
containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal,
Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by
some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek
influence (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, Arc.) ; the other (Greek-
Latin) is ascribed to Cy.il (Stephanus says it was found at the end
of some of his writings), and is considered to lie a compilation of
not later than the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the Cod.
Hart., which is the source of all tile other MSS., belongs to the 7th
century); cf. Goetz, Corp. ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. ibid. p.
xx. sqq. Furthermore, the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had
their origin in old lists of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise
De herbarum virtutibus, and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann,
Hermes , xxxiii. 360 sqq., who thinks that the latter work is based on
Pamphilus, q.v. ; Goetz, Corp. iii.) ; the glossary, entitled Herme-
neuma, printed from the Cod. Vatic, reg. Christ. 1260, contains names
of diseases.
Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the
glosses extend. If massucum edacem in Placidus indicates the
original form, the allied gloss of Festus ( masucium edacem a man-
dendo scilicet) shows an etymological addition. Another extension
consists in adding special references to the original source, as e.g.
at the gloss Ocrem (Fest. r8i». 17), which is taken from Ateius
Philol. In this way collections arose like the priscorum verborum
cum exemptis, a title given by Fest. (2i8 h . 10) to a particular work.
Further the glossae veterum (Charis. 242.10); the glossae antiquitatum
(id. 229. 30) ; the idouei vocum anttquarum enarratores (Gell. xviii.
6, 8); the libri rerum verborumque veterum (id. xiii. 24. 25). L.
126 GLOSS, GLOSSARY
Cincius, according to Festus (3308. 2), wrote De verbis priscis ; Santra,
De antiquilale vcrborum (Festus 277*. 2).
Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors
few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 220. 30,
speaks of glossae antiquitatum and 241. 10 of glossae veterum, but it
is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation
they stand to the glossemuta per litteras J.almas ordine composita,
which were incorporated witli the works of this grammarian according
to the index in Keil, p. b, Latin glosses occur in I's.-Philoxenus,
and Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a glos-
sarium Pluulinum (Ritschl, Op. ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual
glossaries have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but
of this early period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus,
who is sometimes called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with
the Statius scholiast, with whom the glossae Placidi have no con¬
nexion. All that we know of him tends to show that he lived in
North Africa (like Fulgentius and Nonius and perhaps Chartsius)
in the 6th century, from whence his glosses came to Spain, and were
used by Isidore and the compiler of the Liber glossarum (see below).
These glosses we know from (1) Codices Romani (15th and i6tli
century) ; (2) the Liber glossarum; (3) the Cod. Paris, nov. acquis.
1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of glossaries, in which the Flacidus-
glosses are kept separate from the others, and still retain traces of
their original ord-r (cf. the editions published by A. Mai; Class,
aunt. iii. 427-503, and Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, Corp. v.; P. Karl,
" De Placidi glossis," Comm. len. vii. 2. 90, 103 sqq.; Loewe,
Gloss. Nom. 86; F Biicheler, in Thesaur. gloss, emend.). His
collection includes glosses from Plautus and Lucilius.
(Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (r. a.d. 468-533) wrote Expositio
sermanum antiquorum (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898 ; cf. Wcssner, Com¬
ment. Ien. vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each containing a
lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving quotations
and names of authors. Next to him come the glossae. Nonianae, which
arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in Nonius Mar-
cellus’ work being written in the margin without the words of the
text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards
copied for other collections (see Goetz, Corp. v. 637 sqq., id. v.
Praef. xxxv.; Onions and Lindsay, Harvard Stud. ix. 67 sqq.;
Lindsay, Monti praef. xxi.). In a similar way arose the glossae
Eucherit or glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum found
in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, Sits. Ber. Akad. Wien, cxv. 425 sqq.;
^the Corpus Glossary , first part), which are an alphabetical extract
from the formulae spirtlalis intelligentiae of St F.uchcrius, bishop of
Lyons, e. 434-45'’- 1
Other sources were the Differentiae, already known to Placidus and
much used in the medieval glossaries ; and the Synonyma Citertmis ;
cf. Goetz, " Der Liber glossarum,” in Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl.
der sichs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss., 1893, p. 215 ; id. in Berl. philol.
Wochensc.hr., 1890, p. 195 sqq. ; Beck, in Woehensc.hr., p. 297 sqq.,
and Sittls, ibid. p. 267; Archiv /. lat. Lex. vi. 594 ; W. L. Mahne,
(Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of scholia. By the side
of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Cbarisius, or an ars similar
to that ascribed to him; further, treatises de. dubiis generihus, the
scriptores orthographies (especially Caper and Beda), and Priscianus,
the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf. Goetz in Mtlanges
Boissier, 224).
During the 6th, 7II1 and 8th centuries glossograpliy developed in
various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or
amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be
exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High
German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or
were used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and
development of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved
1 The so-called Malberg glosses, found in various texts of the Lex
Salica, are not gloases in the ordinary sense of the word, but precious
remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, the I-ow
German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul
from the Romans at the end of the 5th century. It is supposed that
the conquerors brought their Frankish law with them, either written
down, or by oral tradition ; that they translated it into Latin for
the sake of the Romans settled'in the country, and that the trans¬
lators, not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain
things or actions, retained in their translations the Frankish technical
names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into Latin.
E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of ” porcellus lactans " (a sucking-pig),
we find the Frankish “ chramnechaltio," lit. a stye-porker. The
person who stole such a pig (still kept in an enclosed place, in a stye)
was fined three times as much as one who stole a " porcellus de campo
etui sine rnatre vioffe possit," as the I.atm text has it, for which the
Malberg technicsdMtoression appears to have been ingymtts, that is,
a one year (wip^Wbld animal, i.e. a yearling. Nearly all these
glosses are prejflPB joy ” mal " or " malb,’’ which is thought to be
a eontractfowEror ‘‘ malberg," the Frankish for " forum.” The
antiquity ana importance of these glosses for philology may be
reamed from (the fact that the Latin translation of the Lex Salica
probably <WKs from the latter end of the 5th century. For further
infonaatk#€f. Jad. Grimm's preface to Joh. Merkel's ed. (1850),
and H. KjV's notes to J. HaHessels’s ed. (London, 1880) of the Lex
Salica.
to us can be traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript
texts of classical authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane
writers, students and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-
of-the-way words which they considered difficult to remember or to
require elucidation, wrote above them, or in the margins, interpreta¬
tions or explanations in more easy or better-known words. The
interpretations written above the line are called " interlinear,”
those written in the margins of the MSS. " marginal glosses.”
Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the Bible were often provided
with literal translations in the vernacular written above the lines of
the Latin version (interlinear versions).
Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be
seen in the various palaeographical works published in recent years;
cf. The Palaeogr. Society, 1st ser. vol. ii. pis. 9 (Terentius MS. of
4th or 5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine's epistles,
6th or 7th century, marginal glosses); sec further, plates 10, 12,
33. 4°. 5°"54. 57. 5«, <>3, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates xo, 24, 31, 39,
44, 54, 80.
From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions
glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin
words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and
collected in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one
after the other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement,
but with the names of the authors or the titles of the books whence
they were taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or
chapter. In this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss;
when reference is made only to the word explained it is called the
lemma, while the explanation is termed the interpretameutum.
In most cases the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood
in its source, and explained by a single word (lesca: sanrta,
Varro vii. 10; clueidatus: suavis, id. vii. 107; cf. laid. Htym. i.
30. 1, “quid enim illuil sit ill uno verbo positum declarat [soil.
glossa] ut conticescere est tacere”), so that we meet with lemmata
in the accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words
in the same cases ; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way.
Of this first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are
preserved, ior instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary
(Voss. 69, ed. ]. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or
glosses excerpted from the Life of SI Martin by Sulpicius Severus;
chs. iv., v. and xxxv. glosses from Rufinus ; chs. vi. and xl. from
Gildas: clis. vii. to xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon ;
Proverbs, &c., &c.); chs. xxvi. to xlviii. from Isidore, the Vita S.
Anthonii , Cassiodorus, St Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine,
St Clement, Eucherius, St Gregory, the grammarians Donatus,
Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, Lorp. v, 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40
from Ovid’s Metam. ; v. 657 from Apuleius, De deo Soeratis ; cf.
Landgraf, m Arch. ix. 174).
By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in alpha¬
betical order according to the first letter of the lemma, but still re¬
tained in separate chapters under the names of authors or the titles
of books. Of this second stage the Leiden Glossary contains traces
also ; ch. i. ( Verba de Canontbus) and ii. (Sermottes de lieguhs) ; see
Goetz, Corp. v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427 sqq. (Virgil).
The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in alpha¬
betical order, in the first instance according to the first letters of the
lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors or the titles
of the'books could no longer be preserved, and consequently the
sources whence the glosses were excerpted became uncertain,
especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been
normalized.
A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first
two letters ol the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still
earlier Cod. Vat. 3321 (Goetz, Corp. iv. 1 sqq.), where even many
attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three
letters of the alphatict. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the
Glossae affatim (Goetz, Corp. iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are
alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b, c,
&c.), and then further according to the first vowel in the word
(a, e, i, o, u).
No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or
arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in
the Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century,
whereas the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same
century, represents already the fourth stage.
For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been
given to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly
from their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae
abstrusae ; glossae abacus major and minor ; g. affatim ; g. ah absens ;
g. abactor-, g. Abba Pater-, g. a, a\ g. Vergilianae; g. nominum
(Goetz, Corp. ii. 563, iv.) ; g. Sangallenses (Warren, Transact.
Amer. Philol. Assoc, xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.).
A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the Origines
( Etymalogiae) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like
Cassiodorus, mixed human-and divine subjects together. In many
places we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work
became a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he
deals with the etymology of many substantives and adjectives
arranged alphabetically according to “the first letter of-fij^words,
perhaps by himself from various sources, His priatdpal source
is Servius, then the fathers of the Church (AugUltine, Jerome,
GLOSS, GLOSSARY 137
Loctantins) and Domatus the grammarian. This tenth book was
also copied and used separately, and mixed up with other work*
(cf. Loewe, Prodr. 167. 21). Isidore's Differentiae have also had a
great reputation.
Next comes the Liber glotsarum, chiefly compiled from Isidore,
but all article* arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain
f . A.n. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of
the MSS., some of which belong to the fith century; hence this name
is suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book
(cf. Goetz, " Det Liber Glossarum,” in Abhandl. dor philoL-kist.
Class. Her kirn, sacks* Ges. xiii., 1893 ; id., Corp. v,, praef. xx. 161).
Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely
mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations :
(1) the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning
of the 8th century, preserved in ‘die library of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge ; (2) die Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels;
another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss.
Q°. 69 : ( 3 ) the fipinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th
century 1 and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society
from a MS. in the town library at Spinal; (4) the Glossae Amplo-
nianae, i.t. three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library at
Erfurt, known as Erfurt 1 , Erfurt 8 and Erfurt*. The first, published
by Goetz [Corp. v. 337-401 ; cf. also Loewe, Prodr. 114 sqq.) with
the various readings of the kindred Lpinal, consists, like the latter,
oi different collections of glosses (also some from Atdhelm), some
arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of die lemma,
others according to the first two letters. The tide of Erfurt 2 (incipit
II. conscriptio glosarum in unam) shows that it is also a combination
of various glossaries ; it is arranged alphabetically according to the
first two letters of the.lemmata, and contains the affatim and abacus
motor glosses, also a collection from Aldhehn; Erfurt* are the
Glossae nominum, mixed also with Anglo-Saxon interpretations
(Goetz, Corp. ii, 563). The form in which the three Erfurt glossaries
have come down to us points back to the 8th century.
The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and glossaries
is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of St Gall,
who died a.d. 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed c. 1475
at Angsburg, with the headline Salemonis etclesie Constantiensis
episcopi gtosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus. The oldest MSS.
of this work date from the 1 rth century. Its sources are the Liber
glossarum (Loewe, Prodr. 234 sqq.), the glossary preserved in the
util-century MS. Lot. Monac 14429 (Goetz, “ Lib. Gloss.” 35 sqq.),
and the great Abacus Gloss (id., ibid. p. 37; id., Corp. iv. praef.
xxxvii,).
The Lib. glossarum haa also been the chief source for the important
(but not original) glossary of Papias, of a.d. 1053 (cf. Goetz in Stlt.
Ber. A had. Munch., 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates eighty-seven
MSS. of the I2th to the 15th centuries), of whom we only know that he
lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two sons. An
edition of it was published at Milan " per Dominicum de Vespolate ”
011 the 12th of December 1476; other editions followed in 1485,
1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly compiled
from Pri3cianus (Hagen, A need. Hc.lv. clxxix. sqq.).
The same Lib. gloss, is the source (1) for the A bba Pater Glossary
(cf. Goetz, ibid. j>. 39), published bv G. M. Thomas (Site. Ber. A had.
Miinch., 1868, ii. 369 sqq.) ; (2) the Greek glossary Absida lucida
(Goetz, ib. p. 41); and (3) the Lut.-Arab. glossary in the Cod. Lead.
Seal. Orient. No. 231 (published by Seybotd in Semit. Studien, Heft
xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900).
The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, “ Der Liber Ulossarum,” p. 215) is
compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (abacti magistratus),
the Abacus major and the Liber glossarum, with a mixture of
Hebraica. Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations,
as in the Cod. Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, Corp. v. 520 sqq.), mixed up
with glosses from Beda, Placidus, Ac. (cf. a glossary published by
Ellis in A mar. Journ. of Philol. vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides
Paulus glosses, also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge Journ. oi
Philol. viii. 71'sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.).
Oshem of Gloucester (c. 1123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled
Panormia (published by Angelo Mai as Thesaurus novus Latinitatis,
from Cod. Vatic, rog. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, Rhein. Mus.
xxix., 187^ ; Goetz in Sitsungsber. jacks. Ges. d. I Piss., 1903, p. 133
sqq.; Benchte ilb. die Verhandl. der kiin. sdchs. Gesellsch. der Wiss.,
Leipzig, igo2); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected
from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart.
Capella, Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus,
Jerome, &c., &c. Oshern’s material was also used by Hugucio,
whose compendium was still more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c.,
p. 121 sqq., who enumerates one hundred and three MSS. of his
treatise), and contains many biblical glosses, especially Hebraica,
some treatises on Latin numerals, <6c. (cf. Hamann, Weitere Mitteil.
aus dam Brevtloquus Behthemianus, Hamburg, 1882 ; A. Thomas,
“Glosses proveufales infid." in Romania, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P,
Toynbee, ibid. xxv. p. 537 sqq.).
The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled Summa quae
vocatur catholicon, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent,
(a) etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, ».«. a lexicon,
1 Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the
MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words.
which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias;
its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes the
Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio;
it excerpts Pnsdanim Donates, Isidore, the lathers of the Church,
especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it; borrows
many Hebrew glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections
then in use; it mentions the Graecismus of Eberbardus-Bethunieasis,
the works of Hrabanus Maurus, the Doctrinale of Alexander de Villa
Dei, and the Aurora oi Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the
Catholicon in Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced
to Oshem. There exist many M 9 S. of this work, and the Mainz
edition of 1460 is well known (cf. Goetz in Berickle Ob. die Verhandl.
der hon. sdchs. Gesellsch. der Wiss., Leipzig, 1902).
The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centuries are numerous, but a
diminution becomes visible towards the nth. We then find gram¬
matical treatises arise, for which also glossaries were need. The chief
material was (1) the Liber glossanm; (2) the Paulas glosses; (3)
the Abavus major ; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to Priscian;
(5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chjefly from,Jerome).
After these comes medieval material, as tire derivationgs which are
found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in Sitsungsber. sicks. Ges. d. Wiss.,
1903, p. 136 sqq. ; Traube in Archiv /. lat. Lex. vi. 264), containing
quotations from Plautus, Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasion¬
ally from Priscian, Eutyches, and other grammarians, with etymo¬
logical explanations. These derivationcs were the basic for the
grammatical works of Osbem, Hugucio and Joannes of Janua.
A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic
glossaries based on - the earlier ones (see Goetz, Corp. iii.). The
additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while
Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French,
Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1)
the Glossae alphiia (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd voL of the
Collect. Salernilana, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th
and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier
MSS.); (z) Stnonorna Bartkolomei, collected by John Mirield,
towards the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (A need.
Oxon. i. 1, 1882, cf. Loewe, Gloss. Horn. 116 sqq.) ; it seems to have
used the same or some similar source as No. 1 ; (3) the compilations
oi Simon de Janua ( Clavis sanatwms, end of 13th century), and of
Matthaeus Silvaticus (Pandeclae mcdicinae, 14th century; cf.
H. Stadler, " Dioscor. Lougob.” in Roman. Forsch. x. 3. 371 ;
Steinmeyer, Althochd. Gloss, ai.).
Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with
glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other
biblical proper names, and explanations oi the text of the Vulgate
in general, and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the
Glossae veteris ac novi testament « (beginning “ Prologue graccc latine
praelocutio sive praefatio ”) in numerous MSS. of the 9th to 14th
centuries, mostly retaining the various books under separate headings
(cf. Arevalo, Isid. vii. 407 sqq. ; Loewe, Prodr. 141; Steinmeyer
iv. 459 ; S. Berger, De. compendhs exegeticis quibusdam medit aevi,
Paris, 1879). Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who
lived about 1250, and compiled a Summa (beginning “diflicilesstudeo
partes qua* Biblia gestat Pandere ”), contained in many MSS. especi¬
ally in French libraries. This Summa gave rise to the Mammotreetus
of Joh. Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed
in 1470, 1476, 1479, &c.
Finally we may mention such compilations as the Summa Heinrici ;
the work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls dictumarius
(cf. Scheler in Jahrb. /. rom. u. engl. Philol. vi., 1865, p. 142 sqq.) ;
and that of Alexander Neckam (ib. vii. p. bo sqq.), cf. R. Ellis, in
Amer. Journ. oj Phil. x. 2); which are, strictly speaking, not glosso-
graphic. The Brevtloquus drew its chief material from Papias,
Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, Mitteil. aus dem Brevtloquus
Benthemianus, Hamburg, 1879; id., Weitere Mitteil., &c., Hamburg,
1882) ; so also the Vocabularium Ex quo; the various Gemmae ;
Vocabularia rerum (cf. Diefenbach, Glossar. Lalino-Germanicum).
After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first
to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf.
Goetz, in Sitsungsber. sdchs. Ges. a. Wiss., 1888, p. 219 sqq.). and in
his edition of Fcstus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled
O. Muller, the later editor of I'estus, to follow in his footsteps.
Scaliger also planned the publication of a Corpus glossarum, and left
behind a collection of glosses known as glossae Isidori (Goetz, Corp.
V. p. 589 sqq.; id. in Sitsungsber. sdchs. Ges., 1888, p. 224 sqq.; Loewe,
Prodr. 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old glossaries, clearly m reference
to the tenth book of the Etymologiac.
The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573,
of the bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Esticnne), containing,
besides the two great glossaries, also the Hermeneumata Stepkani,
which is a recension of the Ps.-Dositkeana (republished Goetz,
Corp. iii 438-474), and the glossae Stepkani, excerpted from a
collection of the Hermeneumata (ib. iii. 438-474).
In 1600 Bonav. Vulcaniua republished the same glossaries, adding
(1) the glossae Isidori, which now appeared for the first time ; (a)
the Onomasticon ; (3) notae and castigationes, derived from Scaliger
(Loewe, Prodr. 183).
In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the efieotive
help of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679,
by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no
128 GLOSSOP—GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
further glossaries (Eraam. Nyerup published extracts from the
Leiden Glossary, Voss. 69, In 1787, Symbolae ad Literal. Tout.),
though glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius,
Meursius, Hcraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where
a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition
of the Vossius library (cf. Loewe, Prodr. 168). In the 19th century
came Osann's Glossarii Latini specimen (1826); the glossogTaphic
publications of Angelo Mai (Classici auctores, vois. iii., vi., vil., viii..
Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern's Pannrmia, Placidus and
various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler’s treatise (1847)
on the Cod. Amplotriamts of Osbern, and his edition of the three
Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854
G. F. Hildebrand's Glossarium Latinum (an extract from Abavus
minor), preserved in a Cod. Paris, lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's
vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in
1884 by It. Paul Wiilcker under the tilde Anglo-Saxon and Old English
Vocabularies (London, 2 vols., 1857) ; L. Diefenbach’s supplement
to Du Cange, entitled Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et
inf mas aetatis, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries,
vocabularies, <te., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl's treatise
(1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus
by Deuerling; G. Loewe's Prodromus (1876), and other treatises
by him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884);
1888, the second volume of Goetz's own great Corpus glossariorum
Latinorum, of which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the
light bv 1907, the last two being separately entitled Thesaurus
glossarum emendaUmm, containing many emendations and correc¬
tions of earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars; 1900,
Arthur S. Napier, Old English Glosses (Oxford), collected chiefly from
Aidhclm MSS., but also from Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius,
Gregory, Isidore, Juvcncus, I’hocas, Prudentius, &c.
There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in
various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican .atMonteCassino,
Paris, Munich, Hern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford, Cambridge,
&c. Much has already been done to make the material contained in
these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done with what
is still unpublished, though we may find that the differences between
the glossaries which often present themselves at first sight are mere
differences in form introduced by successive more or less qualified
copyists.
Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been
preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the
publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C.
Stem, G, I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many
others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's Gram-
matica Celtica, A. Kuhn’s Beitrage iur vergkich. Sprachfvrschung,
Zeitschr. /iir celtische Philologie, Anhiv fiir Celtisthe Lexicographic ,
the Revue celtiquc, Transactions of the London Philological Society, &c.
The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was K.
Gershom of Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But
he and other Hebrew writers after him mostly used the Old French
language (though sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which
an example has been published by I-ambort and Brandin, in their
Glossaire hibreu-frangais du XIIP siiclc : recueil de mots hlbreux
bibliques avec traduction frangaise (Paris, 1003). See further The
Jewish Encyclopedia (New York and London, 1903), article " Gloss."
Authorities.—F or a great part of what has been said above, the
writer is indebted to G. Goetz's article on “ Latein. Glossographie ”
in Panly's Healencyhlopddie. By the side of Goetz's C or pus stands
the great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, Die althochdeutsche
Glossen (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also
Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical
Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4U1 vol. Besides
the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already mentioned,
we refer here to a few others, whose writin s may lie consulted:
Hugo Bliimner; Catholicon Anglicum (ed. Hertage) ; De-Vit (at
end of Forcellini’s Lexicon): F, Deycks; Du Cange; I'unck;
T. H. Gallic (Altsachs. Sprachdenkm., 1894) ; Grober; K. Gruber
(Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss., Erlangen, 1904) ;
Hattemer ; W. Heracus ( Die Sprachc des Petronius und die Glossen,
Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Laud-
graf; Marx; W. Meyer-Lubke (“ Zu den latein. Glossen ” in
Wiener Stud. xxv. 90 sqq.); Henry Ncttleship; Niedermann,
Notes d'Bymol. lat. (Macon, 1902), Contribut. A la critique des glosses
Mines (Neuch&tcl, 1905); Pokrowskij ; Ouicherat; Otlo B.
Schlutter (many important articles in Anglia, Englische Studien,
Archiv f. latein. Lexiiographic, &c.) ; Scholl; Schuchardt; Leo
Sommer; Stadler; Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener
(Rhein. Mus. xxiii. 496, xxiv. 382); A. Way, Promptarium parvulorum
siveclericonm (3 vols., Imndon, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in
Rhein. Mus. xxiv. 363); Wdlfilin in A rch. fiir lot. Lexicogr ; Zupitza.
Cf. further, the various volumes of. {he following periodicals;
Romania: Zeitschr. fiir deutsches Alterthum ; Anglia ; Englische
Studien ; Journal of English and German Philology (ed. Cook and
Karsten) ; Archiv fitrlmein. Lexicogr., and others treating of philo¬
logy, lexicography, grammar, &c. (J. H. H.)
GLOSSOP, a market town and municipal borough, in the
High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on
the extreme northern txmder of the county; 13 m..E. by S. of
Manchester by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526.
It is the chief seat of the cotton manufacture in Derbyshire,
and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye and print works,
and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main divisions,
the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop
Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by
that of All Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman
Catholic church. In the immediate neighbourhood is Glossop
Hall, the scat of Lord Howard, lord of the manor, a picturesque
old building with extensive terraced gardens. On a hill near the
town is Mslandra Castle, the site of a Roman fort guarding
Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak District.
In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the
Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longden¬
dale, there are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system
of Manchester, formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which
descends from the high moors north-east Of Glossop. The town
is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
3052 acres.
Glossop was granted by Henry 1 . to William Peverel, on the
attainder of whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it
was gifted by Henry II. to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry
VIII. bestowed it on the earl of Shrewsbury. It was made a
municipal borough in 1866.
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English
earldom of Gloucester was held by several members of the royal
family, including Robert, a natural son of Ilcnry I., and John,
afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when Gilbert de Clare
was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in the family
of Clare (q.v.) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was killed
at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various
relatives of the Clares, among them bv the younger Hugh le
Despenser (d. 1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom
had married sisters of Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thoma^le Despenser
(1373-1400), a descendant of the Clares, was created earl of
Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded from his earldom
and in January 1400 was beheaded.
The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock,
a younger son of Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester,
but his honours were forfeited when he was found guilty of
treason in 1397. The next holder of the title was Humphrey,
a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of Gloucester in 1414.
He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title was revived
in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king
as Richard III. in 1483,
In-1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was
formally created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne
since infancy. This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had
incensed his mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm ad¬
herence to the Protestant religion, and had fought among the
Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned to England
with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of
September 1660. The next duke was William (1689-1700),
son of the princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to
the English throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by
his unde, William III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation
was ever passed. William died on the 30th of July 1700, and
again the title became extinct.
Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known
for some time as-duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to
the peerage in 1726 it was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764
Frederick’s third son, William Henry (1743-1805), was created
duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his brother, George Ill.
This duke’s secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807), an illegitimate
daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd
Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives
and led to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the
25th of August 1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick
(1776-1834), who now became duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh.
The duke, who served with the British army in Flanders, married
his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter pf George III. He
died op the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children, and his
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
widow, the last sudviVd'r of the family of George TEL, died on the
3 oth of April 1857.
GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, Earl of (1243-1295),
was a son of Richard de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th
earl of Clare, and was bom at Christchurch, Hampshire, on the
2nd of September 1243. Having married Alice of Angouleme,
half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of Gloucester
and Clare on his father’s death in July 1262, and almost at once
joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of
Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes
in May 1264, when the king himself surrendered to him, and
after this victory he was one of the three persons selected to
nominate a council. Soon, however, he quarrelled with Leicester.
Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh border he met
Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just
after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed
largely to the prince's victory at Evesham in August 1265. But
this alliance was as transitory as the one with Leicester. Glou¬
cester took up the cudgels on behalf of the barons who had
surrendered at Kenilworth in November and December 1266,
and after putting his demands before the king, secured possession
of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly
made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and,
having evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped
to secure the peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne
in 1272. Gloucester then passed several years in fighting in
Wales, or on the Welsh border; in 1289 when the barpns were
asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf that they would
grant nothing until they saw the king in person (nisi prius
personaliter viderent in Anglia faciem regis), and in 1291 he was
fined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with
Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his
wife Alice, he married in 1290 Edward’s daughter Joan, or
Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is sometimes called the
“ Red,” died at Monmouth on the 7th of December 1295,
leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of
Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn.
See C. Bimont, Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester (1884), and
G. W. Prothero, Simon de Montfort (1877).
GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY, Duke of (1391-1447), fourth
son of Henry IV. by Mary de Bohun, was bom in 1391. He was
knighted at his father’s coronation on the nth of October
1399, and created duke of Gloucester by Henry V. at Leicester
on the 16th of May 1414. He served in the war next year,
and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his
brother’s valour. In April 1416 Humphrey received the emperor
Sigismund at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story,
did not let him land till he had disclaimed all title to imperial
authority in England. In the second invasion of France
Humphrey commanded the force which during 1418 reduced
the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined
the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent
campaigns till January 1420. He then went home to replace
Bedford as regent in England, and held office till Henry’s
own return in February 1421. He was again regent for his
brother from May to September 1422.
Henry V. measured Humphrey’s capacity, and by his will
named him merely deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey
at once claimed the full position of regent, but the parliament
and council allowed him only the title of protector during
Bedford’s absence, with limited powers. His lack of discretion
soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he married
Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands
Philip of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of So
important an ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother.
Finally in October 1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife’s
behalf, but after a short campaign in Hainault went home,
and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by Burgundy. Return¬
ing to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself in a
quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and
stirred up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by
Beaufort’s prudence, and Bedford’s hurried return. Humphrey
139
had charged his unde with disloyalty to the late and present
kings. With some difficulty Bedford effected a formal reconcilia¬
tion at Leicester in March 1436, and forced Humphrey to accept
Beaufort’s disavowal. When Bedford left England next year
Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was
removed by the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline.
His open adultery with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made
him unpopular. To check his indiscretion the council, m
November 1429, had the king crowned, and so put .an end to
Humphrey’s protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon
afterwards taken to he crowned in France; Humphrey was made
lieutenant and warden of the kingdom, and thus nikd England
for nearly two years. His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort
still continued, and when the former died in 1435 t * ler P WM no
one to whom he would defer. The defection of Burgundy roused
English feeling, and Humphrey won popularity as leader of the
war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short invasion of
Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political im¬
portance lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the
councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against
his uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by
his connexion with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married.
In 1441 Eleanor was charged with practising sorcery against
the king, and Humphrey had to submit to see her condemned,
and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless, he continued
his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart Suffolk,
who was now taking Beaufort’s place in the council, by opposing
the king’s marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk’s
influence Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The
crisis came in the parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February
1447. Immediately on his arrival there Humphrey was arrested,
and four days later, on the 23rd of February, he died. Rumour
attributed his death to foul play. But his health had been long
undermined by excesses, and his end was probably only hastened
by the shock of his arrest.
Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb,
which still exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but
unstable and unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his
brothers, excelled neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a
cultured and courtly prince, who could win popularity. He
was long remembered as the good Duke Humphrey, and in his
lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had been a great
collector of books, many of which he presented to the university
of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the Divinity
School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey’s library.
His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three
volumes of his donation now remain in the Bodleian library.
Titus Livius, an Italian in Humphrey’s service, wrote a life
of Henry V. at his patron’s bidding. Other Italian scholars,
as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his patronage. Amongst
English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock, Whet-
hamstead of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and
Gilbert Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford
university. A popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb
in St Paul’s Cathedral. The adjoining aisle, called Duke
Humphrey’s Walk, was frequented by beggars and needy
adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb ‘‘to dine with
Duke Humphrey,” used of those who loitered there dinner¬
less.
The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson's Wars
of the English in France, Whethamstead's Register, and Beckington's
Letters (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various London Chronicles, and
the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with
Jacqueline see F. von Lflher's Jactihda von Bayern und ihre Zrit
(2 vols., NSrdlingen, 1869}. For other modern authorities consult
W. Stubbs’s Constitutional History ; J. H. Ramsay's Lancaster and
York ; Political History of England, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, Pictures of
Old England, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekera, Humphrey,
Duke of Gloucester (1907). For Humphrey’s correspondence with
Piero Candido Decern brio see the English Historical Review, vols.
x., xix., xx. (C. L. K)
GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, Earl of (1222-1262),
was a son of Gilbert de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th
earl of Clare, and was born on the 4th of August 1222, succeeding
xn. 5
128 GLOSSOP—GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
further glossaries (Eraam. Nyerup published extracts from the
Leiden Glossary, Voss. 69, In 1787, Symbolae ad Literal. Tout.),
though glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius,
Meursius, Hcraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where
a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition
of the Vossius library (cf. Loewe, Prodr. 168). In the 19th century
came Osann's Glossarii Latini specimen (1826); the glossogTaphic
publications of Angelo Mai (Classici auctores, vois. iii., vi., vil., viii..
Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern's Pannrmia, Placidus and
various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler’s treatise (1847)
on the Cod. Amplotriamts of Osbern, and his edition of the three
Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854
G. F. Hildebrand's Glossarium Latinum (an extract from Abavus
minor), preserved in a Cod. Paris, lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's
vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in
1884 by It. Paul Wiilcker under the tilde Anglo-Saxon and Old English
Vocabularies (London, 2 vols., 1857) ; L. Diefenbach’s supplement
to Du Cange, entitled Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et
inf mas aetatis, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries,
vocabularies, <te., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl's treatise
(1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus
by Deuerling; G. Loewe's Prodromus (1876), and other treatises
by him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884);
1888, the second volume of Goetz's own great Corpus glossariorum
Latinorum, of which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the
light bv 1907, the last two being separately entitled Thesaurus
glossarum emendaUmm, containing many emendations and correc¬
tions of earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars; 1900,
Arthur S. Napier, Old English Glosses (Oxford), collected chiefly from
Aidhclm MSS., but also from Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius,
Gregory, Isidore, Juvcncus, I’hocas, Prudentius, &c.
There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in
various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican .atMonteCassino,
Paris, Munich, Hern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford, Cambridge,
&c. Much has already been done to make the material contained in
these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done with what
is still unpublished, though we may find that the differences between
the glossaries which often present themselves at first sight are mere
differences in form introduced by successive more or less qualified
copyists.
Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been
preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the
publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C.
Stem, G, I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many
others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's Gram-
matica Celtica, A. Kuhn’s Beitrage iur vergkich. Sprachfvrschung,
Zeitschr. /iir celtische Philologie, Anhiv fiir Celtisthe Lexicographic ,
the Revue celtiquc, Transactions of the London Philological Society, &c.
The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was K.
Gershom of Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But
he and other Hebrew writers after him mostly used the Old French
language (though sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which
an example has been published by I-ambort and Brandin, in their
Glossaire hibreu-frangais du XIIP siiclc : recueil de mots hlbreux
bibliques avec traduction frangaise (Paris, 1003). See further The
Jewish Encyclopedia (New York and London, 1903), article " Gloss."
Authorities.—F or a great part of what has been said above, the
writer is indebted to G. Goetz's article on “ Latein. Glossographie ”
in Panly's Healencyhlopddie. By the side of Goetz's C or pus stands
the great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, Die althochdeutsche
Glossen (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also
Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical
Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4U1 vol. Besides
the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already mentioned,
we refer here to a few others, whose writin s may lie consulted:
Hugo Bliimner; Catholicon Anglicum (ed. Hertage) ; De-Vit (at
end of Forcellini’s Lexicon): F, Deycks; Du Cange; I'unck;
T. H. Gallic (Altsachs. Sprachdenkm., 1894) ; Grober; K. Gruber
(Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss., Erlangen, 1904) ;
Hattemer ; W. Heracus ( Die Sprachc des Petronius und die Glossen,
Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Laud-
graf; Marx; W. Meyer-Lubke (“ Zu den latein. Glossen ” in
Wiener Stud. xxv. 90 sqq.); Henry Ncttleship; Niedermann,
Notes d'Bymol. lat. (Macon, 1902), Contribut. A la critique des glosses
Mines (Neuch&tcl, 1905); Pokrowskij ; Ouicherat; Otlo B.
Schlutter (many important articles in Anglia, Englische Studien,
Archiv f. latein. Lexiiographic, &c.) ; Scholl; Schuchardt; Leo
Sommer; Stadler; Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener
(Rhein. Mus. xxiii. 496, xxiv. 382); A. Way, Promptarium parvulorum
siveclericonm (3 vols., Imndon, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in
Rhein. Mus. xxiv. 363); Wdlfilin in A rch. fiir lot. Lexicogr ; Zupitza.
Cf. further, the various volumes of. {he following periodicals;
Romania: Zeitschr. fiir deutsches Alterthum ; Anglia ; Englische
Studien ; Journal of English and German Philology (ed. Cook and
Karsten) ; Archiv fitrlmein. Lexicogr., and others treating of philo¬
logy, lexicography, grammar, &c. (J. H. H.)
GLOSSOP, a market town and municipal borough, in the
High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on
the extreme northern txmder of the county; 13 m..E. by S. of
Manchester by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526.
It is the chief seat of the cotton manufacture in Derbyshire,
and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye and print works,
and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main divisions,
the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop
Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by
that of All Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman
Catholic church. In the immediate neighbourhood is Glossop
Hall, the scat of Lord Howard, lord of the manor, a picturesque
old building with extensive terraced gardens. On a hill near the
town is Mslandra Castle, the site of a Roman fort guarding
Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak District.
In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the
Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longden¬
dale, there are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system
of Manchester, formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which
descends from the high moors north-east Of Glossop. The town
is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
3052 acres.
Glossop was granted by Henry 1 . to William Peverel, on the
attainder of whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it
was gifted by Henry II. to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry
VIII. bestowed it on the earl of Shrewsbury. It was made a
municipal borough in 1866.
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English
earldom of Gloucester was held by several members of the royal
family, including Robert, a natural son of Ilcnry I., and John,
afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when Gilbert de Clare
was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in the family
of Clare (q.v.) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was killed
at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various
relatives of the Clares, among them bv the younger Hugh le
Despenser (d. 1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom
had married sisters of Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thoma^le Despenser
(1373-1400), a descendant of the Clares, was created earl of
Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded from his earldom
and in January 1400 was beheaded.
The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock,
a younger son of Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester,
but his honours were forfeited when he was found guilty of
treason in 1397. The next holder of the title was Humphrey,
a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of Gloucester in 1414.
He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title was revived
in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king
as Richard III. in 1483,
In-1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was
formally created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne
since infancy. This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had
incensed his mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm ad¬
herence to the Protestant religion, and had fought among the
Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned to England
with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of
September 1660. The next duke was William (1689-1700),
son of the princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to
the English throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by
his unde, William III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation
was ever passed. William died on the 30th of July 1700, and
again the title became extinct.
Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known
for some time as-duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to
the peerage in 1726 it was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764
Frederick’s third son, William Henry (1743-1805), was created
duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his brother, George Ill.
This duke’s secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807), an illegitimate
daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd
Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives
and led to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the
25th of August 1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick
(1776-1834), who now became duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh.
The duke, who served with the British army in Flanders, married
his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter pf George III. He
died op the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children, and his
GLOUCESTER
successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th
earl of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester
is supposed to have written L’Ordotmance d’Anglelerre pour U
camp a I'outrance, ou gaige de balailk,
Bibliocsaphy.— See T. Walsin;;ham, Hisloria Anglicana, edited
~y, , .“*y (I-ondon, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham.
Htstoria vitae it regni Ricardi II., edited by T. Heame (Oxford,
11*9 • Chromque de la iraison et mort de Richard II, edited by B.
Williams (London, 1846); J. Froissart, Chroniques, edited by S.
Luce and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897) ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional
History, vol. 11. (Oxford, 1896) ; J. Tait in Owens College Historical
Essays and S. Armitage-Smith, John of Gaunt (London, 1904)
I3T
GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo'ster), a city,
county of a city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port’
and the county town of Gloucestershire, England, on the left
(east) bank of the river Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop.
(190 1 ) 47 j 95 S- If is served by the Great Western railway and
the west-and-north branch of the Midland railway ; while the
Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in the Severn
estuary (16J m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle eminence
overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the
east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise
prominently to the west and north-west.
The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates
m the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations
of the present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-
1104); and Walter Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its
first mitred abbot in 1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see
of Worcester, but the separate see was then constituted, with
John Wakcman, last abbot of Tewkesbury, for its first bishop.
The diocese covers the greater part of Gloucestershire, with small
parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The cathedral may be
succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus, with
addit ions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft. long,
and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th
century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful
pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English
roof; the crypt also, under the choir, aisles and.chapels, is
Norman, as is the chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four
apsidal cathedral crypts in England, the others being at Worcester,
Winchester and Canterbury. The south porch is Perpendicular,
with fan-tracery roof, as also is the north transept, the south
being transitional Decorated. The choir has Perpendicular
tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each side.
The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modem scheme
of colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east
window is partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal
chapels is a cross Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the
cloisters, with very early example of fan-tracery, the carols or
stalls for the monks’ study and writing lying to the south. The
finest monument is the canopied shrine of Edward II. who was
brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of pilgrims to this
the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a side-chapel, too,
is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose, a great
benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who was
interred there ; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward
Jenner are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival
(the Festival of the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral
and those of Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873
and 1890 and in 1897 the cathedral was extensively restored,
principally by Sir Gilbert Scott. Attached to the deanery is the
Norman prior’s chapel. In St Mary’s Square outside the Abbey
gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under Queen Mary in
* 555 - .
Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect
of the city. At the point of intersection of the four principal
streets stood the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern
building in 1894. None of the old public buildings, in fact, is left,
but the New Inn in Northgate Street is a beautiful timbered
house, strong and massive, with external galleries and courtyards,
built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II .’s shrine, by Abbot
Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading thence to the
cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a large
number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have
been the old proverb, “ as sure as God’s in Gloucester,” which
provoked Oliver Cromwell to declare that the city had “ more
churches than godliness.” Of the churches four are of Special
interest: St Mary de. Lode, with a Norman tower and chancel,
and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site of a Roman
temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St
Maty de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with
later additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of
St Michael, said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of
St Peter; and St Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection,
and possessing a tower and other portions of later date. In the
neighbourhood of St Mary de Ctypt are slight remains of Grey-
friars and Blackfriars monasteries, and also of the city wall.
Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and Saracen's
Head inns.
There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded
by Henry VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the
school of St Mary de Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the
same reign; and Sir Thomas Rich’s Blue Coat hospital for 34
boys (x666). At the Crypt school the famous preacher George
Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he preached his first
sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was held in
Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780.
The noteworthy modem buildings include the museum and
school of art and science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon
and Norman castle), the Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial
church. A park in the south of the city contains a spa, a chaly¬
beate spring having been discovered in 1814. West of this,
across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and some walls) of
Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey m the vale of
Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became
the secondary establishment.
Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and
slate works, saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills,
manufactories of railway wagons, engines and agricultural
implements, and boat and ship-building yards. Gloucester
was declared a port in 1882. The Berkeley canal was opened in
1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that at Sharpness on
the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are
timber and grain ; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks.
The salmon and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable.
The tidal bore in the river attains its extreme height just below
the city, and sometimes surmounts the weir in the western
branch of the river, affecting the stream up to Tewkesbuiy lock.
The parliamentary borough returns one member. The city is
governed by a mayor, ro aldermen and 30 councillors. Area,
2315 acres.
History .—The traditional existence of a British settlement
at Gloucester (Can Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not
confirmed by any direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman
municipality or colonia of Glevum, founded by Nerva(A.D. 96-98).
Parts of the walls can be traced, and many remains and coins
have been found, though inscriptions (as is frequently the case
in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its situation on a navigable
river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey of St Peter by
xEthelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the
Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve,
with a castle which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint.
The first overlord, Earl Godwme, was succeeded nearly a century
later by Robert, earl of Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first
charter in 1155 which gave the burgesses the same liberties
as the citizens of London and Winchester, and a second charter
of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the Severn. The
first charter was confirmed in 1194 by Richard I. The privileges
of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John
(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom
and from pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters
were numerous. Gloucester was incorporated bv *Richard III.
in 1483, the town being made a county in itself. This charter
was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and other charters of incorpora¬
tion were received by Gloucester from Elizabeth in 1560, James I.
GLOUCESTER, U.S.A.—GLOUCESTERSHIRE
132
in 1604, Charles I. in 1616 and Charles II. in 1672. The 1
chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester
returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since
when it has been represented by one member. A seven days’
fair from the 24th of June was granted by Edward I. in 1302,
and James I. licensed fairs on the 25th of March and the 17th
of November, and fairs under these grants are still held on the
first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday in
November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was
granted to the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednes¬
day existed in the reign of John, was confirmed by charter in
1227 and is still held. The iron trade of Gloucester dates from
before the Conquest, tanning was carried on before the reign of
Richard III., pin-making and bell-founding were introduced
in the 16th, and the long-existing coal trade became important
in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished from the 12th
to the 16th century, TThe sea-borne trade in com and wine
existed before the reign of Richard I.
See W. H. Stevenson, Records of the Corporation of Gloucester
(Gloucester, 1893); Victoria County History, Gloucestershire.
GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann.
Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900) 26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-
bom, including 4388 English Canadians, 800 French Canadians,
665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594.Portuguese; (1910, U.S. census)
24,398. Area, 53-6 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine
railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is
sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most
picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite
summer resort, much frequented by artists. Included within
the city borders are several villages, of which the principal one,
also known as Gloucester, has a deep and commodious harbour.
Among the other villages, all summer resorts, are Annisquam,
Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the Magnolia glauca,
which grows wild there, this being probably its most northerly
habitat); near Magnolia arc Rafe’s Chasm (60 ft, deep and 6-10 ft.
wide)andNorman’s Woe,the scene of the wreck of thc“Hesperus”
(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow’s
poem. There is some slight general commerce—in 1909 the
imports were valued at $130,098; the exports at $7853—
but the principal business is fishing, and has been since early
colonial days. The pursuit of cod, mackerel, herring and
halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade, the round of
the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important
place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest
fishing ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged
in it. The “ catch ” was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in
1905 at $3,377,330. The organization of the industry has
undergone many transformations, but a notable feature is the
general practice—especially since modern methods have necessi¬
tated larger vessels and more costly gear, and correspondingly
greater capital—of profit-sharing ; all the crew entering on that
basis and not independently. There are some manufactures,
chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory product
in. 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and
preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented
$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the
quarrying of the beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies
the city and all the environs.
Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as
La Beauport), and a temporary settlement was made by English
fishermen sent out by the Dorchester Company of “ merchant
adventurers ” in 1623-1625; some of these settlers returned
to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the governor,
removed to what is now Salem. 1 Permanent settlement ante¬
dated 1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated.
From Gosndd’s voyage* onward the extraordinary abundance
of cod about Cape Ann Was well known, and though the first
1 According to some authorities (e.g. Pringle) a few settlers
remained on the site of Gloncttter, the permanent settlement thus
dating from 1623 to 1623: of this, however, there is noproof, and
the contrary opinion is the one generally held.
settlers characteristically enough tried to live by farming, they
speedily became perforce a sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of
fishing as an industry may be dated as beginning about 1700,
for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable. Voyages to the
Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively
unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been
an important but unstable return; halibut fishing has been
vigorously pursued since about 1836 and herring sjnee about
1856. At the opening of the War of Independence Gloucester,
whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was second to
Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries,
which steadily declined, reaching thpir lowest ebb from 2820 to
1840. Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded.
The cod take had supported in the 18th century an extensive
trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and the West Indies, and though
changed in nature with the decline of the Bank fisheries after
the War of Independence, it continued large through the first
quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of
the same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and
valuable trade with Surinam, hake being the chief article of
export and molasses and sugar the principal imports. “ India
Square ” remains, a memento of a bygone day. About 1850 the
fisheries revived, especially after i860, under the influence of
better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new
grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since
that time the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque
hamlet to a fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat
foreign, settlement. Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900.
Ship-building is anotherindustry of the past. The first "schooner”
was launched at Gloucester in 1713. From 1830 to 1907, 776
vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries ; but the loss of
life has been greatly reduced by the use of better vessels and by
improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in 1874.
Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books; among others
in Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward’s Singular Life and Old Maid's
Paradise, in Rudyard Kipling's Captains Courageous, and in James
B. Connolly's Out of Gloucester (1902), The Deep Sea's Toll (1905).
and The Crested Seas (1907).
See J. J. Babson, History of the Town of Gloucester (Gloucester,
i860; with Notes and Additions, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and
J. K. Pringle, History of the Town and City of Gloucester (Gloucester,
1892).
GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop.
(1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of whom 1094 were foreign-born ;
(1905, state census) 8055. The city is served by the West
Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and by ferry
to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among
its manufactures arc incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton
yarns, boats and drills. The municipality owns and operates
the water works. It was near the site of Gloucester City that
the Dutch in 1623 planted the short-lived colony of Fort Nassau,
the first European settlement on the Delaware river, but in was
not until after the arrival of English Quakers on the Delaware,
in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first called Axwamus,
was established on the site of.the present city. This was surveyed
and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of Independence
the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number of
skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these
was a successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the
25th of November 1777 by American troops under the command
of General l^fayette. In 1868 Gloucester City was chartered
as a city. In Camden county there is a township named
Gloucester (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798, and
originally including the present township of Clementon and parts
of the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of
England, bounded N. by Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire,
E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by Berkshire and Wiltshire, ,S. by
Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and Herefordshire. Its area
is 1243-3 sq- m. The outline is very, irregular, but three physical
divisions are well marked—the hills, the vale and the forest.
(1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among the
GLOUCESTERSHIRE
uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (?.».), whose westward face is
a line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding
1000 ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from
S.W. to N.E. The watershed between the Thames and Severn
valleys lies close to it, so that Gloucestershire includes Thames
Head itself, in the south-east near Cirencester, and most of the
upper feeders of the Thames which join the main stream, from
narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The western
Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower Severn,
usually spoken of as “The Vale,” or, in two divisions, as the
vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river
receives three famous tributaries during its course through
Gloucestershire. Near Tewkesbury, on the northern border,
the Avon joins it on the left and forms the county boundary
for 4 m. This is the river known variously as the Upper,
Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare’s Avon,
which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties
named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which
rises as an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the
south-east of Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward
through Wiltshire, pierces the hills through a narrow valley
which becomes a wooded gorge where the Clifton suspension
bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters the Severn estuary
at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the boundary
between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is
one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom,
connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great
tributary of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the
estuary, 8 m. N. of that of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county
boundary for 16 m. northward, and above this, over two short
reaches of its beautiful winding course, it is again the boundary.
(3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a beautiful and historic
tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the majority of English
forests, maintains its ancient character. Gloucestershire has
thus a share in the courses of five of the most famous of English
rivers, and covers two of the most interesting physical districts
in the country. The minor rivers of the county are never long.
The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m,, and
so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary
to the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the
Cotteswolds on the other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford,
forms part of the north-western boundary, and joins the Severn
near Gloucester, watering the vale of Gloucester, the northern
part of the vale. In the southern part, the vale of Berkeley,
the Stroudwater traverses a narrow, picturesque and populous
valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town of Berkeley,
joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs south¬
ward to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern
feeders of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as
properly the headwater of the main river) rising in the Seven
Springs, in the hills above Cheltenham, and forming the southern
county boundary near its junction with the Thames at Cricklade ;
the Coin, a noteworthy trout-stream, joining above Lechlade,
and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county boundary)
joining below the same town ; while from the east of the county
there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode,
much larger streams, rising among the bare uplands of the
northern Cotteswolds.
Geology .—No county in England has a greater variety of geological
formations. The pre-Cambrian is represented by the gneissic rocks
at the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley,
At Damory, Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the
cause of the upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tortworth, in
whicn are the oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper
Llandovery is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill,
Micklewood chase and'Purton passage, wrapping round the base of
May and Huntley hills, and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope.
The Wenlock limestone is exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield,
and quarried for burning at May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or
mudstones are seen at Berkeley and Purton, where the upper part
is probably Aymestry limestone. The scries of sandy shales and
sandstones which, as Dowitton sandstones and Ledbury shales,
form a. transition to the Old Red Sandstone are quarried at Dymock.
* The " Old Red ’’ itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth Green, Thom-
bury, and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in anticlinal folds
forming hills. It forms also the great basin extending from Ross to
Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldeaa, Abenhall, Blakenev,
&c,, within which is the Carboniferous basin of the forest. It is cut
through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston. This formation
is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The Bristol and Forest
Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds of toe Old Red
Sandstone; and though the seams of coal have not yet been corre¬
lated, they must have been once continuous, as further appears from
the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced, under toe
Severn. The lower limestone shales are joo ft. thick in the Bristol
area and only 163 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and famous for
their bone bed. The great marine series known as the Mountain
Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye and
Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in toe latter district, but only 480 in the
former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so largely
worked for iron even from Roman times. It is mtieh used too for
lime and road metal. Above tois comes the Millstone Grit, well seen
at Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 435
in the forest. On tois rest the Coal Measures, consistihg in the
Bristol field of two great series, the lower 1000 ft. thick with 36
seams, the upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in
thickness. These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard
sandstone (Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the
Forest coal-field the whole scries is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 13
seams. At Durdham Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age
known as Keuper or Upper Trias, rests unconformably on the edges
of the Palaeozoic rocks, and is evidently a shore deposit, yielding
dinosaurian remains. Above the Keuper clays come the Penarth
beds, of which classical sections occur at Westbury, Aust, &c. The
series consists of grey marls, black paper shales containing much
pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham landscape marble,
and the White Lias limestone, yielding Ostrea Ltasstca and Cardium
Rhaeticum. The district of Over Severn is mainly of Keuper marls.
The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by the next formation, the
Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey limestones, characterized
by ammonites, beiemnites and gigantic saurians. At its base is
the insect-bearing limestone bed. The pastures producing Gloucester
cheese arc on the clays of the Lower Lias. The more calcareous
Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks flanking the Oolite escarp¬
ment of the Cotteswolds, as at Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown.
The Cotteswolds consist of the great limestone series of the Lower
Oolite. At the base is a transition series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick,
well developed at Nailsworth and Frocester. Leckhampton hill is
a typical section of the Lower Oolite, where the sands are capped by
40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above this are 147 ft. of freestone,
7 ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone.
The Painswick stone belongs to lower freestone. Resting on the
Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to S.E., is the “ fuller’s earth,”
a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick, throwing out many of the
springs which form the head waters of the Thames. Next comes
the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are the Stonesfield
" •’late ” beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c.,at Sevenhampton and
elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchmhampton stone is obtained,
and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with bands of clay
known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on the
flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in
shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted
coral. The highest bed of the Lower Oolite tythe Corn brash, about
40 ft. of rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from
Siddington to Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a
small tract of blue Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has
no higher Secondary or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series
is represented by much northern drift gravel in the vale and Over
Severn, by accumulations of Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial
extinct mammalian remains on the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by
submerged forests extending from Sharpness to Gloucester.
Agriculture .—The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and
seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some
four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain
crop. In toe vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well
adapted for pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth
of grasses and root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Here¬
fordshire, arc mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant
markets, and many reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich
grazing tract of the vale of Berkeley produces the famous ” double
Gloucester ’’ cheeses, and the vale in general has' long been celebrated
for cheese and butter. The vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-
growing district. Turnips, &c., occupy about three-fourths of the
green crop acreage, potatoes occupying only about a twelfth. A
feature of toe county is its apple and pear orchards, chiefly for the
manufacture of cider and perry, which are attached to nearly every
farm. The Cotteswold district is comparatively barren except in
the valleys, but it has been famous since the 13th century for the
breed of sheep named after it. Oats and barley are here the chief
crops.
Other Industries .—The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon
the early success in sheep-farming among toe Cotteswolds. This
industry is not confined to the hill country or even to Gloucestershire
itself in the west of England. The description of cloth principally
manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to produce a short
134 GLOUCESTERSHIRE
clow nap on the face, and made of all shades of colour, but chiefly
black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of the industry lies
in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds. Stroud is the
centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and south-west of
this are Wotton-under-Kdge, North Nibley and others. Machinery
and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also produced.
Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the
coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the
field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate
is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and
Somersetshire.
Communications. —Kailway communications arc provided princi¬
pally by the Great Weslern and Midland companies. Of the Great
Western lines, the main hne serves Bristol from London. It divides
at Bristol, one section serving the south-western counties, another
South Wales, crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel,
4j m. in length, a remarkable engineering work. A more direct
route, by this tunnel, between London and South Wales, is provided
by a line from Wootton Bassett on the mam line, running north of
Bristol by Badminton and Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western
Hne* are that from Swindon on the main line, by the Stroud valley
to Gloucesf cr, crossing the Severn there, and continuing by the right
bank of the river into Wiles, with branches north-west into Hereford¬
shire ; the Oxford and Worcester trunk line, crossing the north-east
of the county, connected with Cheltenham and Gloucester by a
branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping Norton junction ;
and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to Honeyboumc.
The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows the vale
from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into the
forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a
great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of
the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north,
Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to
Malvern. The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs
east and south from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording com¬
munication with the south of England. The East Gloucester line
of the Great Western from Oxford terminates at Eairford. The
Thames and Severn canal, rising to a summit level in the tnnnel
through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is continued from Wallbridge
(Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives communication between
the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal (16J m.) connects
the port of Gloucester with its outport of Sharpness on Severn.
Population and Administration. —The area of the ancient county is
795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of
634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The
county contains 18 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are—Bristol,
a city and county borough (pop. 328,945) ; Cheltenham (49,439) ;
Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955) ; Tewkesbury
(5419). The other urban districts are—Awre (1096), Charlton Kings
(3806), Circenostcr (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern
outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184),
Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Totbury (1989), Westbury-
on-Sovem (1866). The number of small ancient market towns is
large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts
of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the
forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as
Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford ; and, to the north,
besides Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud
there are Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth ; near the south¬
eastern boundary Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183),
Dursley (2372), Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury
along the western lino of the hills; and between them and the
Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury (259.1). Among the uplands of the
Cotteswolds there are no towns, and villages are few, but in the east of
the county, in the uppor Thames basin, there are, besides Cirencester,
Fairford on the Coin and Lachlade, close to the head of the naviga¬
tion an the Thames itself. Far up in the Lech valley, remote from
railway communication, is Northieach, once a great posting station
on the Oxford and Cheltenham road. In the north-east are Stow-on-
the-Wold, standing high, and Moreton-in-the-Mareh near the head¬
waters of the Evenlode. In a northern prolongation oi the county,
almost detached, is Chipping Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies
6 ra. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the north-west, Newent (2485) is the
only considerable town. Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and
assises are held at Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions,
and is divided into 24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs
of Bristol,'Gloucester and Tewkesbury have separate commissions
of the peace and courts of quarter sessions. There are 359 civil
parishes. Gloucestershire is principally in the diocese of Gloucester,
but part Is in that of Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester
and Oxford. There are 408 ecclesiastical paelahe* or districts wholly
or in part within the county. There are five parliamentary divisions,
namely, Tewkesbury or northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or
mid, Thornbury or southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning
one member. ’The county also includes the boroughs of Gloucester
and Cheltenham, each returning one member; and the greater part
of the borough of Bristol, which returns four members.
History.— The English conqmest of the Severn valley began in
577 with the victory of Ceawun at Deorham, followed by the
capture of Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who
occupied the district were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory
had become a dependency of Mercia in the 7th century, and
was not brought under West Saxon dominion until the 9th
century. No important settlements were made by the Danes
in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire
in the 10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle in 1016. Towards the close of the nth century
the boundaries were readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto
a county by itself, and at the same time the forest district between
the Wye and the Severn was added to Gloucestershire. The
divisions of the county for a long time remained very unsettled,
and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday Survey
and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ
very widely in name and extent both from each other and from
the twenty-eight hundreds of the present day..
Gloucestershire formed part of Harold’s earldom at the time
of the Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the
Conqueror. In the wars of Stephen’s reign the cause of the
empress Maud was supported by Robert of Gloucester who had
rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the castles at Gloucester and
Cirencester were also garrisoned on her behalf. In the barons’
wax of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was garrisoned for
Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in 1265,
in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and
Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars
of the Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century
Gloucester showed strong Protestant sympathy, and in the
reign of Man' Bishop Hooper was sent to Gloucester to be burnt
as a warning to the county, while the same Puritan leanings
induced the county to support the Parliamentary cause in the
civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and Cirencester
were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered
in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned
for the parliament throughout the struggle.
On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater
part of modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of
Worcester, and shortly after the Conquest constituted the arch¬
deaconry of Gloucester, which in 1290 comprised the deaneries
of Campden, Stow, Cirencester, Fairford, Winchcombe, Stone-
house, Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley and Gloucester.
The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a few
parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the
deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of
Hereford. .In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed
in that of Hawkesbury. In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was
created, its boundaries being identical with those of the county.
On the erection of Bristol to a see in 1542 the deanery of Bristol
was transferred from Gloucester to that diocese. In 1836 the
sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united ; the archdeaconry of
Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol, Cirencester,
Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was
transferred to, the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the
archdeaconry of Cirencester was constituted to include the
deaneries of Campden, Stow, Northieach north and south,
Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the diocese of Bristol was
recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol, Stapleton and
Bitton.
After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the
county were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester
alone holding seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the
principal lay-tenants were for the most part outlying parcels
of baronies having their “ caput ” in other counties. The large
estates held by William Fitz Osbem, earl of Hereford, escheated
to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl Roger in 1074-
1075, The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire from
the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset,
Tracy, Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently
in the annals of the county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester,
and Richard of Cornwall claimed extensive lands and privileges
in the shire in Hie 13th century, and Simon de Montfort owned
Minsterworth and Rodley.
GLOVE 135
Bristol was made a county in 143$, and in 1483 Richard III.
created Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the
hundreds ol Dudston and King’s Barton. The latter were
reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673, but the cities of Bristol and
Gloucester continued to rank as independent counties, with
separate jurisdiction, county rate and assizes. The chief officer
of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was generally also
constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat for the
forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1283, the last in 1635.
The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction
of the duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes.
The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of
Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry,
as already indicated. The forest district, until the development
of the Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-
producing area of the kingdom, the mines having been worked
in Roman times, while the abundance of timber gave rise to
numerous tanneries and to an important ship-building trade.
The hill district, besides fostering agricultural pursuits, gradually
absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which now
devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk¬
weaving was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially
prosperous in the Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and
building-stone in the county gave rise to considerable manu¬
factures of brick, tiles and pottery. Numerous minor industries
sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as flax-growing
and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings, rope and
sailcloth.
Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290,
when it returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired
representation in 1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury
in 1620. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned
four members in two divisions ; Bristol, Gloucester, Cirencester,
Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members each, and
Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the
representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each.
Antiquities .—The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the
magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of
Cirencester with its great Perpendicular porch, are described
under their separate headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near
Winchcomb, founded by Richard, earl of Cornwall, in 1246,
little more than the foundations are left, but these have been
excavated with great care, and interesting fragments have been
brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine parish
churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near
Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account
of the pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church
at Lechlade is unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was
built (c. 1500), according to tradition, to contain the remarkable
series of stained-glass windows which are said to have been
brought from the Netherlands. These are, however, adjudged
to be of English workmanship, and are one of the finest series
in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Bam is an interesting
relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle
at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thom-
bury Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pre¬
tensions of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against
its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was
beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham is the fine 15th-century
mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials
of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve. The
mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near
Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the 15th century,
but the inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is
the burial place of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton
is the mansion and vast domain of the Beauforts (formerly of
the Botelers and others), on the south-eastern boundary of the
bounty.
See Victoria County History, Gloucestershire ; Sir R. Atkyns,
The Ancient and Present State 0/ Gloucestershire (London, 1712 ; 2nd
ed., London, 1768) ; Samuel Rudder, A Neui History of Gloucestershire
(Cirencester, 1779); Ralph. Bigland, Historical, Monumental and
Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester (2 vnis.,
London, 1791); Thomas Budge, The History of the : County of Gloucester
(2 veto., Gloucester, *803); T. D. Fosbroke, Abstract of Records and
Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire forpted into a
History (2 vols., Gloucester, 1807) ; Legends, Tales tend Songs in
the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire (London, 1876); J. D.
Robertson, Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of Gloucester
(London, 1890); W. Bazeiey and F. A. Hyett, Bibliographers'
Manual of Gloucestershire (3 vols., London, 1895-1897) ; w. H.
Hutton, By Thames and Cotswold (London, 1903). See also Trans¬
actions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society.
GLOVE ( 0 . Eng. glof, perhaps connected with Gothic Ufa, the
palm of the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a
separate sheath for each finder.
The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was
known even to the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer
Laertes is described as wearing gloves (xespi&as k-l x‘/w{)
while walking in his garden ( Od . xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi.
72) tells how Leotychides filled a glove (x«p«) with the money
he received as a bribe, and Xenophon ( Cyrop . viii. 8.17) records
that the Persians wore fur gloves having separate sheaths for
the fingers (x«/>*8a? Sturtlay nal SaKTohr/Opay), Among the
Romans also there are occasional references to the use of gloves.
According to the younger Pliny (Ep. iii. 5. 15) the secretary
whom his uncle had with him when ascending Vesuvius wore
gloves (manicae) so that he might not be impeded in his work
by the cold, and Varro (R.R. i. 55.1) remarks that olives gathered
with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with gloves
(digitabula or digitatia). In the northern countries the general
use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it
is not without significance that the most common medieval
Latin word for glove ( guantus or wantus, Mod. Fr. gant) is of
Teutonic origin ( 0 . H. Ger. want). Thus in the life of Columbanus
by Jonas, abbot of Bobbio (d. c. 665), gloves for protecting the
hands in doing manual labour are spoken of as tegumenta manuum
quae GaUi wantos vacant. Among the Germans and Scandi¬
navians, in the 8th and 9th centuries, the use of gloves, fingerless
at first, would seem to have been all but universal; and in the
case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often elaborately
embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the case
with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments (see
below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the
backs armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet
in the Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved.
The fact that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists
does not prove their non-existence, since this might easily be
an omission due to lack of observation or of skill; but, so far
as the records go, there is no evidence to prove that gloves were
in general use in England until the 13th century. It was in
this century that ladies began to wear gloves as ornaments;
they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It
was, however, not till the 16th century that they reached their
greatest elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for
wearing them richly embroidered and jewelled.
The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use
of gloves a special significance. Their liturgical use by the
Church is dealt with below ( Pontifical gloves) ; this was imitated
from the usage of civil life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves
formed part of the insignia of the emperors, and also, and that
quite early, of the kings of England. Thus Matthew of Paris,
in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189, mentions that he
was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown on his
head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the
hands of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on
those of King Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774.
See W. B. Redfem, Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes, with
numerous examples.
Gages. —Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most
widespread and important during the middle ages was the
practice of tendering a folded glove as a gage (or waging one’s
law. The origin of this custom is probably not Jar to seek. The
E romise to fulfil a judgment of a court of law, a promise secured
y the delivery of a wed or gage, is one of the oldest, if not the
very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This gage was originally
136 GLOVE
a chattel of value, which had to be deposited at once by the
defendant as security into his adversary’s hand; and that the
glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless
due to its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose.
The custom survived after the contract with the vadium, wed
or gage had been superseded by the contract with pledges (per¬
sonal sureties). In the rules of procedure of a baronial court
of the 14th century we .find: “ He shall wage his law with his
folded glove (de son gaunt plyee) and shall deliver it into the hand
of the other, and then take his glove back and find pledges for
his law.” The delivery of the glove had, in fact, become a mere
ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties close at hand. 1
Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the
wager of battle (vadium in duello). The glove here was thrown
down by the defendant in open court as security that he would
defend his cause in arms ; the accuser by picking it up accepted
the challenge (see Wager). This form is still prescribed for the
challenge of the king’s champion at the coronation of English
sovereigns, and was Actually followed at that of George IV.
(see Champion). The phrase “ to throw down the gauntlet ”
is still in common use of any challenge.
Pledges of Service. —The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment
is exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing
vassals by investing them with the glove ; similarly the emperors
symbolized by the bestowal of a glove the concession of the right
to found a town or to establish markets, mints and the like;
the “ hands ” in the armorial bearings of certain German towns
are really gloves, reminiscent of this investiture. Conversely,
fiefs were held by the render of presenting gloves to the sovereign.
Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was held in Queen
Elizabeth’s time by the service of one knight’s fee and the rent of
a pair of gloves turned up with hare’s skin (Blount’s Tenures,
ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England,
however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove
for his right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right
arm as long as he holds the sceptre. The right to perform
this “ honourable service ” was originally granted by William the
Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun, together with the manor of
Femham (Famham Royal) in Buckinghamshire. The male
descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the corona¬
tions until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the
right passed, with the manor of Famham, to Thomas Lord
Fumival by his marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William
Lord Furnival performed the ceremony at the coronation of
Richard II. He died in 1383, and his daughter and heiress Jean
de Fumival having married Sir Thomas Nevill, Lord Furnival
in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the coronation
of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (1st
earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Fumival, presented the glove
embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of
Henry V. When in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged
the manor of Famham with King Henry VIII. for the site and
precincts of the priory of Worksop in Nottinghamshire he
stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty should be
reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the
obligation from Famham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April
1838 the manor of Worksop was,sold to the duke of Newcastle
and with it the right to perform the service, which had hitherto
always been carried out by a descendant of Bertram de Verdun.
At the coronation of King Edward VII. the earl of Shrewsbury
disputed the duke of Newcastle’s right, on the ground that the
serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the priory lands
at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale
so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony
and the right nad therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant
to himself as lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was
1 F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, The Court Baron (Selden
Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitland wrongly translates gaunt
plyee as “ twisted " glove, adding " why it should be twisted I cannot
say.” An earlier instance of the deliveiv of a folded glove as gage
is quoted from the i3th-centurvAngIo-Norman poem known as The
Song of Dermott and the Earl Wd. G. H. Orpen, Oxford, 1892) in
J. H. Round's Commune of London, p. 133.
disallowed by the court of claims, and the serjeanty was declare
to be attached to the manor of Worksop (G. Woods Wollastoi
Coronation Claims, London, 1903, p. 133).
Presentations .—From the ceremonial and symbolic use 1
gloves the transition was easy to the custom which grew up 1
presenting them to persons of distinction on special occasion
When Queen Elizabeth visited Cambridge in 1578 the vie
chancellor offered her a “ paire of gloves, perfumed and gamishc
with embroiderie and goldsmithe’s wourke, price 60s.,” and 1
the visit of James I. there in 1615 the mayor and corporatic
of the town “ delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumi
gloves with gold laces.”, It was formerly the custom in Englar
for bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves 1
those who came to their consecration dinners and others, but th
gift became such a burden to them that by an order in counc
in 1678 it was commuted for the payment of a sum of £50 toware
the rebuilding of St Paul's. Serjeants at law, on their appoin
ment, were given a pair of gloves containing a sum of morn
which was termed “ regards ” ; this custom is recorded as ear!
as 1493, when according to the Black Book of Lincoln's Ir
each of the new serjeants received £6, 13s. 4d. and a pair 1
gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one tin
it was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king’s pardi
on his discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of
fee. Glove-silver, according to Jacob’s Law Dictionary, was
name used of extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers 1
courts, &c., or of money given by the sheriff of a county in \vhi<
no offenders were left for execution to the clerk of assize ax
judge’s officers; the explanation of the term is that the gloi
given as a perquisite or fee was in some cases lined with mom
to increase its value, and thus came to stand for money ostei
sibly given in lieu of gloves. It is still the custom in the Unite
Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a judge or magi
trate who when he takes his seat for criminal business at tl
appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custoi
judges are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting c
the bench, and a witness taking the oath must remove the glo\
from the hand that holds the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kysh
The Law and Customs relating to Gloves, London, 1901.)
Pontifical gloves (Lat. chirothecae) are liturgical omamen
peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, tl
cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is oft<
granted by the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries at
other prelates, as in the case of the other episcopal insigni
According to the present use the gloves are of silk and of tl
liturgical colour of the day, the edge of the opening ornament!
with a narrow band of embroidery or the like, and the middle
the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the celebr
tion of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, tl
gloves are put on the bishop immediately after the dalmatic, tl
right hand one by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. The
are worn only until the ablution before the canon of the mas
after which they may not again be put on.
At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate pu
the gloves on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, wil
a prayer that his hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice 1
offers may be as acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacol
his hands wrapped in the skin of kids, brought to Isaac. Th
symbolism (as in the case of the other vestments) is, however, (
late growth. The liturgical use of gloves itself ctuinot, accordir
to Father Braun, be traced beyond the beginning of the tot
century, and their introduction was due, perhaps to the simp
desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but moi
probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which tl
Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From tl
Frankish kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgici
gloves are first heard of in the earlier half of the nth centurj
The earliest authentic instance of the right to wear them beir
granted to a non-bishop is a bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, coi
ceding this to the abbot of S. Pietro in Cielo d’ Oro.
During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical glove
(often wanti, guanti, and sometimes manicae in the inventories
GLOVER, SIR J. H.—GLOVERSVILLE
were wom were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in
different churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed.
The most characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove
was the ornament (taseUus, fibula, monile, paratura) set in the
middle of the back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque
of metal, enamelled or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes
square or irregular in shape. Sometimes embroidery was substi¬
tuted ; still more rarely the whole glove was covered, even to the
fingers, with elaborate needlework designs.
Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since
the Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as
wearing them on their effigies.
See J. Braun, S. J ,,Die liturgische Getvandung (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1907), pp. 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated.
Manufacture of Gloves .—Three countries, according to an old
proverb, contribute to the making of a good glove—Spain
dressing the leather, France cutting it and England sewing it.
But the manufacture of gloves was not introduced into Great
Britain till the 10th or nth century. The incorporation of
glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in 1190 a glove-
makers’ gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating
the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of
London in 1349 framed their ordinances and had them approved
by the corporation, the city regulations at that time fixing the
price of a pair of common sheepskin gloves at id. In 1464, when
the gild received armorial bearings, they do not seem to have
been very strong, but apparently their position improved sub¬
sequently and in 1638 they were incorporated as a new company.
In 1580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish gloves were
on sale in London shops, and in 1661 a company of glovers was
incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat
of the English glove industry. In America the manufacture of
gloves dates from about 1760, when Sir William Johnson brought
over several families of glove-makers from Perth ; these settled
in Fulton county, New York, which is now the largest seat of the
glove trade in the United States.
Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as
these arc made of leather or arc woven or knitted from fibres such as
silk, wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch
of the hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals
are employed—deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &c.—
but kids have had nothing to do with the production of many of
the " kid gloves " of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed
by special processes (see Leather) before going to the glove-maker
to l)e cut. Owing to the elastic character of the material the cutting
is a delicate operation, and long practice is required before a man
becomes expert at it. Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen
following an outline marked on the leather, but now steel dies arc
universally employed not only for the bodies of the gloves but also
for the thumb-pieces and fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When
hand sewing is employed the pieces to be sewn together are placed
between a pair of jaws, the holding edges of which are serrated with
fine saw-teeth, and the sewer by passing the needle forwards and
backwards between each of these teeth secures neat uniform stitching.
But sewing machines are now widely employed on the work. The
labour of making a glove is much subdivided, different operators
sewing different pieces, and others again embroidering the back,
forming the button-holes, attaching the buttons, &c. After the gloves
are completed, they undergo the process of " laying off,” in which
they arc drawn over metal forms, shaped like a hand and heated
internally by steam; m this way they are finally smoothed and
shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes.
Gloves made of thin indiarubber or of white cotton are wom by
some surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease
with wh ich they can be thoroughly sterilized.
GLOVER, 8IR JOHN HAWLEY (18217-1885), captain in the
British navy, entered the service in 1841 and passed his examina¬
tion as lieutenant in 1849, hut did not receive a commission till
May 1851. He served on various stations, and was wounded
severely in an action with the Burmese at Donabew (4th
February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea and
as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official
in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the
navy he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa,
and had taken part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824-
1864) up the Niger. On the 21st of April 1863 he was appointed
administrator of the government of Lagos, and in that capacity,
or as colonial secretary, he remained there till 1872. During this
*37
period he had been much employed in repelling the marauding
incursions of the Ashantis. When the Ashanti war broke out
in 1873, Captain Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful
task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred of the Ashantis
might be expected to make favourable to the British authorities—
to the extent at least to which their fears would allow them to act.
His services were accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at
Cape Coast, and, after forming a small trustworthy force of
Hausa, marched to Accra. His influence sufficed to gather a
numerous native force, but neither he nor anybody else could
overcome their abject terror of the ferocious Ashantis to the
extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain Glover
was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi,
but it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were
acknowledged by the thanks of parliament and by his creation
as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was appointed governor of Newfound¬
land and held the post till 1881, when he was transferred to the
Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in 1883, and
died in London on the 30th September 1885.
Lady Glover's Life of her husband appeared in 1897.
GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard
Glover, a Hamburg merchant, was bom in London in 1712. He
was educated at Cheam in Surrey. While there he wrote in his
sixteenth year a poem to the memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which
was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to his Fiew of Newton's Philosophy,
published in 1728. In 1737 he published an epic poem in praise
of liberty, Leonidas, which was thought to have a special reference
to the politics of the time ; and being warmly commended by the
prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through several
editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled London, or
the Progress of Commerce ; and in the same year, with a view to
exciting the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited
ballad, Hosier’s Ghost, very popular in its day. He was also the
author of two tragedies," Boadicea (1753) and Medea (1761),
written in dose imitation of Greek models. The success of
Glover’s Leonidas led him to take considerable interest in politics,
and in >761 he entered parliament as member for Weymouth.
He died on the 25th of November 1785. The Athenaid, an epic in
thirty books, was published in 1787, and his diary, entitled
Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political Character from
174.2 to 1757, appeared in 1813. Glover was one of the reputed
authors of Junius ; but his claims—which were advocated in an
Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of Junius (1815), by
R. Duppa—rest on very slight grounds.
GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, New York,
U.S.A., at the foot-hills of the Adirondack?, about 55 m. N.W.
of Albany. Pop. (1890) 13,864 ; (1900) 18,349, of whom 2542
were foreign-bom; (19m, U.S. census) 20,642. It is served
by the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railway (connecting
at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central),
and by electric lines connecting with Johnstown, Amsterdam
and Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000
volumes in 1908), the Nathan Littauer memorial hospital,
a state armoury and a fine government building. Gloversville
is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in the United
States. In 1900 F’ulton county produced more than 57 %,
and Gloversville 38-8 %, of all the leather gloves and mittens
made in the United States ; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29-9 %
of the leather gloves and mittens made in the United States,
its products being valued at 15,302,196. Gloversville has more
than a score of tanneries and leather-finishing factories, and
manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the city’s total factory product
was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary localization of the
glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and other
parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the
economic history of the United States. The industry seems to
have had its origin among a colony of Perthshire families,
including many glove-makers, who were settled it) this region by
Sir William Johnson about 1760. For many years the entire
product seems to have been disposed of in the neighbourhood,
but about 1809 the goods began to find more distant markets,
and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on a prosperous
xii. 5 a
GLOW-WORM^-GLUCK
138
basis, the trade being handed down from father to son. An
interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the
factory work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of
“ home workers ” both in the town and country districts.
Gloversville, settled originally about 1770, was known for some
time as Stump City, its present name being adopted in 1832.
It was incorporated as a village in 1851 and was chartered as a
city in 1890.
GLOW-WORM, the popular name of the wingless female of
the beetle Lampyris noctiluca, whose power of emitting light has
been familiar for many centuries. The luminous organs of the
glow-worm consist of cells similar to those of the fat-body,
grouped into paired masses in the ventral region of the hinder
abdominal segments. The light given out by the wingless
female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to the flying
male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary condition.
The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian
insect, generally distribttted in England and ranging in Scotland
northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species
of Lampyris are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are
present in many genera of the family Lampyridae from various
parts of the world. Frequently—as in the south European Luciola
ilalica —both sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both
male and female emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids
are generally known as “fire-flies.” in correspondence with their
power of emitting light, the insects are nocturnal in habit.
Elongate centipedes of the family Geophilidae, certain species
of which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true
glow-worm.
GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, botanically a species
of Sinningia (S. speciosa), a member of the natural order Ges-
neraceae and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under
cultivation to numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of
colour, and hybrid forms have also been obtained between these
and other species of Sinningia. A good strain of seed will
produce many superb and charmingly coloured varieties, and'
if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65° at night, they
may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be flowered
during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the
winterindry sand,in a temperatureof 5o°,and toyield a succession
should be started at intervals, say at the end of February and
the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use
weak manure water when the flower-buds show'themselves.
GLUCINUM, an alternative name for Beryllium (?.».). When
L. N. Vauquelin in 1798 published in the Annales de chimie an
account of a new earth obtained by him from beryl he refrained
from giving the substance a name, but in a note to his paper
the editors suggested glucine, from -/Aukvs, sweet, in reference
to the taste of its salts, whence the name Glucinum or Glucinium
(symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name beryllium was given
to the metal by German chemists and was generally used until
recently, when the earlier name was adopted.
GLUCK, 1 CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD (1714-1787), operatic
composer, German by his nationality, French by his place in art,
was bom at Weidenwang, near Neumarkt, in the upper
Palatinate, on the 2nd of July 1714. He belonged to the lower
middle class, his father being gamekeeper to Prince Lobkowitz ;
but the boy’s education was not neglected on that account.
From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the
Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince
Lobkowitz’s estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a
good general education, but also had lessons in music. At the
age of eighteen Gluck went to Prague, where he continued his
musical studies under Czemohorsky, and maintained himself
by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very humble capacity
of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the introductions
of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the best
families of the Austrian nobility ; and when in 1736 he proceeded
to Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector’s palace.
Here he met Prince Melzi, aa, ardent lover of music, whom he
accompanied to Milan, continuing his education under Giovanni
1 Not, as frequently spelt, Gluck.
Battista San Martini, a great musical historian and contra¬
puntist, who was also famous in his own day as a composer of
church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing
operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste
of the Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were
produced at various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745.
Although their artistic value was small, they were so favourably
received that in 1745 Gluck was invited to London to compose
for the Haymarket. The first opera produced there wus called
La Caduta dei giganti; it was followed by a revised version of
one of his earlier operas. . Gluck also appeared in London as a
performer on the musical glasses (see Harmonica).
The success of his two operas, as well as that of a pasticcio
( i.c. a collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled
Piramo e Tisbe, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly
left London. But his stay in England was not without important
consequences for his subsequent career. Gluck at this time was
rather less than an ordinary producer of Italian opera. Handel’s
well-known saying that Gluck “ knew no more counterpoint
than his cook ” must be taken in connexion with the less well-
known fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who
performed in many of Handel’s own operas. But it indicates
the musical reason of Gluck’s failure, while Gluck himself learnt
the dramatic reason through his surprise at finding that arias
which in their original setting had been much applauded lost
all effect when adapted to new words in the pasticcio. Irrelevant
as Handel’s criticism appears, it was not without bearing on
Gluck’s difficulties. The use of counterpoint has very little
necessary connexion with contrapuntal display; its real and
final cause is a certain depth of harmonic expression which Gluck
attained only in his most dramatic moments, and for want of
Which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very lamely.
And in later years his own mature view of the importance of
harmonv, which he upheld in long arguments with Gr6try, who
believed only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic
expression of music must strike below the surface. At this
early period he was simply producing Handelian opera in an
amateurish style, suggesting an unsuccessful imitation of Hasse ;
but the failure of his pasticcio is as significant to us as it was to
him, since it shows that already the effect of his music depended
upon its characteristic treatment of dramatic situations. This
characterizing power was as yet not directly evident, and it
needed all the influence of the new instrumental resources of
the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what we
may call Its architectural and decorative period and enter into
dramatic regions at all.
It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master,
San Martini, had already indicated to Gluck a new direction
which was more or less incompatible with the older art; and
there is nothing discreditable either to Gluck or to his con¬
temporaries in the failure of his earlier works. Had the young
composer been successful in the ordinary opera seria, there is
reason to fear that the great dramatic reform, initiated by him,
might not have taken place. The critical temper of the London
public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed
that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially
the great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence
upon the young composer. But of still greater importance in
this respect was a short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for
the first time acquainted with the classic traditions and the
declamatory style of the French opera—a sphere of music in
which his own greatest triumphs were to be achieved. Of
these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in the works
produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return from
England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by
no means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical
experience and important patronage, though his success was
not uniform. His first opera written for Vienna, La Semiramtde
riconosciuta, is again an ordinary opera seria, and little more
can be said of Telemacco, although thirty years later Gluck was
able to use most of its overture and an energetic duet in one of
his greatest works, Amide.
GLUCK
Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two
years previously been appointed court chapel-master, with a
salary of 2000 florins, by the empress Maria Theresa. He had
already received the order of knighthood from the pope in conse¬
quence of the successful production of two of his works in Rome.
During the long interval from 1756 to 1762 Gluck seems to have
matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and, barring a
ballet named Don Giovanni, and some airs nouveaux to French
words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any
importance have to be recorded. Several later pieces d'oceasion,
such as 11 Trionfo di Clelia (1763), are still written in the old
manner, though already in 1762 Orfeo ed Euridice shows that the
composer had entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the
first time deserted Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as
Vernon Lee suggests, was in ull probability the immediate cause
of the formation of Gluck’s new ideas, as he was a hot-headed
dramatic theorist with a violent dislike for Metastasio, who had
hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic libretto.
Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic
music, Orpheus is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands
the highest admiration. Orpheus’s air, Che faro, is known to
every one ; but still finer is the great scena in which the poet’s
song softens even the ombre sdcgnose of Tartarus. The ascending
passion of the entries of the solo (Debt placatevi; Millepene;
Men liranne), interrupted by the harsh but gradually softening
exclamations of the Furies, is of the highest dramatic effect.
These melodies, moreover, as well as every declamatory passage
assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the purposes of
dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly
be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than
Hamlet’s monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this
power of musically realizing a character—a power all but un¬
known in the serious opera of his day—that Gluck’s genius
as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown. After a short relapse
into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his Orpheus by a
second classical music-drama (1767) named Alcesle. In his
dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully
expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with
the old traditions. “ I shall try,” he wrote, “ to reduce music
to its real function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying
the expression of sentiments and the interest of situations
without interrupting the action by needless ornament. I have
accordingly taken care not to interrupt the singer in the heat of
the dialogue, to wait for a tedious ritornel, nor do I allow him to
stop on a sonorous vowel, in the middle of a phrase, in order to
show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice in a long cadenza.”
Such theories, and the stem consistency with which they were
carried out, were little to the taste of the pleasure-loving
Viennese; and the success of Alcesle, as well as that of Paris
and Helena, which followed two years later, was not such as
Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted
the chance of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual
and more especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was
opened to him through the bailli Le Blanc du Roullet. attache of
the French embassy at Vienna, and a musical amateur who
entered into Gluck’s ideas with enthusiasm. A classic opera
for the Paris stage was accordingly projected, and the friends
fixed upon Racine’s Iphiginie en Aulide. After some difficulties,
overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluck’s former pupil
the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last accepted
and performed at the Acad6mie de Musique, on the jgth of
April 1774.
The great importance of the new work was at once perceived
by the musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot con¬
troversy on the merits' of Iphiginie ensued, in which some of the
leading literary men of France took part. Amongst the opponents
of Gluck were not only,the admirers of Italian vocalization and
sweetness, but also the adherents of the earlier French school, who
refused to see in the new composer the legitimate successor of
Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and D’Alembert were
his opponents, the Abb6 Amaud and others his enthusiastic
friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle.
139
In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music,
but when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion
Rousseau acknowledged the great composer’s genius; although
he did not always understand it, as for example when he suggested
that in Alceste, “ Divinitis du Styx,” perhaps the most majestic
of all Gluck’s arias, ought to have been set as a rondo. Neverthe¬
less in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly before his death,
Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of Alceste,
the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him
for suggestions; and when, .cm the first performance of the
piece not being received favourably by the Parisian audience,
the composer exclaimed, 11 Alceste est tombie," Rousseau is said
to have comforted him with the flattering bonmot, “ Out, mais
elle est tombie du ciel. ’ ’ The contest received a still more personal
character when Piccinni, a celebrated and by no means incapable
composer, came to Paris as the champion of the Italian party
at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who held a rival court to
that of the young princess (see Opera). As a dramatic contro¬
versy it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and anti-
Wagnerian warfare of a later age ; but thfere is no such radical
difference between Gluck’s and Piccinni’s musical methods as
the comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better
musician, but his deficiencies in musical technique were of a
kind which contemporaries could perceive as easily as they could
perceive Piccinni’s. Both composers were remarkable inventors
of melody, and both had the gift of making incorrect music
sound agreeable. Gluck’s indisputable dramatic power might
be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music for
music’s sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he
did, to assimilate every feature in Gluck’s style that he could
understand. The rivalry between the two composers was soon
developed into a quarrel by the skilful engineering of Gluck’s
enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a libretto by Marmontel
on the subject of Roland, to Gluck’s intense disgust, as he had
already begun an opera on that subject himself. This, and the
failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by
furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie
Antoinette, inspired Gluck to produce his Armide, which appeared
four months before Piccinni’s Roland was ready, and raised a
storm of controversy, admiration and abuse. Gluck did not
anticipate Wagner more clearly in his dramatic reforms than in
his caustic temper ; and, as in Gluck’s own estimation the
difference between Armide and Alcesle is that “ Vun ( Alceste)
doit faire pleurer el l’autre faire iprouver une voluptueuse sensation,"
it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe that
he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and
that her part was “ une criaiUerie monoton 1 el fatiguante.” He
replied to Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in
its venomous sarcasm and its tremendous value as an advertise¬
ment for its recipient.
Gluck’s next work was Iphiginie en Tauride, the success
of which finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work
on the same subject at the same time and who is said to have
acknowledged Gluck’s superiority. Gluck’s next work was
£cho et Narcisse, the comparative failure of which greatly
disappointed him ; and during the composition of another opera,
Les Danaides, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up
work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several
years in dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health.
He died on the 15th of November 1787. JF. H.; D. F. T.)
The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck’s reforms
is apt to overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some
ways to idealize it. One is tempted to regard him as condoning
for technical musical deficiencies by sheer dramatic power,
whereas unprejudiced study of his work shows that where his
dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack of musical technique.
Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera as to give it
scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from the
greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature
for his inspiration. Where his librettist faded him (as in his
last complete work, £cho et Narcisse), ,he could hardly write
tolerably good music; and, .even in the finest works of his French
GLUCK
140
period, the less emotional situations are sometimes set to music
which has little interest except as a document in the history of
the art. This must not be taken to mean merely that Gluck
could not, like Mozart and nearly all the great song-writers,
set good music to a bad text Such inability would prove
Gluck’s superior literary taste without casting a slur on his
musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician
that Gluck could not be inspired except by the morn thrilling
portions of his libretti. When he was inspired there was no
question that he was the first and greatest writer of dramatic
music before Mozart. To begin with, he could invent sublime
melodies ; and his power of producing great musical effects by
the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian. Moreover,
in his peculiar sphere he deserves the title generally accorded
to Haydn of “ father of modern orchestration.” It is misleading
to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments
with a sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew
how to give a whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means
of a definite scheme of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat
instruments as part of a decorative design, any more than he so
treated musical forms. Just as his sense of musical form is that
of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of Mozart, so is his treatment
of instrumental tone-colour a thing that changes with every
shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not in accordance
with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria
with strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly
ordinary procedure ; nor was there anything unusual in making
the wind instruments play in unison with the strings for the
first part of the aria, and writing a passage for one or more of
them in the middle section. But it was an unheard-of thing to
make this passage consist of long appnggiaturas once every two
bars in rising sequence on the first oboe, answered by deep
pizzicato bass notes, while Agamemnon in despair cries:
“ J’entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la nature."
Some of Gluck’s most forcible effects are of great subtlety, as,
for instance, in Iphigenie en Tauride, where Orestes tries to
reassure himself by saying : “ Le ealme rentre dans mm cceur,"
while the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings
belies him. Again, the sense of orchestral climax shown in the
oracle scene in Alcestc was a thing inconceivable in older music,
and unsurpassed in artistic and dramatic spirit by any modem
composer. Its influence in Mozart's Idomeneo is obvious at a
first glance.
The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense
of form, whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus
Gluck, in rejecting the convenient formalities of older styles
of opera, was not, like some reformers, without something
better to substitute for them. Moreover he, in consultation with
his librettist, achieved great skill in holding together entire
scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite repetitions
of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of his
finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to
move pari passu with the drama in a manner which for natural¬
ness and continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart
and the entire operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable
in the second act of Orfeo. In its original Italian version both
scenes, that in Hades and that in’Elysium, are indivisible wholes,
and lie division into single movements, though technically
oovious, is aesthetically only a natural means of articulating
the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades extends, in the
original version, even to the key-system. This was damaged
when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto
to a tenor in the French version. And here we have one of
many instances in which the improvements his French experience
enabled him to make in his great Italian works were not alto¬
gether unmixed. Little harm, however, was done to Orfeo
which has not been easily remedied by transposing Orpheus’s
part back again; and in a suitable compromise between the
two versions Orfeo remains Gluck’s most perfect and inspired
work. The emotional power of the music is such that the
inevitable spoiling of the sttffy by a happy ending has not the
aspect of mere conventionality which it had in cases where the
music produced no more than the normal effect upon 18th-
century audiences. Moreover Gluck’s genius was of too high
an order for him to be less successful in portraying a sufficiently
intense happiness than in portraying grief. He failed only in
what may be called the business capacities of artistic technique;
and there is less “ business ” in Orfeo than in almost any other
music-druma. It was Gluck’s first great inspiration, and his
theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare.
AUesle contains his grandest music and is also very free from
weak pages; but in its original Italian version the third act
did not give Gluck scope for an adequate climax. This difficulty
so accentuated itself in the French version that after continual
retouchings a part for Hercules was, in Gluck’s absence, added
by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck’s music, dealing with the
supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades (either by
Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance
and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the
French that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which
Gluck’s music now stops short just at the point where we realize
the full height of his power. The comparison between the
Italian and French Alceste is one of the most interesting that can
be made in the study of a musician’s development. It would have
been far easier for Gluck to write a new opera if he had not
been so justly attached to his second Italian masterpiece. So
radical are the differences that in retranslating the French
libretto into Italian for performance with the French music
not one line of Calzabigi’s original text can be retained.
In Iphigenie en Aulide and lphiginie en Tauride, Gluck
shows signs that the controversies aroused by his methods
began to interfere with his musical spontaneity. He had not,
in Orfeo, gone out of his way to avoid rondos, or we should have
had no “ Che faro senza Euridicc." We read with a respectful
smile Gluck’s assurance to the bailli Le Blanc du Roullet that
“ you would not believe Amide to be by the same composer ”
as Alceste. But there is no question that Armiie is a very great
work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck
has availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded
for orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type
from any that he had attempted before. And it is hardly
relevant to blame him for his inability to write erotic music.
In the first place, the libretto is not erotic, though the subject
would no doubt become so if treated by a modem poet. In the
second place a conflict of passions (as, for instance, where Armide
summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from her heart,
and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never, even
in Alceste, been treated with more dramatic musical force.
The work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little
too much action in it to suit Gluck’s methods; but it shows,
as does no other opera until Mozart’s Dm Giovanni, a sense of
the development of characters, as distinguished from the mere
presentation of them as already fixed.
In lphiginie en Aulide and Iphigenie en Tauride, the very
subtlety of the finest features indicates a certain self-conscious¬
ness which, when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism.
Moreover, in both cases the libretti, though skilfully managed,
tell a rather more complicated story than those which Gluck
had hitherto so successfully treated; and, where inspiration
fails, 'the musical technique becomes curiously amateurish
without any corresponding naivete. Still these works are
immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in
Alceste and Orfeo. ticho et Narcisse we must, like Gluck's
contemporaries, regard as a failure. As in Orfeo, the pathetic
story is ruined by a violent happy ending, but here this artistic
disaster takes place before the pathos has had time to assert
itself. Gluck had no opportunities in this work for any higher
qualities, musical or dramatic, than prettiness; and with him
beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed skin-deep. It is
a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke critical
iditionde luxe of Gluck’s French operas forbids the inclusion
of his Italian Paride e Elena, his third opera to Calzabigi’s
libretto, which was never given in a French version; for there
can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the
GLUCKSBURG—GLUCOSE
period of his greatness began with his collaboration with
Calzabigi. (D. f. T.)
GLUCKSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods
on the Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg
by rail. Pop. (1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some
small manufactures and is a favourite sea-bathing resort. Hie
castle, which occupies the site of a former Cistercian monastery,
was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence of the dukes of Holstein-
Sonderburg-GIueksburg, passing then to the king of Denmark
and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died
here on the 15th of November 1863.
GLttCKSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the
confluence of the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona,
on the railway from Itzehoe to Klmshom. Pop. (1905) 6586.
It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, a handsome
town-hall (restored in 1873-1874), a gymnasium, a provincial
prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged
in commerce and fishing ; but the frequent losses from inunda¬
tions have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Gluck-
stadt was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, and
fortified in 1620. It soon became an important trading centre.
In 1627-28 it was besieged for fifteen weeks by the imperialists
under Tilly, without success. In 1814 it was blockaded by the
allies and capitulated, whereupon its fortifications were de¬
molished. In 1830 it was made a free port. It came into the
possession of Prussia together with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein
in 1866.
See Lucht, Gliir.kstadt. Beitrdgc eur Geschichte dieser Stadt (Kiel,
I« 54 )-
GLUCOSE (from Gr. ykvKt's, sweet), a carbohydrate of the
formula C e H lss O 0 ; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite.
The name is applied in commerce to a complex mixture of
carbohydrates obtained by boiling starch with dilute mineral
acids ; in chemistry, it denotes, with the prefixes d, l and
d+l (or i), the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory and inactive
forms of the definite chemical -compound defined above. The
d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other forms
being only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is
usually termed glucose, simply ; alternative names are dextrose,
grape sugar and diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed
optical rotation, its occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and
in the urine of diabetic patients respectively. In the vegetable
kingdom glucose occurs, always in admixture with fructose,
in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries, bananas, &c.; and
in combination, generally with phenols and aldehydes belonging
to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of compounds
termed glueosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant
tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an
intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a
glucoside or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch,
cellulose, &c. In the plant it is freely converted into more
complex sugars, poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the
animal kingdom, also, it is very widely distributed, being some¬
times a normal and sometimes a pathological constituent of
the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is present in large
amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes, and
may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in
honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to
its separation.
Pure i-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see
Sugar) or by adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of
80% alcohol and ^ volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so
long as it dissolveshaking, crystallizes from water or alcohol
at ordinary temperatures in nodular masses, composed of minute
six-sided plates, and containing one molecule of water of crystal¬
lization. This product melts at 86° C., and becomes anhydrous
when heated to no 0 C. The anhydrous compound can also be
prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146°, by crystallizing con¬
centrated aqueous solutions at 30° to 35°. It is very soluble
in water, but only slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste
is somewhat sweet, its sweetening power being estimated at
from i to J that of cane sugar. When heated to above 200° it
turns brown and produces caramel, a substance possessing a
bitter taste, and used, in its aqueous solution or otherwise,
under various trade names, for colouring confectionery, spirits,
&c. The specific rotation of the plane of polarized light by
glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific rotation of a
freshly prepared solution is 105°, but this value gradually
diminishes to 52-5°, 24 hours sufficing for the transition in the
cold, and a few minutes when the solution is boiled. This
phenomenon has been called mutarotation by T. M. Lowry.
The specific rotation also varies with the concentration; this
is due to the dissociation of complex molecules into simpler
ones, a view confirmed by cryoscopie measurements.
Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, i.e.
by determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a
solution, or, chemically, by taking advantage of its property of
reducing alkaline copper solutions. If a glucose solution be
added to copper sulphate and much alkali added, a yellowish-red
precipitate of cuprous hydrate separates, slowly in the cold,
but immediately when the liquid is heated ; this precipitate
rapidly turns red owing to the formation of cuprous oxide. In
1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline solution
of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle
salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate
precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was
added. He suggested that the method was applicable for quanti¬
tatively estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed
after H. von Fehling’s investigation. “ Fehling’s solution ”
is prepared by dissolving separately 34-639 grammes of copper
sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle salt, and 71 grammes of
caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to 1000 ccs.;
10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0-03 grammes of
hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of
the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special
indicators, or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide
gravimetricallv.
Chemistry .— In its chemical properties glucose is a typical oxyaldc-
hyde or aldose. The aldehyde group reacts with hydrocyanic acid
to produce two stereo-isomeric cyannydrins; this isomerism is due
to the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into
an asymmetric one. The cyanliydrin is hydrolysable to an acid,
the lactone of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a
glucoheptoso, a non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon
atoms. By repeating the process a nan-fementa.Dlcgluco-octo.se
and a fermentable glucononose may be prepared. The aldehyde
group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine to form two phenylhydra-
zones; under certain conditions a hydroxyl group adjacent to the
aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazohe is produced; this
glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into phenyl
hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde glucosone. These transformations
are iully discussed in the article Sugar. On reduction glucose
appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol c.-sorbite, and on oxidation
rf-gluconic and rf-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially convert it into
d-mannose and d-fructose. Baryta and lime yield saccharates,
e.g. C a H,,jO„ BaO, precipitable by alcohol.
The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in 1883-
1887, who showed it to be CH a OH-(CH-OH),-CHO. The subject
was taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing
glucose, and also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 accord¬
ing to the Le Bel-van’t Hoff theory (see Stereo-Isomerism and
Sugar). This open chain structure is challenged in the views put
forward by T. M. Lowry and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret
showed that glucose existed in more than one form, and he isolated
o, p and y varieties with specific rotations of 105°, 52-5° and 22°.
It is now agreed that the p variety is a mixture of the a and -y.
This discovery explained the mutarotation of glucose. In a fresh
solution o-glucose only exists, but on standing it is slowly trans¬
formed into 7-glucose, equilibrium
being reached when the a and 7 CHjOH CH,OH
forms are present in the ratio CH-OH CH-OH
0-368:0-632 (Tanret, Zeit. physikal.
Chern., 1905, 53, p. 692). It is 0 <,a„
convenient to refer to these two ^-(CH-OH), -(CH-OH),
forms as a and p. Lowry and Arm- HC-OH HO-CH
strong represent these compounds a-glucose /S-glucose
by the following spatial formulae
which postulate a y-oxidie structure, and 5 asymmetric carbon
atoms, i.e. one more than in the Fischer formulae. These formulae
are supported by many considerations, especially by the selective
I 4 2
GLUCOSIDE
action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the o- and
/ 3 -glucosides, i.r. the compounds formed by the interaction of
glucose with substances generally containing hydroxyl groups (see
Glucosidk).
Fermentation of Glucose. —Glucose is readily fermentable. Of
the greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about
by yeast cells ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae seu vini) ; this follows the
equation C,H, t O, = 2 C,H ,0 + 2CO.,, Pasteur considering 94 to 95 % of
the sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of
adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol
content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some
fusel oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultane¬
ously, but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation
into lactic acid (a.e.) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and
into butyric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued,
or by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous fermenta¬
tion, a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic
acid.
We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action
of enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the
transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar
by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar);
other instances are : lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose ;
trehalose by trehalasc into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into
galactose and glucose ; find of melizitose by melizitase into tnnranose
and glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the
enzyme touranase.
Commercial Glucose. —The glucose of commerce, which may be
regarded as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is pre¬
pared by hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid.
In Europe, potato starch is generally employed ; in America, corn
starch. The acid employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the
best results, or sulphuric, which is used in Germany ; sulphuric acid
is more readily separated from the product than hydrochloric, since
the addition of powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate,
which may be removed by a filter press. The processes of manu¬
facture have much in common, although varying in detail. The
following is an outline of the process when hydrochloric acid is used :
Starch (" green ” starch in America) is made info a " milk " with
water, and the milk pumped into boiling dilute acid contained in
a closed " converter," generally made of copper or cast iron ; steam
is led in at the same time, and the pressure is kept up to about 25 ft
to the sq. in. When the converter is full the pressure is raised some¬
what, and the heating continued until the conversion is complete.
The liquid is now run into neutralizing tanks containing sodium
carbonate, and, after settling, the supernatant liquid, termed
" light liquor," is run through bag filters and then on to bone-char
filters, which have been previously used for the " heavy liquor."
The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate is concentrated'to 27° to
28° B., when it forms the " heavy liquor," just mentioned. This is
filtered through fresh bone-char filters, from which it is discharged
as a practically colourless liquid. This liquid is concentrated in
vacuum pans to a specific gravity of 40“ to 44“ B., a small quantity
of sodium bisulphite solution being added to bleach it, to prevent
fermentation, and to inhibit browning. “ Syrup glucose ” is the
commercial name of the product; by continuing the concentration
further solid glucose or grape sugar is obtained.
Several brands are recognized: " Mixing glucose " is used by
syrup and molasses manufactures, “ jelly glucose " by makers of
jellies," confectioners’ glucose " in confectionery,” brewers’ glucose ”
in brewing, &c.
GLUCOSIDE, in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive
group of substances characterized by the property of yielding
a sugar, more commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely
chemical means, or decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The
name was originally given to vegetable products of this nature,
in which the other part of the molecule was, in the greater
number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or phenolic compound
(exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It has now
been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those obtained
by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric acid,
and also the polysaccharoses, e.g. cane sugar, which appear
to be ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar
present in glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose
or iso-dulcite; these may he termed pentosides. Much attention
has been given to the non-sugar parts of the molecules; the
constitutions of many have been determined, and the compounds
synthesized ; and in some-cases the preparation of the synthetic
glucoside effected.
The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which E. Fischer
(Ber., 28, pp. 1151, 3081) obtained by acting with hydrochloric
acid on alcoholic glucose solftions. A better method of pre¬
paration is due to E. F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (Proc.
CH 3 0 -£h
II. ^-methyl
i-glucoside.
Phys. Soc., 1905, July 1), who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose
in methyl alcohol containing hydrochloric acid. A mixture
of o- and / 3 -glucose result, which are then etherified, and if the
solution be neutralized before the / 3 -form isomerizes and the
solvent removed, a mixture of the a- and /8-methyl ethers is
obtained. These may be separated by the action of suitable
ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not reduce
Fehling's solution, neither did they combine with phenyl hydra¬
zine at ioo°; they appear to be stereo-isomeric y-oxidic com¬
pounds of the formulae I., II.: The difference between the a- and
/ 3 -forms is brat shown by the CHj0H ch 8 OH
selective action of enzymes. fiHOH CHOH
Fischer found that maltase, £ H / CH
an enzyme occurring in yeast 0 <^ (6hoh) ( c H OH).,
cells, hydrolysed a-glucosides xj’rnru
but not the while emulsin, H th 1 *
an enzyme occurring in bitter L £Sucoside
almonds, hydrolyses the /3
but not the a. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are them¬
selves non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the
natural glucosides, it is found that the majority are of the
/8-form; e.g. emulsin hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coni-
ferin, syringin, &c.
Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty.
One based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part
of the molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four
groups: (i) ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives,
(3) styrolene derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A. group
may also be made to include the cvanogenetic glucosides, i.e.
those containing prussic acid. J. j. L. van Rijn ( Die Glyko-
side, 1900) follows a botanical classification, which has several
advantages ; in particular, plants of allied genera contain similar
compounds. In this article the chemical classification will be
followed. Only the more important compounds will be noticed,
the reader being referred to van Rijn (loc. cit.) and to Beilstein’s
Handbuch der organischen Chemie for further details.
1. Ethylene Derivatives.—These are generally mustard oils, and
are characterized by a burning taste ; their principal occurrence is in
mustard and Tropaeolum seeds. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of
myronic acid, C 10 H,.NS.KO,■ H a O, occurs in black pepper and in
horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by
the ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium
bisulphate. Sinalbin, C^H^NjSoO,,, occurs in white pepper;
it decomposes to the mustard oil 110-C,H,■ CH■ NCS, glucose and
sinapin, a compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or
scammonin, occurs in scammony ; it hydrolyses to glucose
and jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and
jalapinolic acid are ;—
('ll n CH O '^'^2'QiB,-OH
C fl H a O s S ^<.O SO„ 0 K b t < vO-SO |i 'OC, a H al O s N
Sinigrin Sinalbin
<CH H 0 > C « H =' CH:CH,C0 ' C ’^‘ 0,N ^ 0 H : ') 8
Sinapin
™ >CH CH(OH) •C w H a ,'CO,H.
Jalapinolic acid (Kramer)
2. Benzene Derivatives.—These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic
compounds. Arbutin, C t ,,H !8 0 ,, which occurs in bearberry along
with methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to bydroquinonc and glucose.
Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic;
the benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis.
Salicin, also termed “ saligenin ‘ and “ glucose," C ln H 1? 0 ., occurs in
the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose
and saligenin, ortlio-oxybenzylalcohol, HO C # H,-CH„OH. Oxida¬
tion gives the aldehyde helicin. Populin, C w H,„O j , which occurs
in the leaves and bark of Populus tremula, is benzoyl salicin.
3. Styrolene Derivatives .—This group contains a benzene and also
an ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C*H,‘CH: CH,.
Coniferin, C^H^O,,, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods.
Emulsin converts it into glucose and conifcryl #cohol, while oxida¬
tion gives glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin glucose and
vanillin (see Euoenol and Vanilla). Syringin, which occurs in the
bark of Syringa vulgaris , is methoxyconlferin. Phioridzin,
occurs in the root-bark of various fruit tTees; it hydrolyses to
glucose and phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester or para-
oxvhydratropic acid. It is related to the pentosides narmgin,
CJHmO.,, which hydrolyses to rhamnose and naringenin, the
phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic acid, and heaperidin,
GLUE
which hydrolyses to rhamnose and hesperetin, C„H u O a ,
the phloroglucin ester of meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or
isoferulic acid, C 10 H M O 4 . We may here include various coumarin
and benzo-y-pyrone derivatives. Aesculin, C,,H la O„ occurring in
horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring in Daphne alpina, are iso¬
meric ; the former hydrolyses to glucose and aesculetin (4■ 's-dioxy-
coumarin), the latter to glucose and daphnetin {3'4-dioxycoumarin).
Fraxin, C ta H u O u , occurrmg in Fraxinus excelsior, and with aesculin
m horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose and fraxetin, the mono¬
methyl ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or benzo-y-pyrone
derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they (or the non-
s, u @ r P ar t of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuffs. Quercitrin,
C^HasOu, is a yellow dyestuff found in Quercus tinctoria ; it hydro¬
lyses to rhamnose and quercetin, a dioxy - 0 - phenyl - trioxybenzo -
y-pyrone. Rhamnetin, a splitting product of the glucosides of
Rhamnus, is monomethyl quercetin; fisetin, from Rhus cotinus,
is monoxyquercetin; chrysin is phenyl-dioxybenzo-y-pyrone.
Saponarin, a glucoside founa in Saponaria officinalis, is a related
compound. Strophanthin is the name given to three different
compounds, two obtained from Strophanthus Kombe and one from
S. htspidus.
4. Anthracene Derivatives. —These are generally substituted
anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used
as purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dye¬
stuff madder, the base of which is alizarin (q.v.). Chrysophanic
acid, a dioxymethylanthraquiuone, occurs in rhubarb, which also
contains emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance
occurs in combination with rhamnose in frangula bark.
The most important cyanogcnetic glucoside is amygdalin, which
occurs in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into
glucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down
by emulsin into glucose, bcnzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin
also decomposes amygdalin directly into these compounds without
the intermediate formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several
other glucosides of this nature have been isolated. The saponins aro
a group of substances characterized by forming a lather with water ;
they occur in soap-bark (q.v.). Mention may also be made of indican,
the glucoside of the indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo
ferment, indimulsin, to iudoxyi and indiglucin.
GLUE (from the O. Fr. glu, bird-lime, from the Late Lat.
glulem, glus, glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure
gelatin and widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather,
paper and similar substances. Glues and gelatins merge into
one unother by imperceptible degrees. The difference is con¬
ditioned by the degree of purity : the more impure form is termed
glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer forms, termed
gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary operations
and confectionery. Referring to the article Gelatin for a
general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state
here that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones,
skins and intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with
hot water these agglutinating materials are removed, and the
solution on evaporating and cooling yields a jelly-like substance
—gelatin or glue.
Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their
sources: bone glue, skin glue and fish glue ; these may be
regarded severally as impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin
and isinglass.
Bone Glue.— For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied
fresh or after having been used for making soups ; Indian and
South American bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their
previous treatment with steam, both their fatty and glue-forming
constituents have been already removed (to a great extent).
On the average, fresh bones contain about 50% of mineral
matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about
12 % each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other
organic matter. The mineral matter reappears in commerce
chiefly as artificial manure ; the fat is employed in the candle,
soap and glycerin industries, while the other organic matter
supplies glue.
The separation of the fat, or “ de-greasing of the bones ”
is effected (1) by boiljng the bones with water in open vessels;
(2) by treatment with steam under pressure ; or (3) by means
of solvents. The last process is superseding the first two, which
give a poor return, of fat—a valuable consideration—and also
involve the loss of a certain amount of glue. Many solvents
have been proposed; the greatest commercial success appears
to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or
American) boiling at about roo° C. The vessels in which the
H 3
extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers,
provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which
the bones rest, and with two steam coils—one for heating only,
the other for leading in “ live ” steam. There is a pipe from
the top of the vessel leading to a condensing plant. The vessels
are arranged in batteries. In the actual operation the boiler
is charged with bones, solvent is run,in, and the mixture gradually
heated by means of the dry coil; the spirit distils over, carrying
with it the water present in the bones; and after a time the
extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in the bottom of the
extractor. 1 A fresh charge of solvent is introduced, and the cycle
repeated j this is repeated a third and fourth time, after which
the bones contain only about 0-2 % of fat, and a little of the
solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to
80 lb pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from
all dirt and flesh by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum
covered with stout wire gauze. The attrition accompanying
this motion suffices to remove the loosely adherent matter,
which falls through the meshes of the gauze ; this meal contains
a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is generally
passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in
the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold
as a bone-meal, or used as a manure.
The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming
nitrogen and about 60 % of calcium phosphate, are next treated
for glue. The most economical process consists in steaming
the bones under pressure (15 lb to start with, afterwards 5 lb)
in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false bottoms. The
glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of a
strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the
clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the
total glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30 %. For
clarifying the solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being
used for 200 parts of dry' glue. The alum is added to the hot
liquors, and the temperature raised to ioo° ; it is then allowed
to settle, and the surface scum removed by filtering through
coarse calico or fine wire filters.
The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about
32 % dry glue in winter and 35 % in summer. This is invariably
effected in vacuum pans—open boiling yields a dark-coloured
and inferior product. Many types of vacuum plant are in use ;
the Yaryan form, invented by H. T. Yaryan, is perhaps the best,
and the double effect system is the most efficient. After con¬
centration the liquors are bleached by blowing in sulphur
dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the
colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are
now run into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in.
wide and 5 in. deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is
subsequently removed by cutting round the edges, or by wanning
with hot water, and turning the cake out. The cake is sliced
to sheets of convenient thickness, generally by means of a wire
knife, i.e. a piece of wire placed in a frame. Mechanical slicers
acting on this principle are in use. Instead of allowing the
solution to congeal in troughs, it may be “ cast ” on sheets of
glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After
congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried ; this is an operation
of great nicety : the desiccation must be slow and is generally
effected by circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes
supported on nets set in frames ; it occupies from four to five
days, and the cake contains on the average from 10 to 13% of
water.
Skin Glue .—In the preparation of skin glue the materials
used are the parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the
ears of oxen and sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs
and other animals, the parings of tawed leather, parchment
and old gloves, and many other miscellaneous scraps of animal
matter. Much experience is needed in order to prepare a good
1 This iat contains a small quantity of solvent, which is removed
by heating with steam, when the solvent distils off. Hot water is
then run in to melt the fat, which rises to the surface of the water
and is floated off. Another boiling with water, and again floating
off, frees the fat from dirt and mineral matter, and the product is
ready for casking.
/
GLUTARIC ACID
glue from such heterogeneous materials ; one blending may be
a success and another a failure. The raw material has been
divided into three great divisions: (i) sheep pieces and fleshings
(ears, &c.); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and
pieces; the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide,
ear and face clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material
or “ stock ” is first steeped for from two to ten weeks, according
to its nature, in wooden vats or pits with lime water, and after¬
wards carefully dried and stored. The object of the lime steeping
is to remove any blood and flesh which may be attached to the
skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty matter present.
The “ screws ” or glue pieces, which may be kept a long time
without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydro¬
chloric acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with
water; they are now allowed to drain and dry. The skins
are then placed in hemp nets and introduced into an open boiler
which has a false bottom, and a tap by which liquid may be run
off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of liquid are from
time to time examined, and when a sample is found on cooling
to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it eontains about 32 %
dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a
clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is
maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside.
The glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in
which it sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the
case of bone glue (sec above), and, having been placed on nets,
are, in the Scottish practice, dried by exposure to open air.
This primitive method has many disadvantages; on a hot
day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and slip through
the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack ; a frost may produce
fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the
surface and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the
cake, which is generally dull after drying, is polished by washing
with water. The practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and
drying, which has been already described in the case of bone glue,
has been also applied to the separation of skin glue.
Fish Glue. —Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded
by the sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all
fish offals yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties.
The manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with
water, and then discharging it into extractors with live steam.
After digestion, the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the
upper oily layer removed, and the lower gluey solution clarified
with alum. The liquid is then filtered, concentrated in open vats,
and bleached with sulphur dioxide. 1 Fish glue is a light-brown
viscous liquid which has a distinctly disagreeable odour and
an acrid taste ; these disadvantages to its use are avoided if it
be boiled with a little water and 1 % of sodium phosphate, and
0-025 % of saccharine added.
Properties of Glue. —A good quality of glue should be free from
all specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow,
transparent appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture.
Steeped for some time in cold water it softens and swells up
without dissolving, and when again dried it ought to resume its
original properties. Under the influence of heat it entirely
dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy fluid with a not
disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different qualities of
glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by steeping
the glue, broken in small pieces, in water until they are quite
soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect
solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the
joint; remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared ;
and newly manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been
long in stock. It is therefore seen that many factors enter into
the determination of the cohesive power of iglue; a well-prepared
joint may, under favourable conditions, withstand a pull of
about 700 lb per sq. in. .The following table, after Kilmarsch,
Bhowa the holding power of glued joints with various kinds of
woods.
’ The residue in the extractors is usually dried in steam-heated
vessels, and mixed with potassim.and magnesium salts; tee product
is then out on tee market as fish-potash guano.
■ Wood.
lb per sq. in.
With grain.
Across grain.
Beech .
852
434-5
Maple .
484
346
Oak ...
704
302
Fir ... .
605
132
Special Kinds of Glues, Cements, &*.—By virtue of the fact that
the word " glue " Is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which
may or may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account
of some special preparations. These may be conveniently divided
into: (1) liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not
jedy at ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties ;
(2) water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and
also the " marine glues,” which contain no glue ; (3) glues or cements
for special purposes, e.g. for cementing glass, pottery, leather, &c.,
for cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron.
Liquid Glues.— The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the
disadvantages—the necessity of dissolving and using while hot—
of ordinary glue. Thcv are generally prepared by adding to a warm
glue solution some reagent which destroys the property of gelatinizing.
The reagents in common use are acetic acid ; magnesium chloride,
used for a glue employed by printers; hydrochloric add and zinc
sulphate ; nitric acid and lead sulphate; ' and phosphoric acid and
ammonium carbonate.
Water-proof Glues. —Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have
been published ; glue, having been swollen by soaking in water,
dissolved in four-fifths its weight of linseed oil, furnishes a good
water-proof adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge, added to
a glue solution, is also used; resin added to a hot glue solu¬
tion in water, and afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another
recipe; the best glue is said to be obtained by dissolving one
part of glue in one and a half parts of water, and then adding
one-fiftieth part of potassium bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of
various gums, and also tannic acid, confer the same property on
glue solutions. The “ marine glues '' are solutions of india-rubber,
shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these substances, in benzene or
naphtha. J cflrey’s marine glue is formed by dissolving india-rubber
in four parts of benzene and adding two parts of shellac ; it is
extensively used, being easily applied and drying rapidly and hard.
Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin is obtained by
heating linseed oil with five parts of quicklime ; when cold it forms
a hard mass, which melts on heating like ordinary glue.
Special Glues. —There are innumerable recipes for adhesives
specially applicable to certain substances and under certain con¬
ditions. For repairing glass, ivory, &c. isinglass ( q.v.), which may be
replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements ; bookbinders employ
an elastic glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and glycerin,
the water being expelled by heating; an efficient cement for mounting
photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of alcohol
and adding one part of glycerin ; portable or mouth glue—so named
because it melts in the mouth—is prepared by dissolving one part of
sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An india-rubber substitute
is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric acid to a
strong glue solution; this preparation may be rolled ont when
heated to 0o°.
For further details see Thomas Lambert, Glue, Gelatine and then
Allied Products (London, 1005); R. L. Fernbacli, Glues and Gelatine
(1907); H. C. Standage, Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes
(1907).
GLUTARIC ACID, or Normal Pyrotartaric Acid,
HO.£-CH./CHyCHyCO.,H, an organic acid prepared by the
reduction of u-oxyglutaric acid with hydriodic acid, by reducing
glutaconic acid, HO/i-CHyCH :CH-CO..H,with sodium amalgam,
by conversion of "trimethylene bromide into the cyanide
and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester,
which, in the form of its sodium derivative, condenses
with / 4 -iodopropionic ester to form acetoglutaric ester,
CH a -C 0 -CH(C 0 2 C 2 H s )-CH.,-CHyCqX,H;„ from which glutaric
acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained when sebacic,
stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It crystal¬
lizes in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97-5° C., and
distils between 302° and 304° C., practically without decomposi¬
tion. It is soluble in water,alcohol and ether. By long heating the
acid is converted into its anhydride, which, however, is obtained
more readily by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl
chloride. By distillation of the ammonium salt glutarimide,
CH^CHyCOJjNH, is obtained ; it forms small crystals melting
at 151 0 to 152° C. and sublimes unchanged.
On tee alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (Ber., 1889, 22, pp. 48,6o),
C. A. Bischoff (Ber., 1891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (Ber., 1891, 24,
p. 1923) and W. H. Perkin, juar. Journ. Cham. Soc., 1896,69,p. 268).
GLUTEN—GLY CAS
GLUTEN, a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic,
nearly tasteless and greyish-yellow albuminous substance,
obtained from the flour of wheat by washing in water, in which
it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried, loses about two-thirds of
its weight, becoming brittle and semi-transparent; when strongly
heated it crackles and swells, and burns like feather or horn.
It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in caustic alkalis, which
latter may be used for the purification of starch in which it is
present. When treated with -i to •* % solution of hydrochloric
acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling a
solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized
light. Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten
putrefies, and evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted
hydrogen, and in the end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid,
which contains leucin ahd ammonium phosphate and acetate. On
analysis gluten shows a composition of about 53 % of carbon, 7 %
of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 1 8%, besides oxygen, and about
1 % of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic matter. Accord¬
ing to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of glutencasein (Liebig’s
vegetable fibrin), glutenfibrin, gliadin (Pfianzenleim), glutin or
vegetable gelatin, and muce&in, which are all closely allied to one
another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which confers
upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and
of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called
gluten of the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent
(If. Ritthausen and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat
which has undergone fermentation or has begun to sprout is
devoid of toughness and elasticity. These qualities can be
restored to it by kneading with salt, lime-water or alum. Gluten
is employed in the manufacture of gluten bread and biscuits
for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the adulteration
of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh, as
otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated
gluten is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories
by mixing fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granu¬
lating by means of a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed
with spikes, and revolving in opposite directions. The process
is completed by the drying and sifting of the granules.
GLUTTON, or Wolverine (Gulo luscus), a carnivorous
mammal belonging to the Mustelidae, or weasel family, and the
sole representative of its genus. The legs are short and stout,
with large feet, the toes of which terminate in strong, sharp
claws considerably curved. The mode of progression is semi-
plantigrade. In size and form the glutton is something like the
badger, measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the thick
bushy tail, which is about 8 in. long. The head is broad, the
eyes are small and the back arched. The fur consists of an under¬
growth of short woolly hair, mixed with long straight hairs,
to the abundance and length of which on the sides and tail
the creature owes its shaggy appearance. The colour of the fur
is blackish-brown, with a broad band of chestnut stretching
from the shoulders along each side of the body, the two meeting
near the root of the tail. Unlike the majority of arctic animals,
the fur of the glutton in winter grows darker. Like other
Mustelidae, the glutton is provided with anal glands, which
secrete a yellowish fluid possessing a highly foetid odour. It
is a bored animal, inhabiting the northern regions of both
hemispheres, but most abundant in the circumpolar area of the
New World, where it occurs throughout the British provinces
and Alaska, being specially numerous in the neighbourhood
of the Mackenzie river, and extending southwards as far as New
York and the Rocky Mountains. The wolverine is a voracious
animal, and also one with an inquisitive disposition. It feeds
on grouse, the smaller rodents and foxes, which it digs from
their burrows during the breeding-season ; but want of activity
renders it dependent for most of its food on dead carcases, which
it frequently obtains by methods that have made it peculiarly
obnoxious to the hunter and trapper. Should the hunter,
after succeeding in'killing his game, leave the carcase insufficiently
protected for more than a single night, the glutton, whose fear
of snares is sufficient to prevent turn from touching it during
the first night, will, if possible, get at and devour what he can
*45
on the second, hiding the remainder beneath the snow. It
annoys the trapper by following up his lines of marten-traps,
often extending to a length of 40 to 50 m., each of which it enters
from behind, extracting the bait, pulling up the traps, and devour¬
ing or concealing the entrapped martens. So persistent is the
glutton in this practice, when once it discovers a line of traps,
that its extermination along the trapper’s route is a necessary
preliminary to the success of his business. This is no easy task,
as the glutton is too cunning to be caught by the methods success¬
fully employed on the other members of the weasel family.
The trap generally used for this purpose is made to resemble
a cache, or hidden store of food, such as the Indiana and hunters
are in the habit of forming, the discover)' and rifling of which
is one of the glutton’s most congenial occupations—the bait,
instead of being paraded as in most traps, being caref*illy con¬
cealed, to lull the knowing beast’s suspicions. One of the most
prominent characteristics of the wolverine is its propensity
to steal and hide things, not merely food which it might after¬
wards need, or traps which it regards as enemies, but articles
which cannot possibly have any interest except that of curiosity.
The following instance of this is quoted by Dr E. Coues in his
work on the Fur-bearing Animals of North America: “ A
hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during
The Glutton, or Wolverine {Gulo luscus).
their absence, on their return found it completely gutted—the
walls were there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles,
axes, cans, knives and all the other paraphernalia of a trapper’s
tent had vanished, and the tracks left by the beast showed
who had been the thief. The family set to work, and, by carefully
following up all his paths, recovered, with some trifling exceptions,
the whole of the lost property.” The cunning displayed by the
glutton in unravelling the snares set for it forms at once the
admiration and despair of every trapper, while its great strength
and ferocity render it a dangerous antagonist to animals larger
than itself, occasionally including man. The rutting-season
occurs in March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces
her young—four or five at a birth—in June or July. In defence
of these she is exceedingly bold, and the Indians, according to
Dr Coues, “ have been heard to say that they would sooner
encounter a she-bear with her cubs than a carcajou (the Indian
name of the glutton) under the same Circumstances.” On
catching sight of its enemy, man, the wolverine before finally
determining on flight, is said to sit on its haunches, and, in order
to get a clearer view of the danger, shade its eyes with one of
its fore-paws. When pressed for food it becomes fearless, and
has been known to come on board an ice-bound vessel, and in
presence of the crew seize a can of meat. The glutton is valuable
for its fur, which, when several skins are sewn together, forms
elegant hearth and carriage rugs. (R. L.*)
GLYCAS, MICHAEL, Byzantine historian (according to some
a Sicilian, according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the
12th century a.d. His chief work is his Chronicle of events
146
GLYCERIN
from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius I. Com-
nenus (1118). It is extremely brief and written in a popular
style, but too much space is devoted to theological and scientific
matters. Glycas was also the author of a theological treatise
and a number of letters on theological questions. A poem of
some 600 “ political ” verses, written during his imprisonment
on a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal
to the emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his
offence is not known, but the answer to his appeal was that he
was deprived of his eyesight by the emperor’s orders.
Editions: "Chronicle and Letters," in ]. P. Migne, Patrologia
Graeca, clviii.; poem in E. Legrand, Bibliothtque grecque vulgatte,
i.; see also F. Hirsdi, Bysantimsche Studten (1876) ; C. Krumbacher
in Sitsungsberichte buyer. Acad., 1894 ; C. F. Bahr in Ersch and
Gruber's Allgemeine EncyklopSdie.
GLYCERIN, Glycerine or Glycerol (in pharmacy Gly
cerinum) (from Gr. yXiisi's, sweet), a trihydric alcohol,
trihydroxypropane, CjJ 3 s (OH) s . It is obtainable from most
natural fatty bodies bv the action of alkalis and similar reagents,
whereby the fats are decomposed, water being taken up, and
glycerin being formed together with the alkaline salt of some
particular acid (varying with the nature of the fat). Owing to
their possession of this common property, these natural fatty
bodies and various artificial derivatives of glycerin, which
behave in the same way when treated with alkalis, are known
as glycerides. In the ordinary process of soap-making the
glycerin remains dissolved in the aqueous liquors from which the
soap is separated.
Glycerin was discovered in 1779 by K. W. Scheele and named
Olsiiss (principe doux des huiles —sweet principle of oils), and
more fully investigated subsequently by M. E. Chevreul, who
named it glycerin, M. P. E. Berthelot, and many other chemists,
from whose researches it results that glycerin is a trihydric
alcohol indicated by the formula C 3 H 5 (OH) a , the natural fats
and oils, and the glycerides generally, being substances of the
nature of compound esters formed from glycerin by the replace¬
ment of the hydrogen of the OH groups by the radicals of
certain acids, called for that reason “ fatty acids.” The relation¬
ship of these glycerides to glycerin is shown by the series of bodies
formed from glycerin by replacement of hydrogen by “ stearyl ”
(C 18 H w O), the radical of stearic acid (C IB H 95 OOH)
Glycerin. Monostearin. Distearin. Tristearin.
CHjOH CHn' 0 (C 1H Hj 50 CH 4 0 (C„,H m O) CH a ' 0 (C, 1 H 36 0 )
II J I
CH-OH CH-OH CHO(C 18 H b O) CHb(CAO)
CH.-OH CHj.OH
CH,.(
CH./OH
CH» 0 (C, 8 H m 0 )
The process of saponification may be viewed as the gradual
progressive transformation of tristearin, or some analogously
constituted substance, into distearin, monostearin and glycerin,
or as the similar transformation of a substance analogous to
distearin or to monostearin into glycerin. If the reaction is
brought about in presence of an alkali, the acid set free becomes
transformed into the corresponding alkaline salt; but if the
decomposition is effected without the presence of an alkali
(i.e. by means of water alone or by an acid), the acid set free
and the glycerin are obtained together in a form which usually
admits of their ready separation. It is noticeable that with
few exceptions the fatty and oily matters occurring in nature
are substances analogous to tristearin, i.e. they are trebly
replaced glycerins. Amongst these glycerides may be mentioned
the following:
Tristearin — C,H,( 0 -C„H M 0 ) s . The chief constituent of hard
animal fats, such as beef and mutton tallow, &c.; also con¬
tained in many vegetable fats in smaller quantity.
Triolein— C^J,( 0 'C, 8 H a 0 ) 3 . Largely present in olive oil and
other saponifiable vegetable oils and soft fats; also present
in animal fats, especially hog’s lard.
Tripalmitin —C^H 8 ( 0 'C«H„ 0 ),. The chief constituent of palm
oil; also contained in greater or less quantities in human
fat, olive oil, and other animal and vegetable fats.
Tririeinolein —CjH^O-C^HjjO,),. The main constituent of castor
oil
Other analogous glycerins are apparently contained in
greater or smaller quantity in certain other oils. ThuB in cows’
butter, tributyrin, CjH^O-C^HjG),,, and the analogous glycerides
of other readily volatile acids closely resembling butyric acid,
are present in small quantity; the production of these acids
on saponification and distillation with dilute sulphuric acid is
utilized as a test of a purity of butter as sold. Triacetin,
CjH^O-C^O^, is apparently contained in cod-liver oil. Some
other glycerideB isolated from natural sources we analogous
in composition to tristearin, but with this difference, that the
three radicals which replace hydrogen in glycerin are not all
identical; thus kephalin, myelin and lecithin are glycerides
in which pro hydrogens are replaced by fatty acid radicals,
and the third by a complex phosphoric acid derivative.
Glycerin is also a product of certain kinds of fermentation,
especially of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar; consequently
it is a constituent of many wines and other fermented liquors.
According to Louis Pasteur, about j^th of the Sugar transformed
under ordinary conditions in-the fermentation of grape juice
and similar saccharine liquids into alcohol and other products
becomes converted into glycerin. In certain natural fatty
substances, e.g. palm oil, it exists in the free state, so that it can
be separated by washing with boiling water, which dissolves
the glycerin but not the fatty glycerides.
Properties.— Glycerin is a viscid, colourless liquid of sp. gr.
1'265 at 15 0 C., possessing a somewhat sweet taste ; below o° C.
it solidifies to a white crystalline mass, which melts at 17 0 C.
When heated alone it partially volatilizes, but the greater part
decomposes; under a pressure of 12 mm. of mercury it boils
at 170® C. In an atmosphere of steam it distils without decom¬
position under ordinary barometric pressure. It dissolves
readily in water and alcohol in all proportions, but is insoluble
in ether. It possesses considerable solvent powers, whence it is
employed for numerous purposes in pharmacy and the arts.
Its viscid character, and its non-liability to dry and harden by
exposure to air, also fit it for various other uses, such as lubrica¬
tion, &c., whilst its peculiar physical characters, enabling it to
blend with either aqueous or oily matters under certain circum¬
stances, render it a useful ingredient in a large number of products
of varied kinds.
Manufacture. —The simplest modes oi preparing pure glycerin are
based on the saponification of fats, cither by alkalis or by superheated
steam, and on the circumstance that, although glycerin cannot be
distilled by itself under the ordinary pressure without decomposition,
it can be readily volatilized in a current of superheated steam.
Commercial glycerin is mostly obtained from the " spent lyes"
of the soap-maker. In the van Ruymbeke process the spent lyes
are allowed to settle, and then treated with " persulphate of iron,”
the exact composition of which is a trade secret, but it is possibly a
mixture of ferric and ferrous sulphates. Ferric hydrate, iron soaps
and all insoluble impurities are precipitated. The liquid is filter-
pressed, and any excess of iron in the filtrate is precipitated by the
careful addition of caustic soda and then removed. The liquid is then
evaporated under a vacuum of 27 to 28 in. of mercury, and, when of
specific gravity 1 295 (corresponding to about 80% of glycerin),
it is distilled under a vacuum of 28 to 29 in. In the Glatz process the
lye is treated with a little milk of lime, the liquid then neutralized
with hydrochloric acid, and the liquid filtered. Evaporation and
subsequent distillation under a high vacuum gives crude glycerin.
The impure glycerin obtained as above is purified by redistillation
in steam and evaporation in vacuum pans.
Technical Uses. —Besides its use as a starting-point in the produc¬
tion of “ nitroglycerin ” (q.v.) and other chemical products, glycerin
is largely employed for a number of purposes in the arts, its applica¬
tion thereto being due to its peculiar physical properties. Thus its
non-liability to freeze (when not absolutely anhydrous, which it
practically never Is when freely exposed to the air) and its non¬
volatility at Ordinary temperatures, combined with its power of
always keeping fluid and not drying up and hardening, render it
valuable as a lubricating agent for clockwork, watches, &c., as a
substitute for water in wet gas-meters, and as an ingredient in
cataplasms, plasters, modelling clay, pasty colouring matters,
dyeing materials, moist colours for artists, and numerous other
analogous substances which are required to be kept in a permanently
soft condition. Glycerin acts as a preservative against decomposition,
owing to its antiseptic qualities, whioh also led to its being employed
to preserve untanned leather (especially during transit when ex¬
ported, the hides being, moreover, kept soft and supple); to make
solutions of gelatin, albumen, gum, paste, cements, &c. which will
keep without decomposition; to preserve meat and other edibles;
to mount anatomical preparations; to preserve vaccine lymph un¬
changed ; and for many.similar purposes. Its solvent power is also
GLYCOLS—GLYPTOTHEK 147
utilized in the production of various colouring fluids, ■ Where the
colouring matter would not dissolve in water alone ; thus aniline
violet, the tinctorial constituents of madder, and various allied
colouring matters dissolve in glycerin, forming liquids which remain
coloured even when diluted with water, the colouring matters being
either retained in suspension or dissolved by the glycerin present
in the diluted fluid. Glycerin is also employed in the manufacture
of formic acid (q.v.). Certain kinds of copying inks are greatly
improved by the substitution of glycerin, in part or entirely, for the
sugar or honey usually added.
In its medicinal use glycerin is an excellent solvent for such sub¬
stances as iodine, alkaloids, alkalis, &c., and is therefore used for
applying them to diseased surfaces, especially as it aids in their
absorption. It does not evaporate or turn rancid, whilst its marked
hygroscopic action ensures the moistness and softness of any surface
that it covers. Given by the mouth glycerin produces purging if
large doses are administered, and has the same action if only a small
quantity be introduced- into the rectum. For this purpose it is
very largely used either as a suppository or in the fluid form (one
or two drachms). The result is prompt, safe and painless. Glycerin
is useless as a food and is not in any sense a substitute for cod-liver
oil. Very large doses in animals cause lethargy, collapse and death.
GLYCOLS, in organic chemistry, the generic name given
to the aliphatic dihydric alcohols. These compounds may be
obtained by heating the alkylen iodides or bromides (e.g. ethylene
dibromide) with silver acetate or with potassium acetate and
alcohol, the esters so produced being then hydrolysed with
caustic alkalis, thus;
GjHjBr, + 2C a H,O a -Ag -* C,H 4 (0-C a H s 0),-»C ! H 4 (0H) a + 2K-C,H a O, J ;
by the direct union of water with the alkylen oxides; by oxida¬
tion of the olefines with cold potassium permanganate solution
(G. Wagner, Bcr., 1888, 21, p. 1231), or by the action of nitrous
acid on the diamines.
Glycols may be classified as primary, containing two - CH-OH
groups ; primary-secondary, containing the grouping - CH(OH)-
CH 2 OH; secondary, with the grouping - CH(OH)'CH(OH) -; and
tertiary, with the grouping >C(OH)-(OH)C<. The secondary
glycols are prepared by the action of alcoholic potash on alde¬
hydes, thus:
3 (CH 3 ) s CH'CHO + KHO =
(CH,).CHCO a K;
(CH.,) 2 CH -CH (OH) CH (OH) -CH(CH s ) g .
The tertiary glycols are known as pinacones and are formed
on the reduction of ketones with sodium amalgam.
The glycols arc somewhat thick liquids, of high boiling point,
the pinacones only being crystalline solids; they are readily
soluble in water and alcohol, but are insoluble in ether. By the
action of dehydrating agents they are converted into aldehydes
or ketones. In their general behaviour towards oxidizing agents
the primary glycols behave very similarly to the ordinary
primary alcohols (q.v.), but the secondary and tertiary glycols
break down, yielding compounds with a smaller carbon content.
Ethylene glycol, C 2 H 4 (OH),„ was first prepared by A. Wurtz
[Ann. chim., 1859 [3], 55, p.400) from ethylene dibromide and
silver acetate. It is a somewhat pleasant smelling liquid, boiling
at 197“ to 197-5° C., and having a specific gravity of 1125 (0°). On
fusion with solid potash at 250° C- it completely decomposes, giving
potassium oxalate and hydrogen,
CjHjOj + 2 KHO = K„Cj 0 4 + 4 Hm.
Two propylene glycols, C a H„ 0 .j, are known, viz. a-propylene
glycol, CH-i'CH(OH)-CH a OH, a liquid boiling at 188" to 189°, and
obtained by heating glycerin with sodium hydroxide and distilling
the mixture; and trimethylene glycol, CHjOH’CH^CH/IH, a
liquid boiling at 214 0 C. and prepared by boiling trimethylene bro¬
mide with potash solution (A. Zander, Ann., 1882, 214, p. 178).
GLYCONIC (from Glycon, a Greek lyric poet), a form of verse,
best known in Catullus and Horace (usually in the catalectic
variety - * - w w - w *), with three feet—a spondee and two dac¬
tyls ; or four- three trochees and a dactyl, or a dactyl and three
chorees. Sir R. Jebb pointed out that the last form might be
varied by placing the dactyl second or third, and according to its
place this verse was called a First, Second or Third Glyconic.
Cf. J. W. White, in Classical Quarterly (Oct. 1909).
GLYPH (from Gr. ykwpt tv, to carve), in architecture, a vertical
channel in a frieze (see Triolyph).
GLYPTODON (Greek for “fluted-tooth”), a name applied
by Sir R. Owen to the typical representative of a group of
gigantic, armadillo-like, South. American, extinct Edentata,
characterized by having the carapace composed of a solid piece
(formed by the union of a multitude of bony dermal plates)
without any movable rings. The facial portion of the skull is
very, short; a long process of the maxillary bone descends
from the anterior part of the zygomatic arch ; and the ascending
ramus of the mandible is remarkably high. The teeth, £ in the
later species, are much alike, having two deep grooves or lutings
on each side, so as to divide them into three distinct lobes (fig.).
They are very tall and grew throughout
life. The vertebral column is almost
entirely welded into a solid tube, but
there is a complex joint at the base of the
neck, to allow the head being retracted
within the carapace. The limbs are very
strong, and the feet short and broad, re¬
sembling externally those of an elephant
or tortoise.
Glyptodonts constitute a family, the GlypUr-
dontidac, whose position is next to the
armadillos ( Dasypodidae) ; the group being
represented by a number of generic types.
The Pleistocene forms, whose remains occur
abundantly in the silt of the Buenos Aires
pampas, are by far the largest, the skull and
tail-sheath in some instances having a length
Oi from 12 to 16 ft. In Glyptodon (with
which Schistopleurum is identical) the tail-
sheath consists of a series of coronet-like
rings, gradually diminishing in diameter from
base to tip. Daedicurus, in which the tail-
sheath is in the form of a huge solid club, is
the largest member of the family; in Pano-
chthus and Sclerocalyptus (Hoplophorus ) the
tail-sheath consists basaliy of a small number
of smooth rings, and terminally of a tube.
In some specimens of these genera the horny
shields covering the bony scutes of the cara¬
pace have been preserved, and since the Two V4ews 0 f th e
ofte ” the latter stop tooth of a Glptodo „.
short of the former, it is evident that these the figu '£ show :
were for the passage of blood-vessels and sid 8 e ^ the
not receptacles for bristles In the early lo 8 er the cr( ( wn .
Pleistocene epoch, when South America
became connected with North America, some of the glyptodonts
found their way into the latter continent. Among these northern
forms some from Texas and Florida have been referred to
Glyptodon. One large species from Texas has, however, been
made the type of a separate genus, under the name of Glypto-
therium texanum. I11 some respects it shows affinity with Pano-
chihus , although in the simple structure of the tail-sheath it
recalls the undermentioned Propalaeohoplaphorus. All the above
are of Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene age, but in the Santa Cruz
beds of Patagonia there occur the two curious genera Propalaeohoplo-
phorus and Peltephilus, the former of which is a primitive and
generalized type of glyptodont, while the latter seems to come
nearer to the armadillos. Both are represented by species of com¬
paratively small size. In Propalaeohoplophorus the scutes of the
carapace, which are less deeply sculptured than in the larger glypto¬
donts, arc arranged in distinct transverse rows, in three of which
they partially overlap near the border of the carapace after the
fashion of the armadillos. The skull and limb-bones exhibit several
features met with in the latter, and the vertebrae of the back are not
welded into a continuous tube. There are eight pairs of teeth, the
first four of which are simpler than the rest, and may perhaps there¬
fore be regarded as premolars. More remarkable is Peltephilus, on
account of the fact that the teeth, which are simple, with a chevron¬
shaped section, form a continuous series from the front of the jaw
backwards, the number of pairs being seven. Accordingly, a
modification of the character, even of the true Edentata, as given
in the earlier article, is rendered necessary. The head bears a pair
of hom-like scutes, and the scutes of the carapace and tail, which
are loosely opposed or slightly overlapping, form a number of trans¬
verse rows.
Literature. —R. Lydekker, " The Extinct Edentates of Ar¬
gentina," An. Mus. La Plata — Pal. Argent, vol. iii. p. 2 (1904);
H. F. Osborn, " 1 Glyptotherium texanum,' a Glyptodont from the
Lower Pleistocene of Texas,” Bull. Amer. Mus., vol. xvii. p. 491
(1903); W. B. Scott, "Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds—Edentata,"
Rep. Princeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*)
GLYPTOTHEK (from Gr. yAmrros, carved, and a place
of storage), an architectural term given to a gallery for the
exhibition of sculpture, and first employed at Munich, where it
was built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple at Aegina.
i + 8 GMELIN—GNEISENAU
GMELIN, the name of several distinguished German scientists,
of a Tiibingen family. Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728),
an apothecary in Tubingen, and an accomplished chemist for
the times in which he lived, had three sons. The first, Johann
Conrad (1702-1759), was an apothecary and surgeon in Tubingen.
The second, Johann Georg (1709-1755), was appointed professor
of chemistry and natural history in St Petersburg in 1731, and
from 1733 to 1743 was engaged in travelling through Siberia.
The fruits of his journey were Flora Sibirica (4 vols., 1749-
1750) and Reisen durch Sibirim (4 vols., 1753). He ended his
days as professor of medicine at Tubingen, a post to which he
was appointed in 1749. The third son, Philipp Friedrich (1721-
1768), was extraordinary professor of medicine at Tubingen
in 17jo, and in 1755 became ordinary professor of botany and
chemistry. In the second generation Samuel Gottlieb (1743—
1774), die son of Johann Conrad, was appointed professor of
natural history at St Petersburg in 1766, and in the following
year started on a journey through south Russia and the regions
round the Caspian Sea. On his way hack he was captured by
Usmey Khan, of the Kaitak tribe, and died from the ill-treatment
he suffered, on the 27th of July 1774. One of his nephews,
Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin (1782-1848), became professor of
medicine and natural history at Tubingen in 1805, and another,
Christian Gottlob (1792-1860), who in 1828 was one of the
first to devise a process for the artificial manufacture of ultra-
marine, was professor of chemistry and pharmacy in the same
university. In the youngest branch of the family, Philipp
Friedrich had a son, Johann Friedrich (1748-1804), who was
appointed professor of medicine in Tubingen in 1772, and in
1775 accepted the chair of medicine and chemistry at Gottingen.
In 1788 he published the 13th edition of Linnaeus’ Systema
Naturae with many additions and alterations. His son Leopold
(1788-1853), was the best-known member of the family. He
studied medicine and chemistry at Gottingen, Tubingen and
Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg,
where in 1814 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 1817
ordinary, professor of chemistry and medicine. He was the
discoverer of potassium ferricyanide (1822), and wrote the
Handbueh der Chemie (1st ed. 1817-1819, 4th ed. 1843-1855),
an important work in its day, which was translated into English
for the Cavendish Society by H. Watts (1815-1884) in 1848-
1859. He resigned his chair in 1852, and died on the 13th of
April in the following year at Heidelberg.
gmUnd, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, 1
in a charming and fruitful valley on the Rems, here spanned by
a beautiful bridge, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart on the railway
to Niirdlingen. Pop. (1905) 18,699. H ls surrounded by old
walls, flanked with towers, and has a considerable number of
ancient buildings, among which are the fine church of the Holy
Cross; St John’s church, which dates from the time of the
Hohenslaufen ; and, situated on a height near the town, partly
hewn out of the rock, the pilgrimage church of the Saviour.
Among the modern buildings are the gymnasium, the drawing
and trade schools, the Roman Catholic seminary, the town
hall and the industrial art museum. Clocks and watches arc
manufactured here and also other articles of silver, while the
town has a considerable trade in com, hops and fruit. The
scenery in the neighbourhood is very beautiful, near the town
being the district called Little Switzerland.
Gmiind was surrounded by walls in the beginning of the 12th
century by'Duke Frederick of Swabia. It received town rights
from Frederick Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the
Hohenstaufen became a free imperial town. It retained its
independence till 1803, when’ it came into the possession of
Wiirttemberg. Gmiind is the birth-plaice of the painter Hans
Baldung (1475-1545) and of the architect Heinrich Arler or Parler
(fl. 1350). In the middle ages the population was about 10,000.
See Kaiser, Gmiind und seine Umgebung (1888).
1 There are two places of this name in Austria. (1) Gmiind,
a town in Lower Austria, Antainme a palace belonging to the
imperial family, (2) a town m Carinthla, with a beautiful Gothic
church and some interesting ruins.
GMUNDEN, a town and summer resort of Austria, in Upper
Austria, 40 m, S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 7126. It
is situated at the efflux of the Traun river from the lake of the
same name and is surrounded by high mountains, as the Traun-
stein (5446 ft.), the Erlakogel (5150 ft.), the Wilde Kogel (6860
ft.) and the Hollen Gebirge. It is much frequented as a health
and summer resort, and has a variety of lake, brine, vegetable
and pine-cone baths, a hydropathic establishment, inhalation
chambers, whey cure, &c. There are a great number of ex¬
cursions and points of interest round Gmunden, specially worth
mentioning being the Traun Fall, 10 m. N. of Gmunden. It is
also an important centre of the salt industry in Salzkammeigut.
Gmunden was a town encircled with walls already in 1186. On
the 14th of November 1626, Phppenheim completely defeated
here the army of the rebellious peasants.
See F. Krackowizcr, Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in OberSsterreich
(Gmunden, 1898-1901, 3 vols.).
GNAT ( 0 . Eng. gnat), the common English name for the
smaller dipterous flies (see Diptera) of the family Culicidae,
which are now included among “ mosquitoes ” (see Mosquito).
The distinctive term has no zoological significance, but in
England the “ mosquito " has commonly been distinguished
from the “ gnat ” as a variety of larger size and more poisonous
bite.
GNATHOPODA, a term in zoological classification, suggested
as an alternative name for the group Arthropoda (q.v.). The
word, which means “jaw-footed,” refers to the fact that in the
members of the group, some of the lateral appendages or “ feet ”
in the region of the mouth act as jaws.
GNATIA (also Egnatia or Ignatia, mod. Anazto, near
Fasano), an ancient city of the Peucetii, and their frontier town
towards the Sallcntini ( i.e . of Apulia towards Calabria), in
Roman times of importance for its trade, lying as it did on the
sea, at the point where the Via Traiana joined the coast road, 2
38 m. S.E. of Barium. The ancient city walls have been almost
entirely destroyed in recent times to provide building material, 5
and the place is famous for the discoveries made in its tombs.
A considerable collection of antiquities from Gnatia is preserved
at Fasano, though the best are in the museum at Bari. Gnatia
was the scene of the prodigy at which Horace mocks (Sat. i.
5. 97). Near Fasano are two small subterranean chapels with
paintings of the nth century a.d. (E. Bertaux, L’Art dans
l'Italic miridionale, Paris, 1904, 135). (T. As.)
GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON, Count Neit-
hardt von (1760-1831), Prussian field marshal, was the son
of a Saxon officer named Neithardt. Bom in 1760 at Schildau,
near Torgau, he was brought up in great poverty there, and
subsequently at Wurzburg and Erfurt. In 1777 he entered
Erfurt university ; but two years later joined an Austrian
regiment there quartered. In 1782 taking the additional name
of Gneisenau from some lost estates of his family in Austria,
he entered as an officer the service of the margrave of Baireuth-
Anspach. With one of that prince’s mercenary regiments in
English pay he saw active service and gained valuable experi¬
ence in the War of American Independence, and returning
in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Frederick the Great gave
him a commission as first lieutenant in the infantry. Made
Stabskapitdn in 1790, Gneisenau served in Poland, 1793-1794,
and, subsequently to this, ten years of quiet garrison life in
{ auer enabled him to undertake a wide range of military studies,
n 1796 he married Caroline von Kottwitz. In 1806 he was
one of Hohenlohe’s staff-officers, fought at Jena, and a little
later commanded a provisional infantry brigade which fought
under Lestoc^ in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in 1807
Major von Gneisenau was sent as commandant to Colberg, which,
small and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until
the peace of Tilsit. The commandant received the much-prized
order “ pour le m6rite,” and was promoted lieutenant-colonel.
A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of
* There is no authority for calling the latter Via Eenatia.
* H. Swinburne, Travels in the Two Sicilies {London, 1790); ii. 15,
mentions the walls as being 8 yds. thick and 16 courses high.
GNEISS
engineers, and a member of the reorganizing committee, he
played a great part, along with Schamhorst, in the work of re¬
constructing the Prussian army. A colonel in 1809, he soon drew
upon himself,by his energy, the suspicion of the dominant French,
and Stem’s fall was soon followed by Gneisenau’s retirement.
But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned
to Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic
party. In open military work and secret machinations his
energy and patriotism were equally tested, and with the out¬
break of the War of Liberation, Major-General Gneisenau
became Blucher’s quartermaster-general. Thus began the
connexion between these two soldiers which has furnished
military history with its best example of the harmonious co¬
operation between the general and his chief-of-staff. With
Bliicher, Gneisenau served to the capture of Paris; his military
character was the exact complement of Blucher’s, and under
this happy guidance the young troops of Prussia, often defeated
but never discouraged, fought their way into the heart of France.
The plan of the march on Paris, which led directly to the fall
of Napoleon, was specifically the work of the chief-of-staff.
In reward for his distinguished service he was in 1814, along
with Vorck, Kleist and Biilow, made count at the same time as
Bliicher became prince of Wahlstatt; an annuity was also
assigned to him.
In 1815, once more chief of Blucher’s staff, Gneisenau played
a very conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign ( q.v .). Senior
generals, such as Yorck and Kleist, had been set aside in order
that the chief-of-staff should have the command in case of need,
and when on the field of Ligny the old field marshal was disabled,
Gneisenau at once assumed the control of the Prussian army.
Even in the light of the evidence that many years’ research
has collected, the precise part taken by Gneisenau in the events
which followed is much debated. It is known that Gneisenau
had the deepest distrust of the British commander, who, he
considered, had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and that
to the hour of victory he had grave doubts as to whether he ought
not to fall back on the Rhine. Bliicher, however, soon recovered
from his injuries, and, with Grolmann, the quartermaster-
general, he managed to convince Gneisenau. The relations of
the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General Hardingc’s
report. Bliicher burst into Hardinge’s room at Wavre, saying
“ Gneisenau has given way, and we are to march at once to your
chief.”
On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick to
realize the magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the
pursuit with a relentless vigour which has few parallels in
history. His reward was further promotion and the insignia
of the “ Black Eagle ” which had been taken in Napoleon’s
coach. In 1816 he was appointed to command the Vlllth
Prussian Corps, but soon retired from the service, both because
of ill-health and for political reasons. For two years he lived in
retirement on his estate, Erdmannsdorf in Silesia, but in 1818
he was made governor of Berlin in succession to Kalkreuth, and
member of the Staatsrath. In 1825 he became general field
marshal. In 1831 he was appointed to the command of the
Army of Observation on the Polish frontier, with Clausewitz
as liis chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck down by
cholera and died on the 24th of August 1831, soon followed
by his chief-of-staff, who fell a victim to the same disease in
November.
As a soldier, Gneisenau was the greatest Prussian general
since Frederick ; as a man, his noble character and virtuous life
secured him the affection and reverence, not only of his superiors
and subordinates in the service, but of the whole Prussian
nation. A statue by'Raueh was erected in Berlin in 1855, and
in memory of the siege of 1807 the Colberg grenadiers received
his name in 1889. One of his sons led a brigade of the Vlllth
Army Corns in the war of 1870.
See G. H. Pert*, Das Leben des Feidmarschalls Grafen Neithardt
van Gneisenau, vols. 1-3 (Berlin, 1864-1869); vols. 4 and 5,
G. Ddbriick (ib. 1879,1880), with numerous documents and letters;
H. Delbriick, Das Leben des G. F. M. Grafen von Gneisenau (2 vols.,
and ed., Berlin, 1894), based on Pertz’s work, but containing much
149
new material; Frau von Beguelin, DenkwUrdigheiien (Berlin, 1892);
Hormayr, Lebensbiider aus den Befreiungshriegen (Jena, 1841) ;
Pick, Aus dem brieflichen Nachlass Gneisenaus ; also the histories of
the campaigns of 1807 and 1813-15.
GNEISS, a term long used by the miners of the Harz Mountains
to designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur;
it is believed to be a word of Slavonic origin meaning “ rotted ”
or “ decomposed.” It has gradually passed into acceptance as a
generic term signifying a large and varied series of metamorphic
rocks, which mostly consist of quartz and felspar (orthoelase
and plagioclase) with muscovite and biotite, hornblende or
augite, iron oxides, zircon and apatite. There ig also a long
list of accessory minerals which are present in gneisses with more
or less frequency, but not invariably, as garnet, sillimanite,
cordierite, graphite and graphitoid, epidote, calcite, orthite,
tourmaline and andalusite. The gneisses all possess a more
or less marked parallel structure or foliation, which is the mam
feature by which many of them are separated from the granites,
a group of rocks having nearly the same mineralogical composi¬
tion and closely allied to many gneisses.
The felspars of the gneisses are predominantly orthoelase
(often perthitic), but microcline is common in the more acid
types and oligoclase occurs also very frequently, especially in
certain sedimentary gneisses, while more basic varieties of
plagioclasc are rare. Quartz is very seldom absent and may be
blue or milky and opalescent. Muscovite and biotite may Doth
occur in the same rock; in other cases only one of them is present.
The commonest and most important types of gneiss are the mica-
gneisses. Hornblende is green, rarely brownish; augite pale
green or nearly colourless; enstatite appears in some granulite-
gneisses. Epidote, often with enclosures of orthite, is by no
means rare in gneisses from many different parts of the world.
Sillimanite and andalusite are not infrequent ingredients of
gneiss, and their presence has been accounted for in more than
one way. Cordierite-gncisses are a special group of great interest
and possessing many peculiarities; they are partly, if not
entirely, foliated contact-altered sedimentary rocks. Kyanitc
and staurolite may also be mentioned as occasionally occurring.
Many varieties of gneiss have received specific names according
to the minerals they consist of and the structural peculiarities
they exhibit. Muscovite-gneiss, biotite-gneiss and muscovite-
biotite-gneiss, more common perhaps than all the others taken
together, are grey or pinkish rocks according to the colour of
their prevalent felspar, not unlike granites, but on the whole
more often fine-grained (though coarse-grained types occur) and
possessing a gneissose or foliated structure. The latter consists
in the arrangement of the flakes of mica» in such a way that
their faces are parallel, and hence the rock has the property of
splitting more readily in the direction in which the mica plates
are disposed. This fissility, though usually marked, is not so
great as in the schists or slates, and the split faces are not so
smooth as in these latter rocks. The films of mica may be
continuous and are usually not flat, but irregularly curved.
In some gneisses the parallel flakes of mica are scattered through
the quartz and felspar; in others these minerals form discrete
bands, the quartz and felspar being grouped into lenticles
separated by thin films of mica. When large felspars, of rounded
or elliptical form, are visible in the gneiss, it is said to have
augen structure (Ger. Augen =eyes). It should also be remarked
that the essential component minerals of the rocks of this family
are practically always determinable by naked eye inspection or
with the aid of a simple lens. If the rock is too fine grained
for this it is generally relegated to the schists. When the
bands of folia are very fine and tortuous the structure is called
helizitic.
In mica-gneisses sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and garnet
may occur. The significance of these minerals is variously
interpreted; they may indicate that the gneiss consists wholly
or in part of sedimentary material which has been contact-
altered, but they have also been regarded as having been
developed by metamorphic action out of biotite or other primary
ingredients of the rock.
GNEIST
150
Hornblende-gneisses are usually darker in colour and less
fissile than mica-gneisses; they contain more plagioclase, less
orthoclase and microcline, and more sphcne and epidotc. Many
of them are rich in hornblende and thus form transitions to
amphibolites. Pyroxene-gneisses are less frequent but occur
in many parts of both hemispheres. The “ charnockite ” series
are very closely allied to the pyroxene-gneisses. Hypersthene
and scapolite both may occur in these rocks and they are some¬
times garnetiferous.
In every country where the lowest and oldest rocks have come to
the surface and been exposed by the long continued action of denuda¬
tion in stripping away the overlying formations, gneisses are found in
great abundance and of many different kinds. They are in fact the
typical rocks of the Archean (Lewisian, Lanrentian, &c.) series.
In the Alps, Harz, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, Canada, South
America, Peninsular India, Himalayas (to mention only a few
localities) they occupy wide areas and exhibit a rich diversity of
types. From this it lias been inferred that they are of great geological
age, and in fact this eon be definitely proved in many cases, for the
oldest known fossiliferqus formations may be seen to rest uncon-
formably on these gneisses and are made up of their dt-bris. It was
for a long time believed that they represented the primitive crust of
the earth, and while this is no"longer generally taught there art-
still geologists who hold that these gneisses are necessarily of pre-
Cambrian age. Others, while admitting the general truth of this
hypothesis, consider that there arc localities in wliich typical gneisses
can be shown to penetrate into rocks which may be as recent as the
Tertiary period, or to pass into these rocks so gradually and in such
a way as to make it certain that the gneisses are merely altered
states of comparatively recent sedimentary or igneous rocks. Much
controversy has arisen on these points; but this is certain, that
gneisses are far the most common among Archean rocks, and where
their age is not known the presumption is strong that they are at
least pre-Cambrian.
Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks that have been
brought to their present state by such agents of metamorphism as
heat, movement, crushing and rccrystallization. This may be
demonstrated partly by their mode of occurrence : they accompany
limestones, graphitic schists, quartzites and other rocks of sedimentary
type ; some of them where least altered may even show remains of
bedding or of original pebbly character (conglomerate gneisses).
More conclusive, however, is the chemical composition of these rocks,
which often is such as no igneous masses possess, hut resembles that
of many impure argillaceous sediments. These sedimentary gneisses
(or paragneisses, as they are often called) are often rich in biotite
and garnet and may contain kyanite and sillimanitc, or less frequently
calcite. Some of them, however, are rich in felspar and quartz, with
muscovite and biotite; others may even contain hornblende and
augite, and all these may bear so close a resemblance to gneisses of
igneous origin that by no single character, chemical or mineralogical,
can their original nature be definitely established. In these cases,
however, a careful study of the relations of the rock in the field and
of the different types which occur together will generally lead to some
positive conclusion.
Other gneisses are igneous (orthogneisses). These have very much
the same composition as acid igneous rocks such as granite, aplite,
hornblende granite, or intermediate rocks such as syenite and quartz
dioritc. Many of these orthogneisses are not equally well foliated
throughout, but are massive or granitoid in places. They are some¬
times subdivided into granite gneiss, diorite gneiss, syenite gneiss
and so on. The sedimontary schists into which these rocks have
been intruded may show contact alteration by the development of
such minerals as cordierite, andalusite and sillimanitc. In many
of these orthogneisses the foliation is primitive, being an original
character of the rock which was produced either by fluxion move¬
ments in a highly viscous, semi-solid mass injected at great pressure
into the surrounding strata, or by folding stresses acting immediately
after consolidation. That the foliation in other orthogneisses is
subsequent or superinduced, having been occasioned by pressure
and deformation of the solid mass long after it had consolidated and
cooled, admits of no doubt, but it is very difficult to establish criteria
by which these types may be differentiated. Those gneisses in which
the minerals have been crushed and broken by fluxion or injection
movements have been called protoclastic, while those which have
attained their gneissosc state by crushing long after consolidation
are distinguished as cataclastic. There are also many examples of
gneisses of mixed or synthetic origin. They may be metamorphosed
sediments (granulites and schists) into which tongues and thin
veins of granitic character have been intruded, following the more
or less parallel foliation planes already present in the country rock.
These veinlets produce that alternation in mineral composition and
banded structure which are essential in gneisses. This intermixture
of igneous and sedimentary material may take place on the finest scale
and in the most intricate manner. Often there has been resorption
of the Older rocks, whether sedimentary or igneous, by those which
have invaded them, and moveir#rt has gone on both during injection
and at a later period, so that the whole complex becomes amalgamated
and its elements are so completely confused that the geologist ran
no longer disentangle them.
When we remember that in the earlier stages of the earth's history,
to which most gneisses belong, and in the relatively deep parts of
the earth s crust, where they usually occur, there has been most
igneous injection and greatest frequency of earth movements, i{
is not difficult to understand the geological distribution of gneissose
rocks. All the factors which are required for their production, heat,
movement, platonic intrusions, contact alteration, interstitial
moisture at high temperatures, are found at great depths and have
acted most frequently and with greatest power on the older rock
masses. But locally, where the conditions were favourable, the
same processes may have gone on in comparatively recent times.
Hence, though most gneisses are Archean, all gneisses are not
necessarily so. (j. S. F.)
GNEIET, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH
VON (1816-1895), German jurist and politician, was bom at
Berlin on the 13th of August 1816, the son of a judge attached
to the “ Kammergericht ” (court of appeal) in that city. After
receiving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben
in Prussian Saxony, he entered the university of Berlin in 1833
as a student of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of the famous
Roman law teacher von Savigny. Proceeding to the degree
of doctor juris in 1838, young Gneist immediately established
himself as a Privaidozenl in the faculty of law. He had, however,
already chosen the judicial branch of the legal profession as a
career, and having while yet a student acted as Auscultulor,
was admitted Assessor in 1841. He soon found leisure and
opportunity to fulfil a much-cherished wish, and spent the
next few years on a lengthened tour in Italy, France and
England. He utilized his Wtmderjahre for the purposes of
comparative study, and on his return in 1844 was appointed
extraordinary professor of Roman law in Berlin university,
and thus began a professorial connexion which ended only with
his death. The first-fruits of his activity as a teacher were
seen in his brilliant work, Die jormellen Vertrage des heutigen
rontischen Obligationen - Rechtes (Berlin, 1845). Pari passu
with his academic labours he continued his judicial career,
and became in due course successively assistant judge of the
superior court and of the supreme tribunal. But to a mind
constituted such as his, the want of elasticity in the procedure
of the courts was galling. “ Brought up,” he tells, in the preface
to his Englische Verjassmgsgeschichte, “in the laborious and
rigid school of Prussian judges, at a time when the duty of
formulating the matter in litigation was entailed upon the judge
who personally conducted the pleadings, I became acquainted
both with the advantages possessed by the Prussian bureau
system as .also with its weak points.” Feeling the necessity
for fundamental reforms in legal procedure, he published, in
1849, his Trial by Jury, in which, after pointing out that the
origin of that institution was common to both Germany and
England, and showing in a masterly way the benefits which had
accrued to the latter country through its more extended applica¬
tion, he pleaded for its freer admission in the tribunals of his
own country.
The period of “ storm and stress ” in 1848 afforded Gneist an
opportunity for which he had yearned, and he threw himself
with ardour into the constitutional struggles of Prussia. Al¬
though his candidature for election to the National Assembly
of that year was unsuccessful, he felt that “ the die was cast,”
and deciding for a political career, retired in 1850 from his judicial
position. Entering the ranks of the National Liberal party,
he began both in writing and speeches actively to champion
their cause, now busying himself pre-eminently with the study
of constitutional law and history. In 1853 appeared his Adel
und Ritterschajt in England, and in 1857 the Geschickte und
heutige Gestalt der Amter in England, a pamphlet primarily
written to combat the Prussian abuses of administration, but
for which the author also claimed that it had not been without
its effect in modifying certain views that had until then ruled
in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was appointed ordinary
professor of Roman law, and in the same year commenced his
parliamentary career by his election for Stettin to the Abgeord-
netenhaus (House of Deputies) of the Prussian Landtag, in which
assembly he sat thenceforward uninterruptedly until 1893.
GNESEN—-GNOME, AND GNOMIC POETRY
Joining the Lett, he at once became one of its leading spokesmen.
His chief oratorical triumphs are associated with the early period
of his membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions
being his violent attack (September 1862) upon the government
budget in connexion with the reorganization of the Prussian
army, and his defence (1864) of the Polish chiefs of the (then)
grand-duchy of Posen, who were accused of high treason. In
1857-1863 was published Das heutige englische Verfassungs-
und Veruialtungsrccht, a work which, contrasting English and
German constitutional law and administration, aimed at exercis¬
ing political pressure upon the government of the day. In
1868 Gneist became a member of the North German parliament,
and acted as a member of the commission for organizing the
federal army, and also of that for the settlement of ecclesiastical
controversial questions. On the establishment of German
unity his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag, and in this
he sat, an active and prominent member of the National Liberal
party, until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided with the
government against the attacks of the Clericals, whom he bitterly
denounced, and whose implacable enemy he ever showed himself.
In 1879, together with his colleague, von Hanel, he violently
attacked the motion for the prosecution of certain Socialist
members, which as a result of the vigour of his opposition was
almost unanimously rejected. He was parliamentary reporter
for the committees on all great financial and administrative
questions, and his profound acquaintance with constitutional
law caused his advice to be frequently sought, not only in his
own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced
legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the
new constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his
work. He was also consulted by the Japanese government when
a constitution was being introduced into that country. In
1875 he was appointed a member of the supreme administrative
court ( Oberverwaltungsgericht ) of Prussia, but only held office
for two years. In 1882 was published his Englische Verfassungs-
geschichte (trans. History of the English Constitution, London,
1886), which may perhaps be described as his magnum opus.
It placed the author at once on the level of such writers
on English constitutional history as Hallam and Stubbs, and
supplied English literature with a text-book almost unrivalled
in point of historical research. In 1888 one of the first acts
of the ill-fated emperor Frederick III., who had always, as
crown prince, shown great udmiration for him, was to ennoble
Gneist, and attach him as instructor in constitutional law to his
son, the emperor William 11 ., a charge of which he worthily
acquitted himself. The last years of his life were full of energy,
and, in the possession of all his faculties, he continued his wonted
academic labours until a short time before his death, which
occurred at Berlin on the 22nd of July 1895.
As a politician, Gneist’s career cannot perhaps be said to have
been entirely successful. In a country where parliamentary
institutions are the living exponents of the popular will he might
have risen to a foremost position in the state; as it was, the
party to which he allied himself could never hope to become
more than what it remained, a parliamentary faction, and the
influence it for a time wielded in the counsels of the state waned
as soon as the Social-Democratic party grew to be a force to be
reckoned with. It is as a writer and a teacher that Gneist is
best known to fame. He was a jurist of a special type. To him
law was not mere theory, but living force ; and this conception
of its power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As
a teacher he exercised a magnetic influence, not only by reason
of the clearness and cogency of his exposition, but also because
of the success with which he developed the talents and guided
the aspirations of his-pupils. He was a man Of noble bearing,
religious, and imbued with a stem sense of duty. He was proud
of being a “ Preussischer Junker ” (a member of the Prussian
squirearchy), and throughout his writings, despite their liberal
tendencies, may be perceived the loyalty and affection with which
he clung to monarchical institutions. A great admirer and a true
friend of England, to which country he was attached by many
personal ties, he surpassed all other Germans in his efforts to
’ 5 1
make her free institutions, in which he found his ideal, the
common heritage of the two great nations of the Teutonic race.
Gneist was a prolific writer, especially on the subject he had made
peculiarly his own, that of constitutional law and history, and among
his works, other than those above named, may be mentioned the
following: Budget und Gesetz nach dem constitutionellen Staatsrecht
Englands (Berlin, 1867) ; Freie Advocatur {ib., 1867); Der Rechts -
stoat («A., 1872, and 2nd edition, 1870) ; Zur Verwallungsreform
in Preussen (Leipzig, 1880); Das englische Parlament (Berlin, 1886) ;
in English translation. The English Parliament (London, 1886; 3rd
edition, 1889); Die Militdr-Vorlage von rXgz und der prcussische
Verfassungsconflikt von i8bz bis 1866 (Berlin, 1893) ; Die nationale
Rechtsidee von den Stdnden und das preussische Dreihtassenwahl-
S istem ( ib., 1895) ; Die verfassungsmdssige Stellung des preussischen
esamtmmisteriums {ib.. 1895). See O. Gierke, 'Rudolph von
Gneist, Geddchtnisrede (Berlin, 1895), an In Meriioriam address
delivered in Berlin. . (p, A. A.)
GNESEN (Polish, Gniezno), a town of Germany, in thd Prussian
province of Posen, in an undulating and fertile country, on the
Wrzesnia, 30 m. E.N.E, of Posen by the railway to Thorn.
Pop. (1905) 23,727. Besides the cathedral, a handsome Gothic
edifice with twin towers, which contains the remains of St
Adalbert, there are eight Roman Catholic churches, a Protestant
church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the
Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen
weaving, brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle
market is held here annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns
in the former kingdom of Poland. Its name, Gniezno, signifies
“ nest,” and points to early Polish traditions. The cathedral is
believed to have been founded towards the close of the 9th
century, and, having received the bones of St Adalbert, it was
visited in 1000 by the emperor Otto III., who made it the seat
of an archbishop. Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were
crowned ; and the archbishop, since 1416 primate of Poland,
acted as protector pending the appointment of a new king.
In 1821 the see of Posen was founded and the archbishop
removed his residence thither, though its cathedral chapter
still remains at Gnesen. After a long period of decay the town
revived after 1815, when it came under the rule of Prussia.
See S. Karwowski, Gniezno (Posen, 1892).
GNOME, and GNOMIC POETRY. Sententious maxims, put
into verse for the better aid of the memory, were known by the
Greeks as gnomes, yeH/iat, from yvmfcrj, an opinion. A gnome
is defined by the Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?—
1643?) as ‘‘a saying pertaining to the manners and common
practices of men, which declareth, with an apt brevity, what
in this our life ought to be done, or not done.” The Gnomic
Poets of Greece, who flourished in the 6th century B.C., were
those who arranged series of sententious maxims in verse.
These were collected in the 4th century, by Lobon of Argos,
an orator, but his collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic
poets were Theognis, Solon, Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos,
Demodocus, Xenophanes and Euenus. With the exception of
Theognis, whose gnomes were fortunately preserved by some
schoolmaster about 300 b.c., only fragments of the Gnomic
Poets have come down to us. The moral poem attributed to
Phocylides, long supposed to be a masterpiece of the school,
is now known to have been written by a Jew in Alexandria.
Of the gnomic movement typified by the moral works of the
poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked that
it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven
Wise Men, to whom such proverbs as “Know thyself” and
” Nothing too much ” were popularly attributed, and whose
names differed in different lists. These gnomes or maxims
were extended and put into literary shape by the poets.
Fragments of Solon, Euenus and Mimnermus have been pre¬
served, in a very confused state, from having been written,
for purposes of comparison, on the margins of the MSS. of
Theognis, whence they have often slipped into the text of that
poet. Theognis enshrines his moral precepts in his elegies, and
this was probably the custom of the rest; it is improbable
that there ever existed a species of poetry made up entirely of
successive gnomes. But the title “ gnomic ” came to be given
to all poetry which dealt in a sententious way with questions
GNOMES—GNOSTICISM
J 52
of ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral
philosophy was directly developed, and theorists upon life and
infinity, such as Pythagoras and Xenophanes, seem to have
begun their career as gnomic poets. By the very nature of
things, gnomes, in their literary sense, belong exclusively to the
dawn of literature ; their naivete and their simplicity in moraliz¬
ing betray it. But it has been observed that many of the ethical
reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular of Sophocles
and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It would be an
error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are all of a
solemn character ; some are voluptuous and some chivalrous ;
those of Demodocus of Leros had the reputation of being droll.
In modem times, the gnomic spirit has occasionally been dis¬
played by poets of a homely philosophy, such as Francis Quarles
(1592-1644) in England and Gui dc Pibrac (1529-1584) in
France. The once-celebrated Quatrains of the latter, published
in 1574, enjoyed an immense success throughout Europe ; they
were composed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic
writers of the 6th century n.c. These modern effusions are
rarely literature and perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic
writings of Pibrac it was long customary to bind up those of
Antoine Favre (or Faber) (1557-1624) and of Pierre Mathieu
(1563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the ancient
literatures of Arabia, Persia and India, and in the Icelandic
staves. The priamel, a brief, sententious kind of poem, which
was in favour in Germany from the 12 th to the 16th century,
belonged to the true gnomic class, and was cultivated with
particular success by Hans Rosenblut, the lyrical goldsmith
of Nuremberg, in the 15th century. (E. G.)
GNOMES (Fr. gnomes, Ger. Gnomen), in folk-lore, the name
now commonly given to the earth and mountain spirits who are
supposed to watch over veins of precious metals and other
hidden treasures. They are usually pictured as bearded dwarfs
clad in brown close-fitting garments with hoods. The word
“ gnome ” as applied to these is of comparatively modem
and somewhat uncertain origin. By some it is said to have
been coined by Paracelsus (so Hatzfeld and Darmestcter,
Dictionnaire), who uses Gnomi as a synonym of Pygmaei , from
the Greek yew/ii), intelligence. The New English Dictionary,
however, suggests a derivation from genomus, i.e. a Greek type
yr/vd/ios, “earth-dweller,” on the analogy of OaXtarowo/ios,
“ dwelling in the sea,” adding, however, that though there is
no evidence that the term was not used before Paracelsus,
it is possibly “ a mere arbitrary invention, like so many others
found in Paracelsus ” ( N.E.D. s.v.).
GNOMON, the Greek word for the style of a sundial, or any
object; commonly a vertical column, the shadow of which was
observed in former times in order to learn
? the altitude of the sun, especially when on
' the meridian. The art of constructing a
Sundial is sometimes termed gnomonies.
In geometry, a gnomon is a plane figure
formed by removing a parallelogram from
a comer of a larger parallelogram ; in the
figure ABCDEFA is a gnomon. Gnomomc projection is a pro¬
jection of a sphere in which the centre of sight is the centre of
the sphere.
GNOSTICISM (Gr. yw*r«, knowledge), the name generally
applied to that spiritual movement existing side by side with
genuine Christianity, as it gradually crystallized into the old
Catholic Church, which may roughly be defined as a distinct religi¬
ous syncretism bearing the strong impress of Christian influences.
I. The term “ Gnosis ” first appears in a technical sense in
1 Tim. vi. 20 (») ffuSwi'nfios yvwo-is). It seems to have at first
been applied exclusively, or at any rate principally, to a particular
tendency within the movement as a whole, i.e. to those sections of
(the Syrian) Gnostics otherwise generally known as Ophites or
Naasseni (see Hfppolytus, Philosophumena, v. 2: Naaaa-qvol
... of lavroiis rvexrrocois iiroKaXovvTss • Irenaeus i. II. 1 ;
Epiphanius, Hacres, xxvi. Cf. also the self-assumed name of the
Carpocratiani, Iren. i. 25. But in Irenaeus the term has
already come to designate thfc whole movement. This first came
into prominence in the opening decades of the 2nd century a.i>.,
but is certainly older ; it reached its height in the second third of
the same century, and began to wane about the 3rd century, and
from the second half of the 3rd century onwards was replaced by
the closely-related and more powerful Manichaean movement.^
Offshoots of it, however, continued on into the 4th and 5th’
centuries. Epiphanius still had the opportunity of making
personal acquaintance with Gnostic sects.
II. Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extra¬
ordinarily numerous, 1 very little has survived; they were
sacrificed to the destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents.
Numerous fragments and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be
found in the works of the Fathers who attacked Gnosticism.
Most valuable of all are the long extracts in the 5th and 6th books
of the Philosophumena of Hippolytus. The most accessible and
best critical edition of the fragments which have been preserved
word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld’s Ketzergeschickte des
Urchristentums. One of the most important of these fragments is
the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora,preserved in Epiphanius, Hacres.
xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the Sitzungsberichte der
Berliner Akademie, 1902, pp. 507-545). Gnostic fragments are
certainly also preserved for us in file Acts 0) Thomas. Here we
should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed
Song oj the Pearl, or Song of the Soul, which is generally, though
without absolute dear proof,attributed to the Gnostic Bardesanes
(till lately it was known only in the Syrian text; edited and
translated by Bcvan, Texts and Studies a , v. 3, 1897 ; Hofmann,
Zeitschrifl fur neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, iv., for the
newly-found Greek text see Acta apostolorum, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2,
c. 108, p. 219). Generally also much Gnostic matter is contained
in the apocryphal histories of the Apostles. To the sdiool of
Bardesanes belongs the “ Book of the Laws of the I,ands,” which
does not, however, contribute much to our knowledge of Gnos¬
ticism. Finally, we should mention in this connexion the text on
which are based the pseudo-Clementine Homilies and Recogni¬
tions (beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already
permeated with the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon
sources of a Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to
a great extent within the category of sources for Gnosticism.
Complete original Gnostic works have unfortunately survived to
us only from the period of the decadence of Gnosticism. Of
these we should mention the comprehensive work called the
Pistis-Sophia, probably belonging to the second half of the 3rd
century.* Further, the Coptic-Gnostic texts of the Codex
Bruciartus-', both the books of leu, and an anonymous third
work (edited and translated by C. Schmidt, Texte und Unter-
suchungen, vol. viii., 1892; and a new translation by the same in
Koptische-gnostische Schriften, i.) which, contrary to the opinion
of their editor and translator, the present writer believes to
represent, in their existing form, a still later period and a
still more advanced stage in the decadence of Gnosticism.
For other and older Coptic-Gnostic texts, in one of which is con¬
tained the source of Irenaeus’s treatises on the Barbelognostics,
but which have unfortunately not yet been made completely
accessible, see C. Schmidt in Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Akad.
(1896), p. 839 seq., and “ Philotesia,” dedicated to Paul Kieinert
(1907), P- 31S seq.
On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are
thrown back upon the polemical writings of the Fathers in their
controversy with heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin,
who according to his Apol. i. 26 wrote a Syntagma against all
heresies ( c. a.d. i 50), and also, probably, a special polemic against
1 See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchnsl-
lichen Literatur, Teil I. v. 171; ib. Teil II. Chronologic der altchristi.
Literatur, i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, Die Offenbarung im
Gnosticismus (1901).
8 For the text see A. Mens, Bardesanes von Edessa (1863), and A.
Hilgenfeld, Bardesanes der lettte Gnostihsr (1864).
* Ed. Petermann-Schwartze; newly translated by C. Schmidt,
Koptisch-gnostische Schriften, i. (1905), in the series Die griechischen
chrisllichen Schriftstelter der ersten irei Jahrhundertc ; eee also
A. Harnack, Texte und XJntersuchungen, Bd. vii. Heft 2 (1891), and
Chronologie der attehristtichen Literatur, ii 193-195.
GNOSTICISM
Marcion (fragment in Irenaeus iv. 6. s), Both these writings are
lost. He was followed by Irenaeus, who, especially in the first
book of his treatise Adversus haereses (tkcfyav kcu avarpoirijs
rrjs j/ev&mrvpwv yvuxrim fdifiXla rrtvrt, c. A.D. t8o), gives a
.detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He founds hu work
upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own knowledge
among many other things, notably the detailed account of
Valentinianism at the beginning of the book. On Irenaeus, and
probably also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his Syntagma
(beginning of the 3rd century), a work which is also lost, but can,
with great certainty, be reconstructed from three recensions of it:
in the Panarion of Epiphanius (after 374), in Philaster of Brescia,
Adversus haereses, and the Pseudo -Tertullian, Liber adversus
omnes haereses. A second work of Hippolytus (Kant iracrui'
aipitrtmv ihtyx»s is preserved in the so-called Philosophumena
which survives under the name of Origen. Here Hippolytus
gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh Gnostic original
sources with which he had become acquainted in the meanwhile.
These sources quoted in Hippolytus have lately met with very
unfavourable criticisms. The opinion has been advanced that
Hippolytus has here fallen a victim to the mystification of a
forger. The truth of the matter must be that Hippolytus
probably made use of a collection of Gnostic texts, put together
by a Gnostic, in which were already represented various secondary
developments of the genuine Gnostic schools. It is also possible
that the compiler has himself attempted here and there to
harmonize to a certain extent the various Gnostic doctrines, yet
in no case is this collection of sources given by Hippolytus to be
passed over; it should rather be considered as important evidence
for the beginnings of the decay of Gnosticism. Very noteworthy
references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up and
down the Stromateis of Clement of Alexandria. Especially
important are the Excerpta ex Theodoto, the author of which is
certainly Clement, which are verbally extracted from Gnostic
writings, and have almost the value of original sources. The
writings of Origen also contain a wealth of material. In the
first place should be mentioned the treatise Contra Celsum, in
which the expositions of Gnosticism by both Origen and Celsus
are of interest (see especially v. 61 seq. and vi. 25 seq.). Of
Tertullian’s works should be mentioned: De praescriptione
haeretieorum, especially Adversus Marcionem, Adversus Hermo-
genem, and finally Adversus Valentinianos (entirely founded on
Irenaeus). Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Ada-
mantius with the Gnostics, De recta in deum fide (beginning of 4th
century). Among the followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his
Panarion gives much independent und valuable information
from his own knowledge of contemporary Gnosticism. But
Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already entirely dependent on
previous works and has nothing new to add. With the 4th
century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed
against it die out 1
III. If we wish to grasp the peculiar character of the great
Gnostic movement, we must take care not to be led astray by
the catchword “ Gnosis.” It is a mistake to regard the Gnostics
as pre-eminently the representatives of intellect among Christians,
and Gnosticism as an intellectual tendency chiefly concerned
with philosophical speculation, the reconciliation of religion
with philosophy and theology. It is true that when Gnosticism
was at its height it numbered amongst its followers both theo¬
logians and men of science, but that is not its main characteristic.
Among the majority of fixe followers of the movement “ Gnosis ”
was understood not as meaning “ knowledge ” or “ understand¬
ing,” in our sense of the word, but “ revelation.” These little
Gnostic sects and groups all lived in the conviction that they
1 See R. A. Lipsius, Die Quellen ier Altesten KeUergeschichte (1875) ;
A. Hamack, Zur Quellenkritih ier Geschichte des Gnosticismus (1873);
A. Hilgenfeld, Ketsergeschichte, pp. 1-83; Hamack, Geschichte ier
attchristlich. Literatur, i. 171 seq., ii. 533 seq., 712 seq.; J. Kunze,
De Historiae Gnostic, fontibus (1894). On the Philosophumena of
Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the cross-references in the Philo-
sopnumena, Hermathena , vol. xi. (1885) p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin,
Dte gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts, Texts und Unters. Bd. vi. Hft.
3, 1890).
possessed a secret and mysterious knowledge, in no way accessible
to those outside, which was not to be proved or propagated,
but believed in by the initiated, and anxiously guarded as a
secret. This knowledge of theirs was not based on reflection,
on scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation. It was
derived directly from the times of primitive Christianity ; from
the Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom
they claimed to be connected by a secret tradition, or else from
later prophets, of whom many sects boasted. It was laid down
in wonderful mystic writings, which were in the possession of the
various circles (Liechtenhahn, Die Offenbarung in s Gnosticismus,
... ■ '
In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and
its character, falls under the great category of mystic religions,
which were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent
antiquity. In Gnosticism as in the other mystic religions we
find the same contrast of the initiated and the uninitiated, the
same loose organization, the same kind of petty sectarianism
and mystery-mongering. All alike boast a mystic revelation
and a deeply-veiled wisdom. As in many mystical religions,
so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual salvation,
the assurance of a fortunate destiny for the soul after death.
As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a
redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which
the faithful have to follow. And finally, as in all mystical
religions, so here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation
and consecration, all those things which we call sacraments,
play a very prominent part. The Gnostic religion is full of such
sacraments. In the accounts of the Fathers we find less about
them ; yet here Irenaeus’ account of the Marcosians is of the
highest significance (i. 21 seq.). Much more material is to be
found in the original Gnostic writings, especially in the Pistis-
Sophia and the two books of leu, and again in the Excerpta ex
Theodoto, the Acts 0 / Thomas, and here and there also in the
pseudo-Clementine writings. Above all we can see from the
original sources of the Mandaean religion, which also represents
a branch of Gnosticism, how great a part the sacraments played
in the Gnostic sects (Brandt, Manddische Religion, p. 96 seq.).
Everywhere we are met with the most varied forms of holy rites
—the various baptisms, by water, by fire, by the spirit, the
baptism for protection against demons, anointing with oil,
sealing and stigmatizing, piercing the ears, leading into the
bridal chamber, partaking of holy food and drink. Finally,
sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest import¬
ance among the Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the
idea that the soul, on leaving the body, finds its path to the
highest heaven opposed by the deities and demons of the lower
realms of heaven, and only when it is in possession of the names
of these demons, and can repeat the proper holy formula, or is
prepared with the right symbol, or has been anointed with the
holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home. Hence
the Gnostic must above all things learn the names of the demons,
and equip himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in
order to be certain of a good destiny after death. The exposition
of the system of the Ophites given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seq.),
and, in connexion with Celsus, by Origen, is particularly instruc¬
tive on this point. The two “ Coptic leu ” books unfold an
immense system of names and symbols. This system again was
simplified, and as the supreme secret was taught in a single
name or a single formula, by means of which the happy possessor
was able to penetrate through all the spaces of heaven (cf. the
name “ Cauiacau ” among the Basilidians ; Irenaeus, Ado. haer.
i. 24. 5, and among other sects). It was taught that even the
redeemer-god, when he once descended on to this earth, to rise
from it again, availed himself of these names and formulas on his
descent and ascent through the world of demons. Traces of
ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They
have been most carefully collected by Anz (Ursprung des Gnosti¬
cismus, Texte und Untersuchungen, xv. 4 passim) who would see
in them the central doctrine of Gnosticism.
IV. All these investigations point clearly to the fact that
Gnosticism belongs to the group of mystical religions. We must
154
GNOSTICISM
now proceed to define more exactly the peculiar and distinctive
character of the Gnostic system. The basis of the Gnostic
religion and world-philosophy lies in a decided Oriental dualism.
In sharp contrast are opposed the two worlds of the good and of
the evil, the divine world and the material world (vAt/), the
worlds of light and of darkness. In many systems there seems
to be no attempt to derive the one world from the other. The
true Basilides (?.».), perhaps also Satomil, Marcion and a part
of his disciples, Bardesanes and others, were frankly dualists.
In the case of other systems, owing to the inexactness of our
information, we are unable to decide; the later systems of
Mandaeism and Manichacanism, so closely related to Gnosticism,
are also based upon a decided dualism. And even when there
is an attempt at reconciliation, it is still quite clear how strong
was the original dualism which has to be overcome. Thus the
Gnostic systems make great use of the idea of a fall of the Deity
himself ; by the fall of the Godhead into the world of matter,
this matter, previously insensible, is animated into life and
activity, and then arise the powers, both partly and wholly
hostile, who hold sway over this world. Such figures of fallen
divinities, sinking down into the world of matter are those of
Sophia (i.e. Ahamoth) among the Gnostics (Ophites) in
the narrower sense of the word, the Simoniani (the figure of
Helena), the Barhelognostics, and in the system of the Pislis-
Sophia or the Primal Man, among the Naasseni and the sect,
related to them, as described by Hippolytus. 1 A further weaken¬
ing of the dualism is indicated when, in the systems of the
Valentinian school, the fall of Sophia takes place within the
godhead, and Sophia, inflamed with love, plunges into the Bythos,
the highest divinity, and when the attempt is thus made genetic¬
ally to derive the lower world from the sufferings and passions
of fallen divinity. Another attempt at reconciliation is set
forth in the so-called “ system of emanations ” in which it is
assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat
lesser world, from this world a second, and so on, until the
divine element (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated,
that the genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears
both possible and comprehensible. A system of emanations
of this kind, in its purest form, is set forth in the expositions
coming from the school of Basilides, which are handed down by
Irenaeus, while the propositions which are set forth in the
Philosophwnena of Hippolytus as being doctrines of Basilides
represent a still closer approach to a monistic philosophy.
Occasionally, too, there is an attempt to establish at any rate a
threefold division of the world, and to assume between the
worlds of light and darkness a middle world connecting the two ;
this is clearest among the Sethiani mentioned by Hippolytus
,(and cf. the Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 30. 1). Quite peculiar in
this connexion are the accounts in Books xix. and xx. of the
Clementine Homilies. After a preliminary examination of all
possible different attempts at a solution of the problem of evil,
the attempt is here made to represent the devil as an instrument
of God. Christ and the devil are the two hands of God, Christ
the right hand, and the devil the left, the devil having power
over this world-epoch and Christ over the next. The devil here
assumes very much the characteristics of the punishing and just
God of the Old Testament, and the prospect is even held out of
his ultimate pardon. All these efforts at reconciliation show
how clearly the problem of evil was realized in these Gnostic
and half-Gnostic sects, and how deeply they meditated on the
subject; it was not altogether without reason that in the ranks
of its opponents Gnosticism was judged to have arisen out of the
question, irodtv ru k ok6v :
This dualism had not its origin in Hellenic soil, neither is it
related to that dualism which to a certain extent existed also in
late Greek religion. For the lower and imperfect world, which
in that system too is conceived and assumed, is the nebulous
world of the son-existent and the formless, which is the
1 Cf. the same ided of the fall of mankind in the pa ga n Gnosticism
of “ Poimandres " ; see Rertsenstein, Poimandres (1904); and the
position of the Primal Man ^Ifrtnensch) among the Wanichaeans is
similar.
necessary accompaniment of that which exists, as shadow is of
light.
In Gnosticism, on the contrary, the world of evil is full of
active energy and hostile powers. It is an Oriental (Iranian)
dualism which here finds expression, though in one point, it is
true, the mark of Greek influence is quite clear. When Gnosticism
recognizes in this corporeal and material world the’true seat of
evil, consistently treating the bodily existence of mankind as
essentially evil and the separation of the spiritual from the
corporeal being as the object of salvation, this is an outcome
of tiie contrast in Greek dualism between spirit and matter, soul
and body. For in Oriental (Persian) dualism it is within this
material world that the good and evil powers are at war, and this
world beneath the stars is by no means conceived as entirely
subject to the influence of evil. Gnosticism has combined the
two, the Greek opposition between spirit and matter, and the
sharp Zoroastrian dualism, which, where the Greek mind con¬
ceived of a higher and a lower world, saw instead two hostile
worlds, standing in contrast to each other like light and darkness.
And out of the combination of these two dualisms arose the
teaching of Gnosticism, with its thoroughgoing pessimism and
fundamental asceticism.
Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of
the universe is the role played in almost all Gnostic systems
by the seven world-creating powers. There are indeed certain
exceptions; for instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools
there is the figure of the one Demiurge who takes the place of
the Seven. But how widespread was the idea of seven powers,
who created this lower material world and rule over it, has
been clearly proved, especially by the systematic examination
of the subject by Anz (Ursprung des Gnosticismus). These
Seven, then, arc in most systems half-evil, half-hostile powers ;
they are frequently characterized as “ angels,” and are reckoned
as the last and lowest emanations of the Godhead; below them
—and frequently considered as derived from them—comes the
world of the actually devilish powers. On the other hand, among
the speculations of the Mandaeans, we find a different and perhaps
more primitive conception of the Seven, according to which
they, together with their mother Namrus (Ruha) and their
father (Ur), belong entirely to the world of darkness. They
and their family are looked upon as captives of the god of light
(Manda-d’hayye, Hibil-ZivS), who pardons them, sets them on
chariots of light, and appoints them as rulers of the world
(cf. chiefly Genza, in Tractat 6 and 8 ; W. Brandt, Mandaischc
Sehriftm f ft2$ seq. and 137 seq.; Mandaischc Religion, 34 seq.,
&c.). In the Manichaean system it is related how the helper of
the Primal Man, the spirit of life, captured the evil archonies, and
fastened them to the firmament, or according to another account,
flayed them, and formed the firmament from their skin(F. C.
Baur, Dasma.nickaischcRdigionssystem,v.(i$),snd. this conception
is closely related to the other, though in this tradition the number
(seven) of the archonies is lost. Similarly, the last book of the
Pislis-Sophia contains the myth of the capture of the rebellious
archonies, whose leaders here appear as five in number (Schmidt,
Koptisch-gnostische Schriften, p. *34 seq.).- There can scarcely
be any doubt as to the origin of these seven (five) powers ; they
are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets.
In the Mandaean speculations the Seven are introduced with
the Babylonian names of the planets. The connexion of the
Seven with the planets is also clearly ejtablished by the exposi¬
tions of Celsus and Origen (Contra Celsum.vi. 22 seq.) and similarly
by the above-quoted passage in the Pistis-Sophia, where the
archonies, who are here mentioned as five, are identified with
the five planets (excluding the sun and moon). This collective
grouping of the seven (five) planetary divinities is derived from
the late Babylonian religion, which can definitely be indicated
as the home of these ideas (Zimmern, Keilinschriften in dent
alien Testament, ii. p. 6ao seq.; cf. particularly Diodorus ii. 30).
And if in the old sources it is only the first beginnings of this
development that can be traced, we must assume that at a later
» These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and perhaps
even underlie St Paul's exposition in Col. ii. 13.
GNOSTICISM
period the Babylonian religion centred in the adoration of the
seven planetary deities. Very instructive in this connexion
is the later (Arabian) account of the religion of the Mesopotamian
Sabaeans. The religion of the Sabaeans, evidently a later
offshoot from the stock of the old Babylonian religion, actually
consists in the cult of the seven planets (cf. the great work of
Daniel Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier u. der Ssabismus). But this
reference to Babylonian religion does not solve the problem
which is here in question. For in the Babylonian religion the
planetary constellations are reckoned as the supreme deities.
And here the question arises, how it came about that in the
Gnostic systems the Seven appear as subordinate, half-daemonic
powers, or even completely as powers of darkness. This can
only be explained on the assumption that some religion hostile
to, and stronger than the Babylonian, has superimposed itself
upon this, and has degraded its principal deities into daemons.
Which religion can this have been ? We are at first inclined to
think of Christianity itself, but it is certainly most improbable
that at the time of the rise of Christianity the Babylonian teaching
about the seven planet-deities governing the world should have
played so great a part throughout all Syria, Asia Minor and
Egypt, that the most varying sections of syncretic Christianity
should over and over again adopt this doctrine and work it up
into their system. It is far more probable that the combination
which we meet with in Gnosticism is older than Christianity,
and was found already in existence by Christianity and its sects.
We must also reject the theory that this degradation of the
planetary deities into daemons is due to the influence of Hebrew
monotheism, for almost all the Gnostic sects take up a definitely
hostile attitude towards the Jewish religion, and almost always
the highest divinity among the Seven is actually the creator-God
of the Old Testament. There remains, then, only one religion
which can be used as an explanation, namely the Persian, which
in fact fulfils all the necessary conditions. The Persian religion
was at an early period brought into contact with the Babylonian,
through the triumphant progress of Persian culture towards
the West; at the time of Alexander the Great it was already the
prevailing religion in the Babylonian plain (cf. F. Cumont,
Textes et monuments rel. aux mysteres de Mithra, i. 5, 8-10, 14,
223 seq., 233). It was characterized by a main belief, tending
towards monotheism, in the Light-deity Ahuramazda and his
satellites, who appeared in contrast with him as powers of the
nature of angels.
•,A combination of the Babylonian with the Persian religion
could only be effected by the degradation of the Babylonian
deities into half-divine, half-daemonic beings, infinitely remote
from the supreme God of light and of heaven, or even into
powers of darkness. Even the characteristic dualism of Gnostic¬
ism has already proved to be in part of Iranian origin ; and now
it becomes clear how from that mingling of late Greek and
Persian dualism the idea could arise that these seven half-
daemonic powers are the creators or rulers of this material
world, which is separated infinitely from the light-world of the
good God. Definite confirmation of this conjecture is afforded
us by later sources of the Iranian religion, in which we likewise
meet with the characteristic fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism.
Thus the Bundahish (iii. 25, v. 1) is able to inform us that in the
primeval strife of Satan against the light-world, seven hostile
powers were captured and set as constellations in the heavens,
where they are guarded by good star-powers and prevented
from doing harm. F'ive of the evil powers are the planets,
while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned among
the evil powers—for the obvious reason that in the Persian
official religion they invariably appear as good divinities (cf.
similar ideas in the Arabic treatise on Persian religion Ulema-i-
Islam, Vullers, Fragmente iiber die Religion Zoroasters, p. 49,
and in other later sources for Persian religion, put together
in Spiegel, Eranische Altertumskunde, Bd. li. p. 180). These
Persian fancies can hardly be borrowed from the Christian
Gnostic systems, their definiteness and much more strongly
duaiistic character recalling the exposition of the Mandaean
(and Manichaean) system, are proofs to the contrary. They are
*55
derived from the same period in which the underlying idea
of the Gnostic systems also originated, namely, the time at which
the ideas of the Persian and Babylonian religions came into
contact, the remarkable results of which have thus partly found
their way into the official documents of Parsiism.
With this fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism is connected,
as Anz has shown in his book which we have so often quoted,
a side of their religious practices to which we have already
alluded. Gnosticism is to a great extent dominated by the idea
that it is above all and in the highest degree important for the
Gnostic’s soul to be enabled 1 to find its way back through the
lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the 'Seven to the
kingdom of light of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a
principal item in their religious practice consisted in communica¬
tions about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of
any other hostile daemons barring the way to heaven), the
formulas with which they must be addressed, and the symbols
which must be shown to them. But names, symbols and
formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must
lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these
spirits, and by his knowledge he must raise himself above
them to the God of the world of light. Throughout this mystic
religious world it was above all the influence of the late Greek
religion, derived from Plato, that also continued to operate;
it is filled with the echo of the song, the first note of which was
sounded by the Flatonists, about the heavenly home of the
soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world
of light.
But the form in which the whole is set forth is Oriental, and
it must be carefully noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely
connected with the Persian religion, are acquainted with this
doctrine of the ascent of the soul through the planetary spheres
(Origen, Contra Celsum, vi. 22).
V. We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail
all the complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will
be useful to take a nearer view of certain principal figures which
have had an influence upon at least one series of Gnostic systems,
and to examine their origins in the history of religion. In
almost all systems an important part is played by the Great
Mother (/«jtt( p) who appears under the most varied forms (cf.
Great Mother of the Gods). At an early period, and notably
in the older systems of the Ophites (a fairly exact account of
which has been preserved for us by Epiphanius and Hippoly tus),
among the Gnostics in the narrower sense of the word, the Archon-
tici, the Sethites (there are also traces among the Naasseni,
cf. the Philosophumcna of Hippolytus), the pa'/rqp is the most
prominent figure in the light-world, elevated above the i/ 38 opas,
and the great mother of the faithful. The sect of the Barbelo-
gnostics takes its name from the female figure of the Barbelo
(perhaps a corruption of Ilap&ros; cf. the form Ba pffevdt for
“ virgin ” in Epiphanius, Haer. xxvi. 1). But Gnostic speculation
gives various accounts of the descent or fall of this goddess of
heaven. Thus the “ Helena ” of the Simoniani descends to this
world in order by means of her beauty to provoke to sensual
passion and mutual strife the angels who rule the world, and
thus again to deprive them of the powers of light, stolen from
heaven, by means of which they rule over the world. She is
then held captive by them in extreme degradation. Similar
ideas are to be found among the “ Gnostics ” of Epiphanius.
The kindred idea of the light-maiden, who, by exciting the sensual
passions of the rulers (a p\ovrts), takes froth them those powers
of light which still remain to them, has also a central place
in the Manichaean scheme of salvation (F. C. Baur, Das tnani-
ehdische Religionssyslem, pp. 219, 315, 321). The light-maiden
also plays a prominent part in the Pistis-Sophia (cf. the index
to the translation by C. Schmidt). With this figure of the mother-
goddess who descends into the lower world seems to be closely
connected the idea of the fallen Sophia, which is so widespread
among the Gnostic systems. This Sophia then is certainly
no longer the dominating figure of the light-world, she is a lower
aeon at the extreme limit of the world of light, who sinks down
into matter (Barbelognostics, the anonymous Gnostic of Irenaeus,
156 GNOSTICISM
Bardesanes, Pistis-Sophia), or turns in presumptuous love to¬
wards the supreme God (BwSos), and thus brings the Fall into
the world of the aeons (Valentimans). This Sophia then appears
as the mother of the “ seven ” gods (see above).
The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly
not derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of
which it is entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to
identify her entirely with the great goddess Ishtar of the old
Babylonian religion. But there can hardly be any doubt that
the figure of the great mother-goddess or goddess of heaven,
who was worshipped throughout Asia under various forms and
names (Astarte, Beltis, Ataigatis, Cybek, the Syrian Aphrodite),
was the prototype of the juyrrjp of the Gnostics (cf. Great
Mother of the Gods). The character of the great goddess of
heaven is still in many planes fairly exactly preserved in the
Gnostic speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the
Gnostic /atjTj/p, the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Heb-
domas (ipSo/uk). The great goddess of heaven is the mother of
the stars. Particularly instructive in this connexion is the fact
that in those very' sects, in the systems of which the figure of the
p/Tjj/) plays a special part, unbridled prostitution appears as a
distinct and essential part of the cult (cf. the accounts of par¬
ticular branches of the Gnostics, Nicolaitans, Philionites, Bor-
borites, &c. in Epiphanius, Haer. xxv., xxvi.). The meaning of
this cult is, of course, reinterpreted in the Gnostic sense: by this
unbridled prostitution the Gnostic sects desired to prevent the
sexual propagation of mankind, the origin of all evil. But the
connexion is clear, and hence it also explained the curious Gnostic
myth mentioned above, namely that the pj-rr/p (the light-maiden)
by appearing to the archontes (ap\ov t««), the lower powers of
this world, inflames them to sexual lusts, in order to take from
them that share of light which they have stolen from the upper
world. This is a Gnostic interpretation of the various myths of
the great mother-goddess’s many loves and love-adventures with
other gods and heroes. And when the pagan legend of the Syrian
Astarte tells how she lived for ten years in Tyre as a prostitute,
this directly recalls the Gnostic myth of how Simon found
Helena in a brothel in Tyre (Epiphanius, Ancoratus, c. 104).
From the same group of myths must be derived the idea of the
goddess who descends to the under-world, and is there taken
prisoner against her will by the lower powers; the direct proto¬
type of this myth is to be found, e.g. in Ishtar’s journey to hell.
And finally, just as the mother-goddess of south-western Asia
stands in particularly intimate connexion with the youthful
god of spring (Tammuz, Adonis, Attis), so we ought perhaps to
compare here as a parallel the relation of Sophia with the Soter
in certain Gnostic systems (see below).
Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the
Primal Man (n-pwros ovflpunros). In many systems, certainly,
it has already been forced quite into the background. But on
closer examination we can clearly see that it has a wide influence
on Gnosticism. Thus in the system of the Naasseni (see Hip-
polytus, Pkilosophumena), and in certain related sects there
enumerated, the Primal Man has a central and predominant
position. Again, in the text on which are based the pseudo-
Clementine writings ( Recognitions, i. 16,32,45-47,52, ii. 47 ; and
Homilies, iii. 17 seq.,xviii. 14), as in the closely related system
of the Ebionites in Epiphanius (Haer. xxx. 3-16; cf. liii. 1), we
meet with the man who existed before the world, the prophet
who goes through the world in various forms, and finally reveals
himself in Christ. Among the Barbelognostics (Irenaeus i.
29. 3), the Primal Man (Adamas, homo perfectus et verus) and
Gnosis appear as a pair of aeons, occupying a prominent place
in the whole series. In the Valentinian systems the pair of
aeons, Anthropos and Ekklesia, occupy the third or fourth
place within the Oydods, hut incidentally we learn that with
some representatives of this school the Anthropos took a still
more prominent place (first or second; Hilgenfeld, Ketzer-
gesckichte, p. 294 seq.). And even in the Pistis-Sophia the
Primal Man “ leu ” is frequently alluded to as the King of the
Luminaries (cf. index to C.%chmidt’s translation). We also
meet with speculations of this kind about man in the circles
of non-Christian Gnosis. Thus in the Poimandres of Hermes
man is the most prominent figure in the speculation; numerous
pagan and half-pagan parallels (the “ Gnostics ” of Plotinus,
Zosimus, Bitys) have been collected by Reitzenstein in his
work Poimandres (pp. 81-116). Reitzenstein has shown (p.
81 seq.) that very probably the system of the Naasseni described
by Hippolytus was originally derived from purely pagan circles,
which are probably connected in some way with the mysteries
of the Attis cult. The figure in the Mandacan system most
closely corresponding to the Primal Man, though this figure
also actually occurs in another part of the system (cf. the figure
of Adakas Mana; Brandt, Manddische Religion, p. 36 seq.) is
that of Manda d’hayye (yvwrts ri/s (unjs ; cf. the pair of aeons,
Adamas and Gnosis, among the Barbelognostics, in Irenaeus
i. 29. 3). Finally, in the Manichaean system, as is well known,
the Primal Man again assumes the predominant place (Baur,
Manich. Religionssystem, 49 seq.).
This figure of the Primal Man can particularly be compared
with that of the Gnostic Sophia. Wherever this figure has not
become quite obscure, it represents that divine power which,
whether simply owing to a fall, or as the hero who makes war
on, and is partly vanquished by darkness, descends into the
darkness of the material world, and with whose descent begins
the great drama of the world’s development. From this power
are derived those portions of light existing and held prisonei
in this lower world. And as he has raised himself again out of
the material world, or has been set free by higher powers, so
shall also the members of the Primal Man, the portions of
light still imprisoned in matter, be set free.
The question of the derivation of the myth of the Primal
Man is still one of the unsolved problems of religious history.
It is worthy of notice that according to the old Persian myth
also, the development of the world begins with the slaying of
the primal man Gayomart by Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman);
further, that the Primal Man (“ son of man ” = man) also
plays a part in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Daniel, Enoch,
iv, Ezra), whence this figure passes into the Gospels ; and again,
that the dogma of Christ’s descent into hell is directly connected
with this myth. But these parallels do not carry us much further.
Even the Persian myth is entirely obscure, and has hitherto
defied interpretation. It is certainly true that in some way
an essential part in the formation of the myth has been played
by the sun-god, who daily descends into darkness, to rise from
it again victoriously. But how to explain the combination of
the figure of the sun-god with that of the Primal Man is an
unsolved riddle. The meaning of this figure in the Gnostic
speculations is, however, clear. It answers the question : how
did the portions of light to be found in this lower world, among
which certainly belong the souls of the Gnostics, enter into it ?
A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man are the accounts
to be found in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of
the first man. In all these accounts the idea is expressed that
so far as his body is concerned man is the work of the angels
who created the world. So e.g. Satornil relates (Irenaeus i.
24. 1) that a brilliant vision appeared from above to the world-
creating angels; they were unable to hold it fast, but formed
man after its image. And as the man thus formed was unable
to move, but could only crawl like a worm, the supreme Power
put into him a spark of life, and man came into existence.
Imaginations of the same sort are also 4o be found, e.g. in the
genuine fragments of Valentinus (Hilgenfeld, Ketzergeschiehte,
p. 293), the Gnostics of Irenaeus i. 30. 6, the Mandaeans
(Brandt, Religion der Mandder, p. 36), and the Manichaeans
(Baur, Religionssystem, p. 118 seq.). The Naasseni (Hippolytus,
Pkilosophumena, v. 7) expressly characterize the myth as
Chaldean (cf. the passage from Zosimus, in Reitzenstein’s
Poimandres, p. 104). Clearly then the question which the myth
of the Primal Man is intended to answer in relation to the
whole universe is answered in relation to the nature of man by
this account of the coming into being of the first man, which
may, moreover, have been influenced by the account in the Old
Testament. That question is: how does it happen that in this
GNOSTICISM
inferior body of man, fallen a prey to corruption, there dwells
a higher spark of the divine Being, or in other words, how are
we to explain the double nature of man ?
VI. Of all the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism of which we
have so far treated, it can with some certainty be assumed that
they were in existence before the rise of Christianity and the
influence of Christian ideas on the development of Gnosticism.
The main question with which we have now to deal is that of
whether the dominant figure of the Saviour in Gnosticism
is of specifically Christian derivation, or whether this can also
be explained apart from the assumption of Christian influence.
And here it must be premised that, intimately as the conception
of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic religion, the idea of
salvation accomplished in a definite historical moment to a
certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the
Christian Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difficulty
with which they had to contend in order to reconcile the idea
of an historical redeemer, actually occurring in the form of a
definite person, with their conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism
salvation always lies at the root of all existence and all history.
The fundamental conception varies greatly. At one time the
Primal Man, who sank down into matter, has freed himself
and risen out of it again, and like him his members will rise out
of darkness into the light ( Poimandres ): at another time the
Primal Man who was conquered by the powers of darkness
has been saved by the powers of light, and thus too all his race
will be saved (Manichaeism); at another time the fallen Sophia
is purified by her passions and sorrows and has found her Syzygos,
the Soter, and wedded him, and thus all the souls of the Gnostics
who still languish in matter will become the brides of the angels
of the Soter (Valentinus). In fact salvation, as conceived in
Gnosticism, is always a myth, a history of bygone events, an
allegory or figure, but not an historical event. And this decision
is not affected by the fact that in certain Gnostic sects figured
historical personages such as Simon Magus and Menander.
The Gnostic ideas of salvation were in the later schools and sects
transferred to these persons whom we must consider as rather
obscure charlatans and miracle-mongers, just as in other cases
they were transferred to the person of Christ. The “ Helena ”
of the Simonian system was certainly not an historical but a
mythical figure. This explains the laborious and artificial way
in which the person of Jesus is connected in many Gnostic systems
with the original Gnostic conception of redemption. In this
patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to be recognized.
Thus, e.g. in the Valentinian system, the myth of the fallen
Sophia and the Soter, of their ultimate union, their marriage
and their 70 sons (Irenaeus i. 4. 5 ; Hippolytus, Philos, vi.
34), has absolutely nothing to do with the Christian conceptions
of salvation. The subject is here that of a high goddess of heaven
(she has 70 sons) whose friend and lover finds her in the misery
of deepest degradation, frees her, and bears her home as his
bride. To this myth the idea of salvation through the earthly
Christ can only be attached with difficulty. And it was openly
maintained that the Soter only existed for the Gnostic, the
Saviour Jesus who appeared on earth only for the “ Psychicus ”
(Irenaeus i. 6.1).
VII. Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of
what we call Gnosticism was already in existence and fully
developed.before the rise of Christianity. But the fundamental
ideas of Gnosticism and of early Christianity had a kind of
magnetic attraction for each other. What drew these two
forces together was the energy exerted by the universal idea of
salvation in both systems. Christian Gnosticism actually
introduced only one new figure into the already existing Gnostic
theories, namely that of the historical Saviour Jesus Christ.
This figure afforded, as it were, a new point of crystallization
for the existing Gnostic ideas, which now grouped themselves
round this point in all their manifold diversity. Thus there
came into the fluctuating mass a strong movement and formative
impulse, and the individual systems and sects sprang up like
mushrooms from this soil.
It must now be our task, to make plain the position of Gnosti¬
157
cism within the Christian religion, and its significance for the
development of the latter. Above all the Gnostics represented
and developed the distinctly anti-Jewish tendency in Christianity.
Paul was the apostle whom they reverenced, and his spiritual
influence on them is quite unmistakable. The Gnostic Marcion
has been rightly characterized as a direct disciple of Paul.
Paul’s battle against the law and the narrow national conception
of Christianity found a willing following in a movement, the
syncretic origin of which directed it towards a universal religion.
St Paul’s ideas .were here developed to their extremest conse¬
quences, and in an entirely one-sided fashion such as was far
from being in his intention. In nearly all the Gnostic systems
the doctrine of the seven world-creating spirits is given an
anti-Jewish tendency, the god of the Jews and of the Old
Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The demiurge
of the Valentmians always clearly bears the features of the Old
Testament creator-God.
The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most
of the Gnostics. Even the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics
(Cerinthus), the Ebionite (Essenian) sect of the Pseudo-
Clementine writings (the Elkesaites), take up an inconsistent
attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old Testament.
In this respect the opposition to Gnosticism led to a reactionary
movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a different
fashion from Pauly kid stress on the literal authority of the Old
Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegorically; if it took up a
much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old
Testament, and gave wider scope to the legal conception of
religion, this must be in part ascribed to the involuntary reaction
upon it of Gnosticism.
The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the
creator-god proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have
already seen, in the dualism by which it was dominated. With
this dualism and the recognition of the worthlessness and
absolutely vicious nature of the material world is combined a
decided spiritualism. The conception of a resurrection of the
body, of a further existence for the body after death, was unattain¬
able by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception of
a few Gnostic sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies.
With the dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude
of absolute indifference towards this lower and material world,
and the practice of asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation
are considered either as absolute Evil or as altogether worthless,
and carnal pleasure is frequently looked upon as forbidden.
Then again asceticism sometimes changes into wild libertinism.
Here again Gnosticism has exercised an influence on the develop¬
ment of the Church by way of contrast arid opposition. If here
a return was made to the old material view of the resurrection
(the apostolic dvcumuris rrjs ( to / jkos ), entirely abandoning the
more spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a com¬
promise by Paul, this is probably the result of a reaction from
the views of Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that
Gnosticism started a development which was followed later by
the Catholic Church. In spite of the rejection of the ascetic
attitude of the Gnostics, as a blasphemy against the Creator,
a part of this ascetic principle became at a later date dominant
throughout all Christendom. And it is interesting to observe
how, e.g., St Augustine, though desperately combating the
dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterwards introduced a number
of dualistic ideas into Christianity, which are distinguishable
from those of Manichaeism only by a very keen eye, and even
then with difficulty.
The Gnostic religion also anticipated other tendencies. As
we have seen, it is above all things a religion of sacrameirts and
mysteries. Through its syncretic origin Gnosticism introduced
for the first time into Christianity a whole mass of sacramental,
mystical ideas, which had hitherto existed in it only in its
earliest phases. But in the long run even genuine Christianity
has been unable to free itself from the magic of the sacraments ;
and the Eastern Church especially has taken the same direction
as Gnosticism. Gnosticism was also the pioneer of the Christian
Church in the strong emphasis laid on the idea of salvation .in
GNOSTICISM
158
religion. And since the Gnostics were compelled to draw the
figure of the Saviour into a world of quite alien myths, their
Chratology became so complicated in character that it frequently
recalls the Christology of the later dogmatic of the Greek Fathers.
Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided
impulse to the consolidation of the Christian Church as a church.
Gnosticism itself is a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion
of isolated minds, of separate little circles and minute sects.
The homogeneity of wide circles, the sense of responsibility
engendered by it, and continuity with the past are almost
entirely lacking in it. It is based upon revelation, which even
at the present time is imparted to the individual, upon the more
or less convincing force of the religious imagination and specula¬
tions of a few leaders, upon the voluntary and unstable grouping
of the schools round the master. Its adherents feel themselves
to be the isolated, the few, the free and the enlightened, as
opposed to the sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded
into matter, or the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the
Gnostics as opposed to the “ Hylici ” (vkutoi); at most in the
later and more moderate schools a middle place was given to
the adherents of the Church as Psychici (f v\tKoi).
This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church
an increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm
and inelastic organization, towards authority and tradition. An
organized hierarchy, a definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures,
a confession of faith and rule of faith, and unbending doctrinal
discipline, these were the means employed. A part was also
played in this movement by a free theology which arose within
the Church, itself a kind of Gnosticism which aimed at holding
fast whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining
its recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of
Alexandria, Origen). But the mightiest forces, to which in the
end this theology too had absolutely to give way, were outward
organization and tradition.
It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the
further development of Christianity, as a universal region, that
at its very outset it prevailed against the great movement of
Gnosticism. In spite of the fact that in a few of its later repre¬
sentatives Gnosticism assumed a more refined and spiritual
aspect, and even produced blossoms of a true and beautiful piety,
it is fundamentally and essentially an unstable religious syn¬
cretism, a religion in which the determining forces were a fantastic
oriental imagination and a sacramentalism which degenerated
into the wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating
unsteadily between asceticism and libertinism. Indirectly, how¬
ever, Gnosticism was certainly one of the most powerful factors
in the development of Christianity in the 1st century.
VIII. This sketch may be completed by a short review of the
various separate sects and their probable connexion with each
other. As a point of departure for the history of the develop¬
ment of Gnosticism may be taken the numerous little sects
which were apparently first included under the name of “ Gnos¬
tics ” in the narrower sense. Among these probably belong the
Ophites of Celsus (in Origen), the many little sects included by
Epiphanius under the name of Nicolaitans and Gnostics (Haer.
*5. 26); the Archontid (Epiphanius, Haer. xL), Sethites (Cain-
ites) should also here be mentioned, and finally the Carpocratians.
Common to all these is the dominant position assumed by the
“ Seven ” (headed by Ialdabaoth); the heavenly world lying
above the spheres of the Seven is occupied by comparatively
few figures, among which the most important part is played by
the p/Tijp, who is sometimes enthroned as the supreme
goddess in heaven, but in a few systems has already descended
from there into matter, been taken prisoner, &c. Numerous
little groups are distinguished from the miss, sometimes by one
peculiarity, sometimes by another. On the one hand we have
sects .with a strongly ascetic tendency, on the other we find some
characterized by unbridled libertinism; in some the most
abandoned prostitutipn has come to be the most sacred mystery ;
in others again appears the worship of serpents, which here
appears to be connected in various and often very loose ways
with the other ideas of these Gnostics—hence the names of the
“ Ophites,” " Naasseni.” To this class also fundamentally
belong the Simoniani, who have included the probably historical
figure of Simon Magus in a system which seems to be closely
connected with those we have mentioned, especially if we look
upon the “ Helena ” of this system as a mythical figure. A
particular branch of the “ Gnostic ” sects is represented by those
systems in which the figure of Sophia sinking down into matter
already appears. To these belong the Barbelognostics (in the
description given by Irenaeus the figure of the Spirit takes the
place of that of Sophia), and the Gnostics whom Irenaeus (i. 30)
describes (cf. Epiphanius, Haer. xxvi.). And here may best be
included Bardesanes, a famous leader of a Gnostic school of
the end of the 2nd century. Most scholars, it is true, following
an old tradition, reckon Bardesanes among the Valentinians.
But from the little we know of Bardesanes, his system bears no
trace of relationship with the complicated Vtilentinian system,
but is rather completely derived from the ordinary Gnosticism,
and is distinguished from it apparently only by its more strongly
dualistic character. The systems of Valentinus and his disciples
must be considered as a further development of what we have
just characterized as the popular Gnosticism, and especially of
that brunch of it to which the figure of Sophia is already known.
In them above all the world of the higher aeons is further ex¬
tended and filled with a throng of varied figures. They also
exhibit a variation from the characteristic dualism of Gnosticism
into monism, in their conception of the fall of Sophia and their
derivation of matter from the passions of the fallen Sophia. The
figures of the Seven have here entirely disappeared, the remem¬
brance of them being merely preserved in the name of the
Aruuuvpyu'i (l/iSotids). In general, Valentinianism displays a
particular resemblance to the dominant ideas of the Church,
both in its complicated Christology, its triple division of mankind
into TvcvfiaTiKoi, ^v\ikoi and vA««o«, and its far-fetched
interpretation of texts. 1 A quite different position from those
mentioned above is taken by Basilides (q.v.). From what little
we know of him he was an uncompromising dualist. Both the
systems which are handed down under his name by Irenaeus and
Hippolytus, that of emanations and the monistic-evolutionary
system, represent further developments of his ideas with a
tendency away from dualism towards monism. Characteristic¬
ally, in these Basilidian systems the figure of the “ Mother ” or
of Sophia does not appear. This peculiarity the Basilidian
system shares with that of Satornil of Antioch, which has only
come down to us in a very fragmentary state, and in other
respects Recalls in many ways the popular Gnosticism. By
itself, on the other hand, stands the system preserved for us by
Hippolytus in the Philasophumena under the name of the
Naasseni, with as its central figure of “ the Man,” which, as we
have seen, is very closely related with certain specifically pagan
Gnostic speculations which have come down to us (in the Poi-
mandres, in Zosimus and Plotinus, Ennead ii. 9). With the
Naasseni, moreover, are related also the other sects of which
Hippolytus alone gives us a notice in his Philosophumena
(Docetae, Perates, Sethiani, the adherents of Justin, the Gnostic
of Monoimos). Finally, apart from all other Gnostics stands
Marcion. With him, as far as we are able to conclude from the
scanty notices of him, the manifold Gnostic speculations are
reduced essentially to the one problem of the good and the just
God, the God of the Christians and the God of the Old Testament.
Between these two powers Marcion affirms a sharp and, as it
appears, originally irreconcilable dualism which with him rests
moreover on a speculative basis. Thanks to the noble simplicity
and specifically religious character of his ideas, Marcion was
able to found not only schools, but a community, a church of
his own, which gave trouble to the Church longer than any
other Gnostic sect. Among his disciples the speculative and
fantastic element of Gnosticism again became more apparent.
As we have already intimated, Gnosticism had such a power
1 For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom
was named a separate sect, the Marcostans, with their Pythagorean
theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic,
and sacramental, see Valentinus and Valentinians.
GNU—GOA 159
of attraction that it now drew within its limits even Judaeo-
Christian sects. Among these we must mention the Judaeo-
Christian Gnostic Cerinthus, also the Gnostic Ebiomtes, of
whom Epiphanius (Hasr.) gives us an account, and whose writings
are to be found in a recension in the collected works of the
Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions and Homilies; to the same class
belong the Elkesaites with their mystical scripture, the Elxai,
extracts of which are given by Hippolytus in the Philos, (ix. 13).
Later evidence of the decadence of Gnosticism occurs in the
Pissis-Sophia and the Coptic Gnostic writings discovered and
edited by Schmidt. In these confused records of human imagina¬
tion gone mad, we possess a veritable herbarium of all possible
Gnostic ideas, which were once active and now rest peacefully
side by side. None the less, the stream of the Gnostic religion
is not yet dried up, but continues on its way ; and it is beyond
a doubt that the later Mandaeanism and the great religious
movement of Mani are most closely connected with Gnosticism.
These manifestations are all the more characteristic since in
them we meet with a Gnosticism which remained essentially
more untouched by Christian influences than the Gnostic
systems of die 2nd century a.d. Thus these systems throw an
important light on the past, and a true perception of the nature
and purpose of Gnosticism is not to be obtained without taking
them into consideration.
Bibliography. —A. Neandcr, Genetische Entwichlung it. vornehm-
sten gnostischcn Systeme (Berlin, 1818) ; F. Chr. Baur, Die chrisll.
Gnosis in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung (Tubingen, 1835) ; E. W.
Mciller, Gesch. der Kosmologie in ier griechischen Kirche bis Origcnes
(Halle, i860); R. A. Lipnius, Der Gnosticismus (Leipzig, i860;
originally in Bruch and Gruber’s Encyclopedic) ; H. L. Manuel,
The Gnostic Heresies of the sst and 2nd Centuries (London, 1875);
K. Kepler, Uber Gnosis und altbabylonische Religion, a lecture
delivered at the Congress of Orientalists (Berlin, 1881); A. Hilgen-
feld, Ketsergeschichtc des Urchristentums (Leipzig, 1884) ; and in
Ztschr. fiir wissensckaftl. Theol. i8go, i. " Der Gnosticismus";
A. Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, i. 271 seq. (cf. the corresponding
sections of the Dogmengcschichten of Loofs and Seeberg); W. Anz,
" Zur Fragc nach dem Ursprung des Gnosticismus," Texte u. Unter-
suchungen, xv. 4 (Leipzig, 1897); R. Liechtenhaiin, Die Offenbaruttg
im Gnosticismus (Gottingen, 1901) ; C. Schmidt, " Plotins Stelluug
zum Gnosticismus u. kirchl. Christentum,’’ Texte u. Untersuch.
xx. 4 (1902); E. de Faye, Introduction <1 I'ttuide du Gnosticisme (Paris,
1903); R. Reitzenstein, Poimandres (Leipzig, 1904); G. Kruger,
article " Gnosticismus " in Herzog-Hauck’s Realencyklop&die (3rd
ed.) vi. 728 fi.; Bousset, " Hauptprobleme der Gnosis,” Forschungen
z. Relig. u. Lit. d. alien u. neuen Testaments, 10 (1907); T. Wendland,
Hellenistisch-romische Kultur in ihren Bezichungen zu Judentum
und Christentum (1907), p. 161 seq. See further among important
monographs on the individual Gnostic systems, R. A. Lipsius,
" Die ophitischen Systeme,” Ztschr. f. wissensch. Theologie (1863);
G. Heinrici, Die valentiniatiische Gnosis u. d. Heilige Schrift (Berlin,
1871); A. Merx, Bardesanes von Edessa (Halle, 1863); A. Hilgcnfeld,
Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker (Leipzig, 1864); A. Harnack, " Obor
das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia,” Texte u. Untersuch. vii. 2;
C. Schmidt, " Gnostische Schriften," Texte u. Untersuch. viii. 1, 2 ;
and also the works mentioned under § II. of this article. (W. Bo.)
White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (Connochaeies gnu).
GKO, the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South
African antelope (q.v.), now.nearly extinct, known to the Boers
as the black wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaeies (at
Catoblepas) gnu. A second and larger species is the brindled
gnu or blue wildebeest (C. taurinus or Catoblepas gorgoti), also
known by the Bechuana name kokon or kokoon; and there are
several East African forms more or less closely related to the
latter which have received distinct names.
GO, or Go-Bang (Jap. Go-ban, board for playing Go), a popular
table game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in
Japan, according to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 B.C.,
but it is probably of Chinese origin. According to-Falkener the
first historical mention of it was made about the year 300 b.c.,
but there is abundant evidence that it was a popular game
long before that period. The original Japanese Go is played on
a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical
lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the flat round men,
181 white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game
prooeeds. The men are placed by the two players on any inter¬
sections (me) that may seem advantageous, the object being to
surround with one’s men as many unoccupied intersections as
possible, the player enclosing the greater number of vacant
points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are
captured and removed from the board. This game is played in
England upon a board divided into 361 squares, the men being
placed upon these instead of upon the intersections.
A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners,
has for its object to get five men into line. This may have been
die earliest form of the game, as the word go means five. Except
in Japan it is often played on an ordinary draughts-board, and
the winner is he who first gets five men into line, either vertically,
horizontally or diagonally.
See Go-Bang, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding's Home Library
(New York, 1896) ; Games Ancient and Oriental, by Edward Falkeuer
(London, 1892); Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Go, by O Korschelt
(Yokohama, 1881); Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen, by G. Schnrig
(Leipzig, 18S8).
GOA, the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese
India, and of the surrounding territory more exactly described
as Goa settlement, which is situated on the western coast of
India, between 15° 4*' and 14 0 53' N., and between 73° 45' and
74°a6'E. Pop. (1900)475,513, area 1301 sq. m.
Goa Settlement .—With Damatin (q.v.) and Diu (q.v.) Goa
settlement forms a single administrative province ruled by a
governor-general, and a single ecclesiastical province subject
to the archbishop of Goa; for judicial purposes the province
includes Macao in China, and Timor in the Malay Archipelago.
It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or Araundem,
which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western
Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It
comprises the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette,
conquered early in the 16th century and therefore known as the
Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquests), seven districts acquired
later and known as the Novas Conquistas, and the island of
Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which has a coast-line
of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas Conquistas ; its
distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though the highest
summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the island
of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands
skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and
the Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas),
being connected on the landward side by a creek. The island
(native name Tisvadi, Tissuvaddy, Tissuaiy) is a triangular
territory, the apex of which, called the cabo or cape, is a rocky
headland separating the harbour of Goa into two anchorages—
Agoada or Aguada at the mouth of the Mandavi, on the north,
and MotmugSo or Marmagfto at the mouth of the Juari, on the
south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of the
south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains.
The southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always
open, but is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city
of Goa, which is built on the island. A railway connects Moir-
magio, south of the Juari estuary, with Castle Rock on the
160 GOA
Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles and foodstuffs, and exports
oooo-nuts, areca-nuts, spices, fish, poultry and timber. Its
trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras,
Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is mined in large quantities,
some iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit,
betel and bananas.
Cities of Goa. —i. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which
hardly a fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point
of the island, and was famous in early Hindu legend and history
for its learning, wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain
inscriptions its name appears as Gove, Govapurt, Gomant, &c.;
the medieval Arabian geographers knew it as Sind&bur or Sanda-
bur, and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was ruled by the
Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century a.d. to 1312, and by
Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about
1370, during which period it was visited and described by Ibn
Batuta. It was then annexed to the Hindu kingdom of
Vijayanagar, of which* according to Ferishta, it still formed part
in 1469, when it was conquered by the Bahmani sultan of the
Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers state that
it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa)
was founded.
2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without
inhabitants other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The
chief surviving buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albu¬
querque in 1511 to commemorate his entry into Goa on St
Catherine’s day 1510, and rebuilt in 1623, and still used for
public worship; the convent of St Francis (1517), a converted
mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved black stone,
which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India dating
from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St
Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a
superb example of Renaissance architecture as developed by the
Jesuits, containing the magnificent shrine and tomb of St
FrancisXavier(seeXAviE», Francisco de); and the 17th-century
convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The college of St Paul
(see below) is in ruins.
3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa originally a suburb of Old
Goa, is, like the parent city, built on the left tank of the Mandavi
estuary, in 15 0 30' N. and 73 0 33' E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is
a modem port with few pretensions to architectural beauty.
Ships of the largest size can anchor in the river, but only small
vessels can load or discharge at the quay. Panjim became the
residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the capital of Portuguese
India in 1843. It possesses a lyceura, a school for teachers, a
seminary, a technical school and an experimental agricultural
station.
Political History. —With the subdivision of the Bahmani
kingdom, after 1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil
Shah, king of Bijapur, who was its ruler when the Portuguese
first reached India. At this time Goa was important as the
starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as a mart with
no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as the
centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz,
the control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring
in the Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with
command of the sea, as the encircling rivers could only be forded
at one spot, and had been deliberately stocked with crocodiles.
It was attacked on the 10th of February 1510 by the Portuguese
under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic had foretold its downfall
and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was outnumbered,
the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque entered
it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree flowers
of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf
Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the
ford, and blockaded, the Portuguese in their ships from May to
August, when the cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put
to sea. In November Albuquerque returned with a larger force,
and after overcoming a desperate resistance, recaptured the city,
permitted his soldiers to plunder it for three days, and massacred
the entito, Mahommedan population.
Goa itu the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in
Asia. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base,
as distinct from the fortified factories which had been established
in certain Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry
native women, and to settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or
artisans. These married men soon became a privileged caste,
and Goa acquired a large Eurasian population. Albuquerque
and his successors left almost untouched the customs and con¬
stitutions of the 30 village communities on the island, only
abolishing the rite .of suttee. A register of these customs (Ford,
it usos e costumes) was published in 1526, and is an historical
document of muck value; an abstract of it is given in R. S.
Whiteway’s Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India (London,
1898).
Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the
East. It was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its
senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications
with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its
interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make
Goa the seat of a parliament, in which all parts of the Portuguese
east were to be represented ; this was vetoed by the king.
In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour
of the city ; but it readied the climax of its prosperity between
1575 and 1625. Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa, was then the
wonder of all travellers, and there was a Portuguese proverb,
“ He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon.” Merchandise from
all parts of the East was displayed in its bazaar, and separate
streets were set aside for the sale of different classes of goods—
Bahrein pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese
velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay Archi¬
pelago. In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The
houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves ;
they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of
glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set
in lattice-work.
The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters
of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church ; but
the luxury and ostentation of all classes had become a byword
before the end of the 16th century. Almost all manual labour was
done by slavesj common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles,
and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated
together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a
silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could
take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and
with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons,
licensed'by the municipality, where determined players lodged
for weeks together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness,
was practised by both sexes, although European women were
forced to lead a kind of zenana life, and never ventured unveiled
into the streets; they even attended at church in their palanquins,
so as to avoid observation.
The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by
the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded
by Dutch fleets, though never captured,, and in 1635 it was
ravaged by an epidemic. Its trade was gradually monopolized
by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in
i675describeitsever-increasingpoverty anddecay. 101683 on ty
the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it 1159m capture by
a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory was
attacked by the lime enemies, and only saved by the unexpected
arrival of a new vioiroy with a fleet. This peril was always
imminent until 1:759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was con¬
cluded. In the same year the proposal to remove the seat of
government to Panjim was carrjfsd out; it had been discussed as
early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the population dwindled
from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only inhabited by a few
priests, monks and nuns.
Ecclesiastical History— Some Dominican friars came out to
Goa in 1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken
before the arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their head¬
quarters in Goa the Franciscan preachers visited many parts of
western India, and even journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the
Malay Archipelago. For nearly twenty-five yean they carried on
GOAL^GOAT 161
the work erf evangelization almost alone, with such success that in
1*534: Pope Paul HI. made Goa a bishopric, with Spiritual jurisdic¬
tion over all Portuguese possessions between China and tlie Cape
of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the archbishopric of
Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar; Jofio de Albuquerque,
came to Goa as its first bishop 1 in 1538; In 154a St Francis
Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of
Santa Ft, for the training of native missionaries ; this was re¬
named the College of St Paul, and became the headquarters of all
Jesuit 1 missions m the East, where the Jesuits were commonly
styled Paulislas. By a Bull dated the 4th of February 1557
Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction over the sees of
Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575). Japan
1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur)
1606), Peking and Nanking (1610), together with'the bishopric of
Mozambique, which included the entire coast of East Africa. In
r606 the archbishop received the title of Primate of the East, and
the king of Portugal was named Patron of the Catholic Missions
in the East; his right of patronage was limited by the Concordat
of 1857 to Goa/ Malacca, Macao and certain parts of British India.
The Inquisition was introduced into Goa in 1560: a vivid
account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon, Relation de
Vinquisition de Goa (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils, which
dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa—in 1567,
1575, 1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided
over the more important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur,
about x* m. S.E. of Cochin), which in 1599 condemned as
heretical the tenets and liturgy of the Indian Nestorians, or
Christians of St Thomas (q.v.). In 1675 Fryer described Goa as
“ a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics,” and
Hamilton states that early in the 18th century the number of
ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary
total of 30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and by
1800 Goa had lost much even of its ecclesiastical importance.
The Inquisition was abolished in 1814 and the religious orders
were secularized in 1835.
Bibliography.—J. N. da Fonseca, An Historical and Archaeo¬
logical Sketch of Goa (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city
from the earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portu¬
guese rule the chief authorities are The Commentaries . . . of
Dalboquerque (Hakluyt Society’s translation, London, 1877), the
Cartas of Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the Historia ... da India
of F. L. de Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the
Lendas da India of G. Correa (Lisbon, i860, written 1314-1566),
and the Decaias da India of Joao de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon,
1778-1788, written about 1530-1616). Couto’s Soldado pratico
(Lisbon, 1790) and S. Botelho's Cartas and Tomho, written 1547-1554,
published in " Subsidies " of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable
studies of military life and administration. The Archive Portugese
oriental (6 parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most usefid collection
of documents dating from 1515: part 2 contains the privileges, &c.
of the city of Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiasti¬
cal councils and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has
been graphically described by many writers; see especially the
travels of Varthema (c. 1505), Linschaten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608)
in the Hakluyt Society’s translations; J. Mocquet, Voyages ( Paris,
1830, written 1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in Churchill's Voyages,
voT. 3 (London, 1732); J. Fryer, A New Account of East India
and Persia (London, 1698); A. de Mandelslo, Voyages (London,
1669); Les Voyages de M. de Thevenot aux Indes Orientates (Amster¬
dam, 1779), and A. Hamilton, A New Account of the East Indies
(London, 1.774). For Goa in the 20th century see The Imperial
Gaselteer' of India. (K. G. J!)
GOAL, originally an object set up as the place where a race
ends, the winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to
which any effort is directed. It is thus used to translate the
Lat. tneta, the boundary pillar, set one at each end of the circus
to mark the turning-point. The word was quite early used in
various games for the two posts, with or without a cross-bar,
through or over which the ball has to he driven to score a point
towards winning the game. The New English Dictionary quotes
the use in Richard Stanyhurst’s Description of Ireland (1577);
but the word gdl m die sense of a boundary appears as early as the
beginning of the 14th century in. the religious poems of William de
Shoreham (e. 13x5). The origin of the word is obscure. It is
usually taken to be derived from a French word garde, meaning a
pole or stick, but this meaning does not appear in the English
usage, nor doesthe us ttal English meaning appear in the French.
There is an 0 . Eng. gaelan, to hinder, which may point to a lost
gdl, barrier; but there is no evidence in other Teutonic languages
for such a word.
GOALPARA, a town and district of British India, in the
Brahmaputra valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam.
The town (pop. 6287) overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the
frontier outpost of the Mahommedan power, and has long been a
flourishing seat of river trade. 1 Hie civil station is buflt on the
summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent view of the
valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy
ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills.
The native town is buflt on the westem slope of the hill, and the
lower portion is subject to inundation from the marshy land
which extends in every direction. It has declined in importance
since the district headquarters were removed to Dhubri in 1879,
and it suffered severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June
1897.
The District comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated
along the Brahmaputra, at the comer where the river takes its
southerly course from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is
striking. Along the banks of the river grow dumps of cane and
reed; farther back stretch fields of rice cultivation, broken only
by the fruit trees surrounding the villages, and in the background
rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white peaks of the
Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous earth,
with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed ; that of the
plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and
occasionally severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahma¬
putra annually inundates vast tracts of country. Numerous
extensive forests yield valuable timber. Wild animals of all
kinds are found. In 1901 the population was 462,083, showing
an increase of 2 % in the decade. Rice forms the staple crop.
Mustard and jute arc also largely grown. The manufactures
consist of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and
silver ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery.
The cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish
anywhere in the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari
merchants, and is carried on at the basars, weekly hats or markets
and periodical fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute,
cotton, timber, lac, silk cloth, india-rubber and tea ; the imports,
Bengal rice, European piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and
tobacco..
Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the
district, stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its
great bend south. It is the termination o( the emigration road
from North Bengal and of the river steamers that connect with
the North Bengal railway. It is also served by the eastern
Bengal State railway.
GOAT (a common Teut. word; 0 . Eng. gdt, Goth, gaits, Mod.
Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid), properly the name of
the well-known domesticated European ruminant (1 Capra hircus),
which has for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything
that is evil, in contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol
of excellence and purity. Although the more typical goats are
markedly distinct from sheep, there is, both as regards wild and
domesticated forms, an almost complete gradation from goats
to sheep, so that it is exceedingly difficult to define either group.
The position of the genus Capra (to all the members of which,
as well as some allied species, the name “ goat ” in its wider sense
is applicable) in the family Boviddt is indicated in the article
Bovidae, and some of the distinctions between goats and sheep
are mentioned in the article Sheep. Here then it will suffice
to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and offen¬
sive odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on
the chin ; while as a general rule glands are present between the
middle toes of the fore feet only.
Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group,
of which the more typical forms are confined to Europe and
south-western and central Asia, although there are two outlying
species in northern Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is repre¬
sented in Europe in the Cyclades and Crete by rather small races,
xn. 6
162 , GOAT
more or less mingled with domesticated breeds, the Cretan
animal being distinguished as Capra hircus ercticus ; but the
large typical race C. k. aegagrus is met with in the mountains oi
Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to Sind, where it is
represented by a somewhat different race known as C. h. blythi.
The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty, and
characterised by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and
sharp front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or
bosses. Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands,
such as the Hebrides, Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and
Juan Fernandez. Some of these reverted breeds have developed
horns of considerable size, although not showing that regularity
of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the Azores the horns are
remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of “ antelope-
goat ” which has been given to these animals. The concretions
known as bezoar-stones, formerly much used in medicine and as
antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild
goat.
Although there have in all probability been more or less
important local crosses with other wild species, there can be
no doubt that domesticated goats generally are descended from
the wild goat. It is true that many tame goats show spirally
twisted horns recalling those of the under-mentioned Asiatic
markbor ; but in nearly all such instances it will be found that
the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among the domesti¬
cated breeds the following are some of the more important.
Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which
there are several more or less well-marked breeds, differing
from each other in length of hair, in colour and slightly in the
configuration of the horns. The ears are more or less upright,
sometimes horizontal, but never actually pendent, as in some
Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather flat at the base and not
unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically from the head,
curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally inclined.
The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when
pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most
European countries possess more than one description of the
common goat. In the British Isles there are two distinct types,
one short and the other long haired. In the former the hair is
thick and dose, with frequently an under-coat resembling wool.
The horns are large in the male, and of moderate size in the female,
flat at the base and inclining outwards. The head is short and
tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose small; while
the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The colour
varies from white or grey to Hack, but is frequently fawn, with
a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders.
Tile other variety has a shaggy coat, generally rcddish-black,
though sometimes grey or pied and occasionally white. The head
is long, heavy and ugly, the nose coarse and prominent, with the
horns situated dose together, often continuing parallel almost
to the extremities, being also large, corrugated and pointed.
The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal itself being gener¬
ally gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to Irdand, the
Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The short-
haired goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds,
as well as those from abroad, ire frequently ornamented with
two tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the
throat. It has been supposed by many that these are traceable
to foreign blood; but although there are foreign breeds that
possess them, they appear to pertain quite as much to the English
native breeds as to those Of distant countries, the peculiarity
being mentioned in very old works on the goats of the British
Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as well as other
kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often yield a
quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France
are similar to those of Britain, vaiying in length of hair, colour
and character of horns. The Norway breed ;is frequently white
with long hair; it js rather amah .in size, with small bones, a
short rounded body, head stroll with a prominent forehead, and
short, straight, corrugated Wans. The facial line is concave.
The horns of the males are very large, and curve round after the
manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair between and in front
The-Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down
below the jaw. Tire hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed
is usually hornless.
The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in
Lower Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Mada¬
gascar. The hair and ears are excessively long, the latter so
much so that they are sometimes clipped to prevent their being
torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The horns are somewhat erect
and spiral, with an outward bend.
The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but
is in reality quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed,
of which there are two or three varieties, is the length and
quantity of the hair, which has a particularly soft and silky
texture, covering the whole body and a great part of the legs
with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male differ from
those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape spiral,
whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat
like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair,
the one short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies
dose to the skin, the other long and curly mid of the nature of
wool, forming the outer covering. Both are used by the manu¬
facturer, but the exterior portion, which makes up by far the
greater bulk, is much the more valuable. The process of shearing
takes place in early spring, the average amount of wool yielded
Fid. t.—Male Angora Goat.
by each animal being about 2$ lb. The best quality comes
from castrated males, females producing the next best.
The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The
Angora is a bad milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh
is better than that of any other breed, and in its native country
is preferred to mutton. The kids are bom small, but grow fast,
and arrive early at maturity. The Kashmir, or rather Tibet,
goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous ears, which are
both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is coarse
and of different colnura according to the individual. The horns
are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards
and to such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is
composed, as in the Angora, of two materials; but in this
breed it is the under-coat that partakes of the nature of wool and
is valued as an article of commerce. This under-coat, or jntshm,
which is of a uniform greyish-white tint, whatever the colour
of the hair may be, is beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy
description resembling down. It makes its appearance in the
autumn, and continues to grow until the following spring, when,
if not removed, it falls off naturally; its collection then
commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal
undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all
the wool and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes
with it, is removed. The latter is afterwards carefully separated,
when the fleece in a good specimen weighs about half a pound.
This is the material of which the far-famed and costly shawls
are made, which at one time,had such a demand that, it is statedj,
46,000 looms were kept in constant work at Kashmir in their
manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head, long, thin,
ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat, are
for this .purpose deemed the best There are several varieties
GOATSUCKER.
possessing this valuable quality, but those of' Kashmir, .Tibet
and Mongolia are the most esteemed.
The Nubian goat, which is met with in* Nubia, Upper Egypt
and Abyssinia,’ differsgreatly in appearance from those previously
described. Thfe coat of’the female, is extremely short, almost
like that of a race-horse, and the legs are long. This breed
therefore stands considerably higher than the common goat.
One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the face, the
forehead being prominent and 1 the nostrils sunk in, the nose itself
extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper.
The ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side
Kc.. 2.—-Nubian Goat.
of the head like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns arc black, slightly
twisted and vety short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips,
and recumbent on the head. Among goats met with in England
a good many show signs of a more or less remote cross with this
breed, derived probably from specimens brought from the East
on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage.
The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays
the characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree,
and in the form of the head and skull is very sheep-like.
The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed,
having the same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long
legs. The horns, however, are more spiral. The colour of the
hair, which is longer than in the Nubian, is black, grey or white,
with black blotches.
Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the
coast whence its name is derived. There are three varieties,
besides the commonest Capra recurva, there is a rarer breed,
Capra depressa , inhabiting the Mauritius and the islands of
Bourbon and Madagascar. The other variety is met with along
the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various points on the
African coast of the Mediterranean.
As regards wild goats other than the representatives of Capra•
hircus, themembers of the ibex-group are noticed under Ibex,.
while another distinctive type receives mention under M arkhor.
The ibex are connected with the wild goat by means of Capra
nubiana, in which the front edge of the homs is thinner than in
cither the European C. ibex or the Asiatic C. sibirica ; while
the'Spanish C. pyremica shows how the ibex-type of hom may
pass into the spirally twisted one 1 distinctive of the markhor,
C . faleoneri. In the article Ibex mention is made of the Caucasus
ibex, or tur, C. caucasiea, as an aberrant member of that group;
but beside this aninial the Caucasus is the home of another very
remarkable goat, or tur, known as C. paUasi. In this ruminant,
which is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black
horns diverge outwards in a manner resembling those of the
bharal 1 among the sheep rather than in goat-fashion ; and, in
fact, this tur, which has only, a very short beard, is so bharal-like
that it is commonly called by sportsmen the Caucasian bharal.
1 %
It is one of the«pecie6 Which render it so difficult, to give a precise
definition of either sheep, or goats.
The short-homed Asiatic goats of the genus Hemitragus
receive mention in> the .article Tab* ; but it may be added that
fossil species of the same genus are'known, from, the Lower
Pliocene formations of ‘India, which have also yielded remains
of a goat allied to the mArkhor of the Himalayas. The,Rocky
Mountain goat (q.v.) of Amcriaa has notclaim to be regarded as a
member of 1 the goat-group. , .
For full descriptions‘of the various 'wild species, see ft. Lydekker,
Wild Oxen,Sheep, and Goals (London, 1898), (R. L.*)
GOATfiUOKKR, a bird from very ancient limes absurdly
believed to have the habit implied by the common name it bears
in many European tongues besides English—as testified by
the Gr. atyoftJAas, the Lat. eaprimulgus, Ital. suceiaeapre,
Span, chotaeabras, Fr. leUechevre, and Ger. Zeigenmelker.
The common goatsucker (Caprinudgus europaeus, Linn.), is
admittedly the type of a 1 very peculiar and distinct family,
Caprimulgidae, a group remarkable for the flat head, enormously
widemouth,large eyes,and soft,pencilled plumage of its members,
which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position has-been,
variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously
removed from the Passtres, in which Linnaeus placed all the
species known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two
other’ families—the swifts ( Cypitlidae ) and humming-birds
(Troehiltdae )—the division 'Qypselotnorphae of his larger group
Aegithngnathae, which is equivalent in the main to the Linnaean
Passeres. There are two ways of regarding the Caprimulgidae—
one including the genus Podargus and its allies, the other recogniz¬
ing them as a distinct family, Podargiiae. As a matter of
convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the Capri-
mulgidae, which will then contain two subfamilies, Caprimulginae
and Podarginae ; for what, according to older authors, constitutes
a third, though represented only by Stealomis, the singular
oil-bird, or guacharo, certainly seems to require separation os an
independent family (see Guacharo).
Some of the differences between the Caprimulginae and
Podarginae have been pointed out by Sclater (Free. Zool. Soc.,
1866, p. 123), and are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes
have four phalanges only, thus presenting a very uncommon
character among birds, and the middle claws are pectinated j
while in the latter'the normal number of five phalanges is found,
Common Goatsucker.
and the claws are smooth, and other distinctions more recondite
have also been indicated by him {tom. cit. p. 582). The Capri-
mdginae may be further-divided into those having the gape
thickly beset by strong bristles, .and those in which there are few
such bristles or none—the former containing the genera Capri-
mulgus, Antrostomus, Nyctidromus and others, and ‘tie latter
Podargus, Chardiles, Lymeomis and a few more.
The common goatsucker of Europe (C. europaitu) arrives
late in spring from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence
is spon made known by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting
chiefly of moths and cockchafers, in the evening-twi light . As
16* GOATSUCKER
the season advances the song «f the cock, from its singularity,
attracts attention amid all rural sounds. This song seems to be
always uttered when the bird is at rest, though the contrary has
been asserted, and is the continuous repetition of a single burring
note, as of a thin lath fined at one end and in a state of vibration
at the other, and loud enough to reach in still weather a distance
of half-a-mile or more. -On the wing, while toying with its mate,
or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where it
finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another
and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but some¬
what resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air,
though whether this noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascer¬
tained. In general its flight is silent, but at times when disturbed
from its repose, its wings may be heard to smite together. The
goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner English name,
nightjar, 1 passes the dov in slumber, crouching on the ground
or perching on a tree—m the latter case sitting not across the
branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In
hot weather, however, itt song may sometimes be heard by day
and even at noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily,
and without the vigour that characterises its crepuscular or
nocturnal performance. Towards evening the bird becomes
active, and it seems to pursue its prey throughout the night
uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a few seconds
to alight on a bare spot—a pathway or road—and then resuming
its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no
nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground,
generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the
soil. So light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is
some vegetable growth, produces no visible depression of the
grass, moss or lichens on which the eggs rest, and the finest
sand equally fails to exhibit a trace of the parental act. Yet
scarcely any bird shows greater local attachment, and the
precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be occupied
the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted
down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered
on becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles
that of the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and
black, blended and mottled in a manner that passes description.
They soon attain their full size and power of flight, and then take
to the same manner of life as their parents. In autumn all
leave their summer haunts for the south, but the exact time of
their departure has hardly been ascertained. The habits of the
nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less essentially
those of the whole subfamily—the differences observable being
apparently less than are found in other groups of birds of similar
extent,
A second species of goatsucker (C. ruficoUis), which is some¬
what larger, and has.the neck distinctly marled with rufous,
is a summer visitanttothe south-western parts of Europe, and
especially to $pain tod “Portugal. The occurrence of a single
example of tins bird at Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tvne,
in October 1856, has been recorded by Mr Hancock (Ibis, 1862,
p. 39); bif8 tire season of its appearance argues the probability of
its being but a casual straggler from its proper home. Many other
species of Caprimulgus inhabit Africa, Asia and their islands,
while one (C. macrurus) is found in Australia. Very nearly allied
to this genus is AntrosUmus, an American group containing
many species, of which the chuck-willVwidow (. 4 . carolmensis)
and the whip-poor-will (A. voeijerus) of the eastern United States
(the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples. Both
these birds take their common name from the cry they utter,
and their habits seem to be almost identical with those of the
Old world goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which
need not here be mentioned, the genus Nyctidromus, though
consisting of only one species (N. albicollis) which inhabits
Centtkl and part of South America, requires remark, since it has
tarsi Of sufficient length to enable it to run swiftly on the ground,
while the legs of most birds of the family are so short that they can
1 Other Engiishriames of <*> bird are evejar, fern-owl, chum-owl
and wheel-bird—me last fronf'the bird’s song resembling the noise
made by a spintfhdf-whee 1 in motion.
make, but a shuffling progress. HilMfhreples, with the Unique,
form of wing possessed by the male, needs mention. Notice
must also be taken of two, African species, referred by some
ornithologists to 'as many genera (Macrodipteryx and Cos-
meiornis), though probably one genus would .suffice for both.
The males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful
development of the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches
in fully adult specimens the extraordinary length of 17 in. or
more. The former of these birds, the Caprimulgus macrodipterus
of Adam Afzelius, .is considered to belong to the west coast of
Africa, and the shaft of the elongated remiges is bare for the
greater part of its length, retaining the web, in a spatuiate form,
only near the tip. The latter, to which the specific name of
vexillarius was given by John Gould, has been found on the
east coast of thU continent, and is reported to have occurred in
Madagascar am? Socotra. In this the jemigial streamers do
not lose their barbs, and as a few pf the nejet quills are also to
some extent elongated, the bird, when dying, is said to look as
though it had four wings. Specimens of both are rare in collec¬
tions, and no traveller seems to have had the opportunity of
studying the habits of either so as to suggest a reason for this
marvellous sexual development.
The second group of Caprimulginoe, those which are but
poorly or not at all fumiJhed with rictal bristles, contains about
five genera, of which we may particularize _Lyncornis of the old
world and Chordiles of the new,, The species of the former are
remarkable for the tuft of feathers which springs from each side
of the head, above and behind the ears, so as to give the bird an
appearance like some of the “ homed ’’ owls—those of the genus
Scops, for example; and remarkable as it is to find certain forms
of two families, so distinct as are the Strigidae and the Capri-
mulgidae, resembling each other in this singular external feature,
it is yet more remarkable to note that in some groups of the
latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind of dimorphism
takes place. In either case this has been frequently asserted
to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be entertained.
Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in some groups
of owls, individuals of the same species are found in plumage of
two entirely different hues—rufous and grey. The only explana¬
tion as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is sexual,
but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not, however,
be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of
the existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close
relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to
the same causes, concerning which future observers may possibly
enlighten us, but at present we must regard them as analogies,
not homologies. The species of Lyncornis inhabit the Malay
Archipelago, one, however, occurring also in China. Of Chordiles
the best-known species is the night-hawk of North America
(C. virginianus or C. popetue), which has a wide range from
Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in South
America. The general habits of all these birds agree with those
of the typical goatsuckers.
We have next to consider the birds forming the genus Podargus
and those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct
family, or as a subfamily of Caprimulgidae. As above stated,
they have feet constructed as those of birds normally are, and
their sternum seems to present the constant though compara¬
tively trivial difference of having its posterior margin elongated
into two pairs of processes, while only one pair is found in the
true goatsuckers. Podargus includes the bird (P. cuvieri) known
from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians, 2 and several other
species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia and
New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it
would seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they
mainly subsist on insects, chiefly Cicadae and Phasmidae. They
also differ from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes
partially reversible, and they build a flat nest on the horizontal
branch of a tree for the reception of their eggs, which are of a
■spotless white. Apparently allied to Podargus, but differing
» In New Zealand, however, this name is given to an ow! {Sceloglaux
nmae-ulaniiat).
GOBAX^r-^GOBI i* 5
among other respects in its mode of nidification, is Aegotkeles,
which belongs also to the Australian sub-region; and farther
to the northward, extending throughout the Malay Archipelago
and into India, comes Batrachostomus, wherein we again meet
with species having aural tufts somewhat like Lyncomis. /The
Podarpnae are thought by some to be represented in the ;new
world by the genus Nyctibius, of which several species occur
from the Antilles and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may
be stated that none of the Caprimulgidae seem to occur in
Polynesia or in New Zealand, though there is scarcely any other
part of the world suited to their habits in which members of the
family are not found. (A. N.)
GOBAT, SAMUEL (1799-1879), bishop of Jerusalem, was bom
at Crimine, Bern, Switzerland, on the 26th of January 1799.
After serving in the mission house at Basel from 1823 to 1826,
he went to Paris and London, whence, having acquired some
knowledge of Arabic and Ethiopic, he went out to Abyssinia
under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. The
unsettled state of the country and his own ill-health prevented
his making much headway ; he returned to Europe in 1835 and
from 1839 to 1842 lived in Malta, where he supervised an Arabic
translation of the Bible. In 1846 he was consecrated Protestant
bishop of Jerusalem, under the agreement between the British
and Prussian governments (1841) for the establishment of a
joint bishopric for Lutherans and Anglicans in the Holy Land.
He carried on a vigorous mission as bishop for over thirty years,
his diocesan school and orphanage on Mount /.ion being specially
noteworthy. He died on the nth of May 1879.
.V record of his life, largely autobiographical, was published at
Basel in 1884, and an English translation at London in the same year.
GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1727-1794), French
ecclesiastic and politician, was bom at Thann, in Alsace, on the
1st of September 1727. He studied theology in the German
College at Rome, and then became successively a member of
the chapter of Porrentruy, bishop in partibus of Lydda, and
finally suffragan of Basel for that part of the diocese situated
in French territory. His political life began when he was elected
deputy to the states-general of 1789 by the clergy of the baiUiaf’c
of Huningue. The turning-point of his life was his action in
taking the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy (Jan. 3rd,
1791); in favour of which he had declared himself since the 5th
of May 1790. The civil constitution of the clergy gave the
appointment of priests to the electoral assemblies, and since
taking the oath Gobel had become so popular that he was elected
bishop in several dioceses. He chose Paris, and in spite of the
difficulties which he had to encounter before he could enter into
possession, was consecrated on the 27th of March 1791 by eight
bishops, including Talleyrand. On the 8th of November 1792,
Gobel was appointed administrator of Paris. He was careful
to flatter the politicians by professing anti-clerical opinions,
declaring himself, among other things, opposed to the celibacy
of the clergy; and on the 17th Brumaire in the year II. (7th
, November 1793), he came before the bar of the Convention, and,
in a famous scene, resigned his episcopal functions, proclaiming
that he did so for love of the people, and through respect for
their wishes. The followers of Hubert, who were then pursuing
their anti-Christian policy, claimed Gobel as one of themselves;
while, on the other hand, Robespierre looked upon him as an
atheist, though apostasy cannot strictly speaking be laid to the
charge of the ex-bishop, nor did he ever make any actual pro¬
fession of atheism. Robespierre, however, found him an obstacle
to his religious schemes, and involved him in the fate of the
Hibertists. Gobel was condemned to death, with Chaumettc,
Hebert and Anacharsis Cloots, and was guillotined on the 12 th
of April 1704. •
Sue E. Charavay, Assemblie llectorale de Paris (Paris, 1890) ;
H. Mown, La Chanson et I'Egtise soils la Revolution (Paris, 1892) ;
A. Aulard, " La Culte de la raison ” in the review, La Rivolution
Franqaisc (1891). For a bibliography of documents relating to
his episcopate see ,Episcopal de Gobel” in vol. iii. (1900) of
M. Toumeux's Bibliograpkie de Vhisloire de Paris pendant la Rtv. Fr.
GOBELIN, the name of a family of dyers, who in all probability
came originally from Reims, and who in the middle of the 15th
century established themselves .in the Faubourg Saint Marcel,
Paris,on the;banksof the Bi&vre. The first head-of the firm
was named Jehan (d. 1476). He discovered a peculiar kind -of
scarlet dyestuff, : and he ./expended so much money on his
establishment that it was named by the common people la falir
Gobelin. To thedy e-works there was added in the 16th century
a manufactory of tapestry (?.».). So rapidly did the wealth
of the family increase,, that in the third or fourth generation
some of them forsook their trade and purchased titles of nobility.
More than one of their number held offices of state, among
others Balthasar, who became successively treasurer general of
artillery, treasurer extraordinary of war, councillor secretary of
the king, chancellor of the exchequer, councillor of state and
president of the chamber of accounts, and who in 1601 received
from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomte-Robert.
He died in 1603. The name of the Gobelins as dyezs cannot be
found later than the end of the 17th century. In '1662 the works
in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were
purchased by Colbert on behalf of Louis XIV., and transformed
into a general upholstery manufactory, in which designs both
in tapestry and in all kinds of furniture were executed under the
superintendence of the royal painter, Le Brun. On account of
the pecuniary embarrassments of Louis XIV., the establishment
was closed in 1694, but it was reopened in r697 for the manu¬
facture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and for presentation.
During the Revolution and the reign of Napoleon the manufacture
was suspended, but it was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826
the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In
1871 the building was partly burned by the Communists. The
manufacture is still carried on under the state.
See Lacordaire, Notice historique sur les manufactures impiriales
de tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, prtcidie au cata¬
logue des tapisseries qui y sont exposts (Paris, 1853) • . Genspach,
Repertoire attaint des tapisseries extcutles aux Gobelins, ibbg-iSyx
(Paris, 1893) I Guiflrey, Histoire de la tapisserie en France (Pans,
1878-1883). The two last-named authors were directors ol the
manufactory.
GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are Sea-mo,
“ sand desert,” and Han-hat, ” dry sea ”), a term which in its
Widest significance means the long stretch of desert country that
extends from the foot of the Pamirs, in about 77 0 E., eastward
to the Great Khingan Mountains, in n6°-ii,8 0 E.,on the border
of Manchuria, and from the foothills of the Altai, the Sayan
and the Yablonoi Mountains on the N. to the Astin-tagh or
Altyn-tagh and. the Nan-shan, the northernmost constituent
ranges of the Kuen-lun Mountains, on the south. By conven¬
tional usage a relatively small area on the east side of the Great
Khingan, between the upper waters of the Sungari and the upper
waters of the Liao-ho, is also reckoned to belong to the Gohi.
On the other hand, geographers and Asiatic explorers prefer to
regard the W. extremity of the Gobi region (as defined above),
namely, the basin of the Tarim in E. Turkestan, as forming a
separate and independent desert, to which they have given the
name of Takla-makan. The latter restriction governs the present
article, which accordingly excludes the Takla-makan, leaving it
for separate treatment. The desert of Gobi as. a whole is only
very imperfectly known, information being confined to the
observations which individual travellers have made from their
respective itineraries across the desert. Amongst the explorers
to whom we owe such knowledge as we possess about the Gobi,
the most important have been Marco Polo (1273-1275), Gerbillon
(1688-1698), Ijsbrand Ides (1692-1694), Lange (1727-1728 and
*736), Fuss and Bunge (1830-1831), Fritsche (1868-1873),
Pavlinov and Matusovski (1870), Ney Elias (1872-1873), N. M.
Przhevalsky (1870-1872 jand 1876-1877), Zosnovsky (1875),
M. V. Pjevtsov (1878), (}. ,N. Potanin (1877 and 1884-1886),
Count Sz6chenyi and L. von Loczy (1879-1880),'the brothers
Grum-Grzhimailo (1889-1890), P. K. Kozlov (1893-1894 and
1899-1990), V. I, Roborovsky (1894), V. A. Ooruchev (1S94-
1896), Futtarer and Holderer (1896), C. E. Bonin (1896 and 1899),
; Sven Hedin (1897 and 1900-1901), K. Bogdanovich (1898),
Ladyghin (i899-t9oo)afid Katsnakov (1899-1900).
Geographically the Gobi (a Mongol word meaning “ desert ”)
<*66
GOBI
is the deeper part of the gigantic depression which fills the
interior of the lower terrace .of the vast Mongolian plateau, and
•measures over 1000 >m. from S.W. to N.E. and 450 to 600 m.
■Irom'N. to S., being widest in the west, along the line joining
the Baghrash-kol and the Lop-nor E.). Owing to the
immense area covered, and the piecemeal character of the
information, no general description can be made applicable to
the whole of the Gobi. • It will be more convenient, therefore, to
describe its principal distinctive sections seriatim, beginning in
the west.
Ghashism-Gohi tntl Kuruk-tagh. —The Yulchiz valley or valley of
the Khaidyk-goi <8j°-8o 0 E., 43 0 N.) is enclosed .by two prominent
members of the Tjan-slian system, namely the Cbol-tagh and the
Kuruk-togh, running parallel and close to one another. As they pro¬
ceed eastward they diverge, sweeping back on N, and S. respectively
so as to leave room for the Baghrash-kol. These two ranges mark
the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling,
which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. . On
its northern side the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed
by a string of deep depressions, ranging from T.ukchun (425 ft. below
the level of the sea) to Hami (s8oo ft. above sea-level). Tothe south
of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop, the desert of Kum-tagh, and
the valley,of the Buluuzir-goi. To this great swelling, which arches
up between tire two border-ranges of tire Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh,
the Mongols give the name of Ghasliiun-Cobi or Salt Desert. It is
some 80 to roo m. across from N. to S,, and is traversed by a number
of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills,,and down its
middle runs a broad stony valley, 25 to 30 m. wide, at, an elevation of
3000 to 4500 ft. The Chol-ta.Rli, which reaches an average altitude
of 6000 it., is absolutely sterile, and its northern, foot rests upon a
narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions
mentioned above.
The Kuruk-tagh is the-greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted
relic of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably
greater magnitude. In the west, between Baghrash-kol and the
Tarim, it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which,
although broken in continuity, run generally parallel-to one another,
and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights.
These minor, ranges, together with tbc .principal ranges, divide sthe
region into a series of lorig, narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one
another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like
terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun
and on the other towards the desert of. Lop. In many caw these
latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs,
•generally elevations en masse of the bottom of the valley. Where
such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the E. side of, the
transverse ridge, a cauldron-shaped depression, which some time
or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly .a
dry sattt-basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly
similar to that which occurs |in the inter-mont latitudinal vaUcys of
the K uen 'lun. The hydrography of the Ghashiun-Gabi and,the
Kuruk-tagh is determined by these chequered arrangements of the
latitudinal valleys. Mast of the principal streams, instead of flowing
straight rdown these valleys, cross.them diagonally and only turn
west, after they have cut their way through one or more of the trans¬
verse barrier ranges. 1 To the highest range on the great swelling
Grum-Grzhimailo gives the name of Tuge-tau, its altitude being
0000 it. above the level of the sea and some 4000 ft. above the crown
of the swelling itself. Tins range he considers to belong to the Chol-
tagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would assign it .to the Kuruk-tagh.
This last, which is pretty certainly identical wiih the range of Khara-
teken-ula (also known as the Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Sihgher
Mountains), that overlooks'the southern shore of the Baghrash-kol,
though parted from it by the drift-sand desert,of Ak-bd-kum (White
Pass Sands), has at first a,W,N.W.. to E.S.E. strike, but it gradually
curves round like a scimitar towards the E.N.E, and at the same
time gradually decreases in elevation. In 01° E„ while the principal
range of the Kuruk-tagh system-wheels to the E.N.E., four of its
subsidiary ranges .tnmirnate, orrather ;die away somewhat.suddenly,
on, the brink of a .long narrow depression (in. which Sven Hedin sees
a N.E. bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having
over against them the echeloned terminals of similar subordinate
ranges of the Pe-shan (Bey-san) system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh
is throughont a relatively low, hut almost completely barren range,
being entirely destitute of animal life, save fur hares, antelopes and
wild camels, rybich frequent jts few small, widely .scattered oases.
The vegetation, Which is confined to these same relatively, favoured
-•pots, is of the scantiest and-ts mainly confined to bushes of saxaul
{Anabasis A mmodendron) , rqnds (kamiih), tamarisks, poplars,
KoHdutm and Ephedra.
Desert of Lop .—This section ,of the Gpbi extends south-eastward
from fee foot of the Kuruk-tagh as far as, the present terminal basin
of the Thrira, -namely Kara-koshun (Prshevahky's Lop*nor), and is an
almost perfectly horizontal expanse, for, -while -the i Baghrash-kol
in the N, lies at gn altitude Qf,ysioft.( fee Kara-koshan, over zoom.
1 Cf. G. E. Grum-Grfe hnailn, •Opisaniye Puleshtshiya, 1 . 381-417
to the b., is only 300 ft. lower. The characteristic features of this
almost dead level or but slightly undulating region,are: (i.),broad,
unbroken expanse! of clay intermingled wife.sand, the clay (shot)
being indurated and saliferous and often arranged in terraces;, (ii.)
hard, level, day expanses, more of less thickly sprinkled with fine
gravel (say), the clay being mostly of a yellow or yellow-grey colour ;
j fiii.) benches, flattened ridges and tabular masses .of consolidated
clay {jardangs), arranged in distinctly'defined laminae, three stories
; being sometimes superimposed one upon die other, and their vertical
faces being abraded, and often undercut, by the wind, while the
formations themselves are separated by parallel gullies or wind-
furrows, 6 .to so ft. deep, all sculptured in the direction of the pre¬
vailing wind, that is, from N.E. to S.W.; and (iv.) the absence of
drift-sand and sand-dunes, except in the south, towards the, out¬
lying foothills of the Astin-tagh. Perhaps the most striking character¬
istic, after the jardangs or clay terraces, is the factrthat the whole
of this region is not only swept bare of sand by the terrific sand¬
storms ( Uurans) of the spring months, the particles of sand with
which fee wind is laden acting like a sand-blast, but the actual
substantive materials of the desert itself are abraded, filed, eroded
and carried bodily away into the network of lakes in which the Tarim
loses itself, or axe even blown across the lower, constantly shifting
watercourses of that river and deposited on or among the gigantic
dunes which choke the eastern end of the desert of Takla-makan,
Numerous,indications, such as salt-stained depressions of a lacustrine
appearance, traces of former laenstrine shore-lines, more or less
parallel ana concentric, the presence in places of vast quantities of
fresh-water mollusc shells (species of Lmnaea and Plauorbis), the
existence of baits of dead poplars, patches of dead .tamarisks and
extensive beds of withered reeds, all these always on top of the
jardangs, never in the wind-etched furrows, together with a few
scrubby poplars and Elaeagnus, still struggling hard not to die. the
presence of ripple marks of aqueous origin on the leeward sides of the
clay terraces and in other wind-sheltered situations, all testify to
the former existence in this region of more or less extensive fresh¬
water lakes, now of course completely desiccated. During the
prevalence of the spring storms the atmosphere that overhangs
. the immediate surface Of the desert is SO heavily charged bfith dust
as to be a veritable pall of desolation. Except for fee wild camel
which frequents the reed oases on the N. edge of fee desert, animal
life is even less abundant than in the Ghashiun-Gobi, and the same
is true as regards the vegetation.
Desert of,kum-tagh.~ This section lies E.S.E. of the desert of Lop,
on the other side of the Kara-koshun and its more or less temporary
continuations, and reaches north-eastwards as far as the vicinity of
the town of Sa-chow and the lake of Kara-nor or Kala-chi. Its
southern-rim is marked by a labyrinth of hills, dotted in groups and
irregular clusters, but evidently survivals of two parallel ranges
which are now worn down as it were to mere fragments of their
former skeletal structure. , Between these and the Astin-tagh inter¬
venes a broad latitudinal valley, seamed with watercourses which
come down from the foothills of the Astin-tagh and beside which
scrubby desert plants of the usual oharacter maintain a .precarious
existence, water reaching them in some instances at intervals of years
only. This part of fee desert has agencral slope N.W. towards tbc
relative depression of the Kara-koshun. A noticeable feature of the
Kum-tagh is the presence of large accumulations Of drift-sand,
especially along the foot of the crumbling desert ranges, where it
rises into dunes sometimes as much as 250 it. in height and climbs
half-way up the flanks of ranges themselves. The prevailing wiuds
in tills region would appear to blow from the W. and N.W, during
the summer, winter and autumn,' though in spring, when they certainly
are more violent, they no doubt come frqm the N.E., as in the desert
of Lop. Anyway, the arrangement, of the sand here " agrees per¬
fectly wife the law laid down by, Potanin, feat in the basins of Central
Asia the sand is heaped up in greater mass on the south, all along
the bordering mountain ranges where the floor of the depressions
lies at Ithe highest level.” J The country to the north, of the desert
• ranges is thus summarily described by-Sven Hedin: 11 "The first rone
of drift-sand is succeeded by a region which exhibits proofs of. wind¬
modelling on an extraordinarily energetic and well-developed Scale,
the results corresponding to'the jardangs and the wind-eroded
gullies of 1 the desert of Lop. Both sets of phenomena lie parallel
to oeeanother; from this we may infer that the winds,which prevail
in fee, two .deserts are the samp. Next comes, sharply demarcated
from the zone just described, a. more or less thin kamish steppe
growing on level ground ; and this itt turn is followed by another very
narrow belt of sand, immediately south of Achlk-kuduk. . . .
Finally in the extreme north we have the characteristic and sharply
defined belt of kamish steppe, stretching from E.N.E. to W<S.W.
, and bounded on N. and S. by high, sharp-cut clay terraces. . . .
At the points where we. measured them the northern terrace was
11,3 ft. high and the southern gsj ft... . . Both terraces belong to
the same level, and would appear, to correspond to the shore lines of a
t>ig bay of, fee last surviving remnant of fee Central Asian Mediter¬
ranean. At fee point, where I crossed it fee depression was 6 to 7m.
wide , a nd thus resembled a fl at valley or immense river-bed.'”
k Q uo ted in Sven Hedhi^Scientific Results, ii. 499,
* Op. cit. ii. 499-300.
GOBI
Desert of Hami and the Pe-skan Mountains. —This section occupies
the space between the Tian-shan system on the N. and the Nan-shan
Mountains on the S., and is connected on the W. with the desert of
Lop. The classic account is that of Przhevalsky, who crossed the
desert from Hami (or Khami) to Su-chow (not Sa-chow) in the summer
of 1879. In the middle this desert rises into a vast swelling, 80 m.
across, which reaches an average elevation of 5000 ft. and a maximum
devotion of 5500 ft. On its northern and southern borders it is
overtopped by two divisions of the Bey-san («= Pe-shan) Mountains,
neither of which attains any great relative altitnde. Between the
northern division and the Karlyk-tagh range or E. Tian-shan
intervenes a somewhat undulating barren plain, 3900 ft. in altitude
and 40 m. from N. to S., sloping downwards from both N. and S.
towards the middle, where lies the oasis of Hami (2800 ft.). Similarly
from the southern division of the Bey-san a second plain slopes down
for 1000 ft. to the valley of the river Bulunzir or Su-lai-ho, which
comes out of China, from the south side of the Great Wall, and finally
empties itself into the lake of Kalachi or Kara-nor. From the
Bulunzir the same plain continues southwards at a level of 3700 ft.
to the foot of the Nan-shan Mountains. The total breadth of the
desert from N. to S. is here 200 m. Its general character is that of an
undulating plain, clotted over with occasional elevations of clay,
which present the appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and
broken towers ( jardangs) , the surface of the plain being strewn with
gravel and absolutely destitute of vegetation. Generally speaking,
the Bey-san ranges consist of isolated hills or groups of hills, of low
relative elevation (100 to 300 ft.), scattered without any regard to
order over the arch of the swelling. They nowhere rise into well-
defined peaks. Their axis runs from W.S.W. to E.N.E. But whereas
Przhevalsky and Sven Hedin consider them to be a continuation of
the Kuruk-tagh, though the latter regards them as separated from
the Kuruk-tagh by a well-marked bay of the former Central Asian
Mediterranean (Lop-uor), Futterer declares they are a continuation
of the Chol-tagh. The swelling or undulating plain between these
two ranges of the Bey-san measures about 70 m. across and is
traversed by several stretches of high ground having generally an
east-west direction. 1 Futterer, who crossed the same desert twenty
years after Przhevalsky, agrees generally in his description of it.
but supplements the account of the latter explorer with several
particulars. He observes that the ranges in this part of the Gobi
are much worn down and wasted, like the Kuruk-tagh farther west
and the tablelands of S.E. Mongolia farther east, through the effects
of century-long Insolation, wind erosion, great and sudden changes
of temperature, chemical action and occasional water erosion.
Vast areas towards the N. consist of expanses of gently sloping (at
a mean slope of 3°) clay, intermingled with gravel. He points out
also that the greatest accumulations of sand and other products of
aerial denudation do not occur in the deepest parts of tin- depressions
but at the outlets of the valleys and glens, and along the foot of the
ranges which flank the depressions on the S. Wherever water has
been, desert scrub is found, such as tamarisks, Dodartia ortentalis ,
Agriophyllum gobicum, Calligonium sinner, and I.ycium ruthenicum,
but all with their roots elevated on little mounds in the same way
as the tamarisks grow in the Takla-makan and desert of Lop.
Farther east, towards central Mongolia, the relations, says Futterer,
are the same as along the Hami-Su-chow route, except that the ranges
have lower and broader crests, and the detached hills are more
denuded and more disintegrated. Between the ranges occur broad,
flat, cauldron-shaped valleys and basins, almost destitute of life
except for a few hares and a few birds, such as the crow and the
pheasant, and with scanty vegetation, but no great accumulations
of drift-sand. The rocks are severely weathered on the surface, a
thick layer of the coarser products of denudation covers the flat parts
and climbs a good way up the flanks of the mountain ranges, but all
the finer material, sand and clay has been blown away partly S.E. into
Ordos, partly into the Chinese provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, where
it is deposited as loess, and partly W., where it chokes all the southern
parts of the basin of the Tarim. In these central parts of the Gobi,
as indeed in all other parts except the desert of I -op and Ordos, the
prevailing winds blow from the W. and N.W. These winds are warm
in summer, and it is they which in the desert of Hami bring the fierce
sandstorms or burans. The wind does blow also from the N.E., bnt
it is then cold and often brings snow, though it speedily clears the
air of the everlasting dust haze. In summer great heat is encountered
here on the relatively low (3000-4600 ft.), gravelly expanses ( say )
on the N. and on those of the S. (4000-3000 ft.) ; but on the higher
swelling between, which in the Pe-shan ranges ascends to 7330 ft.,
there is great cold even in summer, and a wide daily range of tempera¬
ture. Above the broad and deep accumulations of the products of
denudatiou which have been brought down by the rivers from the
Tian-shan ranges (e.g. the Karlyk-tagh) on the N. and from the Nan-
shan on the S., and have filled up the cauldron-shaped valleys, there
rises a broad swelling, built up of granitic rocks, crystalline schists
pnd metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of both Archaic and Palaeo¬
zoic age, all greatly folded and tilted up, and shot through with
numerous irruptions of volcanic rocks, predominantly porphyritic
and di oritic. On this swelling rise four more or less parallel mountain
1 Przhevalsky, Is Zayana cheres Hami v Tibet na Verskovya
Skoltoy Reki, pp. 84-91,
l6y
ranges of -the Pe-shan system, together with a fifth chain of hills
farther S., all having a Strike ftom W.N.W. to E.N.E. The range
farthest N.'rises to rOOO ft. above the desert and 7330 ft. above
seg-level, the next “two ranges reach 1300 ft. above the general level
of the desert, add the range farthest south 1473 ft. or an absolute
altitude of 7200 ft., while the fifth chain of hflls does not exceed
650 ft. in relative elevation. All these ranges decrease in altitude
from W. to E. In the depressions Which border the Pe-shan swelling
on N. and S. are found toe sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary
sea of the Han-hai; but no traces of those deposits have been found
on the swelling itself at altitudes of 3600 to 3700 ft. Hence, Futterer
infers, in recent geological times ne large sea has occupied the central
part of the Gobi. . Beyond an occasional visit from a band Of nomad
Mongols, this region of the Pe-shan swelling is entirely uninhabited *
And yet it was from this very region, avers G. E. Grntn-Grzhlmailo,
that the Yue-chi, a nomad race akin to the Tfhetatta, proceeded
when, towards the middle of the 2nd century s.d., they moved
westwards and settled near Lake Issyk-kul; and from here proceeded
also the Shanshani, or people who some two thousand years ago
founded the state of Shanshan or Lou-lan, ruins of the chief town of
which Sven Hedin discovered in the desert of Lop in 1901. Here,
says the Russian explorer, the Huns gathered strength, as also did
the Tukiu (Turks) in the 6th century, and the Uighur tribes and the
rulers of the Tangut kingdom. But after Jenghiz Khan in the rzth
century drew away the peoples of this region, and no others came
to take their place, the country went out of cultivation and eventu¬
ally became the barren desert it now is. 8
Ala-shan. —This division of the great desert, known also as the
Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great N.
loop of the HwaOg-ho or Yellow river on the E., the Edzm-gol on
the W., and theNan-shan Mountains on the S.W., where it is separated
from tile Chinese province of Kan-suh by the narrow rocky chain
of I.ung-shan (Ala-shan), 10,300 to 11,6O0 ft. in altitude. It belongs
to the middle basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin
divides the Gobi as a whole. " Topographically,” says Przhevalsky,
" it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the
bed of a huge lake or inland Bca. “ The data upon which he bases this
conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saline
clay and the sand-strewn surface, and lastly the salt lakes which
occupy Its lowest parts. For hundreds of miles there is nothing to he
seen bnt bare sands; in some places they continue so far without
a break that the Mongols call them Tyngheri («.«. sky). These vast
expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the un¬
broken stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast
areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren
shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general
altitude of 3300 to 5000 ft., this section, like most other parts of the
Gobi, is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges
going up 1000 ft. higher. The vegetation is confined to a few
varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses, the most conspicuous
being saxaul and Agriophyllum gobteum* (a grass). The others
include prickly convolvulus, field wormwood, acacia, Inula ammo-
phila, Sopkora ftavescens, Cmwobmlus Ammani, Peganum and
Astragalus, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna
consists of little else except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedge¬
hog, marten, numerous lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sand-
grouse, lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane, Podoces Hendersons, Otocorys
albigula and Galerita cristate ." The only human inhabitants oi
Ala-shan are the Torgod Mongols. *
Ordos. —East of the desert of Ala-shan, and only separated from
it by the Hwang-ho, is the desert of Ordos or Ho-tau, " a level
steppe, partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy
or a mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The
absolute height of this country is between 3000 and 3300 ft., so that
Ordos forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the
Gobi, separated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on
the N. and E. of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river." 8 Towards the
south Ordos rises to an altitude of over 5000 ft., and to the W., along
the right bank of the Hwang-ho, the Arbus or Arbiso Mountains,
which overtop the steppe by some 3000 ft., serve to link the Ala-shan
Mountains with the In-shan.- The northern part of the great loop
of the river is filled with the sands of Kuzupchi, a succession of dunes,
40 to 50 ft. high. Amongst them in scattered patches grow the shrub
Hedysarum and the trees Calligonium Tragopymm and Pugionium
comutum. In some places these sand-dunes approach close to the
great river, in others they are parted from it by a belt of sand,
intermingled with clay, which terminates in a steep escarpment,
30 ft. and in some localities too ft. above the river. This belt is
studded with little mounds (7 to 10 ft. high), mostly overgrown with
wormwood {Artemisia campestris ) and the Siberian pea-tree (Cara-
gana) ; and here too grows one of the most characteristic plants
of Ordos, the liquorice root {Gtycyrrkiza uralensit). Eventually
a Futterer, Durck Asian, i. pp. 206-211. .
8 G. E. Gruzn-Grzhimailo, Opisanie Puteskestviya v Saptdniy
Kitai, li. p. 127.
4 Its seeds are pounded by the Mongols to Soar and mixed with
their tea.
• Przhevalsky, Mongolia (Eng. trans. ed. by Sir H. Yule).
8 Przhevalsky, op. cit. p. 183.
GOBI
168
the sand-dunes cross over to,tire.left bank of the Hwangrho, and
are threaded by the beds of dry watercourses, while the level spaces
amongst them are studded with little, mounds (3 to 6 ft. high),
on which grow stunted Nttnria Scoberi and Zyfophyllum. Ordos,
which was anciently known .as Ho-nan (" the country south of (he
river ”,) and still farther back in time as Ho-tau, was occupied by the
Hione-nu in the 1st and 2nd centuries a.d., but was almost de¬
populated during and after the Duugan revolt of i860. North of the
big loop of the Hwang-ho Ordos is separated from the central Gobi
by a succession of mountain chains, the Kaxa-naryn-ula, the Sheiten-
ula, and the In-shan Mountains, which link on to the south end of the
Great Khingan Mountains. The In-sban Mountains, which stretch
from 108 0 to 112 0 E., have a wild Alpine character and are dis¬
tinguished from other mountains in the S.E. of Mongolia by an
abundance of both water and vegetation. In one of their constituent
ranges, the bold Muimi-ula, 70 m. long and nearly 20 m. wide, they
attain elevations of 7500 to 8500 ft., and have steep flanks, slashed
with rugged gorges and narrow glens. Forests begin on them at
5300 ft and wild flowers grow in great profusion and variety in
summer, though with a striking lack of brilliancy in colouring.
In this same border range there is also a much greater abundance
and variety of animal life, especially amongst the avifauna.
Eastern Gobi.— Here the surface is extremely diversified, although
there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Urga
(48° N. and 107° E.) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor ktn° 50' E.
and 43“ 45' N.) the surface is greatly eroded, and consists of broad
flat depressions and basins separated by groups of fiat-topped
mountains of relatively low elevation <500 to 600 ft.), through
which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses.
The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 2900 and 3200 ft
above sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dubasu-nor and the
Hwang-ho comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with
fiat plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 3300 to 3600 ft. and
the former at 3500 to 4000 ft The slopes of the plateaus are more
or less steep, and are sometimes penetrated by " bays ” of the low¬
lands. As the border-range of the Khingan is approached the
country steadily rises up to 4500 ft and then to 5350 ft Hera
small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them
is generally salt or brackish. And both here, and for 200 m. south
of Urga, streams are frequent, and grass grows more or less abundantly.
There is, however, through all the central parts, until the bordering
mountains are reached, an utter absence of trees and shrubs. Clay
and sand are the predominant formations, the watercourses, especi¬
ally in the north, being frequently excavated 6 to 8 ft. deep, and in
many places in the fiat, dry valleys or depressions farther south
beds of loess, 13 to 20 ft. thick, are exposed. West of the route
from Urga to Kalgan the country presents approximately the same
general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly
scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly
E. to W., W.N.W. to E.S.E., and W.S.W. to E.N.E. The altitudes
too are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 3300 to 5600 ft.,
and those of the ranges from 650 to 1630 ft. higher, though in a few
cases they reach altitudes of 8000 ft. above sea-level. The elevations
do not, however, as a rule form continuous chains, but make up a
congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and
intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens and basins.
But the tablelands, built up of the horizontal red deposits of the
Han-hai (Obruchev’s Gobi formation) which are characteristic of
the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur
only in one locality, near the Shara-muren river, and are then greatly
intersected by gullies or dry watercourses. 1 Here there is, however,
a great dearth of water, no streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipita¬
tion falls but seldom. Tb,e prevailing winds blow from the W. and
N.W. and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the Takla-
makan and the desert of Lop. Characteristic of the flora are wild
garlic, Kalidium' graciie, wormwood, saxaul, Nitraria Scoberi,
Caragana, Ephedra, saltwort and diritun ( Lasiagrostis splendens).
This great desert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes,
some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the
most important are those from Kalgan on the frontier of China to
Urga (600 m.), from Su-chow (in Kan-suh) to Hami (420 m.) from
Hanoi to Peking (1300 m.), from Kwei-hwa-cheng (or Kuku-khoto)
to Hami and Barkiil, and from Lancbow (in Kan-suh) to Hami.
Climate.— The climate ,of the Gobi is one of great extremes, com¬
bined with rapid changes of temperature, not only at all seasons of
the year but even within 24 hours (as much as 58“ F.). For instance,
at Urga (3770 ft.) the annual mean is 27'3° F., the January mean
- 15'7°, ana the July mean 63-5°, the extremes being ioo-5° and
- 44-5°; while at Sivantse (3903 ft,) the annual mean is 37°, the
January mean 2-}% and the July mean 66'3°, the range being from
a recorded m axi m u m of 93° to a recorded minimum of - 33°. Even
in southern Mongolia the thermometer goes down as low as - 27°,
and in Ala-shan it rises day after day in Jcdy as high as 99°. Although
the south-east monsoons reach the S.E. parts of the Gobi, the air
generally throughout this region it characterised bv extreme dryness,
especially during the winter. Hence the icy sandstorms and snow¬
storms of spring and eafiysuramer. Therainfall at Urga for the year
amounts to only 97 in.
1 Obruchev, in Isvestia of Russ, Geogr. Soc.(i895).
Sands of the Gobi Deserts.- .-With regard to the origin of the masses
of sand out of which the dunes and chains of dunes tparhhans) up
built, up in the several deserts of the Gobi, opinions differ, while
some explorers consider them to be the product of marine, orat any,
rate lacustrine, denudation (the Central Asian, Mediterranean),
others—and this is not only the more reasonable view, but it is the
view which is gaining most ground—consider that .they are the pro¬
ducts of the aerial denudation of the border ranges («.g. Nan-shan,
Karlyk-tagli, &c.), and more especially of the terribly wasted ranges
and chains of hills, which, like the gaunt fragments of montane
skeletal .remains, lie littered all over the swelling uplands and
tablelands of the Gobi, and that they have been transported by the
prevailing winds to the localities in which they are now accumulated,
the winds obeying similar transportation laws to the rivers and
streams which carry down sediment in moister parts of the world.
Potanin, pouits out 9 that " there is a certain amount of regularity
observable in the distribution of the sandy deserts over the vast
uplands of central Asia. Two agencies are represented in the dis¬
tribution of the sands, though what they really are is not quite clear !
and of these two agencies one prevails in the north-west, the other
in the south-east, so that the whole of Central Asia may be divided
into two regions, the dividing line between them being drawn from
north-east to south-west, from Urga via the eastern end of the
Tian-shan to the city of Kashgar. North-west of this line the sandy
masses are broken up into detached and disconnected areas, and are
almost without exception heaped up around the lakes, and con¬
sequently in the lowest parts of the several districts in which they
exist Moreover, we find also that these sandy tracts always occur
on the Western or south-western shores of the lakes; this is the case
with the lakes of Balkash, Ala-kul, Ebi-nor, Ayar-nor (or Telli-nor),
Orku-nor, Zaisan-nor, Ulungur-nor, Ubsa-nor, Durga-nor and
Kara-nor lying E. of Kirghiz-nor, South-east of the line the,arrange¬
ment of the sand is quite different. In that part of Asia we have
three gigantic but disconnected basins. The first, lying farthest east,
is embraced on the one side by the ramifications of the Kentei and
Khangai Mountains and on ,ffhe other by the In-shan Mountains.
The second or middle division is contained between the Altai of the
Gobi and the Ala-shan. The third basin, in the west, lies between
the Tian-shan and the border ranges of western Tibet. . . . The
deepest parts of each of these three depressions occur near their
northern borders; towards their southern boundaries they are all
alike very much higher. . . . However, the sandy deserts are not
found in the low-lying tracts but occur on the higher uplands which
foot the southern mountain ranges, the In-shan and the Nan-shan.
Our maps show an immense expanse of sand south of the Tarim
in the western basin; beginning in the neighbourhood of the city
of Yarkent (Yarkand), it extends eastwards past the towns of Khotan,
Keriya and Cherchen to Sa-chow. Along this stretch there is only
one locality which forms an exception to the rule we have indicated,
namely, the region round the lake of Lop-nor. In the middle basin the
widest expanse of sand occurs between the Edzin-gol and the range
of Ala-shan. On the south it extends nearly as far as a line drawn
through the towns of Lian-chow, Kan-chaw and Kao-tai at the foot
of the Nan-shan ; but on the south it does not approach anythiM
like so far as the latitude (42° .N.) of the lake of Ghashiun-nor. Still
farther east come the sandy deserts of Ordos, extending south¬
eastward‘as far as the mountain range which separates Ordos
from the (Chinese) provinces of Shan-si and Shen-ai. In the eastern
basin drift-sand is encountered between the district of Ude in the
north (44° 30’ N.) and the foot of the In-shan in the south.'' In
two regions, if not in three, the sands have overwhelmed large
tracts of once cultivated country, and even buried the cities in
which men formerly dwelt These regions are the southern parts
of the desert of Takla-makan (where Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein
have discovered the ruins under the desert sands), along the N.
foot of the Nan-shan, and probably in part (other agencies having
helped) in the north of the desert of Lop, where Sven Hedin
discovered the ruins of Lofi-lan and of other towns or villages.
For these vast accumulations of sand are constantly in movement;
though the movement is slow, it has nevertheless been calcu¬
lated that in the south of the Takla-makan the sand-dunes travel
bodily at the rate of roughly something like 160 ft. in the course of a
year. The shape and arrangement of the individual sand-dunes,
and of the barkhans, generally indicate from which direction the
predominant winds blow. On the windward side of the dune the
slope is long and gentle, while the leeward side is steep and in outline
concave likea horse-shoe. The dunes vary in height from 30 up to
300 ft., and in some places mount as it were upon one another's
shoulders, and in some localities it is even said mat a third tier is
sometimes superimposed.
Authorities.— See N. M. Przhevalsky, Mongolia, the Tangut
Country, 6*. (Eng. trans., ed. by Sir H. Yule, London, 1876), and
From Kulia.aorois the Tian.Shan to Lob Nor (Eng. trans., by Delmar
Morgan, London, 1879); G. N. Potanin, Tanguisko-Tibetsbaya
Ohraina Kitaya i Centratnaya Mongoliya, 1884-1886 (1893,;.&c.);
Mi V. Pjevtsov, Sketch of a Journey to Mongolia (in Russian, Omsk,
‘ 9 In Tangutsko-Tibetshaya Ohraina Kitaya i Centratnaya Mon¬
goliya, i, pp. 96, &c. , ,
3 Sec Sand-buried Cities of Khotan (London, 2902).
GOBLET—GODALMING
169
1883); G. E. Grum-Grihimailo, Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy
Kitai (1898-1899); V. A, Obruchev, Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy
Kiim i Nem-schan, igge-iSge (1900-1991); V. X. Rcborovsky and
E. K. Kotlov, Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Suss. Geer. Obshchestva Po
CentralnoyA sty, lSgj-i9gs (>9®o, Ac.'): R :-orovsky, Trudy
Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy, iSSg-cSgo ; Sven Hedin, Scientific Results
of a Journey in Central Asia, tSgg^tgo* (fi vote., 1903-1907);
Futterer, Burch Asian (1901, Ac.); K. Bogdanovich, Gsolagichtskiya
Isledovaniya v Vostochnom Turkestane and Trudiy Tibetshoy Ehspe .
ditsiy, iSSg-iSqo ; L. von lx>czy, Die wissanschaftlichen Ergebntsse
der Raise des Deafen Sstckenyi in Ostasien, iSjy-iSSo (1883); Ney
Ehaa, in Jqurn.Roy. Geog. Sac. (1873) ; C. W. Campbell's " Journeys
m Mongolia,” in Geographical Journal (Nov, 1903); Pozdnievym,
Mongolia and the Mongols (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897 Ac.) ;
Deniker's summary of Kozlov's latest journeys in La Giogtaphie
(r9or, Ac.) ; F. von Richthofen, China (1877). (J. T. Bb.)
GOBLET, RENE (1828-1905), French politician, was bom at
Aire-sur-la-Lys, in the Pas de Calais, on the a6th of November
1828, and was educated for the law. Under the Second Empire,
he helped to found a Liberal journal, Le Progres de la Somme,
and in July 1871 was sent by the department of the Somme to
th' National Assembly, where he took his place on the extreme
left. He failed to secure election in 1876, but next year was
returned for Amiens. He held a minor government office in
1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet
cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in
Henri Brisson’s first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet
in 1886, when he greatly increased his reputation by an able
defence of the government's education proposals. Meanwhile
his extreme independence and excessive candour had alienated
him from many of his party, and all through his life he was
frequently in conflict with his political associates, from Gambetta
downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet cabinet in December
he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself the portfolios
of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was unpopular
from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could
be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was
finally given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the
Schnaebele incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a
French official named Schnaebele, which caused immense excite¬
ment in France. For some days Goblet took no definite decision,
but left Flourens, who stood for peace, to fight it out with
General Boulanger, then minister of war, who was for-the
despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on
the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in
face of the Boulangist propaganda became a national danger.
Defeated on the budget in May 1887; his government resigned ;
but he returned to office next year as foreign minister in the
radical administration of Charles Floquet. He was defeated at
the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889, and sat m the senate
from 1897 to 1893, when he returned to the popular chamber.
In association with MM. E. I.ockroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and
P. L. Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they
put forward in the Petite RepMique franpaise. At the elections
of 1898 he was defeated, and thenceforward took little part in
public affairs. He died in Paris on the 13th of September
1905.
GOBUET, a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one
slmped like a cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank
with a foot. The word is derived from the 0 . Fr. gobelet, diminu¬
tive of gobel, gobeau, which Skeat takes to be formed from Low
Lat. eupeUus, cup, diminutive of cupa, tub, cask (see Drinking-
Vessels).
GOB Y. The gobies ( Gohius ) are small fishes readily recognized
by their ventrals (the fins on the lower surface of the chest) being
united into one fin, forming a suctorial disk, by which these fishes
are enabled to attach themselves in every possible position to a
rock or other firm substances. They are essentially coast-fishes,
inhabiting nearly all seas, but disappearing towards the Arctic
and Antarctic Oceans. Many enter, or live exclusively in, such
fresh Waters as are at no great distance from the sea. Nearly 500
different kinds aw known. The largest British species, Gobius
capita, occurring fa the rock-pools of Cornwall, measures ro
m. Gobius atcocki, from brackish and fresh waters of Lower
Bengal, is one of the very smallest of fishes, not measuring over
16 millimetres (» 7 lines). The males are usually more brilliantly
coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are often
plaoed in a sort of aest made of the shell of some bivalve or of the
carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and
Ventrals of Goby.
covered with sand, the eggs being stuck to the inner surface of
this roof.
Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish or jumping fish
( Pcriophthalmus ), of which various species are found in great
Fig. 3 .—Pcriophthalmus koelreuteri .
numbers on the mud flats at the mouths of rivers in the tropics,
skipping about by means of the muscular, scaly base of their
pectoral fins, with the head raised and bearing a pair of strongly
projecting versatile eyes close together.
GOCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on
the Niers, 8 m. S. of Cleves at the junction of the railways Cologne-
Zevenaar and Boxtel-Wesel. Pop. (1905) 10,232. It has a
Protestant and a Roman Catholic church and manufactures of
brushes, plush goods, cigars and margarine. In the middle ages
it was the seat of a large trade in linen. GoCh became a town in
1231 and belonged to the dukes of Gclderland and later to the
dukes of Cleves.
uuu, tne common teutonic word for a personal object of
religious worship. It is thus, like the Gr. and Lat. deus,
applied to all those superhuman beings of the heathen mythologies
who exercise power over nature and man and are often identified
with some particular sphere of activity ; and also to the visible
material objects, whether an image of the supernatural being or a
tree, pillar, &c. used as a symbol, an idol. The word “ god,” on
the conversion of the Teutonic races to Christianity, was
adopted as the name of the one Supreme Being, the Creator of the
universe, and of the Persons of the Trinity. The New English
Dictionary points out that whereas the old Teutonic type of the
word is neuter, corresponding to the Latin numen, in the Christian
applications it becomes masculine, and that even where the
earlier neuter form is still kept, as fa Gothic and Old Norwegian,
the construction is masculine. Popular etymology has connected
the word with “ good ” ; this is exemplified by the corruption of
“ God be with you ” into “ good-bye.” “ God ” is a word
common to all Teutonic languages. In Gothic it is Guth ; Dutch
has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish have Gud,
German Gott. According to the New English Dictionary, the
original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form gheu,
one of which means “ to invoke,” the other “ to pour ” (cf. Gr.
X t,tv ) j the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would
thus mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious
worship by sacrifice. It has been also suggested that the word
"might mean a “ molten image ” from the sense of “ pour.”
See Religion ; Hebrew Religion ; Theism, Ac.
GODALMING, a market town and municipal borough in the
Guildford parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W.
of London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901)
8748. It is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Wey,
xii. 6 a
GODARD~-GODAVARI
£ 70 .
which is navigable thence to the Thames, and on the high road
between London and Portsmouth. Steep hills, finely wooded,
enclose the valley. The chief public buildings are the church of
SS. Peter and Paul, a cruciform building of mixed architecture,
but principally Early English and Perpendicular; the town hall,
Victoria hall, and market-house, and a technical institute and
school ,of, science and art. Charterhouse School, one of the
principal English public schools, originally founded in jdu, was
transferred from Charterhouse Square, London, to Godaiming in
1872. It stands within grounds 92 acres in extent, half a mile
north of Godaiming, and consists of spacious buildings in Gothic
style, with a chapel, library and hall, besides boarding-houses,
masters’houses and sanatoria. (See Charterhouse.) Godaiming
has manufactures of paper, leather, parchment and hosiery, and
some trade in com, malt, bark, hoops und timber; and the
Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still quarried.
The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 812 acres.
Godaiming (Godelbringe) belonged to King Alfred, and was a
royal manor at the time of Domesday. The manor belonged to
the see of Salisbury in the middle ages, but reverted to the crown
in the time of Henry VIII. Godaiming was incorporated by
Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough originated. The charter
was confirmed by JamR I. in 1620, and a fresh charter was
granted bv Charlies II. in 1666. The borough was never repre¬
sented in parliament. The bishop of Salisbury in 1300 received the
grant of a weekly market to be held on Mondays: the day was
altered to Wednesday by Elizabeth’s charter. The bishop’s
grant included a fair at the feast of St Peter and St Paul (29th of
June). Another fair at Candlemas (2nd of February) was granted
by Elizabeth. The market is still held. The making of cloth,
particularly Hampshire kerseys, was the staple industry of
Godaiming in the middle ages, but it began to decay early in the
17th century and by 1850 was practically extinct. As in other
cases, dyeing was subsidiary to the cloth industry. Tanning,
introduced in the 15th century, survives. The present manu¬
facture of fleecy hosiery dates from the end of the 18th century.
GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL (1849-1895), French
composer, was bom in Paris, on the 18th of August 1849. He
studied at the Conservatoire, and competed for the Prix de
Rome without success in 1866 and 1867. He began by publishing
a number of songs, many of which are charming, such as “ Je
ne veux pas d’autres choses,” " Ninon," “ Chanson de Florian,”
also a quantity of piano pieces, some chamber music, including
several violin sonatas, a trio for piano and strings, a quartet for
strings, a violin concerto and a second work of the same kind
entitled “ Concerto Romantique.” Godard's chance arrived in
the year 1878, when with his dramatic cantata, Le Tasse, he shared
with M. Th'odore Dubois the honour of winning the musical
competition instituted by the city of Paris. From that time
until his death Godard composed a surprisingly large number of
works, including four operas, Pedro de Zalamea, produced at
Antwerp in 1^84; Jocelyn, given in Paris at the Theatre du
Chateau d’Eau, in 1888 ; Dante, played at the Op6ra Comique
two years later; and La VivandUre, left unfinished and partly
scored by another hand. This last work was heard at the Op6ra
Comique in 1895, and has been played in England by the Carl
Rosa Opera Company. His otter works include the “ Symphonie
ligendaire,” “Symphonie gothique,” “Diane" and various
orchestral works. Godard’s productivity was enormous, and his
compositions are, for this reason only, decidedly unequal. He
was at his'best in works of smaller dimensions, and has left many
exquisite songs. Among his more ambitious works the “ Sym¬
phonie Dgcndaire ” may be singled out as being one of the most
distinctive. He had a decided individuality, and his premature
death at Cannes on the 10th of January 1895 was a loss to
French art.
GODAVARI, a rivet of central and western India. It flows
across the Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats; its
total length is goo.m., the estimated area of its drainage basin,
112,200 sq. m. Its traditional source is on the side of a hill
behind the village of TrimBak in Nasik district, Bombay, where
the water runs into a reservoir from the lips of an image. But
according to popular legend it proceeds from the same ultimate
source as the Ganges, though underground. Its course is gener¬
ally south-easterly. After passing through Nasik district, it
crosses into the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad. When
it again strikes British territory it is joined by the Pranhita,
with its tributaries the Wardha, the Penganga and Wainganga.
For some distance it flows between the nizam’s dominions and
the Upper Godavari district, and receives the Indravati, the Tal
and the Sabari. The stream has here a channel varying from
1 to 2 m. in breadth, occasionally broken by alluvial islands.
Parallel to the river stretch long runges of hills. Below the
junction of the Sabari the channel begins to contract. The
flanking hills gradually dose in on both sides, and the result is
a magnificent gorge only 200 yds. wide through which the water
flows into the plam of lie delta, about 60 m, from the sea. The
head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram, where the
main stream is crossed by the irrigation anicut. The river has
seven mouths, the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The
Godavari is regarded as peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve
years the great bathing festival called Pushkaram is held on its
banks at Rajahmundry.
The Upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for
irrigation, but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of
perennial crops by means of the anicut at Dowlaishweram,
constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton, from which three main canals
are drawn off. The river channel here is 3J m. wide. The anicut
is a substantial mass of stone, bedded in lime cement, about
2j m. long, 130 ft. broad at the base, and 12 ft. high. The
stream is thus pent back so as to supply a volume of 3000 cubic ft
of water per second during its low season, and 12,000 cubic fl¬
at time of flood. The main canals have a total length of 493 m.,
irrigating 662,000 acres, and all navigable ; and there are 1929 m,
of distributary channels. In 1864 water-communication was
opened between the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna. Rocky
barriers and rapids obstruct navigation in the upper portion of
the Godavari. Attempts have been made to construct canals
round these barriers with little success, and the undertaking has
been abandoned.
GODAVARI, a district of British India, in the north-east
of the Madras presidency. It was remodelled in 1907-1908,
when part of it was transferred to Kistna district. Its present
area is 5634 sq. m. Its territory now lies mainly east of
the Godavari river, including the entire delta, with a long
narrow strip extending up its valley. The apex of the delta
is at Dowlaishweram, where a great dam renders the waters
available for irrigation. Between this point and the coast
there is a vast extent of rice fields. Farther inland, and
enclosing the valley of the great river, are low hills, steep and
forest-clad. The north-eastern part, known as the Agency
tract, is occupied by spurs of the Eastern Ghats. The coast is
low, sandy and swampy, the sea very shallow, so that vessels
must lie nearly 5 m. from Cocanada, the chief port. The Sabari
is the principal tributary of the Godavari within the district.
The Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population
of the present area in 1901 was 1445,961. In the old district
the increase during the last decade was 11 %. The chief towns
are Cocanada and Rajahmundry. The forests are of great value;
cool is known, and graphite is worked. The population is
principally occupied in agriculture, the principal crops being
rice, oil-seeds, tobacco and sugar. The cigars known in England
as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown on latfkas or
islands in the river Godavari. Sugar (from the juice of the
palmyra palm) and rum are made by European processes at
Samalkot. The administrative headquarters are now at Coca¬
nada, the chief seaport; but Rajahmundry, at the head of the
delta, is the old capital. A large but decreasing trade is conducted
at Cocanada, rice being shipped to Mauritius and Ceylon, and
cotton and oil-seeds to Europe. Rice-cleaning mills have been
established here and at other places. The district is traversed
by the main line of the East Coast railway, with a branch to
Cocanada; the iron girder bridge of forty-two spans over the
GODE FRiOY-—GODET
Godavari river near Rajahmundry was opened in 1900. There
is a government college at Rajahmundry, with a training college
attached, and an aided college at Cocanada.
The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of
Dravida, the north-west portion being subject to the Orissa
kings, and the south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom.
For centuries it was the battlefield on which various chiefs
fought for independence with varying success till the beginning
of the 16th century, when the whole country may be said to have
passed under Mahommedan power. At the conclusion of the
struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the
Northern Circars was conquered by the English, and finally
ceded by imperial sanad in 1765. The district was constituted
in 1859, by the redistribution of the territory comprising the
former districts of Guntur, Rajahmundry and Masulipatam,
into what are now the Kistna and Godavari districts.
See H. Morris, District Manual (1878); District Gazetteer (1906).
GODEFROY (Gothofredus), a French noble family, which
numbered among its members several distinguished jurists and
historians. The family claimed descent from Symon Godefroy,
who was bom at Mons about 1320 and was lord of Sapigneulx
near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne.
Denis Godefroy (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1549-1622),
jurist, son of I.6on Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was bom in
Paris on the 17th of October 1549. He was educated at the
College de Navarre, and studied law at Louvain, Cologne and
Heidelberg, returning to Paris in 1573. He embraced the
reformed religion, and in 1579 left Paris, where his abilities and
connexions promised a brilliant career, to establish himself at
Geneva. He became professor of law there, received the freedom
of the city in 1580, and in 1587 became a member of the Council
of the Two Hundred. Henry IV. induced him to return to France
by making him grand baitti of Gex, but no sooner had he installed
himself than the town was sacked and his library burnt by the
troops of the duke of Savoy. In 1591 he became professor of
Roman law at Strassburg, where he remained until April 1600,
when in response to an invitation from Frederick IV., elector
palatine, he removed to Heidelberg. The difficulties of his
position led to his return to Strassburg for a short time, but in
November 1604 he definitely settled at Heidelberg. He was
made head of the faculty of law in the university, and was from
time to time employed on missions to the French court. His
repeated refusal of offers of advancement in his own country
was due to his Calvinism. He died at Strassburg on the 7th of
September 1622, having left Heidelberg before the city was
sacked by the imperial troops in 1621. His most important work
was the Carpus juris civilis, originally published at Geneva in
1583, which went through some twenty editions, the most
valuable of them being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amster¬
dam in 1633 and the Leipzig edition of 1740.
Lists of his other learned works may be found in Scnebier’s Hist,
litt. de Gentve, vol. ii., and in Nicfiron's Mtmoires , vol. xvii. Some of
his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman
President de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and
others, is preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, of Basel
and PariB.
His eldest son, Theodore Godefroy (1580-1649), was bom
at Geneva on the 14th of July 1580. He abjured Calvinism,
and was called to the har in Paris. He became historiographer
of France in 1613, and was employed from time to time on
diplomatic missions. He was employed at the congress of
Munster, where he remained after the signing of peace in 1648
as charge d’affaires until his death on the 5th of October of the
next year. His most important work is Le Ceremonial de France
■ ■ . (1619), a work which became a classic on the subject of
royal ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged
edition in 1649.
Besides his printed works he made vast collections of historical
material which remains in MS. and fills the greater part of the
Godefroy collection of over five hundred portfolios in the Library
of the Institute in Paris. These: were catalogued by Ludovic
Lalanne in the Annuaire Bulletin (1865-1866 and 1892) of the
Socittt de I’histoire de France.
I’Jl
The second son of Denis, Jacques Godefroy (*587-1652),
jurist, was bom at Geneva on the 13th of September 1587. He
was sent to France in 1611, and studied law and history at
Bourges and Paris. He remained faithful to the Calvinist
persuasion, and soon returned to Geneva, where he became active
in public affairs. He was secretary of state from 1632 to 1636,
and syndic or chief magistrate in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649.
He died on the 23rd of June 1652. In addition to his civic and
political work he lectured on law, and produced, after thirty
years of labour, his edition of the Codex Theodosianus. This
code formed the principal, though not the only, source of the
legal systems of the countries formed from the Western Empire.
Godefroy’s edition was enriched with a multitnde of important
notes and historical comments, and became a standard authority
on the decadent period of the Western Empire. It was only
printed thirteen years after his death under the bare of his
friend Antoine Marville at Lyons (4 vols. 1665), and was reprinted
at Leipzig (6 vols.) in 1736-1745. Of his numerous other works
the most important was the reconstruction of die twelve tables
of early Roman law.
See also the dictionary of Moreri, Nicfa-on’s Mlmoires (vol. 17)
and a notice in the Bibltothique universelle de Gentve (Dec. 1837).
Denis Godefroy (1615-1681), eldest son of Theodore,
succeeded his father as historiographer of France, and re edited
various chronicles which had been published by him. He was
entrusted by Colbert with the care and investigation of the
records concerning the Low Countries preserved at Lille, where
great part of his life was spent. He was also the historian of
the reigns of Charles VII. and Charles VIII.
Other members of the family who attained distinction in the
same branch of learning were the two sons of Denis Godcfroi—
Denis (1653-1719), also an historian, and Jean, sieur d’Aumont
(1656-1732), who edited the letters of Louis XII., the memoirs
of Marguerite.de Valois, of Castelnau and Pierre de l’Estoile,
and left some useful material for the history of the Low Countries;
Jean Baptiste Achille Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1697-1759),
and Denis Joseph Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1740-1819), son
and grandson of Jean Godefroy, who were both officials at
Lille, and left valuable historical documents which have remained
in MS.
For further details see Les Savants Godefroy (Paris, 1873) by the
marquis de Godefroy-Mfoilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy.
GODESBERG,aspaof Germany,in the PrussianRhine province,
on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite Kbnigswinter,
and 4 m. S. of Bonn, on the railway to Coblenz. It is a fashion¬
able summer resort, and contains numerous pretty villas, the
residences of merchants from Cologne, Elberfeld, Crefeld and
other Rhenish manufacturing centres. It has an Evangelical
and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and several
educational establishments. Its chalybeate springs annually
attract a large number of visitors, and the pump-ropm, baths
and public grounds are arranged on a sumptuous scale. On a
conical basalt hill, close by, are the ruins, surmounted by a
picturesque round tower, of Godesberg castle. Built by Arch¬
bishop Dietrich I. of Cologne in the 13th century, it.was destroyed
by the Bavarians in 1583.
See Dcnnert, Godesberg, eine Perle des Rbeins (Godesberg, 1900).
GODET, FRfiDfiRIC LOUIS (1812-1900), Swiss Protestant
theologian, was bom at Neuchatel on the 25U1 of October 1812.
After studying theology at Neuchatel, Bonn knd Berlin, he was
in 1850 appointed professor of theology at Neuchatel. From
1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate. In 1873 he bequne one
of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of Neuchatel, and
E rofessor in its theological faculty. He died there on the 29th of
'ctober 1900. A conservative scholar, Godet was the author
of some of the most noteworthy French commentaries published
in reant times.
His commentaries are on the Gospel of St John (2 vols., 1863-1865;
3rd ed., 1881-1888; Eng. trans. 1886, &c.); St Luke (2 vols., 1871 ;
3rd ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875 ftc.); the Epistle to the Romans (2
vols., 1879-1880; 2nd ed., 1883-1890; Eng. trans., 1880, &c.);
Corinthians (2 vols., 1886-1887 ; Eng. trans, 1S86, &c,l. His other
174 GODFREY, SIR E. B.—GODFREY OF BOUILLON
works Include tiuies Obliques (i vols., 1873-1874; 4th ed., 1889;
Eng. trans. 1873 {.), and Introduction au Nouveau Testament (1893.! ;
Eng. truly., 1894, 4c.); Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith
(Eng. trans. 4th ed., 1900).
GODFREY, SIR EDMOND BERRY (1621-1678), English
magistrate and politician, younger son 0! Thomas Godfrey
(1586-1664), a member of an old Kentish family, was bom on
the 23rd of December 1621. He was educated at Westminster
school and at Christ Church, Oxford, and after entering Gray’s
Inn became a dealer in wood. His business prospered. He was
made a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in
September 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services as
magistrate and citizen during the great plague in London; but
in 1669 he was imprisoned for a few days for instituting the
arrest of the king's physician, Sir Alexander Fraizer (d. 1681),
who owed him money. The tragic events in Godfrey’s life began
in September 1678 when Titus Oates and two other men appeared
before him with written information about the Popish Plot, and
swore to the truth of their statements. During the intense
excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that
his life was in danger, but took no extra precautions for safety.
On the 12th of October he did not return home as usual, and on
the 17th his body was found on Primrose Hill, Hampstead.
Medical and other evidence made it certain that he had been
murdered, and the excited populace regarded the deed as the
work of the Roman Catholics. Two committees investigated
the occurrence without definite result, but in December 1678
a certain Miles Prance, who had been arrested for conspiracy,
confessed that he had shared in the murder. According to
Prance the deed was instigated by some Roman Catholic priests,
three of whom witnessed the murder, and was committed in the
courtyard of Somerset House, where Godfrey was strangled by
Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry, the body being
afterwards taken to Hampstead. The three men were promptly
arrested; the evidence of the informer William Bedloe, although
contradictory, was similar on a few points to that of Prance, and
in February 1679 they were hanged. Soon afterwards, however,
some doubt was cast upon this story; a war of words ensued
between Prance and others, and it was freely asserted that
Godfrey had committed suicide. Later the falsehood of Prance’s
confession was proved and Prance pleaded guilty to perjury;
but the fact remains that Godfrey was murdered. Godfrey
was an excellent magistrate, and was very charitable both in
public and in private life. Mr John Pollock, in the Popish Plot
(London, 1903), confirms the view that the three men, Green,
Hill and Berry, were wrongfully executed, and thinks the
murder was committed by some Jesuits aidod by Prance.
Godfrey was feared by the Jesuits because he knew, through
Oates, that on the 24th of April 1678 a Jesuit congregation had
met at the residence of the duke of York to concert plans for the
king’s murder. He concludes thus: “ The success of Godfrey’s
murder as a political move is indubitable. The duke of York
was the pivot of the Roman Catholic scheme in England, and
Godfrey’s death saved both from utter ruin.” On the other hand
Mr Alfred Marks in his Who killed Sir E. B. Godfrey t (1905)
maintains that suicide was the cause of Godfrey’s death.
See the article Oates, Titus, also R. Tuke, Memoirs of the Life
and Death of Sir Edmanibury Godfrey (London, 1682) ; and G,
urnet, History of my Own Tim ; The Reign of Charles II., edited by
. Airy (Oxford, 1900).
GODFREY OF BOUILLON (c. 1060-1100), a leader in the First
Crusade, was the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne,
by his marriage with Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of
Lower Lorraine. He was designated by Duke Godfrey as his
Successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him only the mark
of Antwerp, in which the lordship of-Bouillon was included
(1076). He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and
in the siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy
of Lower Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac
influtnceSj and Godfrey would seem to have been a man of
notable piety. Accordingly, though, he had himself served as
an imperialist, and thoughRthe Germans in general had little
sympathy with the Crusaders (subsannabant ... quasi delirantes),
Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came “ to follow Christ,”
almost literally sold all that he had, and followed. Along with
his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of
Jerusalem) he led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong,
along “Charlemagne’s road,” through Hungary to Constantinople,
starting in August 1096, and arriving at Constantinople, after
some difficulties in Hungary, in November. He was the first
of the crusading princes to arrive, and on him fell the duty of
deciding what the relations of the princes to the eastern emperor
Alexius were to be. Eventually, after several disputes and
some fighting, he did homage to Alexius in January 1097 ; and
his example was followed by the other princes. From this time
until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the
minor princes, plodding onwards, and steadily fighting, while
men like Bohemund and Raymund, Baldwin and Tancrcd were
determining the course of events.
In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the
crusaders became weary of the political factions which divided
some of their leaders; and Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim
than a politician, becomes the natural representative of this
feeling. He was thus able to force the reluctant Raymund to
march southward to Jerusalem; and he took a prominent
part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when the
city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund
of Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected
ruler of Jerusalem (July 22,1099). He assumed the title not of
king, but of “ advocate ” 1 of the Holy Sepulchre. The new
dignity proved still more onerous than honourable; and during
his short reign of a year Godfrey had to combat the Arabs of
Egypt, and the opposition of Raymund and the patriarch
Dagobert. He was successful in repelling the Egyptian attack
at the battle of Ascalon (August 1099); but he failed, owing to
Raymund’s obstinacy and greed, to acquire the town of Ascalon
after the battle. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an
army of some 2000 men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of
noo, probably with the aid of new pilgrims, to exact tribute
from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf and Caesarea. But already,
at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of Pisa, had been
substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting as vicar)
by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal
Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to
have forced him to an agreement in April 1100, by which he
promised Jerusalem and Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should
acquire in their place Cairo or some other town, or should die
without, issue. Thus were the foundations of a theocracy laid
in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died (July noo) he left the
question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a monarchy
should be the government of the Holy Land.
Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey
was idolized in later saga. He was depicted as the leader of
the crusades, the king of Jerusalem, the legislator who laid
down the assizes of Jerusalem. He was none of these things.
Bohemund was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin was first
king) the assizes were the result of a gradual development.
In still other ways was (he figure of Godfrey idealized by the
grateful tradition of later days; but in reality he would seem to
have been a quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen
to rule in Jerusalem because he had no dangerous qualities,
and no obvious defects.
Literature. —The narrative of Albert of Aix may be regarded
as presenting the Lotliaringian point of view, as the Gesta presents
the Norman, aad Raymund of Agiles the Provencal. The career
of Godfrey has been discussed in modem times by R. Rohricht,
Die Deutschen im heiligen Lande, Band ii., and Geschichte des ersten
Krevteuges, passim (Innsbruck, 1901). (E. Br.)
Romances. —Godfrey was the principal hero of two French
chansons de geste dealing with the Crusade, the Chanson d’Antioche
(ed. P. Paris, 2 vols., 1848) and the Chanson de Jerusalem (ed.
C. Hippeau, 1868), and other poems, containing leas historical
1 An " advocate ” was a layman who had been invested with part
of an ecclesiastic estate, on condition that he defended the rest, and
exercised the blood-ban in lieu of the ecclesiastical owner (see
Advocate, sec. Advocatus eedesiae).
GODFREY OF VITERIO—GODIVA
material, wert subsequently added. la addition the parentage
and early exploits of Godfrey were made the subject of legend.
Hip grandfather was said to be He lias, knight of the Swan, one
of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though with
some variation, in the familiar fairy fade of “ The Seven Swans.”
Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen,
and reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon.
Marrying her daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should
not inquire into his origin. The tale, which is almost identical
with the Lohengrin legend, belongs to die class of the Cupid and
Psyche narratives. See Lohengrin.
See also C. Hippeau, Le Chevalier au cygne (Paris, a vote., 1874-
1877); H. Pigeonneau, Le Cycle dc la croisade et de la famille de
Bouillon (1877); W.Golther, "Lohengrin," in Roman. Borsch, (yol. v.,
1889) ; Hist. lilt, de la France, vol. xxh. pp. 350-402 ; the English
romance of Helyas, Knyghie of the Swanne was printed by W. Copland
about 1530.
GODFREY OF VITERBO (c. nao -c. 1196), chronicler, was
probably an Italian by birth, although some authorities aBsert
that he was a Saxon. He evidently passed some of his early life
at Viterbo, where also he spent his concluding days, but he was
educated at Bamberg, gaining a good knowledge of Latin.
About 1140 he became chaplain to the German king, Conrad III.;
but the greater part.of his life was spent as secretary ( notarius)
in the service of the emperor Frederick I., who appears to have
thoroughly trusted him, and who employed him on many
diplomatic errands. Incessantly occupied, he visited Sicily,
France and Spain, in addition to many of the German cities, in
the emperor’s interests, and was by his side during several of
the Italian campaigns. Both before and after Frederick’s death
in 1190 he enjoyed the favour of his son, the emperor Henry VI.,
for whom he wrote his Speculum regum, a work of very little
value. Godfrey also wrote Memoria scculorum, or Liber memo-
rialis, a chronicle dedicated to Henry VI., which professes to
record the history of the world from the creation until 1185.
It is written partly in prose and partly in verse. A revision of
this work was drawn up by Godfrey himself as Pantheon, or
Universitatis libri qui chronici appcllantur. The author borrowed
from Otto of Freising, but the earlier part of his chronicle is full
of imaginary occurrences. Pantheon was first printed in 1559,
and extracts from it are published by L. A. Muratori in the
Rerum llalicarum scriptures, tome vii. (Milan, 1725). The only
part of Godfrey’s work which is valuable is the Gesia Frideriei
verses relating events in the emperor’s career from 1155 to 1180.
Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem tells of the sieges
of Milan, of Frederick’s flight to Pavia in 1167, of the treaty with
Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other stirring episodes i
with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of I
which he had witnessed. Attached to the Gesia Frideriei is the
Gesia Heinrici VI., a shorter poem which is often attributed to
Godfrey, although W. YVattenbach and other authorities think
it was not written by him. The Memoria seculorum was very
popular during the middle ages, and has been continued by
several writers.
Godfrey's works are found in the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
Band xxii. (Hanover, 187.1), The Gcsta Frideriei I. et Heinrici VI.
is published separately with an introduction by G. Wait* (Hanover,
1872). See also H. tllmann, Gotfried von Viterbo (Gfittingen, 1863),
and W. Wattcnbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band ii.
(Berlin, 1894). (A. W. H.*)
GODHRA, a town of British India, administrative head¬
quarters of the Punch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of
the Rewa Kanthfl political agency; situated 52 m. N.E. of
Baroda on the railway from Anartd to Ratiam. Pop. (1901)
20,915. It has a trade in timber from the neighbouring forests.
GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE (1817-1888), French
socialist, was bom on the 26th of January 1817 at Esquehdrics
(Aisae). The son of an artisan, he entered an iron-works at an
early age, and at seventeen made a tour of France as journeyman.
Returning to Esqueh 4 riea in 1837, he started a small factory for
the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. The business
increased rapidly, and for the purpose of railway facilities was
transferred to Guise in *846. At the time of Godin’s death in
2888 the annual output was over four millions of francs (£160,000),
*75
and in 1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and the output
was over £280,000. An ardent disciple of Fourier, he advanced
a considerable sum of money towards the disastrous Foasf isHtt
experiment of V. P. Considerant (q.v.) in Texas. He profited,
however, by Its failure, and hi 1859 started the f/MHUre or
community settlement of Guise on more carefully laid plans.
It comprises, in addition to the workshops, three laTgCbuiklmgs,
four storeys high, capable of housing ell the Work-peOple. each
family having two or three -Thoms, Attached to eM&TOnlding
is a vast central court, covered with a glass roof, under which the
children can play in all weathers. There art also crtdhes,
nurseries, hospital, refreshment rooms and recreation rooms of
various kinds, stores for the purchase of groceries, drapery and
every necessity, and a large theatre for concerts and dramatic
entertainments. In 1880 the whole was turned into a Co-opera¬
tive society, with provision by which it eventually became the
property of the workers. In 1871 Godin was elected deputy for
Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management
of the familislire. In 1882 he was created a knight of the legion
of honour.
Godin was the author of Solutions sociales (1871); Les Socialistic
et les droits iu travail (1874) i Mutualitl social b (1880); La Rt-
pullique du travail et la reforms parlementaire (1889). See Bcmordot,
Le Familisttre de Guise et son fondateur (Paris, 1887); Fischer,
Die Familisthe Godin’s (Berlin, 1890) ; Lcstelle, Etude sur le familis-
ttre de Guise (Paris, 1904) ; D. F. P., Le Familistlre illustrt rfsultais
de vingt ans d'association, iSSo-rqoo (Eng. trans., Twenty-eight years
of co-partnership at Guise, by A. Williams, 1908).
GODIVA, a Saxon lady, who, according to the legend, rode
naked through the streets of Coventry to gain from her husband
a remission of the oppressive toll imposed on his tenants. The
story is that she was the beautiful wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia
and lord of Coventry. The people of that city suffering griev¬
ously under the earl’s oppressive taxation, Lady Godiva appealed
again and again to her husband, who obstinately refused to remit
the tolls. At last, weary of her entreaties, he said he would grant
her request if she would ride naked through the streets of the
town. Lady Godiva took him at his word, and after issuing a
proclamation that all persons should keep within doors or sfnut
their windows, she rode through, clothed only in her long hair.
One person disobeyed her proclamation, a tailor, ever afterwards
known as Peeping Tom. He bored a hole in his shutters that he
might see Godiva pass, and is said to have been struck blind.
Her husband kept his word and abolished the Obnoxious takes.
The oldest form of the legend makes Godiva pass through
Coventry market from one end to the other when the people
were assembled, attended only by two soldiers,' her long hair
down so that none saw her, “ apparentibus cruribus tamen
candidissimis.” This version is given in Flores historiarum by
Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer 1 . The
later story, with its episode of Peeping Tom, has been evolved
by later chroniclers. Whether the lady Godiva of this story is
the Godiva or Godgifu of history is undecided. That a lady of
this name existed in the early part of the nth century is certain,
as evidenced by several ancient documents, such as the Stow
charter, the Spalding charter and the Domesday survey, though
the spelling of the name varies considerably. It Would appear
from Liber Eliensis (end of 12th century) that she was a widow
when Leofric married her in 1040. In or about that year she
aided in the founding of a monastery at Stow, Lincolnshire.
In 1043 she persuaded her husband to build and endow a Bene¬
dictine monastery at Coventry. Her mark, “tfe Ego Godiva
Comitissa diu istud desideravi,” was found on the charter given
by her brother, Thorold Of Bucknall—sheriff of Lincolnshire—
to the Benedictine monastery of Spalding in 1051; and she is
commemorated as benefactress of other monastefW aV Leo¬
minster, Chester, WentoCk, Worcester and Evesham. She
probably died a few years before the Domesday survey (1085-
1086), and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey church.
Dugdale (1656) says that a window, with representations of
Leofric and Godiva, was placed in Trinity Church, Coventry,
about the time of Richard II. The Godiva procession, a comb
memoration of the legendary ride instituted on the 31st of May
G0DKHN-H30D0LPHIN
*74
1678 as part of Coventry fair, was celebrated at intervals until
1826, From 1848 to 1887 it was revived, and recently further
attempts have been made to popularize the pageant. The
wooden effigy of Peeping Tom which, since 1812, has looked
out on the world from a house at the north-west comer of
Hertford Street, Coventry, represents a man in armour, and
was probably an .image of St George. It was removed from
another part of the town to its present position.
GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE (1831-1902), American
publicist, was bom in Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, on the
2nd of October .1831. His father, James Godkin, was a Presby¬
terian minister and a journalist, and the son, after graduating
in 1851 at Queen’s College, Belfast, and studying law in London,
was in 1853-1855 war correspondent for the London Daily News
in Turkey and Russia, being present at the capture of Sevastopol,
and late in 1856 went to America and wrote letters to the same
journal, giving his impressions of a tour of the southern states of
the American Umon. He studied law in New York City, was
admitted to the bar in 1859, travelled in Europe in 1860-1862,
wrote for the London News and the New York Times in 1862-
1865, and in 1865 founded in New York City the Nation, a
weekly projected by him long before, for which Charles Eliot
Norton gained friends in Boston and James Miller McKim (1810-
1874) in Philadelphia, and which Godkin edited until the end of
the year 1899. In 1881 he sold the Nation to the New York
Evening Post, and became an associate editor of the Post, of
which he was editor-in-chicf in 1883-1899, succeeding Carl
Schurz. In the ’eighties he engaged in a controversy with
Goldwin Smith over the Irish question. Under his leadership the
Post broke with the Republican party in the presidential cam¬
paign of 1884, when Godkin's opposition to Blaine did much to
create the so-called Mugwump party (see Mugwump), and his
organ became thoroughly independent, as was seen when it
attacked the Venezuelan policy of President Cleveland, who had
in so many ways approximated the ideal of the Post and Nation.
He consistently advocated currency reform, th? gold basis, a tariff
for revenue only, and civil service reform, rendering the greatest
aid to the last cause. His attacks on Tammany Hall were
so frequent and so virulent that in 1894 he was sued for libel
because of biographical sketches of certain leaders in that
organization-cases which never came up for trial. His opposi¬
tion to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and
forcible. He retired from his editorial duties on the 30th of
December 1899, and sketched his career in the Evening Post
of that date. Although he recovered from a severe apoplectic
stroke early in 1900, his health was shattered, and he died in
Greenway, Devonshire, England, on the 21st of May 1902.
Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of the Post
and the Nation, which had a small but influential and intellectual
class of readers. But as editor he had none of the personal
magnetism of Greeley, for instance, and his superiority to the
influence of popular feeling made Charles Dudley Warner style
the Nation the “ weekly judgment day.” He was an economist
of the school of Mill, urged the necessity of the abstraction
called “economic man,” and insisted that socialism put in
practice would not improve social and economic conditions
in general. In politics he was an enemy of sentimentalism and
loose theories in government. He published A History of
Hungary, a.d. 300-1S30 (1856), Government (1871, in the
American Science Series), Reflections and Comments (1895),
Problems of Modem Detnocracy (1896) and Unforeseen Tendencies
of Democracy (1898).
Sec Uje and Letters 0/ E.L. Godkin, edited by Rollo Ogden (2 vols.,
New York, 1907).
GODMANCHESTER, a municipal borough in the southern
parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the
right bank of the Ou»e,j m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch
of the Great Eastern railway. Fop. (1901) 2017. It has a
.beautiful Perpendicular church (St Mary’s) and an agricultural
trade, with, flour mills, The town is governed by a mayor, 4
aldermen and rz councillors Area, 4907 acres.
A Romano-British village occupied tint site of Godmanchester.
The town (Gumencestre, Gomecestre) belonged to the king before
the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday survey. In 1213
King John granted the manor to the men of the town at a fee-
farm of £sto yearly, and confirmation'charters were granted
by several succeeding kings, Richard II. in 1391-1392 adding
exemption from toll, pannage, &c. James I. granted an in¬
corporation charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants
and commonalty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of T835
the corporation was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councilors. Godmanchester was formerly included for parlia¬
mentary purposes in the borough of Huntingdon, which has
ceased to be separately represented since 1885. The incorpora¬
tion charter of 1605 recites that the burgesses are chiefly engaged
in agriculture, and grants them a fair, which still continues
every year on Tuesday in Easter week.
Sec Victoria County History, Huntingdon ; Robert Fox, The
History ol Godmanchester (1831).
G 0 D 0 U 0 , a market town of Hungary', in the county of Pest-
Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 23 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
5875. Goddllo is the summer residence of the Hungarian royal
family, and the royal castle, built in the second half of the 18th
centuryiby Prince Anton Grassalkovich, was, with the beautiful
domain, presented by die Hungarian nation to King Francis
Joseph I. after the coronation in 1867. In its park there are a
great number of stags and wild boars. Godoll6 is a favourite
summer resort of the inhabitants of Budapest. In its vicinity
is the famous place of pilgrimage M&ria-Besnyo. with a fine
Franciscan monastery, which contains the tombs of the Grassal¬
kovich family.
GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, Earl of (r. 1645-
1712), was a cadet of an ancient family of Cornwall. At the
Restoration he was introduced into the royal household by
Charles 11 ., with whom he had previously become a favourite,
and he also at the same period entered the House of Commons as
member,for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the
House, and. when he did so, only in the briefest manner, he
gradually acquired a reputation as its chief if not its only financial
authority. In March 1679 he was appointed a member of the
privy council, and in the September following he was promoted,
along with Viscount Hyde (afterwards carl of Rochester) and
the earl of Sunderland, to the chief management of affairs.
Though he voted for the Exclusion Bill in 1680, he was continued
in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in September
1684 he was created Baron Godolphin of Rialton, and succeeded
Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of
James II. he was made chamberlain to the queen, and, along
with Rochester and Sunderland, enjoyed the king’s special
confidence. In 1687 he was named commissioner of the treasury.
He was one of the council of five appointed by King James to
represent him in London, when he went to join the army after
the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England, and, along
with Halifax and Nottingham, he was afterwards appointed a
commissioner to treat with the prince. On the accession of
William, though he only obtained the third seat at the treasury
board, he had virtually the chief control of affairs. He retired
in March 1690, but was recalled on the November following
and appointed first lord. While holding this office he for several
years continued, in conjunction with Marlborough, a treacherous
intercourse with James II., and is said even to have anticipated
Marlborough in disclosing to James intelligence regarding the
intended expedition against Brest. Godolphin was not only a
Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife
of James II. He also wished to be safe whatever happened,
and his treachery in this case was mostly due to caution. After
Fenwick's confession in 1696 regarding the attempted assassina¬
tion of William III., Godolphin, who was compromised, was in¬
duced to tender his resignation ; but when the Tories came into
power in 1700, he was again appointed lord treasurer and
retained office for about a year. Though not a favourite with
Queen Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old
office, on the strong recommendation of Marlborough. He also
in 1704 received the honour of knighthood, and in December
GODOY
I7d6 he wit created Viscount Rialton and earl of Godolphin.
Though a Tory he had an active share in the intrigues: which
gradually led to the predominance of the Whigs in alliance
with Marlborough.' The influence of the Marlbornughs with the
queen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs
Masham and Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of
the Marlboroughs those of Godolphin were indissolubly united.
The services of both were so appreciated by the nation that
they were able for a time to regard the loss of the queen’s favour
with indifference, and even in 1708 to procure the expulsion of
Harley from office ; but after the Tory reaction which followed
the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel, who abused Godolphin under
the name of Volpone, the queen made use of the opportunity
to take the initiatory step towards delivering herself from
the irksome thraldom of Marlborough by abruptly dismissing
Godolphin from office on the 7th of August 1710. He died on
the 15th of September 1712.
Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it
under four sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financial
matters ; for if latterly he was in some degree indebted for his
promotion to the support of Marlborough, he received that
support mainly because Marlborough recognised that for the
prosecution of England’s foreign wars his financial abilities were
an indispensable necessity. He was cool, reserved and cautious,
but his prudence was less associated with high sagacity than
traceable to the weakness of his personal antipathies and pre¬
judices, and his freedom from political predilections. Perhaps
it was his unlikeness to Marlborough in that moral characteristic
which so tainted Marlborough’s greatness that rendered possible
between them a friendship so intimate and undisturbed: he
was, it would appear, exceptionally devoid of the passion of
avarice ; and so little advantage did he take of his opportunities
of aggrandizement that, though his style of living was un¬
ostentatious,—and in connexion with his favourite pastimes
of horse-racing, card-playing and cock-fighting he gained
perhaps more than he lost,—all that he left behind him did not,
according to the duchess of Marlborough, amount to more than
£12,000.
Godolphin married Margaret Blaggc, the pious lady whose
life was written by Evelyn, on the 16th of May 1675, and married
again after her death in 1678. His son and successor, Francis
(1678-1766), held various offices at court, and was lord privy
seal from 1735 to 1740. He married Henrietta Churchill (d,
1733). daughter of the duke of Marlborough, who in 1722 became
in her own right duchess of Marlborough. He died without male
issue in January 1766, when the earldom became extinct, and
the estates passed to Thomas Osborne, 4th duke of Leeds, the
husband of the earl’s daughter Mary, whose descendant is the
present representative of the Godolphins.
A life of Godolphin was published in 188H in London by the Hon.
H. Elliot.
GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA,
MANUEL DE (1767-1851), duke of El Alcudia and prince of the
Peace, Spanish royal favourite and minister, was born at Badajoz
on the 12th of May 1767. His father, Don Jose de Godoy, was
the head of a very ancient but impoverished family of nobles
in Estremadura. His mother, whose maiden- name was Maria
Antonia Alvarez de Faria, belonged to a Portuguese noble family.
Manuel boasts in his memoirs that he had the best masters, but
it is certain that he received only the very slight education
usually given at that time to .the sons of provincial nobles.
In 1784 he entered the Guardia de Corps, a body of gentlemen
who acted as the immediate body-guard of the king. His well-
built and stalwart person, his handsome foolish face, together
with a certain geniality of character which he must have
possessed, earned him the favour of Maria Luisa of Parma, the
princess of Asturias, a coarse, passionate woman who was much
neglected by her husband, who on his part cared for nothing but
hunting.
When King Charles III. died in 1788, Godoy’s fortune was
soon made. The princess of Asturias, now queen, understood
how to manage her husband Chades IV. Godoy says in his
*75
memoirs that the king, who: had been carefully kept apart from
affairs during his father’s life, and who disliked his father’s
favourite minister Floridablanca, wished to have a creature of
his own. This statement is no doubt true as far as it,goes. But
it -requires to be completed by the further detail that the queen
put her lover in her husband’s way, and that the king was guided
by them, when he thought he was ruling for himself through
a subservient minister. In some respects King Charles was
obstinate, and Godoy is probably right in saying that he never
was an absolute “• viceroy,” and that he could not always secure
the removal of colleagues whom he knew to be his enemies.
He could only rule by obeying. Godoy adopted without scruple
this method of pushing his fortunes. When the king was set on a
particular course, he followed rt ; the execution was left to him
and the queen. His pliability endeared him'to his’'master,
whose lasting affection he earned. In practice he commonly
succeeded in inspiring the wishes which he then proceeded to
gratify. From the very beginning of the new reign he was
promoted in the army with scandalous rapidity, made duke of
El Alcudia, and in 1792 minister under the premiership of
Aranda, whom he succeeded in displacing by the close of the
year.
His official life is fairly divided by himself into three periods.
Prom 1792 to 1798 he was premier. In the latter year his un¬
popularity and the intrigues of the French government, which
had taken a dislike to him, led to his temporary retirement,
without, however, any diminution of the king’s personal favour.
He asserts that he had no wish to return to office, but letters
sent by him to the queen show that he begged for employment.
They are written in a very unpleasant mixture of gush and
vulgar familiarity. In 1801 he returned to office, and until
1807 he was the executant of the disastrous policy of the court.
The third period of his public life is the last year, 1807-1808,
when he was desperately striving for his place between the
aggressive intervention of Napoleon on the one hand, and the
growing hatred of the nation, organized behind, and about, the
prince of Asturias, Ferdinand, On the 17th of March 1808 a
popular outbreak at Aranjucz drove him into hiding. When
driven out by hunger and thirst he was recognized and arrested.
By Ferdinand’s orde r he was kept in prison, till Napoleon
demanded that he should be sent to Bayonne. Here he rejoined
his master and mistress. He remained with them till Charles IV.
died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. The rest of
Godoy’s life was spent in poverty and obscurity. After the
death of Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he returned to Madrid, and
endeavoured to secure the restoration of his property confiscated
in 1808. Part of it was the estate of the Soto de Roma, granted
by the cortes to the duke of Wellington. He failed, and during
his last years lived on a small pension granted him by Louis
Philippe. He died in Paris on the 4th of October 1851.
As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for the length of his
hold on the affection of his sovereigns, and for its completeness.
Latterly he was supported rather by the husband than by the
wife. He got rid of Aranda by adopting, in order to please the
king, a policy Which tended to bring on war with France. When
the war proved disastrous, he made the peace of Basel, and was
created prince of the Peace for his services. Then he helped to
make war with England, and the disasters which followed only
made him dearer to the king. Indeed it became a main object
with Charles IV. to protect “ Manuelito ” from popular hatred,
and if possible secure him a principality. The queen endured
his infidelities to her, which were flagrant. The king arranged
a marriage for him with Dona Teresa de Bourbon, daughter of the
infante Don Luis by a morganatic marriage, though ha was
probably already married to Dona Josefa Tudo, and certainly
continued to live with her. Godoy, in his memoirs, lays claim
to have done much for Spanish agriculture and industry, but
he did little more than issue proclamations and appoint officers.
His intentions may have been good, but the policy of his govern¬
ment was financially ruinous. In his private life he was not
only profligate and profuse, but childishly ostentatious. The
best that can be said for him is that he was good-natured, and,
176 GODROON—GODWIN, MARY
did his best to restrain the Inquisition and the purely reactionary
parties.
Authorities. —Godoy's Memoirs were published in Spanish,
English and French in 1836. A general account of his career will
be found in the Memoim sur la Revolution d'Esfiagne, by the Abbe
de Pradt (1816).
GODROON, or Gadroon (Fr. godron, of unknown etymology),
in architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from
raised work on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead
and reel, in which the bead is often carved with ornament.
In England the term is constantly used by auctioneers to describe
the raised convex decorations under the bowl of stone or terra¬
cotta vases. The godroons radiate from the vertical support
of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl.
GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633), English divine, son of
Thomas Godwin, bishop 01 Bath and Wells, was born at Hanning-
ton, Northamptonshire, in 1562. He was elected student of
Ovist Church, OxfoHl, in 1578, took his bachelor’s degree in
1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two Somerset¬
shire livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In
1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour
through Wales. He was created bachelor of divinity in 1593, and
doctor in 1595. In 1601 he published his Catalogue of the Bishops
of England since the first planting of the Christian Religion in this
Island, a work which procured him in the same year the bishopric
of Llandaff. A second edition appeared in 1615, and in 1616 he
published an edition in Latin with a dedication to King James,
who in the following year conferred upon him the bishopric of
Hereford. The work was republished, with a continuation by
William Richardson, in 1743. In 16x6 Godwin published Rermn
Anglicarum, Henrico VJU., Edwardo VI. et Maria regi.antibus,
Annales, which was afterwards translated and published by his
son Morgan under the title Annales of England (1630). He is also
the author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthum¬
ously m 1638, and entitled The Man in the Moone, or a Discourse
of a Voyage thither, by Domingo Gonsales, written apparently
some time between the years 1599 and 1603. In this production
Godwin not only declares himself a believer in the Copernican
system, but adopts so far the principles of the law of gravitation
as to suppose that the earth’s attraction diminishes with the
distance. The work, which displays considerable fancy and wit,
was translated into French, and was imitated in several important
particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from
Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of
Gulliver’s voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin’s,.V mhcj'k.v
inanimaius Utopiac, originally published in 1629 and again in
1657,- seems to have been the prototype of John Wilkins’s
Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger, which appeared in
1641. He died, after a lingering illness, in April 1633.
GODWIN, MAHY WOLUTONECRAFT (1759-1797), English
miscellaneous writer, was bom at Hoxton, on the 27th of April
1759. Her family was of Irish extraction, and Mary’s grand¬
father, who was a respectable manufacturer in Spitalfields,
realized the property which his son squandered. Her mother,
Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father,
Edward John Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of
his patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only
plunged him into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering,
shifty life. The family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to
Essex, to Beverley in Yorkshire, to Laughame, Pembrokeshire,
and back to London again.
After Mrs Wollstonecraft’s death in 1780, soon followed by her
htlsband’s second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina
and Eliza, sought to earn their own livelihood. The sisters
were all clever women—Mary and Eliza'far above the average
—but their opportunities of culture had been few. Mary,
the eldest, went in the. 'first instance to live with her friend
Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like
Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long
as she lived with too .Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn
money by taking in needle#t»k, while Fanny painted in water¬
colours. Everina went to live with her brother Edward, and
Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved, unhappy marriage with a
Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards obtained, and the
sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house, first at Islington,
afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school, which was
carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years. During
their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr
Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, “ treated her with particular
kindness and attention.”
In x^sFanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went
with Win to Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for
Mary to nurse her. “ The loss of Fanny,” as she said in a letter to
Mrs Skeys’s brother* George Blood, “ was sufficient of itself to have
cast a cloud over my brightest days. . . . I have lost all relish for
pleasure,and life seems a burden almost too heavy to be endured.”
Her first novel, Mary, a Fiction (1788), was intended to com¬
memorate her friendship with Fanny. After closing the school at
Newington Green, Mary became governess in the family of Lord
Kingsboroagh, in Ireland. Her pupils were much attached to her,
especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel; and
indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her
after one year's service that the children loved their governess
better than their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself
to literary work, and she was encouraged by Johnson, the
publisher in St Paul’s churchyard, for whom she acted as literary
adviser. She also undertook translations, chiefly from the French.
The Elements of Morality (1790) from the German of Salzmann,
illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for children, and
Lavater’s Physiognomy were among her translations. Her
Original Stories from Real Life were published in 1791, and, with
illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared A Vindication
of the Rights of Woman, the work with which her name is always
associated.
It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated
to M. Talleyrand Perigord, late bishop of Autun, Mary Wollstone¬
craft still believed him to be sincere, and working in the same
direction as herself. In the dedication she states the “main
argument ” of the work, “ built on this simple principle that, if
woman be not prepared by education to become the companion
of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must
be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its
influence or general practice.” In carrying out this argument she
used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused all, or
nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution of
marriage, nor assail orthodox religion ; her book was really a plea
for equidity of education, passing into one for state education and
for the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the
assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she
asserted that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is
the lasting, happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the
teaching of Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an
ardent disciple.
Mrs Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch
the progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in
1792. Godwin, in his memoir of his wife, considers that the
change of residence may have been prompted by the discovery
that she was becoming attached to Henry Fuseli, but there is
little to confirm this surmise ; indeed, it was first proposed that
she should go to Paris in company with him and his wife, nor
was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She re¬
mained in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication
with England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in
the spring or summer of 1793 Captain Gilbert Imlay,an American,
became acquainted with Mary—an acquaintance which ended in
a more intimate connexion. There was no legal ceremony of
marriage, and it is doubtful whether such a marriage would have
been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay’s wife, and
Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, “ Mary Imlay, my
best friend and wife.” In August 1793 Imlay was called to Havre
on business, and was absent for some months, during which
time most of the letters published after her death by Godwin
were written. Towards the end of the year she joined Imlay at
Havre, and there in the spring of 1794 she gave birth to a girl,
GODWIN, WO
who received the game of Fartny, in memory of the dear friend of
her youth. - In this year she published the first volume of a never
completed Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution.
Imlay became involved in a multitude of speculations, and his
affection for Mary and their child was already waning. He left
Mary for some months at Havre. In June 179$, after joining
him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay.
Her letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were
afterwards published. She returned to England late in 1795,
and found letters awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his inten¬
tion to separate from her, and offering to settle an annuity on her
and her child. For herself she rejected this offer with scorn:
“ From you,” she wrote, “ I will not receive anything more. I
am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your beneficence.”
They met again, and for a short time lived together, until the
discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own
roof drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself
by leaping from Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen.
Imlay now completely deserted her, although she continued to
bear his name.
In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London,
supporting herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr
Johnson, she met William Godwin. A friendship sprang up
between them,—a friendship, as he himself says, which “ melted
into love.” Godwin states that “ ideas which he is now willing
to denominate prejudices made him by no means willing to
conform to the ceremony of marriage ”; but these prejudices
were overcome, and they were married at St Pancras church on
the 29th of March 1797. And now Mary had a season of real
calm in her stormy existence. Godwin, for once only in his life,
was stirred by passion, and his admiration for his wife equalled
his affection. But their happiness was of short duration. The
birth of her daughter Mary, afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe
Shelley, on the 30th of August 1797, proved fatal, and Mrs
Godwin died on the 10th of September following. She was
buried in the churchyard of Old St Pancras, but her remains
were afterwards removed by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard
of St Peter’s, Bournemouth.
Her principal published works are as follows:— Thoughts on the
Education of Daughters, . . . 1787) ; The Female Reader (selections)
(1789); Original Stories from Real Life (1791); An Historical ana
Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and
the effects it has produced in Europe, vol. i. (no more published)
(1790); Vindication of the Rights 0/ Woman (1792); Vindication
of the Rights of Man (1793) ; Mary, a Fiction (1788); Letters written
during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark (1796);
Posthumous Works (4 vols., 1798). It is impossible to trace the many
articles contributed by her to periodical literature.
A memoir of her life waB published by Godwin in 1798. A large
portion of C. Kegan Paul's work, William Godwin, his Friends and
Contemporaries, was devoted to her, and an edition of the Letters to
Imlay (1879), of which the first edition was published by Godwin,
is prefaced by a somewhat fuller memoir. See also E. Dowden,
The French Revolution and English Literature (1897) pp. 82 et seq. ;
E. R. Pennell, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1885), in the Eminent
Women Series ; E. R. Clough, A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and
the Rights of Woman (1898); an edition of her Original Stories (1906),
with William Blake's illustrations and an introduction by E. V.
Lucas ; and the Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlay
(1908), with an introduction by Roger Ingpen.
GODWIN, WILLIAM (1756-1836), English political and
miscellaneous writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was bom
on the 3rd of March 1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His
family came on both sides of middle-class people, and it was
probably only as a joke that Godwin, a stem political reformer
and philosophical radical, attempted to trace his pedigree to a
time before the Norman conquest and the great earl Godwine.
Both parents were strict Calvinists. The father died young, and
never inspired love dr much regret in his son; but in spite of
wide differences df opinion, tender affection always subsisted
between William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an
advanced age.
William Godwin was educated for his father’s profession at
Hoxton Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the
biographer and Dr Abraham Rees of the Cyclopaedia, and was
at first more Calvinistic than his teachers, becoming a Sande-
*77
rnaniin, or follower of John Gks (?.».), whom he describe! as
“a celebrated north-country apostle who, after Calvin had
damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a
scheme for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers
of Calvin." He then acted as a minister at Ware, Stowmarket
and Beaconsfield. At Stowmarket the teachings of the French
philosophers were bronght before him by a friend, Joseph Fawoet,
who held strong republican opinions. He came to London in
1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate society with his
pen—a real enthusiast, who shrank theoretically from no con¬
clusions from the premises Which he laid down. He adopted
the principles of the Encyclopaedists, and hie own^um was the
complete overthrow of all existing institutions,, {wlitictl, social
and religious. He believed, however, that calm discussion was
the only thing needful to carry every change, and from the
beginning to the end of his career he deprecated every approach
to violence. He was a philosophic radical in the strictest sense
of the term.
His first published work was an anonymous Life of Lord
Chatham (1783). Under the inappropriate title Sketches of
History (1784) he published under his own name six sermons
on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and Jesus, in which, though
writing in the character of an orthodox Calvinist, he enunciates
the proposition “ God Himself has no right to be a tyrant.”
Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for the
Annual Register and other periodicals, producing also three
novels now forgotten. The “ Sketches of English History ”
written for the Annual Register from 1785 onward still deserve
study. He joined a club called the “Revolutionists," and
associated much with Lord Stanhope, Horne Tooke and Hol-
croft. His clerical character was now completely dropped.
In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science,
The Inquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on
General Virtue and Happiness. Although this work is little
known and less read now, it marks a phase in English thought.
Godwin could never have been himself a worker on the active
stage of life. But he was none the less a power behind the
workers, and for its political effect, Political Justice takes its
place with Milton’s Areopagitica, with Locke’s Essay on Educa¬
tion and with Rousseau’s Fmile. By the words “ political
justice ” the author meant “ the adoption of any principle of
morality and truth into the practice of a community," and the
work was therefore an inquiry into the principles of society, of
government and of morals. For many years Godwin had been
“ satisfied that monarchy was a species of government unavoid¬
ably corrupt,” and from desiring a government of the simplest
construction, he gradually came to consider that “ government
by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original
mind.” Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there are
no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil,
be considered that “ our virtues and our vices may be traced
to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these
incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice
would be extirpated from the world.” All control of man by man
was more or less intolerable, and the day would come when each
man, doing what seems right in his own eyes, would also be
doing what is in fact best for the community, because all will be
guided by principles of pure reason. But all was to be done by
discussion, and matured change resulting from discussion.
Hence, while Godwin thoroughly approved of the philosophic
schemes of the precursors of the Revolution, he was as far
removed as Burke himself from agreeing with the way in which
they were carried out. So logical and uncompromising a thinker
as Godwin could not go far in the discussion of abstract questions
without exciting the moat lively opposition in matters of detailed
opinion. An affectionate son, and ever ready to give of his
hard-earned income to more than one ne’er-dowell brother, he
maintained that natural relationship had no claim on man, nor
was gratitude to parents or benefactors any part of justice or
virtue. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe,
he argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of 1
death. Property was to belong to him who most wanted it J
176 GODROON—GODWIN, MARY
did his best to restrain the Inquisition and the purely reactionary
parties.
Authorities. —Godoy's Memoirs were published in Spanish,
English and French in 1836. A general account of his career will
be found in the Memoim sur la Revolution d'Esfiagne, by the Abbe
de Pradt (1816).
GODROON, or Gadroon (Fr. godron, of unknown etymology),
in architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from
raised work on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead
and reel, in which the bead is often carved with ornament.
In England the term is constantly used by auctioneers to describe
the raised convex decorations under the bowl of stone or terra¬
cotta vases. The godroons radiate from the vertical support
of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl.
GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633), English divine, son of
Thomas Godwin, bishop 01 Bath and Wells, was born at Hanning-
ton, Northamptonshire, in 1562. He was elected student of
Ovist Church, OxfoHl, in 1578, took his bachelor’s degree in
1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two Somerset¬
shire livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In
1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour
through Wales. He was created bachelor of divinity in 1593, and
doctor in 1595. In 1601 he published his Catalogue of the Bishops
of England since the first planting of the Christian Religion in this
Island, a work which procured him in the same year the bishopric
of Llandaff. A second edition appeared in 1615, and in 1616 he
published an edition in Latin with a dedication to King James,
who in the following year conferred upon him the bishopric of
Hereford. The work was republished, with a continuation by
William Richardson, in 1743. In 16x6 Godwin published Rermn
Anglicarum, Henrico VJU., Edwardo VI. et Maria regi.antibus,
Annales, which was afterwards translated and published by his
son Morgan under the title Annales of England (1630). He is also
the author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthum¬
ously m 1638, and entitled The Man in the Moone, or a Discourse
of a Voyage thither, by Domingo Gonsales, written apparently
some time between the years 1599 and 1603. In this production
Godwin not only declares himself a believer in the Copernican
system, but adopts so far the principles of the law of gravitation
as to suppose that the earth’s attraction diminishes with the
distance. The work, which displays considerable fancy and wit,
was translated into French, and was imitated in several important
particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from
Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of
Gulliver’s voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin’s,.V mhcj'k.v
inanimaius Utopiac, originally published in 1629 and again in
1657,- seems to have been the prototype of John Wilkins’s
Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger, which appeared in
1641. He died, after a lingering illness, in April 1633.
GODWIN, MAHY WOLUTONECRAFT (1759-1797), English
miscellaneous writer, was bom at Hoxton, on the 27th of April
1759. Her family was of Irish extraction, and Mary’s grand¬
father, who was a respectable manufacturer in Spitalfields,
realized the property which his son squandered. Her mother,
Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father,
Edward John Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of
his patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only
plunged him into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering,
shifty life. The family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to
Essex, to Beverley in Yorkshire, to Laughame, Pembrokeshire,
and back to London again.
After Mrs Wollstonecraft’s death in 1780, soon followed by her
htlsband’s second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina
and Eliza, sought to earn their own livelihood. The sisters
were all clever women—Mary and Eliza'far above the average
—but their opportunities of culture had been few. Mary,
the eldest, went in the. 'first instance to live with her friend
Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like
Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long
as she lived with too .Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn
money by taking in needle#t»k, while Fanny painted in water¬
colours. Everina went to live with her brother Edward, and
Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved, unhappy marriage with a
Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards obtained, and the
sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house, first at Islington,
afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school, which was
carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years. During
their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr
Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, “ treated her with particular
kindness and attention.”
In x^sFanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went
with Win to Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for
Mary to nurse her. “ The loss of Fanny,” as she said in a letter to
Mrs Skeys’s brother* George Blood, “ was sufficient of itself to have
cast a cloud over my brightest days. . . . I have lost all relish for
pleasure,and life seems a burden almost too heavy to be endured.”
Her first novel, Mary, a Fiction (1788), was intended to com¬
memorate her friendship with Fanny. After closing the school at
Newington Green, Mary became governess in the family of Lord
Kingsboroagh, in Ireland. Her pupils were much attached to her,
especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel; and
indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her
after one year's service that the children loved their governess
better than their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself
to literary work, and she was encouraged by Johnson, the
publisher in St Paul’s churchyard, for whom she acted as literary
adviser. She also undertook translations, chiefly from the French.
The Elements of Morality (1790) from the German of Salzmann,
illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for children, and
Lavater’s Physiognomy were among her translations. Her
Original Stories from Real Life were published in 1791, and, with
illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared A Vindication
of the Rights of Woman, the work with which her name is always
associated.
It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated
to M. Talleyrand Perigord, late bishop of Autun, Mary Wollstone¬
craft still believed him to be sincere, and working in the same
direction as herself. In the dedication she states the “main
argument ” of the work, “ built on this simple principle that, if
woman be not prepared by education to become the companion
of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must
be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its
influence or general practice.” In carrying out this argument she
used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused all, or
nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution of
marriage, nor assail orthodox religion ; her book was really a plea
for equidity of education, passing into one for state education and
for the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the
assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she
asserted that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is
the lasting, happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the
teaching of Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an
ardent disciple.
Mrs Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch
the progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in
1792. Godwin, in his memoir of his wife, considers that the
change of residence may have been prompted by the discovery
that she was becoming attached to Henry Fuseli, but there is
little to confirm this surmise ; indeed, it was first proposed that
she should go to Paris in company with him and his wife, nor
was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She re¬
mained in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication
with England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in
the spring or summer of 1793 Captain Gilbert Imlay,an American,
became acquainted with Mary—an acquaintance which ended in
a more intimate connexion. There was no legal ceremony of
marriage, and it is doubtful whether such a marriage would have
been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay’s wife, and
Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, “ Mary Imlay, my
best friend and wife.” In August 1793 Imlay was called to Havre
on business, and was absent for some months, during which
time most of the letters published after her death by Godwin
were written. Towards the end of the year she joined Imlay at
Havre, and there in the spring of 1794 she gave birth to a girl,
iQOJWtNE^-GODWIGF
in 1854. At Oxford as a pupil of WiUkmBuckland he became
deeply interested iageology, and soon afterwards, becoming
acquainted with De la Beche, he was inspired by that great
master, and assisted bun by -making a geological map of the
neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, which was embodied in the
Geological Survey map. He also published an elaborate aiemoir
"On the Geology of the South-East of Devonshire ” (Trim.
Geol. Sac. ser. >, voL viii.), His arttention wasnext directed to
the Cretaceous rocks of Surrey, his home-county, his estates
being situated at Chilworth and Shalford near Guildford. Later
he dealt with the superficial accumulations bordering the English
Channel, and with the erratic boulders of Selsea. In ,1855 he
brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated
paper “ On the possible Extension of the Coal-Measures beneath
the South-Eastern part of England,’’ in which he pointed out
on well-considered theoretical grounds the likelihood of coal-
measures being some day reached in that area. In this article
he also advocated the freshwater origin of the Old Red Sand¬
stone, and discussed the relations of that formation, and of the
Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected
F.R.S. in 1849, and in 1862 he was awarded the Wollaston medal
by the Geological Society of London, on which occasion he was
styled by Sir R. I. Murchison “ pre-eminently the physical
geographer of bygone periods.” He died at Shalford House
near Guildford on the 25th of November 1884.
His son, Lieut.-Colonel Henry Haversham Godwin-Austen
(b. 1834), entered the army in 1851, and served for many years
on the Trigonometrical Survey of India, retiring in 1877. He
gave much attention to geology, but is more especially dis¬
tinguished for his researches on the natural history of India
and as the author of The Land and Freshwater Mollusca 0/ India
(1882-1887).
GODWINS (d. 1053), son of Wulfnoth, earl of the West-
Saxons, the leading Englishman in the first half of the nth
century. His birth and origin are utterly uncertain; but he
rose to power early in Canute’s reign and was an earl in 1018.
He received in marriage Gytha, a connexion of the king’s, and
in 1020 became earl of the West-Saxons. On the death of Canute
in 1035 he joined with Queen Emma in supporting the claim
of Hardicanute, the son of Canute and Emma, to the crown of
his father, in opposition to Leofric and the northern party who
supported Harold Harcfoot (see Hardicanute). While together
they held Wessex for Hardicanute, the setheling Alfred, son of
Emma by her former husband ALthelred II., landed in England
in the hope of winning back his father’s crown ; but falling into
the hands of Godwine, he and his followers were cruelly done to
death. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042 Godwine was
foremost in promoting the election of Edward (the Confessor)
to the vacant throne. He was now the first man in the kingdom,
though his power was still balanced by that of the other great
earls, Leofric of Mercia and Siward of Northumberland. His
sons Sweyn and Harold were promoted to earldoms ; and his
daughter Eadgyth was married to the king (1045). His policy
was strongly national in opposition to the marked Normanizing
tendencies of the king. Between him and Edward’s foreign
favourites, particularly Robert of Jumteges, there was deadly
feud. The appointment of Robert to the archbishopric of Canter¬
bury in 1051 marks the decline of Godwine’s power; and in the
same year a series of outrages committed by one of the king’s
foreign favourites led to a breach between the king and the earl,
which culminated in the exile of the latter with all his family (see
Edward thf. Confessor). But next year Godwine returned in
triumph ; and at a great meeting held outside London he and
his family were restored to all their offices and possessions,
and the archbishop and many other Normans were banished.
In the following year Godwine was smitten with a fit at the
king’s table, and died three days later on the 15th of April 1053.
Godwine appears to have bad seven sons, three of whom—
King Harold, Gyrth and Leofwine—were killed at Hastings;
two others, Wulfnoth and AUfgar, are of little importance ;
another was Earl Tostig (#.0.). The eldest son was Sweyn, or
Swegen (d. 2052),. who was outlawed for seducing Eadgifu,
abbess of Leominster.. After fighting for the king of Denmark
he returned to England in 1049. when bis murder Of his cousin
Beam compelled him to leave England for the second time.
In 1050, however; he regained his earldom, and m 1051 he shared
his father’s exile. To atone for the murder of Beam, Sweyn
went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on the return journey
he-died on the 39th of September 1052, meeting his death,
according to one account, at the hands of the Saracens.
GODWIT, a word of unknown origin, the name commonly
applied to a marsh-bird in great repute, when fattened, for the
table, and formerly abundant inUho-fen^af Narfolk, .'the Isle
of Ely and Lincolnshire. In Turner’s days (1544) it was worth
three times as much as a snipe, and at the same period Belon
said of it—-“ C’est vn Oyseau es delioes des Franpoys.” Casaubon.
who Latinized its name “ Dei ingenwm " (Ephemeriies, rgth
September 1611), was told by the “ ornithotraphacus ” he visited
at Wisbech that in London it fetched twenty pence. Its fame
as a delicacy is perpetuated by many later writers, Ben jonson
among them, and Pennant says that in his time (1766) it sold for
half-a-crown or five shillings. Under the name godwit two
perfectly distinct species of British birds were included, but that
which seems to have been especially prized is known to modem
ornithologists as the black-tailed godwit, Limosa aegocephala,
formerly called, from its loud cry, a yarwhelp, 1 shrieker or
barker, in the districts it inhabited. The practice of netting
this bird in large numbers during the spring and summer, coupled
with the gradual reclamation of the fens, to which it resorted,
has now rendered it but a visitor in England ; and it probably
ceased from breeding regularly in England in 1824 or thereabouts,
though under favourable conditions it may have occasionally
laid its eggs for some thirty years later or more (Stevenson,
Birds oj Norfolk, ii. 250). This godwit is a species of wide
range, reaching Iceland, where it is called Jardraeka (=earth-
raker), in summer, and occurring numerously in India in winter.
Its chief breeding-quarters seem to extend from Holland east¬
wards to the south of Russia. The second British species is that
which is known as the bar-tailed godwit, L. lapponica, and this
seems to have never been more than a bird of double passage
in the United Kingdom, arriving in large flocks on the south
coast about the 12th of May, and, after staying a few days,
proceeding to the north-eastward. It is known to breed in
Lapland, but its eggs are of great rarity. Towards autumn
the young visit the English coasts, and a few of them remain,
together with some of the other species, in favourable situations
throughout the winter. One of the load names by which the
bar-tailed godwit is known to the Norfolk gunners is scamell,
a word which, in the mouth of Caliban ( Tempest , 11. ii.), has been
the cause of much perplexity to Shakespearian critics.
The godwits belong to the group Limicolae, and are about as
big as a tame pigeon, but possess long legs, and a long bill with
a slight upward turn. It is believed that in the genus Limosa
the female is larger than the male. While the winter plumage
is of a sober greyish-brown, the breeding-dress is marked by a
predominance of bright bay or chestnut, rendering the wearer
a very beautiful object. The black-tailed godwit, though varying
a good deal in size, is constantly larger than the bar-tailed, and
especially longer in the legs. The species may be further distin¬
guished by the former having the proximal third of the tail-quills
pure white, and the distal two-thirds black, with a narrow white
margin, while the latter has the same feathers barred with
black and white alternately for nearly their Whole length.
’ America possesses two species of the genus, the very latge
marbled godwit or marlin, L. fedoa, easily recognized by its size
and the buff colour of its axillaries, and the smaller Hudsonian
godwit, L. kudsonica, which has its axillaries of a deep black.
This last, though less numerous than its congener, seems to
range over the whole of the continent, breeding in the extreme
north, while it has been obtained also in the Strait of Magellan
and the Falkland Islands. The first seems not to go farther
southward than the Antilles and the Isthmus of Panama.
1 This name seemB to have survived in Whelp Moor, near Brandon,
in Suffolk.
x8o GGEBEN—GOES. D, DE
P r om Asia, or at least its eastern part, two species have
been described. One of than, L. melanumdes, differs only
from L. aegocephtda in its smaller sise, and is believed to breed
in Amurknd, wintering in the islands of the Pacific, New
Zealand and Australia. The other, L. nropygialis, is closely
allied t» and often mistaken for L. lappomcc, from which it
chiefly differs by having the rump barred like the tail. This
was found breeding in the extreme north of Siberia by Dr von
Middendorff, and ranges to Australia, whence it was, like the
last, first described by Gouid. (A.N.)
GOEBEN, AVGUST KARL VON (1816-1880), Prussian
general of infantry, came of old Hanoverian stock. Born at
Stade on the roth of December 1816, he aspired from his earliest
years to die Prussian service rather than that of hk own country,
and at die age of seventeen obtained a commission in the 24th
regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope there
for the activities of a young Mid energetic subaltern, and, leaving
the service in 1836, he entered the Carlist army campaigning in
Spain, In the five campaigns which he made in the service of
Eton Carlos he had many and various vicissitudes of fortune.
He had not fought for two months when he fell, severely wounded,
into the hands of the Spankh Royal troops. After eight months’
detention he escaped, but it was not long before he was captured
again. This time his imprisonment was long and painful, and
on two occasions he was compelled to draw lots for his life with
hk fellow-captives. When released, he served till 1840 with
distinction. In that year he made his way back, a beggar
without means or clothing, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant-
colonel was glad to be re-admitted into the Prussian service as a
second lieutenant, but he was still young, and few subalterns
could at the age of twenty-four claim five years’ meritorious
war service. In a few years we find him serving as captain on the
Great General Staff, and in 1848 he had the good fortune to be
transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his immediate
superior being Major von Moltke. The two “ coming men ”
became fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed.
In the Baden insurrection Goeben served with distinction on the
staff of Prince William, the future emperor. Staff and regimental
duty (as usual in the Prussian service) alternated for some years
after this, till in 1863 he became major-general commanding the
a6th infantry brigade. In i860, it should be mentioned, he
was present with the Spankh troops in Morocco, and took part
in the battle of Tetuan.
In the first of Prussia's great wars (1864) he distingukhed
himself at the head of hk brigade at Rackebiill and Sonderburg.
In the war of 1866 Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded
the 13th division, of which hk old brigade formed part, and,
in this higher sphere, once more displayed the qualities of a born
leader and skilful tactician. He held almost independent
command with conspicuous success in the actions of Deimbach,
Laufach, Kksingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber-
Bischofsheim and Wiirzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed
him at the head of die VIII. (Rhineland) army corps, forming
part of the First Army under Stemmetz. It was hk resolute and
energetic leading that contributed mainly to the victory of
Spicheren (6th August), and won the only laurels gained on the
Prussian right wingat Gravek>tte(t 8th August). UnderManteuffel
the VIII. corps took part in the operations about Amiens and
Bapaume, and on the 8th of January 1871 Goeben succeeded
that general in the command of the First Army, with which he
had served throughout the campaign as a corps commander.
A fortnight later he had brought the war in northern France
to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of St Quentin
(18th and 19th January 1871). The dose of die Franco-German
War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the
victorious army. He was colonel of the 28th infantry, and had
the grand cross of the Iron Cross. He commanded die VIII.
corps at Coblenz until hk death in 1880.
General von Goeben loft many writings. Hk memoirs are to
be found in hk worles Vie* Jakre in Sptmien (Hanover, 1841)
Reiser mi Lagerbriefe am Spmien uni vom spanischen Metre in
Marokko (Hanover, 1863) and in the Darmstadt AJlgmeine
MiliUtneiUmg. The former French port (Queuleu) at Metz was
renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th infantry bears hk name.
A statue of Goeben by Schaper was erected at Coblenz in 1884.
See G. Zemin, Dot Laban das Generals August van Gosben (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1895-1897); H. Barth, A. von Goeben (Berlin, 1906); and, for
his share in the war of 1870-73 ; H. Kunz, Dei Feldxug im N. uni
Jv.lv. Frankreichs tSyo-isbi (Berlin, 1889), and the 14th Monograph
of the Great General Staff (I(tor).
OOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836-1909), Dutch orientalist,
was bom in Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early
age to the study of oriental languages and became especially
proficient m Arabic, under the guidance of Dozy and Jnynboll,
to whom he was afterwards an intimate friend and colleague.
He took hk degree of doctor at Leiden m i860, and then studied
for a year in Oxford, where he examined and collated the Bodle«an
MSS. of Idrisf (part being published in 1866, ih collaboration
with R. P. Dozy, as Description de TAfrique at it I’Espagne).
About the same time he wrote Mimitts de I’Mstoire tt it la
geographic orientates, and edited Enpugnatio regienum. In
1883,00 the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leiden,
retiring in 1906. He died on the 17th of May 1909. Though
perhaps not a teacher Of the first order, he wielded a great
influence during hk long professoriate not only over his pupils,
but over theologians and eastern administrators who attended
his lectures, and his many editions of Arabic texts have been of
the highest value to scholars, the most important being his great
edition of Tabari. Though entirely averse from politics, he took
a keen interest in the municipal affairs of Leiden and made a
special study of elementary education. He took the leading part
in the International Congress of Orientalists at Algiers in 1905.
He was a member of the Institut de France, was awarded the
German Order of Merit, and received an honorary doctorate of
Cambridge University. At his death he was president of the
newly formed International Association of Academies of Science.
Among his chief works are Fragmenta historicorum Arabicorum
(1869-1871); Diwan of Moslim ibn d-WSlid (1875); Bibliotheca
gcographonm Arabicorum (1870-1894); Annals of Tabari
(1879-1901); edition of Ibn Qutaiba’s biographies (1904);
of the travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial).
He was also the chief editor of the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vols.
i.-iii.), and contributed many articles to periodicals. He wrote
for the oth and the present edition of the Encyclopaedia
Brilannica.
00E8, D AMI AO DE (1302-1574), Portuguese humanist, was
bom of a patrician family at Alemquer, in February 1502.
Under KiWg John III, he was employed abroad for many years
from 1523 on diplomatic and commercial missions, and he
travelled over the greater part of Europe. He was intimate
with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted with Luther
and other Protestant divines, and in 1532 became the pupil and
friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after
a four years’ course. In 1537, at the instance of his friend Cardinal
Sadoleto, he undertook to mediate between the Church and the
Lutherans, but failed through the attitude of the Protestants.
He married in Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady, D. Joanna
de Hargen, and settled at Louvain, then the literary centre of
the Lew Countries, where he was living in 1542 when the French
besieged the town. He was given the command of the defending
forces, and saved Louvain, but was taken prisoner and confined
for nine months in France, till he obtained hk freedom by a
heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, by a grant of arms
from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, with
a view of becoming tutor to the king’s son, but hfl failed to
obtain this post, owing to the denunciations of Father Simon
Rodriguez, provincial of' the Jesuits, who accused Goes of
favouring the Lutheran doctrines and of being a disciple of
Erasmus. Nevertheless in 1348 he was appointed chief keeper
of the archives and royal chronicler, and at o«ce introduced
some much-needed reforms into the administration of hk office.
In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the
reign of Kihg Manoel, a task previously confided to Jofio de
Barros, but relinquished by him. It was an onerous undertaking
for a conscientious historian, since it was necessary to expose
GOES, H. VAN DER—GOES 1S1
the miseries as well as relate the glories of the period, and so to
offend some of the most powerful families. Goes had already
written a Chronicle of Prince John (afterwards John IL), and
when, after more than eight years’ labour, he produced the First
Part of his Chronicle of King Manoel (ij66),a chorus of attacks
greeted it, the edition was destroyed, and he Was compelled to
issue a revised version. He brought out the three other parts
in 1566-1567, though chapters 23 to 27 of the Third Part were
so mutilated by the censorship that the printed text differs
largely from the MS. Hitherto Goes, notwithstanding his Liberal¬
ism, had escaped the Inquisition, though in 1540 his Fides,
religio, mores'que Aetkiopum had been prohibited by the chief
inquisitor, Cardinal D. Henrique; but the denunciation of
Father Rodriguez in 1545, which had been vainly renewed in
1550, was now brought into action, and in 1571 he was arrested
to stand his trial. There seems to be no doubt that the Inquisi¬
tion made itself on this occasion, as on others, the instrument of
private enmity ; for eighteen months Goes lay ill in prison, and
then he was condemned, though he had lived for thirty years as
a faithful Catholic, and the worst that could be proved against
him was that in his youth he had spoken against Indulgences,
disbelieved in auricular confession, and consorted with heretics.
He was sentenced to a term of reclusion, and his property was
confiscated to the crown. After he had abjured his errors in
private, he was sent at the end of 1572 to do penance at the
monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home
to Alemquer, where he died on the 30th of January 1574. He
was buried in the church of Nossa Senhora da Varzea.
Damifio de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial and
courtly manners, a skilled musician and a good linguist. He
wrote both Portuguese and Latin with classic strength and
simplicity, and his style is free from affectation and rhetorical
ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht Diirer shows an open,
intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him to have
been upright and fearless. His prosperity doubtless excited
ill-will, but above all, his ideas, advanced for Portugal, his foreign
ways, outspokenness and honesty contributed to the tragedy
of his end, at a time when the forces of ignorant reaction held
the ascendant. He had, it may be presumed, given some um¬
brage to the court by condemning, in the Chronicle of King
Manoel, the royal ingratitude to distinguished public servants,
though he received a pension and other rewards for that work,
and he had certainly offended the nobility by his administration
of the archive office and by exposing false genealogical claims
in his Nobiliario. He paid the penalty for telling the truth, as
he knew it, in an age when an historian had to choose between
flattery of the great and silence. The Chronicle of King Manoel
was the first official history of a Portuguese reign to be written
in a critical spirit, and Damifto de Goes has the honour of having
been the first Portuguese royal chronicler to deserve the name
of an historian.
His Portuguese works include Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom
Emanuel (parts i. and ii., Lisbon, 1566, parts iii and iv., ib.
1567). Other.editions appeared in Lisbon in 1619 and 1749 and in
Coimbra in 1790. Chronica do principe Dom Joam (Lisbon, 1558),
with subsequent editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 in
Coimbra. Livro de Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor
(Venice, 1538). ThiB is a translation of Cicero’s De senecMe. His
Latin works, published separately, comprise: (1) Legatio magni im-
peratoris Presbiteri Joantiis, &c. (Antwerp, 1532); (2) Legatio Davtdis
Ethiopiae regis, &-c. (Bologna, 1533); (3) Cammintani rerum gestarum
in India (Louvain, 1539); (4) Fides, religio, Moresque Aetkiopum
(Louvain, 1540), incorporating Nos. (i)and(2); (3) Hispania (Louvain,
1542) ; (61 Aliquot eptstolae Sadoleti Bembi el aliorum clarissimorum
virorum, <>c. (Louvain, 1544); (7) Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani
aliquot opuscula (Louvain, 1544]; (8) UrbisLovaniensis obsidia (Lisbon,
1546): (9) De bello Cambaico ultimo (Louvain, 1549); (io)Uebis Olisi-
ponensisdescriplio (Evors,i554); (11) BpistolaadHiercmymumCardo-
sum (Lisbon, 1556). Most of the above went through several editions,
and many were afterwards included with new works in such collections
as No. (7), and seven sets of Opuscula appeared, all incomplete.
Nos. (3), (4) and (5) suffered mutilation in subsequent editions,
at the hands of the ceneom, because they offended against religious
orthodoxy or family pride.
Autho'riubs,—(A) Joaquim dc Vasooneellos, Goesiana (5 vols.),
with the following sub-titles : (1) 0 Retrato de Albrecht Diirer
(Porto, 1879); (2) Bibliographia (Porto, 1879), which describes 67
numbers of books by Goes: (j) At Vmrimtes dOsChronicas Portu-
gueias (Porto, r88f) i (4) Damiio de Goes : Navas Eetudas (Porto,
1897) ; (5) As Cartas Lahnas —in the press (1906). Snr. VasconceUos
only printed a very limited number of copies of these studies for
distribution among friends, so that they are rare. (B) GuHherme
J. C. Henrique*, Ineiitos Goesianos, vol. i. (Lisbon, 1896), vol. ii.
(containing the proceedings at the trial by the Inquisition) (Lisbon,
1898) . (C) A. P. Lopes de Mendonpa, Damiio de Coes e a Inquisicdo
de Portugal (Lisbon, 1859). (D) Dr Sousa Viterbo^ Damiio de Goes
e D. Antonio Pinheiro (Coimbra, 1893). (E) Dr Theophilo Braga,
Historia da Uuiversidade de Coimbra (Lisbon, 1892). i. 374-380.
(P) Menende* y Feiayo, Historia de los Heter. EspahoUs, ii.
139-143. (E. Pr.)
GOES, HUGO VAN DER (d. 148*X a punter of consider¬
able celebrity at Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to
us, by a single picture in a Florentine monastery. At a period
when the family of the Medici had not yet risen from the rank
of a great mercantile firm to that of a reigning dynasty, it em¬
ployed as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso Portinari, a
lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of Dante’s
Beatrix. Tommaso, at that time patron of a chapel in the hospital
of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of
Hugo van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred
theme of “ Quern genuit adoravit.” In the centre of a vast
triptych, comprising numerous figures of life size, Hugo repre¬
sented the Virgin kneeling in adoration before the new-born
Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels. On the wings he
portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the pro¬
tection of Saint Anthony and St Matthew, and Tommaso’s
wife and two daughters supported by St Margaret and St Mary
Magdalen. The triptych, which has suffered much from decay
and restoring, was for over 400 years at Santa Maria Nuova,
and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. Imposing because composed
of figures of unusual size, the altar-piece is more remarkable
for portrait character than for charms of ideal beauty.
There are also small pieces in public galleries which claim to
have been executed by Van der Goes. One of these pictures in
the National Gallery in London is more nearly allied to the school
of Memlinc than to the triptych of Santa Maria Nuova ; another,
a small and very beautiful “John the Baptist,” at the Pina-
kothek of Munich, is really by Memlinc ; whilst numerous frag¬
ments of an altarpiece in the Belvedere at Vienna, though
assigned to Hugo, are by his more gifted countryman of Bruges.
Van der Goes, however, was not habitually a painter of easel
pieces. He made his reputation at Bruges by producing coloured
hangings in distemper. After he settled at Ghent, and became a
master of his gild in 1465, he designed cartoons for glass windows.
He also made decorations for the wedding of Charles the Bold and
Margaret of York in 1468, for the festivals of»the Rhetoricians and
papal jubilees on repeated occasions, for the solemn entry of
Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-1471, and for the funeral of
Philip the Good in 1474. The labour which he expended on
these occasions might well add to his fame without being the
less ephemeral. About the year 1475 be retired to the monastery
of Rouge Goitre near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There,
though he still clung to his profession, he seems to have
taken to drinking, and at one time to have shown decided
symptoms of insanity. But his superiors gradually cured him
of his intemperance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in
1482.
GOES, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island
of South Beveland, uj m. by rail £. of Middelburg. Pop. (1900)
6919. It is connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt,
and has a good harbour (1819) defended by a fort. The principal
buildings are the interesting Gothic church (1423) and the
picturesque old town hall (restored 1771). There are various
educational and charitable institutions. Goes baa preserved
for centuries its prosperous position as the market-town of the
island. The chief industries are boat-building, brewing, book¬
binding and cigar-making. The town had its origin in the
castle of Oostenda, built here by the noble family of Borssele.
It received a charter early in the 15th century from the
countess Jacoba of Holland, who frequently stayed at die
castle.
GOETHE
182
GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832), German
poet, dramatist and philosopher, was born at Frankfort-on-Main
on the 28th of August 1749. He came, on his father’s side, of
Thuringian stock, his great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe,
having been a farrier at Artem-on-the-Unstrut, about the
middle of the 17th century. Hans Christian’s son, Friedrich
Georg, was brought up to the trade of a tailor, and in this
capacity settled in Frankfort in 1686. A second marriage,
however, brought him into possession of the Frankfort inn,
“ Zum Weidenhof,” and he ended his days as a well-to-do inn¬
keeper. His son, Johann Kaspar, the poet’s father (1710-1782),
studied law at Leipzig, and, after going through the prescribed
courses of practical training at Wetzlar, travelled in Italy.
He hoped, on his return to Frankfort, to obtain an official
position in the government of the free city, but his personal
influence with the authorities was not sufficiently strong. In
his disappointment he resolved never again to offer his services
to his native town, and retired into private life, a course which
his ample means facilitated. In 1742 he acquired, as a consola¬
tion for the public career he had massed, the title of kaiserlicher
Rat, and in 1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808),
daughter of the Schullheiss or Burgermeister of Frankfort,
Johann Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this
union. Of the later children only one, Cornelia, bom in 1750,
survived the years of childhood ; she died as the wife of Goethe’s
friend, J. G. Schlosser, in 1777. The best elements in Goethe’s
genius came from his mother's side; of a lively, impulsive
disposition, and gifted with remarkable imaginative power,
Frau Rat was the ideal mother of a poet; moreover, being
hardly eighteen at the time of her son’s birth, she was herself
able to be the companion of his childhood. From his father,
whose stem, somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings
on the part of the children, Goethe inherited that “ holy earnest¬
ness ” and stability of character which brought him unscathed
through temptations and passions, and held the balance to his
all too powerful imagination.
Unforgettable is the picture which the poet subsequently
drew of his childhood spent in the large house with its many
nooks and crannies, in the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfort.
Books, pictures, objects of art, antiquities, reminiscences of
Rat Goethe’s visit to Italy, above all a marionette theatre,
kindled the child’s quick intellect and imagination. His training
was conducted in its early stages hy his father, and was later
supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque
life of Frankfort was in itself an education. In 1759, during the
Seven Years’ War, the French, as Maria Theresa’s allies, occupied
the town, and, much to the irritation of Goethe’s father, who
was a stanch partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieu¬
tenant, Count Thoranc, was quartered on the Goethe household.
The foreign occupation also led to the establishment of a French
troupe of actors, and to their performances the boy, through his
grandfather’s influence; had free access. Goethe has also recorded
his memories of another picturesque event, the coronation of the
emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfort Rdmer or town hall in 1764 ;
but these memories were darkened by being associated in his
mind with the tragic denouement of his first love affair. The
object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to have
taken advantage of the boy’s interest in her to further the
dishonest ends of one df her friends. The discovery of the affair
and the investigation that followed cooled Goethe’s ardour and
caused him. to turn his attention seriously to the studies which
were'to prepare him for the university. Meanwhile the literary
instinct had begun to show itself; we hear of a novel in letters—
a kind of linguMtic exercise, in which the characters carried on
' the correspondence in different languages—of a prose epic on
the subject of Joseph, and various religious poems of which one,
Die Hollmfahrt Christi, found its way in a revised form into the
poet's complete works.
In October 1-765, Goethe, then a little over sixteen, left Frank¬
fort for Leipzig, where aWider and, in many respects, less
provincial life awaited himGs He entered upon his university
studies with zeal, but his own education in Frankfort had not
been the best preparation for the scholastic methods which still
dominated the German universities; of his professors, only
Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that interest was soon
exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in Frankfort
now seemed to him amateurish and trivial; he felt that he had
to turn over a new leaf, and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch,
a genial, original comrade, he learned the art of writing those
light Anacreontic lyrics which harmonized with the tone of polite
Leipzig society. .Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, neverthe¬
less, inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna
Katharina Schdnkopf, the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose
house he dined. She is the “ Annette ” after whom the recently
discovered collection of lyrics was named, although it must be
added that neither these lyrics nor the Neue Lieder, published in
1.770, express very directly Goethe’s feelings for Kiithohen
Schdnkopf. To his Leipzig student-days belong also two small
plays in Alexandrines, Die Ltmne its Verliebten, a pastoral
comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poets
love affair, and Die Mitschuldigen (published in a revised form,
1769), a more sombre picture, in which comedy is incongruously
mingled with tragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also had time for what
remained one of the abiding interests of his life, for art; he re¬
garded A, F. Oeser (1717-1799), the director of the academy of
painting in thePleissenburg,who had given himlessons indrawing,
as the teacher who in Leipzig had influenced him most. His art
studies were also furthered by a short visit to Dresden. His stay
in Leipzig came, however, to an abrupt conclusion; the dis¬
tractions of student life proved too much for his strength; a
sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill, first in
Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in
Frankfort. These months of slow recovery were a time of serious
introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig
friends, but the tone of his letters changed; life had become
graver and more earnest for him. He pored over books on occult
philosophy ; he busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A
friend of his mother’s, Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who
belonged to pietist circles in Frankfort, turned the boy’s thoughts
to religious mysticism. On his recovery his father resolved that
he should complete his legal studies at Strassburg, a city which,
although then outside the German empire, was, in respect of
language and culture, wholly German. From the first moment
Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in
April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change.
The Gothic architecture of the Strassburg minister became to
him the symbol of a national and German ideal, directly anta¬
gonistic to the French tastes and the classical and rationalistic
atmosphere that prevailed in Leipzig. The second moment of
importance in Goethe’s Strassburg period was his meeting with
Herder, who spent some weeks in Strassburg undergoing an opera¬
tion of the eye. In this thinker, who was his senior by five years,
Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the
significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the charm
of nature's simplicity, and inspired him with enthusiasm for
Shakespeare and the Volkslied. Meanwhile Goethe’s legal studies
were not neglected, and he found time to add to knowledge of
other subjects, notably that of medicine. Another factor of
importance in Goethe's Strassburg life was his love for Friederike
Brion, the daughter of an Alsatian village pastor in Sesenheim.
Even more than Herder’s precept and example, this passion showed
Goethe how trivial and artificial had been the Anacreontic and
pastoral poetry with which he had occupied himself in Leipzig;
and the lyrics inspired by Friederike, such as Kleine Blumen,
kleine Blitter and Wie herrlich leuchtet mir die Natur I mark the
beginning of a new- epoch in German lyric poetry. The idyll of
Sesenheim, as described in Diehtung und Wahrheil, is one of the
most beautiful love-stories in the literature of the world. From
the first, however, it was clear that Friederike Brion could never
become the wife of the Frankfort patrician’s son; an unhappy
ending to the romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in
passionate outpourings like the Wanderers Sturmlied, and in the
bitter self-accusations oiClavigo, it left deep wounds on the poet’s
sensitive soul.
GOETHE
To Strassburg we owe Goethe’s first important drtuna, Gate
von Berlickingen, or; as it was called in its earliest form,
Geschichte Gottfriedens von Berlickingen dramatis tert (not published
until 1831). Revised under the now familiar title, it appeared in
1773, after Goethe’s return to Frankfort. In estimating this
drama we must bear in mind Goethe’s own Strassburg life, and
the turbulent spirit of his own age, rather than the historical facts,
which the poet found in the autobiography of his hero published
in 1731. The latter supplied only the rough materials; the Gotz
von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with his lofty ideals of
right and wrong, and his enthusiasm for freedom, is a very
different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the
16th century, the rough friend of Franz von Sickingen and of the
revolting peasants. Still less historical justification is to be found
for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic
justice on himself as the lover of Friederike, or in the women of
the play, the gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is
genial, creative power in the very subjectivity of these characters,
and a vigorous dramatic life, which is irresistible in its appeal.
With Gotz von Berlichingen, Shakespeare’s art first triumphed on
the German stage, and the literary movement known as Sturm
und Drang was inaugurated.
Having received his degree in Strassburg, Goethe returned
home in August 1771, and began his initiation into the routine of
an advocate’s profession. In the following year, in order to gain
insight into another side of his calling, he spent four months at
Wetzlar, where the imperial law-courts were established. But
Goethe’s professional duties had only a small share in the eventful
years which lay between his return from Strassburg and that visit
to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the whole course of
his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to the
Weimarcourt. Goethe’s life in Frankfort was a round of stimulat¬
ing literary intercourse ; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army
official in the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a friend
and mentor, whose irony and common-sense served as a corrective
to his own exuberance of spirits. Wetzlar brought new friends
and another passion, that for Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the
Amtmann there—a love-story which has been immortalized in
Werthers Leiden—and again the young poet’s nature was obsessed
by a love which was this time strong enough to bring him to
the brink of that suicide with which the novel ends. A visit to
the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane
von Laroche, a daughter of Wieland’s friend, the novelist Sophie
von Laroche, brought partial healing ; his intense preoccupation
with literary work on his return to Frankfort did the rest. In
1775 Goethe was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili
Schbnemann, whose mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfort
banker. A formal betrothal took place, and the beauty of the
lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no room for doubt that here was
a passion no less genuine than that for Friederike or Charlotte.
But Goethe—more worldly wise than on former occasions—felt
instinctively that the gay, social world in which Lili moved was
not really congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the
summer of 1775 may not have weakened his interest in her, but it
at least allowed him to regard her objectively; and, without tragic
consequences on either side, the passion was ultimately allowed to
yield to the dictates of common-sense. Goethe’s departure for
Weimar in November made the final break less, difficult.
The period from 1771 to 1775 was, in literary respects, the
most productive of the poet’s life. It had been inaugurated
with Gotz von Berlichingen, and a few months later this tragedy
was followed by another, Clavigo, hardly less convincing in its
character-drawing, and reflecting even more faithfully than the
former the experiences Goethe had gone through in Strassburg.
Again poetic justice' .is effected on the unfortunate hero who
has chosen his own personal advancement in preference to his
duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in Gotz is
the moral enforced by Clavigo’s worldly friend Carlos, that the
ground of Clavigo’s tragic end lies not so much in the defiance
of amoral law as in the hero’s vacillation and want of character.
With Die Leiden ies jungen Werthers (1774), the literary
precipitate of the author’s own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe
1*3
succeeded in attracting, as no German had done before him,
the attention of Europe. Once more it was the gospel that the
world belongs to the strong, which lay beneath the surface of
this, romance. > This, however, was not the lesson which was
drawn from it by Goethe’s contemporaries; they shed tears
of sympathy over the lovelorn youth whose burden becomes
too great for him to bear. While Gotz inaugurated the manlier
side of the Sturm uni Drang literature, Wertker was responsible
for its sentimental excesses. And to the sentimental rather
than to the heroic side belongs also Stella, “ a drama for lovers,”
in which the poet again reproduced, if with less fidelity than in
Werther, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A lighter
vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires, written at this
time, such as Goiter, Helden und Wieland (1774), Hanswursts
Hochzeil, Fastnachtsspiel vom Pater Brey, Satyros, and in the
Singspiele, Erwin und Elmire (1775) and Claudine von Villa
Bella (1776); while in the Frankfurter Gelehrte Anzeiger (177a-
1773), Goethe drove home the principles of the new movement
of Sturm und Drang in terse and pointed criticism. The exuber¬
ance of the young poet’s genius is also to be seen in the many
unfinished fragments of this period; at one time we find him
occupied with dramas on Caesar and Mahomet, at another with
anepic on Der ewige Jude, and again with a tragedy on Prometheus,
of which a magnificent fragment has passed into his works.
Greatest of all the torsos of this period, however, was the drama¬
tization of Faust. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in
its earliest form—discovered as recently as 1887—we are now
able to distinguish how much of this tragedy was the immediate
product of the Sturm und Drang, and to understand the intentions
with which the young poet began his masterpiece. Goethe’s
hero changed with the author’s riper experience and with his new
conceptions of man’s place and duties in the world, but the
Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the finished poem, practi¬
cally unaltered, from the earliest Faust of the Sturm und Drang.
With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic in adl
German literature, Goethe’s poetry in. this period reaches its
climax. Still another important work, however, was conceived,
and in large measure written at this time, the drama of Egmont,
which was not published until 1788. This work may, to some
extent, be regarded as supplementary to Faust ; it presents the
lighter, more cheerful and optimistic side of Goethe’s philosophy
in these years ; Graf Egmont, the most winning and fascinating
of the poet’s heroes, is endowed with that “ demonic ” power
over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe himself
possessed in so high a degree. But Egmont depends for its
interest almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and
Klarchen, Gretchen's counterpart: regarded as a drama, it
demonstrates the futility of that defiance of convention and
rules with which the Sturm und Drang set out. It remained for
Goethe, in the next period of his life, to construct on classic
models a new vehicle for German dramatic poetry.
In December 1774 the young “ hereditary prince ” of Weimar,
Charles Augustus, passing through Frankfort on his way to Paris,
came into personal touch with Goethe, and invited the poet to
visit Weimar when, in the following year, he took up the reins
of government. In October 1775 the invitation was repeated,
and on the 7th of November of that year Goethe arrived in the
little Saxon capital which was to remain his home for the rest of
his life. During the first few months in Weimar the poet gave
himself up to tile pleasures of the moment as unreservedly as
his patron; indeed, the Weimar court even -looked upon him for
a time as a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the
latter, although himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in
Goethe, and a firm conviction that his genius could be utilized
in other fields besides literature. Goethe was not long in Weimar
before he was entrusted with responsible state duties, and events
soon justified the duke’s confidence. Goethe proved the soul
of the Weimar government, and a minister of state of energy
and foresight. He interested ‘himself in agriculture, horticulture
and mining, which were of paramount importance to the welfare
of the duchy, and out of these interests sprang his own love for
the natural sciences, which took up so much of his time in later
GOETHE
184
years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As
Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe's Strassburg
life, Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of
Frankfort, so now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar
official, was the personification of the more aristocratic ideals of
Weimar society. We possess only the poet’s share of his corre¬
spondence with Frau von Stein, but it is possible to infer from
it that, of all Goethe’s loves, this was intellectually the most
worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of refined literary
taste and culture, seven years older than he and the mother of
seven children. There was something more spiritual, something
that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the 18th
century than of love in Goethe’s relations with her. Frau von
Stein dominated the poet’s life for twelve years, until his journey
to Italy in 1786-1788. Of other events of this period the most
notable were two winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz
Mountains, the second, two years later, to Switzerland—journeys
which gave Goethe scope for that introspection and reflection
for which his Weimar life left him little time. On the second of
these journeys he revisited Friederike in Sesenheim, saw Lili,
who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made the
personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zurich.
The literary results of these years cannot be compared with
those of the preoeding period; they are virtually limited to a
few wonderful lyrics, such as Wanderers Nachtlied, An den Mond,
Gesang der Geister itber den Wassem, or ballads, such as Der
Erlkdnig, a charming little drama, Die Gesehtvister (1776), in
which the poet’s relations to both Lili and Frau von Stein seem
to be reflected, a dramatic satire, Der Triumph der Empfindsamkeit
(1778), and a number of Singspiele, Lila (1777), Die Fiseherin ,
Schers, List und Rathe, and Jery und Bately (1780). But greater
works were in preparation. A religious epic, Die Geheimnisse, and
a tragedy Elpenor, did not, it is true, advance much further
than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical
experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great
measure wrote a novel of. the theatre, which was to have borne
the title Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung ; and in 1779
himself took part in a representation before the court at fitters-
burg, of his drama lphigenie auf Tauris. This Iphigenie was,
however, in prose ; in the following year Goethe remoulded it
in iambics, but it was not until he went to Rome that the drama
finally received the form in which we know it.
In September 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad—-secretly
and stealthily, his plan known only to his servant—on that
memorable journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward
with such intense longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly
enough, so impatient was he to set foot in Italy. He travelled
by way of Munich, the Brenner and Lago di Garda to Verona
and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he arrived on the
29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up unreservedly
to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was soon
at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him
warmly. In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far
as Naples and Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he
remained until his final departure for Germany on the and of
April 1788. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of
Goethe’s Italian journey. He himself regarded it as a kind of
climax to his life ; never before had he attained such complete
understanding of his genius and mission in the world ; it afforded
him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the past and
make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no
longer, in sympathy with the Sturm und Drang, but it was Italy
which first taught him dearly what'might take the place of that
movement in German poetry. To the modem reader, who
may well be impressed by Goethe’s extraordinary receptivity,
it may seem strange that his interests in Italy were so limited;
for, after all, he saw comparatively little of the art treasures of
Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann’s footsteps; it was
the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists of the
Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of classic
models. This search for Hie classic ideal is reflected in the works
he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty
of Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of Iphigenie
auf Taunt (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the
ground-tone to the wonderful drama of Torquato Tasso (1790),
in which the conflict of poetic genius with lie prosaic world is
transmuted into imperishable poetry. Classic, too, in this
sense, were the plans of a drama on Iphigenie auf Delphos and
of an epic, Nausikaa. Most interesting of all, however, is the
reflection of the classic spirit in works already begun in earlier
days, such as Egmont and Faust. The former drama was finished
in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a step
further forward, part of it being published as a Fragment in 1790.
Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on
his return to Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new
philosophy of life, a philosophy at once classic and pagan, and
wjth very definite ideas of what constituted literary excellence.
But Germany had not advanced ; in 1788 his countrymen were
still under the influence of that Sturm und Drang from which
the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of joint
than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to
the old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known
of his flight to Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but
he looked forward to her welcome on his return. The months
of absence, however, the change he had undergone, and doubtless
those lighter loves of which the Romische Elegien bear evidence,
weakened the Weimar memories ; if he left Weimar as Frau von
Stein’s lover he returned only as her friend ; and she naturally
resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue
the freer customs to which he .had adapted himself in Rome,
found a new mistress in Christianc Vulpius (1765-1816), the
least interesting of all the women who attracted him. But
Christiane gradually filled up a gap in the poet’s life ; she gave
him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making demands on him,
the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court society ;
it did not matter to her that even Goethe's intimate friends
ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet’s whim when he
desired to shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection
of Italy, became with the years an indispensable helpmate to
him. On the birth in 1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought
of legalizing his relations with Christiane, but this intention was
not realized until 1806, when the invasion of Weimar by the
French made him fear for both life and property.
The period of Goethe’s life which succeeded his return from
Italy was restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties,
he returned in 1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the
Italy he had loved so intensely a year or two before. A journey
with the duke of Weimar to Breslau followed, and in 1792 he
accompanied his master on that campaign against France which
ended so ingloriousiy for the German arms at Valmy. In later
years Goethe published his account both of this Campagne in
Frankrcich and of the Belagerung von Mainz, at which he was
also present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under
these distractions. Tasso, and the edition of the Schriften in
which it was to appear, had still to be completed on his return
from Italy ; the Romische Elegien, perhaps the most Latin of all
his works, were published in 1795, and the Venetianische Epi-
grarnme, the result of the second visit to Italy, in 1796. The
French Revolution, in which all Europe was engrossed, was in
Goethe’s eyes only another proof "that the passing of the old
tegime meant the abrogation of ail law and order, and he gave
voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the
dramas Der Grosskophta (1792), Der Burgergeneral (1793), and
in the unfinished fragments Die Aufgeregten and Das Mddchen
von Oberkirch. The spirited translation of the epic of Reinecke
Fuchs (1794) he took up as a relief and an antidote to the social
disruption of the time. Two newinterests, however, strengthened
the ties between Goethe and Weimar,—ties which the Italian
journey had threatened to sever: his appointment in 1791 as
director of the ducal theatre, a post which he occupied for
twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies. In
1790 he published his important Versuch, die Metamorphose der
Pfiantm s u erklaren, which was an even more fundamental
achievement for the new science of comparative morphology
GQBTfHE
than his discovery some six years earlier of the existence of a
formation in the human jaw-bone analogous to the intermaxillary
bone in apes ; and in 1791 sad .179a, appeared two parts of his
Beitrdge zur Optik. ■
Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the: novel
of the theatre which he had begun years before, with a view to
finishing it and including it in the edition of,his Note Sehriften
(1792-1800). Wilhelm Masters tkeatralische Sendung became
Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre; the novel of purely theatrical
interests was widened out to embrace the history of a young
man’s apprenticeship to life. The change of plan explains,
although it may not. exculpate, the formlessness and loose
construction of the work, its extremes of realistic detail and
poetic allegory. A hero, who was probably originally intended
to demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when
brought face to face with the problems of art, proved ill-adapted
to demonstrate those precepts for the guidance of life with, which
the Lehrjahre closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is
not so much an illustration of the author’s life-philosophy as a
lay-figure on which he demonstrates his views. Wilhelm Meister
is a work of extraordinary variety, ranging from the commonplace
realism of the troupe of strolling players to the poetic romanticism
of Mignon and the harper ; its flashes of intuitive criticism and
its weighty apothegms add to its value as a Bildungsroman in
the best sense of that word. Of all Goethe's works, this exerted
the most immediate and lasting influence on German literature ;
it served as a model for the best fiction of the next thirty years.
In completing Wilhelm Meister, Goethe found a sympathetic
and encouraging critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great
measure his renewed .interest in poetry. After years of tentative
approaches on Schiller’s part, years in which that poet concealed
even from himself his desire for a friendly understanding with
Goethe, the favourable moment arrived ; it was in June 1794,
when Schiller was seeking collaborators for his new periodical
Die Horen ; and his invitation addressed to Goethe was the
beginning of a friendship which continued unbroken until the
younger poet’s death. The friendship of Goethe and Schiller,
of which their correspondence is a priceless record, had its
limitations; it was purely intellectual in character, a certain
barrier of personal reserve being maintained to the last. But
for the literary life of both poets the gain was incommensurable.
As far as actual work was concerned, Goethe went his own way
as he had always been accustomed to do; but the mere fact that
he devoted himself with increasing interest to literature was due
to Schiller’s stimulus. It was Schiller, too, who induced him to
undertake those studies on the nature of epic and dramatic
poetry which resulted in the epic of Hermann und Dorothea
and the fragment of the AchiUeis ; without the friendship there
would have been no Xenien and no ballads, and it was his younger
friend’s encouragement which induced Goethe to betake himself
once more to the “ misty path ” of Faust, and bring the first
part of that drama to a conclusion.
Goethe’s share in the Xenien (1795) may be briefly dismissed.
This collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller,
was prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary
criticism, and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as
the higher interests of German poetry. The Xenien succeeded
as a retaliation on the critics, but the masterpieces which followed
them proved in the long run much more effective weapons
against the prevailing mediocrity. Prose works like the Unter-
Italtungen deutscher Ausgewanderten (1795) were unworthy of
the poet’s genius, and the translation of Benvenuto Cellini’s
Life (>796-1797) Was only a translation. But in 1798 appeared
Hermann und Dorothea, one of Goethe’s most perfect poems.
It is indeed remarkable—when we consider by how much re¬
flection and theoretic discussion the composition of the poem
was preceded and accompanied—that it should make upon die
reader so simple and “ naive ” an impression; in this respect
it is tile triumph of an art that conceals art. Goethe has here
taken a simple* story of village Hfe, mirrored in it the most
pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill which I
may wfell be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with |
$8j
the insight of genius between the Homeric* method of reproduc¬
ing the heroic life of primitive ; Greece and the same method
as adapted to the oommonplace happenings of r8th'century
Germany. In this respect he was undoubtedly guided by a
forerunner who has more right than he to the attribute “ naive,”
by J. H. Voss, the author of Luise., -Hardly less imposing in
their calm, placid perfection are the poems with, which, in
friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads
of his friend; Der Zauberlehrling , Der Gott und die Bayadere)
Die Braui von Korinth, Alexis und Dora, Der neue Paustas and
Die schone Mullerin—a cycle of poems in the style of the Vdkslied
—ait among the masterpieces ®f Goethels poetry. -Qn the otter
hand, even the friendship with Schiller did not help him
to add t» his reputation as a dramatist. Die natiirlicke Tochter
(*8°3)> in which he began to embody his .ideas of the Revolution
on a wide canvas, proved impossible on the stage, and the
remaining dramas, which were to have formed a trilogy, were
never written. Goethe’s olassic principles, when applied to
the swift, direct art of the theatre, were doomed to failure, and
Die natiirlicke Tochter, notwithstanding its good theoretic in¬
tention, remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas.
Even less in touch with the living present were the various
prologues and Festspiele, such as Palaophron und Neoterpe (1800),
Was utir hringen (1802), which in these years he composed for
the Weimar theatre.
Goethe's classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism
with the new Romantic movement which had been inaugurated
in 1798 by the Athenaeum, edited by the brothers Schlegel.
The sharpness of the conflict was, however, blunted by the fact
that, without exception, the young Romantic writers looked
up to Goethe as its master; they modelled their fiction on
Wilhelm Meister-, they regarded his lyrics as the high-water
mark of German poetry; Goethe, Novaiis declared, was the
“ Statthalter of poetry on earth.” With regard to painting and
sculpture, however, Goethe felt that a protest was necessary,
if the insidious ideas propounded in works like Wackenroder’s
Herzensergiessungen were not to do irreparable harm, by bringing
back the confusion of the Sturm und Drang ; and, as a rejoinder
to the Romantic theories, Goethe, in conjunction with his friend
Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 to 1800 an
art review, Die Propylaen. Again, in Winckelmann und seine
Zett (1805) Goethe vigorously defended the classical ideals of
which Winckelmann had been the founder. But in the end he
proved himself the greatest enemy to the strict classic doctrine by
the publication in 1808 of the completed first part of Faust, a
work which was accepted by contemporaries as a triumph of
Romantic art. Faust is a patchwork of many colours. Witt the
aid of the vast body of Faust literature which has sprung up in
recent years, and the many new documents bearing on its history
—above all, the so-called Urfaust, to which reference has already
been made—we are able now to ascribe to their various periods
the component parts of the work; it is ptossible to discriminate
between the Sturm und Drang hero of the opening scenes and
of the Gretchen tragedy—the contemporary of Got* and Clavigo
—and the superimposed Faust of calmer moral and intellectual
ideals—a Faust who corresponds to Hermann and Wilhelm
Meister.* In its original form the poem was the dramatization
of a specific and individualized story ; in the years of Goethe’s
friendship with Schiller it was extended to embody the higher
strivings of 18th-century humanism; ultimately, as we shall see,
it became, in the second part, a vast allegory of human life and
activity. Thus the elements of which Faust is composed were
even more difficult to blend than were those of Wilhelm Mefster ;
but the very want of uniformity is one source of the pterennial
fascination of the tragedy, and has made it in a peculiar degree
the national poem of the German people, the mirror which
reflects the national life and poetry from the outburst of Sturm
und Drang to the well-weighed and tranquil classicism of Goethe’s
old age.
The third and final period of Goethe’s long life may be said
to have.begun after Schiller's death. He never again lost touch;
with literature as he had done in the yeans which preceded his
GOETHE
184
years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As
Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe's Strassburg
life, Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of
Frankfort, so now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar
official, was the personification of the more aristocratic ideals of
Weimar society. We possess only the poet’s share of his corre¬
spondence with Frau von Stein, but it is possible to infer from
it that, of all Goethe’s loves, this was intellectually the most
worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of refined literary
taste and culture, seven years older than he and the mother of
seven children. There was something more spiritual, something
that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the 18th
century than of love in Goethe’s relations with her. Frau von
Stein dominated the poet’s life for twelve years, until his journey
to Italy in 1786-1788. Of other events of this period the most
notable were two winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz
Mountains, the second, two years later, to Switzerland—journeys
which gave Goethe scope for that introspection and reflection
for which his Weimar life left him little time. On the second of
these journeys he revisited Friederike in Sesenheim, saw Lili,
who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made the
personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zurich.
The literary results of these years cannot be compared with
those of the preoeding period; they are virtually limited to a
few wonderful lyrics, such as Wanderers Nachtlied, An den Mond,
Gesang der Geister itber den Wassem, or ballads, such as Der
Erlkdnig, a charming little drama, Die Gesehtvister (1776), in
which the poet’s relations to both Lili and Frau von Stein seem
to be reflected, a dramatic satire, Der Triumph der Empfindsamkeit
(1778), and a number of Singspiele, Lila (1777), Die Fiseherin ,
Schers, List und Rathe, and Jery und Bately (1780). But greater
works were in preparation. A religious epic, Die Geheimnisse, and
a tragedy Elpenor, did not, it is true, advance much further
than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical
experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great
measure wrote a novel of. the theatre, which was to have borne
the title Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung ; and in 1779
himself took part in a representation before the court at fitters-
burg, of his drama lphigenie auf Tauris. This Iphigenie was,
however, in prose ; in the following year Goethe remoulded it
in iambics, but it was not until he went to Rome that the drama
finally received the form in which we know it.
In September 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad—-secretly
and stealthily, his plan known only to his servant—on that
memorable journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward
with such intense longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly
enough, so impatient was he to set foot in Italy. He travelled
by way of Munich, the Brenner and Lago di Garda to Verona
and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he arrived on the
29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up unreservedly
to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was soon
at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him
warmly. In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far
as Naples and Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he
remained until his final departure for Germany on the and of
April 1788. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of
Goethe’s Italian journey. He himself regarded it as a kind of
climax to his life ; never before had he attained such complete
understanding of his genius and mission in the world ; it afforded
him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the past and
make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no
longer, in sympathy with the Sturm und Drang, but it was Italy
which first taught him dearly what'might take the place of that
movement in German poetry. To the modem reader, who
may well be impressed by Goethe’s extraordinary receptivity,
it may seem strange that his interests in Italy were so limited;
for, after all, he saw comparatively little of the art treasures of
Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann’s footsteps; it was
the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists of the
Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of classic
models. This search for Hie classic ideal is reflected in the works
he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty
of Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of Iphigenie
auf Taunt (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the
ground-tone to the wonderful drama of Torquato Tasso (1790),
in which the conflict of poetic genius with lie prosaic world is
transmuted into imperishable poetry. Classic, too, in this
sense, were the plans of a drama on Iphigenie auf Delphos and
of an epic, Nausikaa. Most interesting of all, however, is the
reflection of the classic spirit in works already begun in earlier
days, such as Egmont and Faust. The former drama was finished
in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a step
further forward, part of it being published as a Fragment in 1790.
Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on
his return to Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new
philosophy of life, a philosophy at once classic and pagan, and
wjth very definite ideas of what constituted literary excellence.
But Germany had not advanced ; in 1788 his countrymen were
still under the influence of that Sturm und Drang from which
the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of joint
than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to
the old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known
of his flight to Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but
he looked forward to her welcome on his return. The months
of absence, however, the change he had undergone, and doubtless
those lighter loves of which the Romische Elegien bear evidence,
weakened the Weimar memories ; if he left Weimar as Frau von
Stein’s lover he returned only as her friend ; and she naturally
resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue
the freer customs to which he .had adapted himself in Rome,
found a new mistress in Christianc Vulpius (1765-1816), the
least interesting of all the women who attracted him. But
Christiane gradually filled up a gap in the poet’s life ; she gave
him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making demands on him,
the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court society ;
it did not matter to her that even Goethe's intimate friends
ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet’s whim when he
desired to shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection
of Italy, became with the years an indispensable helpmate to
him. On the birth in 1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought
of legalizing his relations with Christiane, but this intention was
not realized until 1806, when the invasion of Weimar by the
French made him fear for both life and property.
The period of Goethe’s life which succeeded his return from
Italy was restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties,
he returned in 1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the
Italy he had loved so intensely a year or two before. A journey
with the duke of Weimar to Breslau followed, and in 1792 he
accompanied his master on that campaign against France which
ended so ingloriousiy for the German arms at Valmy. In later
years Goethe published his account both of this Campagne in
Frankrcich and of the Belagerung von Mainz, at which he was
also present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under
these distractions. Tasso, and the edition of the Schriften in
which it was to appear, had still to be completed on his return
from Italy ; the Romische Elegien, perhaps the most Latin of all
his works, were published in 1795, and the Venetianische Epi-
grarnme, the result of the second visit to Italy, in 1796. The
French Revolution, in which all Europe was engrossed, was in
Goethe’s eyes only another proof "that the passing of the old
tegime meant the abrogation of ail law and order, and he gave
voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the
dramas Der Grosskophta (1792), Der Burgergeneral (1793), and
in the unfinished fragments Die Aufgeregten and Das Mddchen
von Oberkirch. The spirited translation of the epic of Reinecke
Fuchs (1794) he took up as a relief and an antidote to the social
disruption of the time. Two newinterests, however, strengthened
the ties between Goethe and Weimar,—ties which the Italian
journey had threatened to sever: his appointment in 1791 as
director of the ducal theatre, a post which he occupied for
twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies. In
1790 he published his important Versuch, die Metamorphose der
Pfiantm s u erklaren, which was an even more fundamental
achievement for the new science of comparative morphology
GOETHE
187
of Goethe’* work was written in an impersonal and objective
sprit, and sprang from what might be called a conscious artistic
impulse; by far the larger—and the better—part is the im¬
mediate reflex of his feelings and experiences.
It is as a lyric poet that Goethe’s supremacy is least likely
to be challenged ; he has given his nation, whose highest literary
expression has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs.
No other German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, senti¬
ment and thought so perfectly to the music of words as he ; none
has expressed so fully that spirituality in which the quintessence
of German lyrism lies. Goethe’s dramas, on the other hand,
have not, in the eyes of his nation, succeeded in holding their
own beside Schiller’s ; but the reason is rather because Goethe,
from what might be called a wilful obstinacy, refused to be
bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he was
deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as an interpreter
of human character in the drama, Goethe is without a rival
among modem poets, and there is not one of his plays that does
not contain a few scenes or characters which bear indisputable
testimony to his mastery. Faust is Germany’s most national
drama, and it remains perhaps for the theatre of the future to
prove itself capable of popularizing psychological masterpieces
like Tasso and lphigenie. It is as a novelist that Goethe has
suffered most by the lapse of time. The Sorrows of Werther no
longer moves us to tears, and even Wilhelm Meisier and Die
Wahlverwandtschaften require more understanding for the
conditions under which they were written than do Faust or
Egmont. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he
was only the perfect artist in verse.
Little attention is nowadays paid to Goethe’s work in other
fields, work which he himself in some cases prized morff highly
than his poetry. It is only as an illustration of his many-sidedness
and his manifold activity that we now turn to his work as a
statesman, as a theatre-director, as a practical political economist.
His art-criticism is symptomatic of a phase of European taste
which tried in vain to check the growing individualism of
Romanticism. His scientific studies and discoveries awaken
only an historical interest. Wc marvel at the obstinacy with
which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed
the Newtonian theory of light and colour ; and at his champion¬
ship of “ Neptunism,” the theory of aqueous origin, as opposed
to “ Vulcanum,” that of igneous origin of the earth’s crust.
Of far-reaching importance was, on the other hand, his fore¬
shadowing of the Darwinian theory in his works on the meta¬
morphosis of plants and on animal morphology. Indeed, the
deduction to be drawn from Goethe's contributions to bptany
and anatomy is that he, as no other of his contemporaries,
possessed that type of scientific mind which, in the igth century,
Iras made for progress ; he was Darwin’s predecessor by virtue
of his enunciation of what lias now become one of the common¬
places of natural science—organic evolution. Modern, too, was
the outlook of the ageing poet on the changing social conditions
of the age, wonderfully sympathetic his attitude towards modern
industry, which steam was just beginning to establish on a new
basis, and towards modem democracy. The Europe of his iater
years was very different from the idyllic and enlightened
autocracy of the 18th century, in which he had spentnis best
years and to which he had devoted his energies; yet Goethe
was at home in it.
From the philosophic movement, in which Schiller and the
Romanticists were so deeply involved, Goethe stood apart.
Comparatively early in life he had found in Spinoza the philo¬
sopher who responded to his needs; Spinoza taught him to see
in nature the “ living garment of God,” and more he did not seek
or need to know. As a convinced realist he took his standpoint
on nature and experience, and could afford to look on objectively
at the controversies of the metaphysicians. Kant he by no
means ignored, and under Schillers guidance he learned much
from.him; but of the younger thinkers, only ScbeHing, whose
mystic nature-philosophy was a development of Spinoza's
ideas, touched a sympathetic chord in his nature. As a moralist
and a guide to the conduct of life—an aspect of Goethe's work
which Carlyle, viewing him through the coloured glasses of
Fichtean Idealism, emphasized and interpreted not always
justly—Goethe was a powerful force on German life in years of
political and intellectual depression. It is difficult even still
to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattered so
liberally through his writings, tire lessons to be learned from
Meisier and Faust, or even that calm, optimistic fatalism which
never deserted Goethe, and was so completely justified by the
tenor of his life. If the philosophy of Spinoza provided the poet
with a religion which made individual creeds and dogmas
unnecessary and impossible, so Leibnitz’s doctrine of pre-
destinism supplied the foundations for his faith ip the divine
mission of human life.
This many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of
Goethe’s mind and personality ; we may regard him merely a*
the embodiment of his particular age, or as a poet “ for all
time ” ; but with one opinion all who have felt the power of
Goethe’s genius are in agreement—the opinion which was con¬
densed in Napoleon’s often cited words, uttered after the meeting
at Erfurt: V oila un Homme! Of all modem men, Goethe is
the most universal type of genius. It is the full, rich humanity
of his life and personality—not the art behind which the artist
disappears, or the definite pronouncements of the thinker or the
teacher—that constitutes his claim to a place in the front rank
of men of letters. His life was his greatest work.
D1SUUU8APHY.-— (o) Loueclea works, Diaries, Correspondence,
Conversations. The following authorized editions of Goethe's
writings appeared in the poet s lifetime : Schriften (8 vols., Leipzig
1787 -1790); N 'cue Schriften (7 vols., Berlin, 1792 1800); Werke
(13 vols., Stuttgart, 1806-1810}; Werke (20 vols,, Stuttgart, 1815-
1819); to which six volumes were added in 1820-1822; Werke
(Vollst&ndiee Ausgabe letzterHand) (40 vols., Stuttgart, 1827-1810).
Goethe's Nachgelassene Werke. appeared as a continuation of this
edition in 13 volumes (Stuttgart, 1832-1834), to which five volumes
were added in 1842. These were followed by several editions of
Goethe's Sdmtliche Werke, mostly in forty volumes, published by
Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was published
by_ Hempel, Berlin, in thirty-six volumes, 1868-1879; that in
Kurschner’s Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vols. 82-1x7 (1882-1897) is
also important. Iu 1887 the monumental Weimar edition, which
is now approaching completion, began to appear; it is divided
rnto four sections : 1 Werke (r. 56 vole.) ; II. Naturwissenschaftliche
Herke (12 vols.) ; III. TagebUcher (13 vols.) ; IV. Briefe (c. 45 vols.).
Of other recent editions the most noteworthy are ; Simtliche Werke
(J ubilaums-Ausgabe), edited by E. von der Hellen (40 vols.. Stuttgart,
njoa n.; Werke, edited by K. Heinemann (30 vols., Leipzig
1900 II.), and the cheap edition of the Simtliche Werke, edited tar
L. Geiger (44 vols., Leipzig, 1901). There are also innumerable
editions of selected works; reference need only be made here to the
vweful collection of the early writings and letters published by S.
Hirzel with an introduction by M. Bernays, Der junge Goethe (3 vols.
Leipzig, 1875, 2nd ed., 1887), A French translation of Goethe’s
(Euvres computes, by J. Porchat, appeared in 9 vols., at Paris, in
1860-1863. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe's
chief works have all been frequently translated and a number of
them will be found in Bohn's standard library.
The definitive edition of Goethe's diaries and letters is that forming
Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of selected
letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E von
der Hellen (6 vols., 1901 IT.), and by r. Stein (8 vols., 1902 fi,). Of
the many separate collections of Goethe's correspondence mention
may be made of the Briefwechssl twischen Schiller und Goethe, edited
by Goethe himself (1828-1829; 4 th ed., 1881 ; also several cheap
reprints. English translation by L. D, Schmitz, 1877-1879)•
Briefuiechsel twischen Goethe und Zeller (6 vols., 1833-1834 ; reprint
m Reclam's Vniversalbibliothek, 1904; English translation by
A, D. Coleridge, 1887); Beilina von Amim, Goethes Briefuiechsel
mil etnem Kmde (1835 ; 4U1 ed., 1890 ; English translation, 1838);
Briefe von und an Goethe, edited by F. W. Kiemer (1846); Goethes
Briefe an Frau von Stein, edited by A. Schfill (1848-1851 • 3rd ed
bv J. Wahle, 1899-1900); Briefuiechsel twischen Goethe und K. F. von
Rimhardji»y>); Briefuiechsel twischen Goethe und Knebel (2 vols.,
LpA 1 ) : Briefuiechsel twischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schuttt (1853);
Briefuiechsel des Hermes Karl August mil Goethe (z vols., 1863);
Briefuiechsel twischen Goethe und Kaspar Graf von Sternberg (1866) ;
Goethes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondent, and Goethes Brief
wechsel mil den GebrUdem von Humboldt, edited by F. T. Bratranek
(1874-1876I; Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel (1887), also in
English ; Goethe und die Bomantih, edited by C. Sihuddekspf and
O, Walzel (2 vote., 1898-1899); Goethe und Lautter, edited by H.
Fnnck (1901); Goethe und usterreich, edited "by A. Sauer (2 vols,,
z 902-1903). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and Zeller
Bohn’s library contains a translation of Early and Miscellaneous
i88
GOETHE
Letters, by E. Bell (1884). The .Chid collections of Goethe’s con¬
versations are: J■ P. Eckennann, Gesfirdche mil Goethe (1836;
vol. ill., also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; 7th ed. by
H. Dtintzer, 1899; also new edition bV L. Geiger, 1902; English
translation by J. Oxen ford, 1850). The complete Conversations
with Soret have been published m German translation by C. A. H.
Burk hardt (1905) ; Goethes Unterhaltungen mil dem Katuler F. von
Midler (1870). Goethe's collected Gesprdche were published by
W. von Biedermann in 10 vols. {1889-1896) .
(i>) Biography, —Goethe's autobiography, A us meinsm Ltben :
Dichtung tend Wakrheit, appeared in three parts between 1B11 and
1814, a fourth part, bringing the history of his life as far as his
departure for Weimar in 1775, in 1833 {English translation by
J. Oxenford, 1846); it is supplemented by other biographical writings,
as the Italienische Reise, A us einer Reise in die Schweiz im Jahre
J797; A us einer Reise am Rhein, Main und Neckar in den Jahren
1814 und /8/j, Tag - und Jahreshefte, &c., and especially by his
diaries and correspondence. The following arc the more important
biographies : H, Dfiring, Goethes Leben (1828 ; subsequent editions,
1833, 1849, 1856); H. VieboS,‘Goethes Leben {4 vols., 1847-1854;
5th od., 1887); J. W. Schafer, Goethes Leben {2 vols., 1851; 3rd ed.,
1877); G. H. Lewes, Tfte Life and Works of Goethe (2 vols., 1855;
2nd ed., 1864; 3rd ed,, 1875; cheap reprint, 1906; the German
translation bv J. Frese is in its r8th edition, 1900; a shorter biography
was published by Lewes Ch 1873 under the title The Story of Goethe s
Life) ; W. Miahres, W. Goethe, les ceuvres expliqules par la vie
(1872-1873); A. Bossert, Goethe (1872-1873); K. Goedeke, Goethes
Leben und Schriften (1874; 2nd ed., 1877) ; H. Grimm, Goethe :
Vorlesungev (1876; 8th ed., 1903; English translation, 1880);
A. Hayward, Goethe (1878) ; H. H. Boyesen, Goethe and Schiller,
their Lives and Works (1879); H. Diintzer, Goethes Leben (1880;
2nd ed., 1883 ; English translation, 1883) ; A. Baumgartner, Goethe,
sein Leben und seine Werke (1885); J. Sime, Life of Goethe {1888) ;
K. Heinemann, Goethes Leben und Werke (1889; 3rd ed., 1903);
R. M. Meyer, Goethe (1894; 3rd ed., 1904) ; A. Bielschowsky,
Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke (vol. i., 1895; 5th ed., 1904:
vol. ii., 1903; English translation by W. A. Cooper, 1905 ff.i;
G. Witkowsky, Goethe (1899) ; H. G. Atkins, J. W. Goethe (1904) ;
P. Hansen and R. Meyer, Goethe, bans Liv og Vaerker (1906).
Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe's life the
more important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as
possible in the chronological sequence of the poet's life): H. Diintzer,
Goethes Stammbaum (1894); It. Heinemann, Goethes Mutter (1891;
6th ed., 1900); P. Bastier, La Mire de Goethe (1902) ; Briefe der
Frau Rat (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1905); F. Ewart, Goethes Voter (1899);
G. Witkowslri, Cornelia die Scliwester Goethes (1903); P. Besson,
Goethe, sa saeur et ses amies (1898) ; H. Diintzer, Frauenbilder aus
Goethes Jugendieit (1852); W. von Biedermann, Goethe und Leipzig
(1865): P. F. Lucius, Friederike Brian (1878 ; 3rd ed., 1904) ;
A. Bielsch sky, Friederike Brion (1880); F. E. von Durckheim,
Lili's Bild geschichtlich entuiorfen (1879; 2nd ed,, 1894); W. Herbst,
Goethe in Wetzlar (1881) ; A. Diezmann, Goethe und die lustige Zeit
in Weimar (1857; 2nd ed., 1901); H. Diintzer, Goethe und Karl
August (1859-1864 ; 2nd cd., 1888) ; also, by the same author,
Aus Goethes Freundeskreise (1868) and Charlotte von Stein (2 vols.,
1874); J. Haarhuus, Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien (1896-1898) ;
O. Hamack, Zur N achgeschichte der italicnischen Reise (1890) ; H.
Grimm, Schiller und Goethe (Essays, 1858; 3rd ed., 1884) ; G.
Berlit, Goethe und Schiller im persbnlichen Verkehre, nach hrieflicheu
Mitieilungen von H. Voss (1895); E. PasquS, Goethes Theaterleitung
in Weimar (2 vols., 1863) ; C. A. H. Burkhards, Das Repertoire des
weimarischen Theaters unter Goethes Leitung (1891); J. Wahle,
Dos Weimarer Hoftheater unter Goethes Leitung (1892) ; O. Harnack,
Goethe in der Epoche seiner Vollendung (2nd ed., 1901); J. Barbey
d’Aurevilly, Goethe et Diderot (1880) ; A. Fischer, Goethe und Napoleon
(1899; 2nd ed., 1900); R. Steig, Goethe und die Gebriider Grimm
(1892).
(c) Criticism .—H. G. Graef, Goethe iiber seine Dichtungen (1901 if.) ;
J. W. Braun, Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen (3 vols., 1883-
1885); T. Carlyle, Essays on Goethe (1828-1832) ; X. Marmier.
Etudes sur Goethe (1835); W. von Biedermann, Goethe-Forschungen
(1879. 1886); J. Minor and A. Sauer, Studien cur Gocthe-Pkilologie
(1880) ; H. Diintzer, A bhandlungen tu Goethes Leben und Werhen
18811; A. Schfill, Goethe in Hauptciigen seines Lebens und Wirkens
(i' 882) ; V. Hehn, Gedankcn iiber Goethe (1884; 4th ed., 1900);
W. Scherer; Aufsites iiber Goethe (1886); J. R. Seeley, Goethe
reviewed after Sixty Years (1894) I £• Dowden, New Studies
in Literature (1895): E. Rod, Essai sur Goethe (1898); A. Luther,
Goethe, sechs Vortrdge (1905); R. Saitschik, Goethes Charahter
(1898); W. Bode, Goethes Lebenshunst (1900 ; 2nd ed., 1902); by
the same, Goethes Asthetik (1901); T. .Vollbehr, Goethe uni die
bitdende Kunst (1895) ; E. Lichtehberger, Eludes sur les poisies
lyriaues de Goethe (1878)' T. Achelis, Grundzdge der Lyrik Goethes
(1900) ; B. Litzmann, Goethes Lyrik (IQ03); R. Riemann, Goethes
Romantechnik (19011 ; K, 'Virchow, Goethe als Naturforscher (1861) ;
E. Caro-Ld Philosophic de Goethe (1866; and ed., 1876); R. Steiner,
Goetheg Weltanschauung (1897) ': F. Siebeck, Goethe als penher (1902);
F. Baldensperger, Goethe enjfjronce (1904)'; 5 . Waetzoldt, Goethe
und die Romantik (r8Sg).
More special treatises dealing with Individual Works are the
following: ‘W. Scherer, Aus Goethes Friihieit <1879) • R, Weissen-
w. Wilmaans,
Baechtold.
.... . .. ,-.182); J. W.
Appell, Werther und seine Zeit (1855 ; 4th ed., *896) ; E. Schmidt,
Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe (1873); M. Herrmann, Das Jahr-
marktsfest cu Plundersweilen (1900) ; E. Schmidt, Goethes Faust
in urspriinglicher Gestalt (1887; 5th ed., 1901); J. Collin, Goethes
Faust in seiner dltesten Gestalt (1896) ; H. Hettner, Goethes Iphigenie
in ihrem VerhdBnis sur Bildunrsgeschichie des Dichters (1861 ; in
Kteine Schriften, 1884); K. Fischer, Goethes Iphigenie (1888);
F. T. Bratranek, Goethes Egmont und Schillers Wallenstein (1862) ;
C. Schuchardt, Goethes italienische Reise {1862); H. Diintzer,
Iphigenie auf Taur'is; die drei dltesten Bearbeitungcn (1854); F.
Kern. Goethes Tasso (1890) ; J. Schubart, Die ph/Uosopkischen
Grundgedanhen in Goethes Wilhelm Meister (1896); E. Boas, Sdhilier
und Goethe in Xemcnfyampf (1851) ; E. Schmidt and B. Suphan,
Xenien 179b, nach den Handschnften (1893); W. von Humboldt,
Aethetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea ( 1799); V. Hehn,
Vber Goethes Hermann und Dorothea (1893); A. Fries, Quellen und
Komposition der AchiUeis (1901); K. Alt, Studien eur Entstehungs -
geschichte von Dichtung und Wahrheit (1898); A. Jung, Goethes
Wanderjakre und die wichtigsten Fragen des 19. Jahrhunderts (1854) '•
F. Kreyssig, VOrlesungen iiber Goethes Faust (1866); the editions of
Faust by G. von Loeper (2 vols., 1879), and K. J. SchrSer (2 vols.,
3rd and 4th ed., 1898-1903)', K. Fischer, Goethes Faust (3 vols.,
1893,1902,1903) ; 0 , Pniower, Goethes Faust, Zeugnissc und Excurse
cu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte (1899) ; J. Minor, Goethes Faust,
Entstehungsgeschichte und Erkldrung (2 vols., 1901).
(d) Bibliographical Works, Goethe-Societies, A-r.—L. Unflad, Die
Goethe-Literatur in Deutschland (1878) ; S. Hirzel, Verteichnis einer
Goethc-Bibliothek (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von Bieder-
mann have supplied supplements. F. Strehlke, Goethes Briefe:
Verceichms unter Angabe der Quelle (1882-1884) ; British Museum
Catalogue of Printed Books : Goethe (1888); Goedeke's Grundriss
cur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (2nd ed., vol. iv. 1891) ; and
the bibliographies in the Goethe-Jahrbuch (since 1880). Also K.
Hoyer, Zur Einfiihrung in die Goethe-Literatur (1904). On Goethe in
I England sec E. Oswald, Goethe in England and America (1899;
I 2nd ed., 1909); W, Heinemann, A Bibliographical List of the English
Translations and Annotated Editions of Goethe’s Faust (1886).
Reference may also be made here to F. Zarucke's Verceichms der
Originalaufnahmen von Goethes Bildnissen (1888).
A Gocthe-Gesellschaft was founded at Weimar in 1885, and numbers
over 2800 members; its publications include the annual Goethe-
Jahrbuch (since 1880), and a series of Goetke-Schriften. A Goethe-
Verein has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English Goethe
society, which has also issued several volumes of publications, since
1886. (J. G. R.)
Goethes Descendants. —Goethe’s only son, August, bom on
the 25th of December 1789 at Weimar, married in 1817 Ottilie
von Pogwisch (1796-1873), who had come as a child to Weimar
with her mother (nee Countess Henckel von Donnersmarck).
The marriage was a very unhappy one, the husband having no
qualities'that could appeal to a Woman who, whatever the
censorious might say of her moral character, was distinguished
to the last by a lively intellect and a singular charm. August
von Goethe, whose sole distinction was his birth and his position
as grand-ducal chamberlain, died in Italy, on the 27 th of October
1830, leaving three children: Walther Wolfgang, bom on
April 9,1818, died on April 15, 1885; Wolfgang Maximilian,
bom on September 18,1820, died on January 20,1883; Alma,
bom on October 22, 1837, died on September 29, 1844.
Of Walther von Goethe little need be said. In youth he had
musical ambitions, studied under Mendelssohn and Weinlig
at Leipzig, under Loewe at Stettin, and afterwards at Vienna.
He published a few songs of no great merit, and had at his
death no more than the reputation among his friends of a kindly
and accomplished man.
Wolfgang or, as he was familiarly called, Wolf von Goethe,
was by far the more gifted of the two brothers, and his gloomy
destiny by so much the moi-e tragic. A sensitive and highly
imaginative boy, he was the favourite of his grandfather, who
made him his constant companion. This fact, instead of being
to the boy’s advantage, was to prove his bane. The exalted
atmosphere of the great man’s ideas was too rarefied for the
child’s intellectual health, and a brain well fitted to do excellent
work in the world was rained by the effort to live up ,to an
impossible ideal. To maintain himself on the same bright as
his. grandfather, and to make the name of Goethe illastrious in
his descendants also! became Wolfgang(s ; ambition; ahd his
incapacity to realize this, Very soon borhe in upon him, paralyzed
GOEw 1 8a
his effortsand plunged him at last into bitter revolt against his
fate and gloomy isolation from a world that seemed to have no
use for him but as a curiosity. From the first, too, he was
hampered by wretched health; at' the age of -sixteen he was
subjected to one of those terrible attacks of neuralgia which
were to torment him to the last; physically and mentally alike
he stood in tragic contrast with his grandfather, in whose
gigantic personality the vigour of his race seems to have been
exhausted.
From 1839 to 1845 Wolfgang studied law at Bonn, Jena,
Heidelberg and Berlin, taking his degree of doctor juris at Heidel*
berg in 1845. During this period he had made his first literary
efforts. His Studenten-Briefc (Jena, 1842), a medley of letters
and lyrics, are wholly conventional. This was followed by Der
Mensch und die elemenlarische Natur (Stuttgart and Tubingen,
1845), in three parts ( Beitrdge): (1) an historical and philosophical
dissertation on the relations of mankind and the “ soul of nature,”
largely influenced by Schelling, (2) a dissertation on the juridical
side of the question, De fragmento Vegoiae, being the thesis
presented for his degree, (3) a lyrical drama, Erlinde. In this
last, as in his other poetic attempts, Wolfgang showed a consider¬
able measure of inherited or acquired ability, in his wealth of
language and his easy mastery of the difficulties of rhythm and
rhyme. But this was all. The work was characteristic of his
self-centred isolation: ultra-romantic at a time when Romanti¬
cism was already an outworn fashion, remote alike from the
spirit of the age and from that of Goethe. The cold reception
it met with shattered at a blow the dream of Wolfgang’s life ;
henceforth he realized that to the world he was interesting
mainly as “ Goethe’s grandson,” that anything he might achieve
would be measured by that terrible standard, and he hated the
legacy of his name.
The next five years he spent in Italy and at Vienna, tormented
by facial neuralgia. Returning to Weimar in 1850, he was made a
chamberlain by the grand-duke, and in 1852, his health being
now somewhat restored, he entered the Prussian diplomatic
service and went as attachd to Rome. The fruit of his long
years of illness was a slender volume of lyrics, Gedichte (Stuttgart
and Tubingen, 1851), good in form, but seldom inspired, and
showing occasionally the influence of a morbid sensuality. In
1854 he was appointed secretary of legation ; but the aggressive
ultramontanism of the Curia became increasingly intolerable
to his overwrought nature, and in 1856 he was transferred, at his
own request, as secretary of legation to Dresden. This post he
resigned in 1859, in which year he was raised to the rank of
Freiherr (baron). In 1866 he received the title of councillor
of legation; but he never again occupied any diplomatic post.
The rest of his life he devoted to historical research, ultimately
selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year
1500. The outcome of all his labours was, however, only the
first part of Studies and Researches in the Times and Life of
Cardinal Bessarion, embracing the period of the council of
Florence (privately printed at Jena, 1871), a catalogue of the
MSS. in the monastery of Sancta Justina e.t Padua (Jena,
1873), and a mass of undigested material, which he ultimately
bequeathed to the university of Jena.
In 1870 Ottilie von Goethe, who had resided mainly at Vienna,
returned to Weimar and took up her residence with her two sons
in the Goethehaus. So long as she lived, her small salon in the
attic storey of the great house was a centre of attraction for
many of the most illustrious personages in Europe. But after
her death in 1872 the two brothers lived in almost complete
isolation. The few old friends, including the grand-duke Charles
Alexander, who continued regularly to visit the house, were
entertained with kindly hospitality by Baron Walther; Wolf¬
gang refused to be drawn from his isolation even by the advent
of royalty. “ Tell the empress,” he cried on one occasion,
“ that I am-not a wild beast to be stared at! ” In 1879, his
increasing illness necessitating the constant presence of an
attendant, he went to-live at Leipzig, where he died.
Goethe’s grandsons have been so repeatedly-accused of having
displayed a dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehaus
to the public and the Goethe: archives to research, that the
charge has almost universally come to be regarded as proven.
It is true that the house was closed and access to the archives Only
very' 1 sparingly allowed until Baron Walther’s death m 1883.
But the reason for this was not, as Herr Max Hecker rather
absurdly suggests, Wolfgang’s jealousy of his grandfather’s
oppressive fame, but one far more simple and natural. From
one cause or another, principally Ottilie von Goethe's extrava¬
gance, the family was in very straitened circumstances; and the
brothers, being thoroughly unbusinesslike, believed themselves
to be poorer than they really were. 1 They closed the Goethehaus
and the archives, because to have opened them'would have
needed an army of attendants. 3 If they deserve any blame it
is for the pride, natural to their rank and their generation, which
prevented them from charging an entrance fee, an expedient
which would not only have made it possible for them to give
access to the house and collections, but would have enabled
them to save the fabric from -falling into the lamentable state
of disrepair in which it was found after their death. In any case,
the accusation is ungenerous. With an almost exaggerated
Pieldt Goethe’s descendants preserved his house untouched,
at great inconvenience to themselves, and left it, with all its
treasures intact, to the nation. Had they been the selfish
misers they are sometimes painted, they Could have realized a
fortune by selling its contents.
Wolf Goethe (Weimar, 1889) is a sympathetic appreciation by Otto
Mejer, formerly president of the Lutheran consistory in Hanover.
See also Jenny v. Gerstenbergk, Ottilie von Goethe uud ihre Siihne
Walther und Wul/ (Stuttgart, 1901), and the article on Maximilian
Wolfgang von Goethe by Max F. Heckcr in Allgem. deutsche Bio¬
graphic, Bd. 49, Nachtrdge (Leipzig, 1904). (W. A. P.)
GOETZ, HERMANN (1840-1876), German musical composer,
was bom at Konigsberg in Prussia, on the 17th of December 1840,
and began his regular musical studies at the comparatively
advanced age of seventeen. He entered the music-school of
Professor Stem at Berlin, and studied composition chiefly under
Ulrich and Hans von Biilow. In 1863 he was appointed organist
at Winterthur in Switzerland, where he lived in obscurity for
a number of years, occupying himself with composition during
his leisure hours. One of his works was an opera, The Taming
of the Shrew, the libretto skilfully adapted from Shakespeare’s
play. After much delay it was produced at Mannheim (in
October 1874), and its success was as instantaneous as it has up to
the present proved lasting. It rapidly made the round of the
great German theatres, and spread its composer’s fame over all
the land. But Goetz did not live to enjoy this happy result
for long. In December 1876 he died at Zurich from overwork.
A second opera, Francesca da Rimini, on which he was engaged,
remained a fragment ; but it was finished according to his
directions, and was performed for the first time at Mannheim
a few months after the composer’s death on the 4th of December
1876. Besides his dramatic work, Goetz also wrote various
compositions for chamber-music, of which a trio (Op. x) and
a quintet (Op. 16) have been given with great success at the
London Monday Popular Concerts. Still more important is the
Symphony in F. As a composer of comic opera Goetz lacks the
sprightliness and artistic savoir faire so rarely found amongst
Germanic nations. His was essentially a serious nature, and
passion and pathos were to him more congenial than humour.
The more serious sides of the subject are therefore insisted upon
more successfully than Katherine’s ravings and Petruchio’s
eccentricities. There are, however, very graceful passages, e.g.
the singing lesson Bianca receives from her disguised lover.
Goetz’s style, although influenced by Wagner and other masters,
shows signs of a distinct individuality. The design of his music
is essentially of a polyphonic character, and the working out and
interweaving of his themes betray the musician of high scholar¬
ship. But breadth and beautiful flow of melody also were his,
1 After Walther’s death upwards of /xo.ooo in bonds, &c., were
discovered put away and forgotten in escritoires and odd corners.
» This was the reason given by Baron Walther himself to the
writer’s mother, an old friend of Frau von Goethe, who lived with
her family in the Goethehaus for some years after 1871.
GOFFE—GOGOL
190
as is seen in the symphony, and perhaps still more in the quintet
for pianoforte and airings above referred to. The most important
of Goetz’s posthumous works are a setting of the 137 th Psalm
for soprano solo, chorus and orchestra, a “ Spring ” overture
(Op. 15), and a pianoforte sonata for four hands (Op. 17).
GOFFS (or Gough), WILLIAM (fl. 1642-1660), English
parliamentarian, son of.Stephen Goffe, puritan rector of Stanmer
in Essex, began Hfe as an apprentice to a London salter, a zealous
parliamentarian, but on the outbreak of the civil war he joined
the army and became captain in Colonel Harley’s regiment of the
new model in 1645. He was imprisoned in 1642 for his share in
the petition to give the control of the militia to the parliament.
By his marriage with Frances, daughter of General Edward
Whailey, he became connected with Oliver Cromwell’s family
and one of his most faithful followers. He was a member of
the deputation which on the 6th of July 1647 brought up the
charge against the eleven members. He was active in bringing
the king to trial and signed the death warrant. In 1649 he
received the honorary degree of M.A. at Oxford. He distin¬
guished himself at Dunbar, commanding a regiment there and at
Worcester. He assisted 1 in the expulsion of Barebone’s parlia¬
ment in 1653, took an active part in the suppression of Pen-
ruddock’s rising in July 1654, and in October 1655 was appointed
major-general for Berkshire, Sussex and Hampshire. Meanwhile
he had been elected member for Yarmouth in the parliament of
1654 and for Hampshire in that of 1656. He supported the
proposal to bestow a royal title upon Cromwell, who greatly
esteemed him, was included in the newly-constituted House of
Lords, obtained Lambert’s place as major-general of the Foot,
and was even thought of as a fit successor to Cromwell. As a
member of the committee of nine appointed in June 1658 on
public affairs, he was witness to the protector’s appointment
of Richard Cromwell us his successor. He supported the latter
during his brief tenure of power and his fall involved his own loss
of influence. In November 1659 he took part in the futile mission
sent by the army to Monk in Scotland, and at the Restoration
escaped with his father-in-law General Edward Whailey to
Massachusetts. Goffe’s political aims appear not to have gone
much beyond fighting “ to pull down Charles and set up Oliver ”;
and he was no doubt a man of deep religious feeling, who acted
throughout according to a strict sense of duty as he conceived it.
He was destined to pass the rest of his life in exile, separated
from his wife and children, dy ing, it is supposed, about 1679.
GOFFER, to give a fluted or crimped appearance to anything,
particularly to linen or lace frills or trimmings by means of
heated irons oi a special shape, called goffering-irons or tongs.
“ Goffering, - ’ or the French term gaufrage, is also used of die
wavy or crimped edging in certain forms of porcelain, and also
of the stamped or embossed decorations on the edges of the
binding of books. The French word gaufre, from which the
English form is adapted, means a thin cake marked with a
pattern like a honeycomb, a “ wafer,” which is etymologically
the same word. Waufrc appears in the phrase un jer a waujres,
an iron for baking cakes on (quotation of 1433 in J. B. Roque¬
fort's Glossaire de la langue romane). The word is Teutonic,
of. Dutch wafel, Ger. Waff el, a.farm seen in “waffle,” the name
given to die well-known batter-cakes of America. The “ wafer ”
was so called from its likeness to a honeycomb, Wabe, ultimately
derived from the root wab-, to weave, the cells of the comb
appearing to be woven together.
GOG (possibly connected with the Gentilic Gagaya, “ of the
land of Gag,” used, in Amama Letters i. 38, as a synonym for
“ barbarian,” or with Ass. Gegu, a ruler of the land of Sahi,
•N. of Assyria, or with Gyges, Ass. Gugu ^,a king of Lydia), a
Hebrew name found in Ezek. xxxviii.-xxxix. and in Rev. xx.,
and,denoting an aq^ithepcratic power that is to manifest itself
in the world immediately' before die final dispensation. In the
later passage, Gog and Magog are spoken of as co-ordinate; in
the earlier, Gog is given as the name of the person orpeople and
Magog at that of the landgof origin. Magog, is perhaps a
contracted form of Mat-gog, .mat being the common Assyrian
word for “ land.” The passages are, however, intimately related
and both depend upon Gen. x. 2, though here Magog atone it
mentioned. He is the second “ son ” of Japhct, and the order
of the names here and in Ezekiel xxxviii. 2,.indicates a locality
between Cappadocia and Media, i.e, in Armenia. According
to Josephus, who is followed by Jerome, the Scythians were
primarily intended by this designation; and this plausible
opinion has been generally followed. The name Sku&m, it is
to be observed, however, is often but a vague word for any or all
of the numerous and but partially known tribes of the north;
and any attempt to assign a more definite locality to Magog can
only be very hesitatingly made. According to some, the Maiotes
about the Palus Maootis are meant; according to others, the
Massagetae; according to Kiepert, die inhabitants of the
northern and eastern ports of Armenia. The imagery employed
in Ezekiel’s prophetic description was no doubt suggested by the
Scythian invasion which about the time of Josiah, 630 b.c.,
had devastated Asia (Herodotus i. 104-106 ; Jer. iv. 3-vi. 30).
Following on this description, Gog figures largely in Jewish and
Mohommedan as well as in Christian eschatology. In the
district of Astrakhan a legend is still to be met with, to the effect
that Gog and Magog were two great races, which Alexander the
Great subdued and banished to the inmost recesses of the
Caucasus, where they are meanwhile kept in by the terror of
twelve trumpets blown by the winds, but whence they are
destined ultimately to make their escape and destroy the world.
The legends that attach themselves to the gigantic effigies
(dating from 1708 and replacing those destroyed in die Great
Fire) of Gog and Magog in Guildhall, London, are conneoted
only remotely, if at all, with die biblical notices. According to
the Rccuyell des histoircs de Traye, Gog and Magog were die
survivors of a race of giants descended from the thirty-three
wicked daughters of Diocletian ; after their brethren had been
slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought
to London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters
at the gate of the royal palace. It is known that effigies similar
to the present existed in London as early as the time of Henry V.;
but when this legend began to attach to them is uncertain. They
may be compared with the giant images formerly kept at Antwerp
(Antigomes) and Douai (Gayant). According to Geoffrey of
Monmouth ( Chronicles , i. 16), Goemot or Goiimagot (either
corrupted from or corrupted into “ Gog and Magog"’) was a
giant who, along with his brother Corincus, tyrannized in the
western hom of England until slain by foreign invaders.
GQQO,' or Gogha, a town of British India in Ahmedabad
district, Bombay, 193 m. N.W. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 4798.
About | m. east of the town is-an excellent anchorage, in some
measure sheltered by the island of Piram, which lies still farther
east. The natives of this place are reckoned die best sailors in
India; and ships touching here may procure water and supplies,
or repair damages. The anchorage is a safe refuge during the
south-west monsoon, the bottom being a bed of mud and the
water always smooth. Gogo has lost its commercial importance
and has steadily declined in population and trade since the time
of the American Civil War, when it was an important cotton-
mart.
GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASIUEVICH (1609-1852), Russian
novelist, was bom in the province of Poltava, in South Russia,
on the 31st of March 1809. Educated at the Niezhin gyrrtnasium,
he there started a manuscript periodical, “ The Star,” and wrote
several pieces including a tragedy, The Brigands. Having
completed his course at Niezhin, he went in 1829 to St Petersburg,
where.he tried the stage but faffed. Next year he obtained a
clerkship in the department of appanages, but he soon gave it up.
lrr literature, however, he found his true vocation. In 1829 he
published anonymously a poem called Italy, and, under the
pseudonym of V. Alof, an idyll, Hans Kttchel Garten, which he
had written while still at Niezhin. The idyll was so ridiculed by
a reviewer that its author bought up all the copies he could
secure, and burnt them in n room which he hired for the purpose
at an inn. Gogol then fell back upon South'Russian popular
literature, and especially the tales of Cossackdom on which his
boyish fancy had been nursed, bis father having occupied the
GOGRA-
post of “ regimental secretary,” one of the honorary officials in
the Zaporogian Cossack forces.
In 1830 he published in a periodical the first of the stories
which appeared next year under the title of Evenings in a Farm
near Dikanha: by Rudy PanJto. This work, containing a series
of attractive .pictures of that Little-Russian life which lends
itself to romance more readily than does the monotony of
“ Great-Russian ” existence, immediately obtained a great
success—-its light and colour, its freshness and originality being
hailed with enthusiasm by the principal writers of the day in
Russia. Whereupon Gogol planned, not only a history of Little-
Russia, but also one of the middle ages, to be completed in eight
or nine volumes. This plan he did not carry out, though it led
to his being appointed to a professorship in the university of
St Petersburg, a post in which he met with small success and
which he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had published his
Arabesques, a collection of essays and stories; his Taras Bulba,
the chief of the Cossack Tales translated into English by George
Tolstoy ; and a number of novelettes, which mark his transition
from the romantic to the realistic school of fiction, such as the
admirable sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country
house by two kindly specimens of Old-world Gentle/olks, or the
description of the petty miseries endured by an ill-pakl clerk
in a government office, the great object of whose life is to secure
the “ cloak ” from which his story takes its name. To the same
period belongs his celebrated comedy, the Revisor, or government
inspector. His aim in writing it was to drag into light “ all that
was bad in Russia,” and to hold it up to contempt. And he
succeeded in rendering contemptible and ludicrous the official
life of Russia, the corruption universally prevailing throughout
the civil service, the alternate arrogance and servility of men
in office. The plot of the comedy is very simple. A traveller
who arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is token
for an inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he
receives all the attentions and bribes which are meant to pro¬
pitiate the dreaded investigator of abuses. The play appeared
on the stage in the spring of 1836, and achieved a full success,
in spite of the opposition attempted by the official classes whose
malpractices it exposed. The aim which Gogol had in view
when writing the Revhor he afterwards fully attained in his
great novel, Mertvuiya Dushi, or Dead Souls, the first part of
which appeared in 1843. The hero of the story is an adventurer
who goes about Russia making fictitious purchases of “ dead
souls,” i.e. of serfs who have died since the last census, with the
view of pledging his imaginary property to the government.
Hut his adventures are merely an excuse for drawing a series
of pictures, of an unfavourable kind, of Russian provincial life,
and of introducing on the scene a number of types of Russian
society. Of the force and truth with which these delineations
are executed the universal consent of Russian critics in their
favour may be taken as a measure. From the French version
of the story a general idea of its merits may be formed, and some
knowledge of its plot and its principal characters may be gathered
from the English adaptation published in 1854, as an original
work, under the title of Home Life, in Russia. But no one can
fully appreciate Gogol’s merits as a humorist who is not intimate
with the language in which he wrote as well as with the society
which he depicted.
In 1836 Gogol for the first time went abroad. Subsequently
he spent a considerable amount of time out of Russia, chiefly
in Italy, where much of his Dead Souls was written. His
residence there, especially at Rome, made a deep impression on
his mind, which, during his later years, turned towards mysticism.
The last works which he published, his Confession and Corre¬
spondence with Friends, offer apainful contrast to the light, bright,
vigorous, realistic, humorous writings which had gained and have
retained for him his immense popularity in his native land.
Asceticism and mystical exaltation had told upon his nervous
system, and its feeble condition showed itself in his literary
compositions. In 1848 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and
on his return settled down at Moscow, where he died on the 3rd
of March 1852.
-GOITRE 191
See Materials .far the Biography of Gogol (in RueWan) (*897), by
Shenrok; “ Illness and Death of Gogol," by N. Baihenov, Russkeya
Muisl, January .1902. (W. R. S..R.)
GOGRA, or Ghagka, a river of northern India. It is an
important trihutary of the Ganges, bringing down to the plains
more water than the Ganges itself. It rises in Tibet near Lake
Manasarowar, not far from the sources of the Brahmaputra
and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal where it is known as the
Kauriala, and after entering British territory becomes the most
important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins the Ganges
at Chapra after a course of 600 m. Its tributary, tjhe Rapti,
also has considerable commerical importance. The Gqgra has
the alternative name of Sarju, and in its lower course is also
known as the Deoha. *
GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME (1746-1830), French politician,
was born at Semblamjay (lndre-et-Loire) on the 27 th of Fehruary
1746, the son of a notary. He was called to the bar at Rennes,
and practised there until he was sent to represent the town in
the stotes-general. In the Legislative Assembly he represented
llle-et-Vilaine. He took a prominent part in the deliberations ;
he protested against the exaction of a new oath from priests
(Nov. 22,1791), and demanded the sequestration of the emigrants’
property (Feb. 7,1792). He was minister of justice from March
1793 to April 1794, and in June 1799 he succeeded Treilhard
in the Directory, where he represented the republican interest.
His wife was intimate with Josephine Bonaparte, and when
Bonaparte suddenly returned from Egypt in October 1799 he
repeatedly protested his friendship for Gohier, who was then
president of the Directory, and tried in vain to gain him over.
After the coup d'elal of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), he
refused to abdicate his functions, and sought out Bonaparte
at the Tuileries “ to save the republic," as he boldly expressed
it. He was escorted to the Luxembourg, and on his release
he retired to his estate at Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made
him consul-general at Amsterdam, and on the union of the
Netherlands with France he was offered a similar post in the
United States, His health did not permit of his taking up a new
appointment, and he died at Eaubonne on the 29th of May 1830.
His Mtmoires d’un vttiran irrtprochable it la Revolution was
published in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list preparatory
to the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le Procis de Louis XVI
(Paris, an 111 ) and elsewhere, while others appear in the Moniteur.
GOURDE, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and
Liineburg. It has an area of about 85 sq. m. and is famous for its
oaksj beeches and game preserves. It is memorable for the
victory gained here, on the 16th of September 1813, by the allies,
under Wallmoden,over the French forces commanded by Pecheur.
The hunting-box situated in the forest was built in 1689 and was
restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It is knqwn to
history on account of the constitution of Gohrde, promulgated
here in 1719.
GOITO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua,
from which it is 11 m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop.
(village) 737; (commune) 5712. It is situated on the right bank
of the Mincio near the bridge. Its position has given it a certain
military importance in various campaigns and it has been
repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head. The Piedmontese forces
won two actions (8th of April and 30th of May 1848) over the
Austrians here.
GOITRE (from Lat. guUur, the throat; synonyms, Bronchacele,
Derbyshire Ncck),a term applied to a swelling in the front of the
neck caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. This structure,
which lies between the skin and the anterior surface of the wind¬
pipe, and in health is not large enough to give rise to ai^y external
prominence (except in the pictures of certain artists), is liable to
variations in size, more especially in females, a temporary
enlargement of the gland being not uncommon at the catamenial
periods, as well as during pregnancy. In goitre the swelling is
conspicuous and is not only unsightly but may occasion much
discomfort from its pressure upon the windpipe and other
important parts of the neck. J. L. Alibert recorded cases of
I <)2 '
GOKAK—GOt>B
goitre where uic iumuur nung aown over the breast, or reached
as low as the middle of the thigh.
Goitre usually appears in early life, often from the eighth to the
twelfth year; its growth is at first slow, but after several years of
comparative quiescence* sudden increase is apt to occur. In the
earlier stages the condition of the gland is simply an enlargement
of its constituentparts, which retain their normal soft consistence;
but in the course of time other changes supervene, and it may
become cystic, pr acquire hardness from increase of fibrous tissue
or from calcareous deposits. Occasionally the enlargement is
uniform, but more commonly one of the lobes, generally the right,
is the larger. In rare instances the disease is limited to the
isthmus whiehgpnnects the two lobes of the gland. The growth
is unattended with pain, and is not inconsistent with good health.
Goitre is a marked example of an endemic disease, there arc
few parts of the world where it is not found prevailing in certain
localities, these being for the most part valleys and elevated plains
m mountainous distrtcts(seeCRETWisM). The malady is generally
ascribed to the use of drinking water impregnated with the salts of
lime and magnesia, in which ingredients the water of goitrous
districts abounds. But in localities not far removed from those in
which goitre prevails, and whore the water is of the same chemical
composition, the disease may be entirely unknown. The disease
may be the result of a combination of causes, among which local
telluric or malarial influences concur with those of the drinking
water. Goitre is sometimes cured by removal of the. individual
from the district where it prevails, and it is apt to be acquired
by previously healthy persons who settle in goitrous localities ;
and it is only in such places that the disease exhibits hereditary
tendencies.
In the early stages, change of air, especially to the seaside, is
desirable, and small doses of iron and of iodine should he given;
if this fails small doses of thyroid extract should be tried. If
palliative measures prove unsuccessful, operation must be under¬
taken for the removal of one lateral lobe and the isthmus of the
tumour. This may be done under chloroform or after the sub¬
cutaneous injection of cocaine. If chloroform is used, it must be
given very sparingly, as the breathing is apt to become seriously
embarrassed during the operation. After the successful per¬
formance of the operation great improvement takes place, the
remaining part of the gland slowly decreasing in size. The whole
of the gland must not be removed during the operation, lest the
strange disease known as Myxoedema should be produced (see
Metabolic Diseases).
In exophthalmic goitre the bronchocelc is hut one of three
phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz. palpitation
of the heart, enlargement of the thyroid gland, and protrusion of
the eyeballs. This group of symptoms is known by the name of
1 Graves's disease ”or“ Von Basedow’s disease "—the physicians
by whom the malady was originally described. Although
occasionally observed in men, this affection occurs chiefly in
females, and in comparatively early life. It is generally preceded
by impoverishment of blood, and by nervous or hysterical
disorders, and it is occasionally seen in cases of organic heart
disease. It has been suddenly developed as the effect of fright or
of violent emotion. The first .symptom is usually the palpitation
of the heart, which is aggravated by slight exertion, and may be
so severe as not only to shake the whole frame but even to be
audible at some distance. A throbbing is felt throughout the
body, and many of the larger blood-vessels are, like the heart,
seen to pulsate strongly. The enlargement of the thyroid is
gradual, and rarely increases to any great size, thus differing
from the commoner form of goitre. The enlarged gland is of soft
consistence, and communicates a thrill to the touch from its
dilated and pulsating blood-vessels. Accompanying the goitre a
remarkable change is observed in the eyes, which attract attention
by their prominence, and by the startled expression thus given to
the countenance. In extreme cases the eyes protrude from their
sockets to such a degree that the eyelids cannot be closed, and
injury may thus arise to tte constantly exposed eyeballs. Apart
from such risk, however, tlwvision is rarely affected. It occasion- :
ally happens that in undoubted cases of the disease one or other of i
the three above-named phenomena fa Absent, generally either the
goitre or the exophthalmos. The palpitation of the heart is the
: "I 08 * constant symptom. Sleeplessness, irritability, disorders of
digestion, diarrhoea mid uterine derangements, are frequent
accompaniments. It is a serious disease and, if unchecked, msv
end fatally. Some cases are improved by general hygienic
measures, others by electric treatment, or by Hie administration
of animal extracts or of sera. Some cases, on the other hand, may
be considered suitable for operative treatment. (E. O.*)
GOKAK, fi town of British India, in the Belgaum district of
Bombay,8 m. from a station on the Southern Mahratta railway.
Pop. (1901) 9860. It contains old temples with inscriptions,
and is known for a special industry of modelled toys. Ahout
4 m. N.W. are the Gokak Falls, where the Ghatprabha throws
itself over a precipice 170 ft. high. Close by, the water has been
impounded for a large reservoir, which supplies not onlv irrigation
motive power for a cotton-mil) employing 2000 hands.
GOKCHA, (Gok-Chai : Armenian Sevanga • ancient Haosra-
vugha), the largest lake of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern¬
ment of Enyan, in 40° 9' to 40° 38' N. and 45° 1' to 45=40' E.
Its altitude is 6345 ft., it is of triangular shape, and measures
from north-west to south-east 45 m., its greatest width being
25m., and its maximum depth 67 fathoms. Its area is 540 sq. m.
It is surrounded by barren mountains of volcanic origin, 22,000
ft. high. Its outflow is the Zanga, a left bank tributary of the
Aras (Araxw); it never freezes, and its level undergoes periodical
osculations. It contains lour species of Salmonidac , and two
of Cyprimdae, which are only met with in the drainage area
of this lake. A lava island in the middle is crowned bv an
Armenian monastery.
GOLCONDA, a fortress and ruined city of India, in the Nizam’s
Dominions, 5 m. W. of Hyderabad citv. In former times
Goleonda was the capital of a large and powerful kingdom of
the Deccan, ruled by the Kutb Shahi dynasty which was founded
m 1512 by a Turkoman adventurer on the downfall of the
Hahmani dynasty, but the city was subdued by Aurangzcb in
1687, and annexed to the Delhi empire. The fortress of Goleonda,
situated on a rocky ridge of granite, is extensive, and contains
many enclosures. It is strong and in good repair, but is com¬
manded by the summits of the enormous and massive mausolea
of the ancient kings about 600 yds. distant. These buildings,
which are now the chief characteristics of the place, form a vast
group, situated in an arid, rocky desert. They have suffered
considerably from the ravages of time, hut more from the hand
of mah, and nothing but the great solidity of their walls has
preserved them from utter ruin. These tombs were erected at a
great expense, some of them being said to have cost as much
as £150,000. Goleonda fort is now used as the Nizim’s treasury,
and also as the state prison. Goleonda has given its name in
English literature to the diamonds which were found in other
parts of the dominions of the Kutb Shahi dynasty, not near
Goleonda itself.
GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195 ■ 7 (H ~ 1), 197 - 2 (0 = 1 6 ) 1 ,
a metallic chemical element, valued from the earliest ages on
account of the permanency of its colour and lustre. Gold
ornaments of great variety and elaborate workmanship have
been discovered on sites belonging to the earliest known civiliza-
tions, Minoan, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan (see Jewelry,
Plate, Egypt, Crete, Aecean Civilization, Numismatics),
and in ancient literature gold is the universal symbol of the
highest purity and value (cf. passages in the Old Testament
e.g. Ps xix. 10 “ More to be desired are they than gold, yea, than
much fine gold ”). With regard to the history of the metallurgy
of gold, it may be mentioned that, according to Pliny, mercury
was employed in his time both us a means of separating the
precious metals and for the purposes of gilding. Vitruvius also
gives a detailed account of the means of recovering gold by
amalgamation, from cloth into which it had been woven ’
Physical Properties. —Gold has a characteristic yellow eolenr
which is, however, notably affected by small quantities of other
metals; thus the tint is sensibly lowered by small quantities
of silver, and heightened by copper. When the gold is finely
GOLD
193
divided, as in “ purple of Cassius,” or when it is precipitated
from solutions, the colour is ruby-red, while in very thin leaves
it transmits a greenish light. It is nearly as soft as lead and
softer than silver. -When pure, it is the most malleable of all
metals (see Goldbeating). It is also extremely ductile; a
single grain may be drawn into a wire 500 ft. in length, and an
ounce of gold covering a silver wire is capable of being extended
more than 1300 m. The presence of minute quantities of
cadmium, lead, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tin, tellurium and
zinc render gold brittle, part of one of the three metals
first named being sufficient to produce that quality. Gold can
be readily welded cold; the finely divided metal, in the state
in which it is precipitated from solution, may be compressed
between dies into disks or medals. The specific gravity of gold
obtained by precipitation from solution by ferrous sulphate
is from 19-55 t0 20 ' 7 2 - The specific gravity of cast gold varies
from 18-29 to 19-37, and by compression between dies the
specific gravity may be raised from 19-37 t0 1 9'4 I « by annealing,
however, the previous density is to some extent recovered, as
it is then found to be 19-40. The melting-point has been
variously given, the early values ranging from 1425 0 C. to 1035° C.
Using improved methods, C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville
determined it to be 1061 -7° C.; Daniel Berthelot gives 1064° C.,
while Jaquerod and Perrot give 1066-1-1067-4“ C. At still
higher temperatures it volatilizes, forming a reddish vapour.
Macquer and Lavoisier showed that when gold is strongly heated,
fumes arise which gild a piece of silver held in them. Its vola¬
tility has also been studied by L. Eisner, and, in the presence of
other metals, by Napier and others. The volatility is barely
appreciable at 1075°; at 1250° it is four times as much as at
iioo 0 . Copper and zinc increase the volatility far more than
lead, while the greatest volatility is induced, according to T.
Kirke Rose, by tellurium. It has also been shown that gold
volatilizes when a gold-amalgam is distilled. Gold is dissipated
by sending a powerful charge of electricity through it when in the
form of leaf or thin wire. The electric conductivity is given by
A. Matthiessen as 73 at o° C., pure silver being 100 ; the value
of this coefficient depends greatly on the purity of the metal,
the presence of a few thousandths of silver lowering it by 10%.
Its conductivity for heat has been variously given as 103 (C. M.
Dcspretz), 98 (F. Crace-Calvert and R. Johnson), and 60 (G. H.
Wiedemann and R. Franz), pure silver being 100. Its specific
heat is between 0-0298 (Dulong and Petit) and 0-03244 (Reg-
nault). Its coefficient of expansion for each degree between
0“ and ioo° C. is 0-000014661, or for gold which has been
annealed 0-000015136 (Laplace and Lavoisier). The spark
spectrum of gold has been mapped by A. Kirchhoff, R. Tholen,
Sir William Huggins and H. Kriiss; the brightest lines are 6277,
5960, 5955 and 5836 in the orange and yellow, and 5230 and
4792 in the green and blue.
Chemical Properties. —Gold is permanent in both dry and
moist air at ordinary or high temperatures. It is insoluble in
hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids, but dissolves in aqua
regia—a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids—and when
very finely divided in a heated mixture of strong sulphuric
acid and a little nitric acid ; dilution with water, however,
precipitates the metal as a violet or brown powder from this
solution. The metal is soluble in solutions of chlorine, bromine,
thiosulphates and cyanides; and also in solutions which
generate chlorine, such as mixtures of hydrochloric acid with
nitric acid, chromic acid, antimonious acid, peroxides and
nitrates, and of nitric acid with a chloride. Gold is also attacked
when strong sulphuric acid is submitted to electrolysis with a
gold positive pole. W. Skey showed that in substances which
contain small quantities of gold the precious metal may be
removed by the solvent action of iodine or bromine in water.
Filter paper soaked with the clear solution is burnt, and the
presence of gold is indicated by the purple colour of the ash. In
solution minute quantities of gold may be detected by the
formation of “ purple of Cassius,” a bluish-purple precipitate
thrown down by a mixture of ferric and stannous chlorides.
The atomic weight of gold was first determined with accuracy
by Berzelius, who deduced the 195-7 (H-i) from the
amount of mercury necessary to precipitate it from the chloride,
and 195-2 from the ratio between gr id and potassium chloride
in potassium aurichloride, KAuCl,. Later determinations
were made by Sir T. E. Thorpe and A. P. Laurie, Kriiss and
J. W. Mallet. Thorpe and laurie converted potassium auri-
bromide into a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide
by careful heating. The relation of the gold to the potassium
bromide, as well as the amounts of silver and silver bromide
which are equivalent to the potassium bromide, .were determined.
The mean value thus adduced was 195-86. Kriiss worked with
the same salt, and obtained the value 195-65; while Mallet,
by analyses of gold chloride and bromide, and potassium auri-
bromide, obtained the value 195-77. 4
Occlusion of Gas by Gold.—T. Graham showed that gold is
capable of occluding by volume 0-48% of hydrogen, 0-20%
of nitrogen, 0-29 % of carbon monoxide, and o-r6 % of carbon
dioxide. Varrentrapp pointed out that “comets” from the
assay of gold may retain gas if they are not strongly heated.
Occurrence and Distribution. —Gold is found in nature chiefly
in the metallic state, i.e. as “ native gold,” and less frequently
in combination with tellurium, lead and silver. These are the
only certain examples of natural combinations of the metal,
the minute, though economically valuable, quantity often
found in pyrites and other sulphides being probably only present
in mechanical suspension. The native metal crystallizes in the
cubic system, the octahedron being the commonest form, but
other and complex combinations have been observed. Owing
to the softness of the metal, large crystals are rarely well defined,
the points being commonly rounded. In the irregular crystalline
aggregates branching and moss-like forms are most common,
and in Transylvania thin plates or sheets with diagonal structures
are found. More characteristic, however, than the crystallized
are the irregular forms, which, when large,are known as “nuggets”
or “ pepites,” and when in pieces below { to J oz. weight as gold
dust, the larger sizes being distinguished as coarse or nuggety
gold, and the smaller as gold dust proper. Except in the larger
nuggets, which may be more or less angular, or at times even
masses of crystals, with or without associated quartz or other
rock, gold is generally found bean-shaped or in some other
flattened form, the smallest particles being scales of scarcely
appreciable thickness, which, from their small bulk as compared
with their surface, subside very slowly when suspended in water,
and are therefore readily carried away by a rapid current. These
form the “ float gold ” of the miner. The physical properties of
native gold are generally similar to that of the melted metal.
Of the minerals containing gold the most important are sylvanite or
graphic tellurium (Ag, Au) Te,, with 24 to 26 % ; calaverite, AuTe,,
with 42 %; nagyagite or foliate tellurium (Pb, Au)., Sb s (S, Te)„,
with 5 to q % of gold ; petzite, (Ag, Au) a Te, and white tellurium.
These are confined to a few localities, the oldest and best known
being those of Nagyag and Offenbanya in Transylvania; they have
also been found at Red Cloud, Colorado, ityCalaveraa county, Qali-
fornia, and at Perth and Boulder, West Australia. The minerals
of the second class, usually spoken of as " auriferous," are compara¬
tively numerous. Prominent among these are galena and iron pyrites,
the former being almost invariably gold-bearing. Iron pyrites,
however, is of greater practical importance, being in some districts
exceedingly rich, and, next to the native metal, is the moBt prolific
source of gold. Magnetic pyrites, copper pyrites, zinc blende and
arsenical pyrites arc other and less important examples, the last
constituting the gold ore formerly worked in Silesia. A native gold
amalgam is found as a rarity in California, and bismuth from
South America is sometimes rich in gold. Native arsenic and
antimony are also very frequently found to contain gold and silver.
The association and distribution of gold may be considered under
two different heads, namely, as it occurs in mineral veins—" relhf
gold," and in alluvial or other superficial deposits which are derived
from the waste of the former—" alluvial gold." Four distinct
types of reef gold deposits may be distinguished: ( 1) Gold may
occur disseminated through metalliferous veins, generally with
sulphides and more particularly with pyrites. These deposits seem
to be the primary source of native gold. (2) More common are the
auriferous quartz-reefs—veins or masses of quartz containing gold
inflakes visible to the naked eye,-or so finely divided as to be invisible.
(3) The “ banket " formation, which characterizes the goldfields o l
South Africa, consists of a quartzite conglomerate throughout
which gold is very finely disseminated. (4) The siliceous sinter at
XII. 7
GOLD
194
Moult Morgan, Queensland, which, in obviously associated with
hydrothermal action, is also goft -bearing. The genesis of the last
wee types of deposit is generally assigned to the simultaneous
f'- ’xjlation of solutions of gold and silica, the auriferous solution
Ming formed during the disintegration of the gold-bearing metalli¬
ferous veins. But mete is much uncertainty as to the mechanism
of the process; some authors hold that the soluble chloride is first
formed, while others postulate the intervention of a soluble anrate.
In the alluvial deposits the associated minerals are chiefly those
of great density and hardness, such as platinum, osmiridium and
other metals of the platinum group, tinstone, chromic, magnetic
and brown iron ores, diamond, ruby and sapphire, zircon, topaz,
garnet, &c. which represent the more durable original constituents of
the rocks whose disintegration has furnished the detritus.
Statistics of Gold Production .—The supply of gold, and also
its relation to the supply of silver, has, among civilized nations,
always been of paramount importance in the economic questions
concerning money (see Money and Bimt.tau.ism) ; in this
article a summary of the modern gold-producing areas will be
given, and for further details reference should be made to the
articles on the localities named. The chief sources of the
European supply during the middle ages were the mines of
Saxony and Austria, while Spain also contributed. The supplies
from Mexico and Brazil were important during the 16th and 17th
centuries. Russia became prominent in 1823, and for fourteen
years contributed the bulk of the supply. The United States
(California) after 1848, and Australia after 1851, were responsible
for enormous increases in the total production, which has been
subsequently enhanced by discoveries in Canada, South Africa.
India, China and other countries.
The average annual world’s production for certain periods
from 1801 to 1880 in ounces is given in Table I. The average
Table 1.
Period.
Oz.
! Period.
Oz.
1801-1810
5 <W. 75 o
1856-1860
6,350,180
1811-1820
380,300
1861-1865
5,051,770
1821-1830
472.400
! 1866-1870
6,169,660
1831-1840
074,200
1871-1875
5,487,400
1841-1830
1,819,000
1876-1880
5,720,300
1851-1855
c
X
t-
c
trj
en
■ —
production of the five years 1881-1885 was the smallest since the
Australian and Californian mines began to be worked in 1848-
1849; the minimum 4,614,588 oz., occurred in 1882. It was
not until after 1885 that the annual output of the world began
to expand. Of the total production in 1876, 5,016,488 oz.,
almost the whole was derived from the United States, Australasia
and Russia. Since then the proportion furnished by these
countries has been greatly lowered by the supplies from South
Africa, Canada, India and China. The increase of production
has hot been uniform, the greater part having occurred most
notably since 1895. Among the regions not previously important
as gold producers which now contribute to the annual output,
the most remarkable are the goldfields of South Africa (Transvaal
and Rhodesia, the fewner of which were discovered in 1885).
India likewise has bem added to the list, its active production
having begun at about the same time as that of South Africa.
The average annual product of India for the period 1886 to 1899
inclusive was £698,208, and its present annual product averages
about 550,000 oz., or about £2,200,000. obtained almost wholly
from the free-milling quartz veins of the Colar goldfields in
Mysore, southern India. In 1900 the output was valued at
£1,891,804, in 1905 at £2450,536, and in 1908 at £2,270,000.
Canada, too, assumed an important rank, having contributed
in 1900 £5,583,300 ; but the output has since steadily declined
to £1,973,000 in 1908. The great increase during the few years
preceding 1899 was due to the development of the goldfields
of the North-Western Territory, especially British Columbia.
From the district of Yukon (Klondike, &c.) £2,800,000 was
obtained in 1899, wholly, from alluvial workings, but the progress
made since has been dower than was expected by sanguine
people. It is, however, probable that the North-Western
Territory will continue to yield gold in important quantities
for some time to come. g.
The output of the United States increased from £7,050,000
in 1881 to £16,085,567 in tt>oo, £17,916,000 in 1905, and to
£29,065,000 in 1908. This increase was chiefly due to the
exploitation of new goldfields. The fall,in the price of silver
stimulated the discovery and development of gold deposits,
and many states formerly regarded as characteristically silver
districts have become important as gold producers. Colorado is
a case in point, its output having increased from about £600,000
in 1880 to £6,065,000 in 1900; it was £5,139,800 in 1905. Some¬
what more than one-half of the Colorado gold is obtained from
the Cripple Creek district. Other states also showed a largely
augmented product. On the other hand, the output of California,
which was producing over £3,000,000 pier annum in 1876, has
fallen off, the average annual output from 1876 to 1900
being £2,800,000; in 1905 the yield was £3,839,000. This
decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for
many years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation
for which millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels,
flumes, &c., and the active continuance of which might have been
expected to yield some £2,000,000 of gold annually. This inter¬
ruption, due to the practical prohibition of the industry by the
United States courts, on the ground that it was injuring, through
the deposit of tailings, agricultural lands and navigable streams,
was lessened, though not entirely removed, by compromises and
regulations which permit, under certain restrictions, the renewed
exploitation of the ancient river-beds by the hydraulic method.
On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and
metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and
machinery, and the use of high explosives, compressed air,
electric-power transmission, &c., resulted in California (as
elsewhere) in a notable revival of deep mining. This was
especially the case on the “ Mother Lode,” where highly promising
results were obtained. Not only is vein-material formerly
regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a profit, but in
many instances increased gold-values have been encountered
below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been
encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining
—more than 3000 ft. below the surface. The gold product of
California, therefore, may be fairly expected to maintain itself,
and, indeed, to show an advance. Alaska appeared in the list
of gold-producing countries in 1886, and gradually increased its
annual output until 1897, when the country attracted much atten¬
tion with a production valued at over £500,000 ; the opening up
of new workings has increased this figure immensely, from about.
£1400,000 in 1901 to £3,006,500 in 1905. The Alaska gold
was derived almost wholly from the large low-grade quartz mines
of Douglas Island prior to 1899, but in that year an important
district was discovered at Cape Nome, on the north-western
coast. The result of a few months’ working during that year
was more than £500,000 of gold, and a very much larger annual
output may reasonably be anticipated in the future ; in 1905 it
was about £900,000. The gold occurs in alluvial deposits
designated as gulch-, bar-, beach-, tundra- and bench-placers.
The tundra is a coastal plain, swampy and covered with under¬
growth and underlaid by gravel. The most interesting and, thus
far, the most productive are the beach deposits, similar to those
on the coast of Northern California. These occur in a strip of
comparatively fine gravel and sand, 150 yds. wide, extending
along the shore. The gold is found in stratified layers, with
“ ruby ” and black sand. The “ ruby ” sand consists chiefly of
fine garnets and magnetites, with a few rose-quartz grains.
Further exploration of the interior will probably result in the
discovery of additional gold districts.
Mexico, from a gold production of £200,000 in 1891, advanced
to about £1,881,800 in 1900 and to about £3,221,000 in 1905. Of
this increase, a considerable part was derived from gold-<juartz
mining, though much was also obtained as a by-product in the
working of the ores of other metals. The product of Colombia,
Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile,
Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador amounted in 1900 to £2,481,000 and
to £2,046,000 in 1905.
In 1876 Australasia produced £7,364,000, of which Victoria
contributed £3,984,000. The annual output of Victoria declined
GOLD
Year.
Australasia.
Africa,
Canada.
India.
Mexico.
Russia.
United
States.
Totals,
1S81
i, 475 ,i 6 i
5*.483
41,545
*,181,853
1,678,61a
, 4,976,980
1882
1,438,067
52,000
. .
45,289
i,» 54 , 6 i 3
- I> 37 M «7
4 , 8 * 5,794
1883
1 , 333,849
46,150
46,229
1,132,219
1,451,250'
4,614,588
1884
i, 35 *, 76 i
46,000
. .
57,227
1,055,64*
1 , 489,950
4,902,889
1883
1,309,804
53,987
. .
46,941
1,225,73?
1 , 538 , 3*5
5,002,584
1886
1,257,670
66,061
29,702
922,220
1,693,**3
5,044,563
1,290,202
28,754
59,884
> 5,463
39 , 86 i
971,656
1 , 596,373
5,061,490
1888
1,344,002
240,266
33,>50
35,034
47 ,H 7
1,030,151
1,604,841
5,175,623
1889
1,540,607
366,023
62,658
78,649
33,862
1,154,076
1,587,000
5,611,245
1 1890
>, 453,172
497 , 8>7
55,625
107,273
37,104
1 , 134,590
1,588,880
5,726,966
! 1891
1,518,690
729,268
45 f °22
131,776
48,375
1,168,764
1,604,840
6,287,591
1 1892
1,638,238
1,210,869
43,905
164,141
54,625
1,199,809
i, 597,«98
7,102,172
! 1893
1,711,892
1 , 478,477
44,853
207,152
63,144
1,345,224
1 , 739 , 3*3
7 , 7 ' 7 *, 5 S 5
| 1894
2,020,180
2,024,164
50,411
210,412
217,688
1,167,455
1,910,813
8,813,848
! »«95
2,>70,505
2,277,640
92,440
257,830
290,250
1 , 397,767
2 , 254,760
9,814,505
1 I8q6
2,185,872
2,280,892
136,274
323,501
314,437
1,041,794
2,568,132
9,950,861
1897
2 , 547,704
2,832,776
294,582
35 o, 5«5
362,812
1,124,511
2 , 774,035
11,420,068
1898
3 , 137,644
3,876,216
669,445
376,431
411,187
1,231,791
3,118,398
13,877,806
1899
3 , 837,181
3 , 532,488
1,031,563
418,869
411,187
1,072,333
3 , 437,210
14 , 837,775
1900
3 . 555,506
4 > 9 , 5°3
1,348,720
456,444
435,375
974,537
3 , 8 * 9,897
1 *, 3 I 5,135
1901
3,719,080
439,704
1,167,216
454 , 5*7
497,527
1,105,412
3,805,300
12,698,089
1902
3 , 946,374
1 , 887,773
>, 003,355
463,824
491,156
1,090,053
3,870,000
14,313,660
1903
4 , 315,538
3,2814,409
911,118
552,873
516,524
1,191,582
3,560,000
15,852,620
1904
4,245,744
4,156,084
793,350
556,097
60CJ,78l
1 , 199 , 8.57
3,892,480
16,790,351
T 905
4 , 159,220
5 , 477,841
700,863
576,889
779,181
1,063,883
4,265,742
18,360,945
1906
3 , 984,538
6 , 449,749
581,709
525,527
896,615
1,087,056
4 , 565,333
19,620,272
1907
3 , 6 . 49,693
7,270,464
399,844
495,965
903,672
1,282,635
4 , 374,827
19,988,144
1908
3 , 557,705
7 . 98 . 3,348
462,467
504,309
1,182,445
1 . 497,076
4 , 659,360
21,529,300
until the year 1891, when it began to increase rapidly, but not to
its former level, the values for 1900 and 1903 bang £3, 14s,000
and £3,138,000. There has been an important increase in
Queensland, which advanced from £1,696,000 in 1876 to
£2,843,000 in 1900, and subsequently declined to £*,489,000
in 1905. There has been no increase, and, indeed, no large
fluctuation until quite recently in the output of New Z e ala nd ,
which averaged £1,054,000 per
annum from 1876 to 1898, but
the production of the two years
1900 and 1905 rose to £1,425,459
and £2,070,407 respectively. By
far the most important addition
to the Australasian product has
come from West Australia, which
began its production in 1887—
about the time of the incep¬
tion of mining at Witwatcrs-
rand (“ the Rand ”) in South
Africa—and by continuous in¬
crease, which assumed large
proportions towards the close of
the 19th century, was £6,426,000
in 1891), £6,179,000 in igoo, and
£8,212,000 in 1905. The total
Australasian production in 1908
was valued at £14,708,000.
Undoubtedly the greatest of
the gold discoveries made in the
latter half of the loth century
was that of the Witwatersrand
district in the Transvaal. Ily
reason of its unusual geological
character and great economic im¬
portance this district deserves
a more extended description. The gold occurs in conglomerate
beds, locally known as “ banket.” There are several series of
parallel beds, interstratified with quartzite and schist, the most
important being the “ main reef ” series. The gold in this con¬
glomerate reef is partly of dctrita! origin and partly of the genetic j
character of ordinary vein-gold. The formation is noted for its
regularity as regards both the thickness and the gold-tenor of
the ore-bearing reefs, in which respect it is unparalleled in the
geology of the auriferous formations. The gold carries, on an
average, £2 per ton, and is worked by ordinary methods of gold¬
mining, stamp-milling and cyaniding. In 1899, 5762 stamps
were in operation, crushing 7,331,446 tons of ore, and yielding
£15,134,000, equivalent to 25-5% of the world’s production. (2) as " carats,
Of-this, 80% came from within 12 m. of Johannesburg. After 1 pure gold is 1000
September 1899 operations were suspended, almost entirely
owing to the Boer War, but on the 2nd of May i9ot they were
started again. In 1905 the yield was valued at £20,802,074,
and in 1909 at £30,925,788. So certain is the ore-bearing
formation that engineers in estimating its auriferous contents
feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their calculations, a
vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at which
mining is feasible. On such a basis they arrived at more than
£600,000,000 as the available gold contained in the Witwaters¬
rand conglomerates. This was a conservative estimate, and was
made before the full extent of the reefs was known; in 1904
Lionel Phillips stated that the main reef series had been
proved for 61 m„ and he estimated the gold remaining to he
mined to bo worth £2,500,000,000. Deposits similar to the
Witwatersrand banket occur in Zululand, and also on die
Gold Coast of Africa.. In Rhodesia, the country lying north
of the Transvaal, where gold occurs in well-defined quartz-
veins, there is unquestionable evidence of extensive ancient
workings. The economic importance of the region generally
has been fully proved. Rhodesia produced £386,148 in 1900
and £722,656 in 1901, in spite of the South African War; the
product- for 1905 was valued at £*480,449, and for *908 at
£2,5216,000.
The gold production of Russia has been remarkably: aonsi
averaging £4,899,262 jjer annum; the gold is derived
from placer workings m Siberia. | «
The gold production of China was estimated for 1899 .0*
£1,328,238 and for 1900 at £860,000; it increased in 1901 to
about £1,700,000, to fall to £340,000 in *905; in 1906 and 1907
it recovered to about £1,000,000.
Tablx II .—Gold Production of Certain Countries, /SSr-rfoS (in ox.).
Alloys. —Gold forms alloys with most metals, and of these many
are of great importance in the arts. The alloy with mercury—gold
amalgam—is so readily formed that mercury is one of the most
powerful agents for extracting the precious metal. With 10 % of
gold present the amalgam is fluid, and with 12 -5 % pasty, whllo with
13 % it consists of yellowish-white crystals. Gold readily alloys with
silver and copper to form substances in use from remote times for
money, jewelry and plate. Other metals which find application in
the metallurgy of gold by virtue of their property of extracting the
gold as an alloy are lead, which combines very readily when molten,
and which can afterwards he separated by cupellation, and copper,
which is separated from the gold by solution m acids or by electro¬
lysis ; molten lead also extracts gold from the copper-gold alloys.
The Relative amount of gold in an alloy is expressed in two ways :
(1) as " fineness," i.c. the amount of gold in % iooo parts of alloy;
;) as “ carats," i.c. the amount of gold in 24jparts of alloy. Thus,
, are gold is 1000 “ fine " or 24 carat. In England the following
standards are used for plate and jewelry: 375, 500, 625, 750 and
oi6'6, corresponding to 9, 12, 15, 18 and 22 carats, the alloying
metals being silver and copper in varying proportions. In France
three alloys of the following standards are used for jewelry, 920,
840 and 730. *- ' . J u ---''
silver and 30
of gold and 1
of gold and silver, the standard of which varies from 350 to jod,
the colour of the precious metal being developed by " pickling ” in
a mixture of plum-juice, vinegar ana copper sulphate. They may
be said to possess a series of bronzes, in which gold and silver replace
tin and zinc, all these alloys being characterized by patina having
a wonderful range of tint. The common alloy, Shi-ya-ku-Do, con¬
tains 70 % of copper and 30 % of gold; when exposed to air it
becomes coated with a fine black patina, and is much used in Japan
for sword ornaments. Gold wire may be drawn df any quality, but it
is usual to add 5 to 9 dwts. of copper to the pound. The " solders “
used for red gold contain 1 part of copper and 5 of gold; for light
gold, 1 part of copper, 1 of stiver and 4 of gold.
Gold and Silver. —Electrum is a natural alloy of gold and silver.
Matthiessen observed that the density of alloys, the cpmposition of
which varies from AuAg. to Au,Ag, is greater than that calculated
from the densities of the constituent metals. These alloys are
harder, more fusible and more sonorous than pure gold. The alloys
of the formulae AuAg, AuAg,, AuAg, and AuAjfo are perfectly
homogeneous, and have been studied by Levol, Molten alloys con¬
taining more than So % of silver deposit on codling the alloy AuAg,,
little gold remaining in the mother liquor. ’S*
Gold and Zinc. —when present in small quantities zinc renders gdl&
i 9 6
GOLD
tattle, but it may be added to gold in larger quantities without
destroying the ductility of the precious metal; Ftligot proved that a
•'triple alloy of gold, copper and sine, which contains 5-8 % of the last-
. named, is perfectly ductile. The alloy of n parts gold and 1 part of
sine is, however, stated to be brittle.
Gold and Tin.— Alchome showed that gold alloyed with ,Vth part
c,l tin is sufficiently ductile to be rolled and stamped into coin, pro¬
vided the metal is not annealed at a high temperature. The alloys
1 if tin and gold are hard and brittle, and the combination of the metals
is attended with contraction; thus the alloy SnAu has a density
14-243. instead of 14-828 indicated by calculation. Matthiessen and
Bose obtained large crystals of the alloy Au»Sn 5 , having the colour
of tin, which changed to a bronze tint by oxidation.
Gold and Iron. —Hatchett found that the alloy of 11 parts gold
and 1 part of iron is easily rolled without annealing. In these pro¬
portions the density of the alloy is less than the mean of its con¬
stituent metals.
Gold and Palladium. —These metals are stated to alloy in all pro¬
portions. According to Chenevix, the alloy composed of equal parts
of the two metals is grey, is less ductile than its constituent metals
and has the specific gravity u-o8. The alloy of 4 parts of gold and 1
part of palladium is white, hard and ductile. Graham showed that a
wire of palladium alloyed with from 24 to 25 parts of gold does not
exhibit the remarkable retraction which, in pure palladium, attends
its loss of occ luded hydrogen.
Gold and Platinum. —Clarke states that the alloy of equal parts
of the two metals is ductile, and has almost the colour of gold.
Gold and Rhodium. —Gold alloyed with }th or 4th of rhodium is,
according to Wollaston, very ductile, infusible and of the colour of gold.
Gold and Iridium. —Small quantities of iridium do not destroy the
ductility of gold, but this is probably because the metal is only dis¬
seminated through the mass, and not alloyed, as it falls to the bottom
of the crucible in which the gold is fused.
Gold and■ Nickel. —Eleven parts of gold and 1 of nickel yield an
alloy resembling brass.
Gold and Cobalt. —Eleven parts of gold and 1 of cobalt form a
brittle alloy of a dull yellow colour.
Compounds. —Aurous oxide, Au» 0 , is obtained by cautiously
adding potash to a solution of aurous bromide, or by boiling
mixed solutions of auric chloride and mercurous nitrate. It forms
a dark-violet precipitate which dries to a greyish-violet powder.
When freshly prepared it dissolves in cold water to form an indigo-
colourcd solution with a brownish fluorescence of colloidal aurous
oxide; it is insoluble in hot water. This oxide is slightly basic.
Auric oxide, Au. a 0 3 , is a brown powder, decomposed into its elements
when heated to about 250° or on exposure to light. When a con¬
centrated solution of auric chloride is treated with caustic potash,
a brown precipitate of auric hydrate, Au(OH) a , is obtained, which,
on heating, loses water to form auryl hydrate, AuO(OH), and
auric oxide, Au a O.,. It functions chiefly as an acidic, oxide, being
less basic than aluminium oxide, and forming no stable oxy-salts.
It dissolves in alkalis to form well-defined crystalline salts ; potassium
nurate, KAuO a - 3 H a O, is very soluble in water, and is used in electro-
gilding. With concentrated ammonia auric oxide forms a black,
highly explosive compound of the composition AuN a H a -8H a O,
named " fulminating gold ” ; this substance is generally considered
to be Au(NH a )Nll-;iH a O, but it may be an ammine of the formula
1 Au(NH,) a (OH)j,]OH. Other oxidus, e.g, Au a O ai have been described.
Aurous chlonde, AuCl, is obtained as a lemon-yellow, amorphous
powder, insoluble in water, by heating auric chloride to 185°. It
begins to decompose into gold and chlorine at 185°, the decomposition
being complete at 230°; water decomposes it into gold and auric
chloride. Auric chloride, or gold trichloride, AuC.l a , is a dark ruby-
red or reddish-brown, crystalline, deliquescent powder obtained by-
dissolving the metal in aqua regia. It is also obtained by carefully
evaporating a solution of the metal in chlorine water. The gold
chloride of commerce, which is used in photography, is really a
hydrochloride, chlorauric or aurichloric acid, HAuCl 4 - 3 H a O, and
is obtained in long yellow needles by crystallizing the acid solution.
Corresponding to this acid, a series of salts, named chloraurates or
aurichlorides, are known. The potassium salt is obtained by crys¬
tallizing equivalent quantities of potassium and auric chlorides,
light-yellow monoclinic needles of 2 KAuCl 4 -H ,0 arc deposited from
warm, strongly acid solutions, and transparent rhombic tables of
KAuCl 4 - 2 H a O from neutral solutions. By crystallizing an aqueous
solution, red crystals of AuCI jl - 2 H s O are obtained. Auric chloride
combines with the hydrochlorides of many organic bases—amines,
alkaloids, &c.—to form characteristic compounds. Gold dichloridc,
probably AUgCf,, = Au.AuCl,, aurous chloraurate, is said to be
obtained as a dark-red mass by heating finely divided gold to 140 0 -
170° in chlorine. Water decomposes it into gold and auric chloride.
The bromides and iodides resemble the chlorides. Aurous bromide,
AuBr, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating the tri-
bromide to 140°; auric bromide, AuBr,, forms reddish-black or
scarlet-red leafy crystals, which dissolve in water to form a reddish-
browa solution, and combines With bromides to form bromaurates corre¬
sponding to the chloraurates. Aurous iodide, Aul, is a light-yellow,
sparingly soluble powder obtawed, together with free iodine, by
1 adding potassium iodide to’ 4 krlc chloride; auric iodide, Aul„
formed as a dark-green powder at the same time, but it readily
decomposes to aurous iodide and iodine. Aurous iodide is also
obtained as a green solid by acting upon gold with iodine. The
iodanrates correspond to the chlor- and bromaurates; the potassium
salt, KAuI 4 , forms highly lustrous, intensely black, four-sided prisms.
Aurous cyanide, AuCN, forms yellow, microscopic, hexagonal
tables, insoluble in water, and is obtained by the addition of hydro¬
chloric acid to a solution of potassium aurocyanide, KAu(CN)),.
This salt is prepared by precipitating a solution of gold in aqua regia
by ammonia, and then introducing the well-washed precipitate into
a boiling solution of potassium cyanide. The solution is filtered
and allowed to cool, when colourless rhombic pyramids oi the
aurocyanide separate. It is also obtained in the action of potassium
cyanide on gold in the presence of air, a reaction utilized in the
MacArthur-Forrest process of gold extraction (see below). Auric
cyanide, Au(CN) s> is not certainly known; its double salts, how¬
ever, have been frequently described. Potassium auricyanide,
2 KAu(CN) 4 -8H j O, is obtained as large, colourless, efflorescent
tablets by crystallizing concentrated solutions of auric chloride
and potassium cyanide. The acid, auricyanic acid, 2HAu(CN) 4 -SH f O,
is obtained by treating the silver salt (obtained by precipitating
the potassium salt with silver nitrate) with hydrochloric acid; it
forms tabular crystals, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether.
Gold forms three sulphides corresponding to the oxides; they
readily decompose on heating. Aurous sulphide, Au a S, is a brownish-
black powder formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
solution of potassium aurocyanide and then acidifying. Sodium
aurosulphide, NaAuS- 4 H, 0 , is prepared by fusing gold with sodium
sulphide and sulphur, the melt being extracted with water, filtered
in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and evaporated in a vacuum over
sulphuric acid. It forms colourless, monoclinic prisms, which turn
brown on exposure to air. This method of bringing gold into
solution is mentioned by Stahl in his Observations Chymico-
Physico-Medicae ; he there remarks that Moses probably destroyed
the golden calf by burning it with sulphur and alkali (Ex. xxxli. 20).
Auric sulphide, Au 2 S ai is an amorphous powder formed when lithium
aurichloridc is treated with dry sulphuretted hydrogen at -10°.
It is very unstable, decomposing into gold and sulphur at 200°.
Oxy-salts of gold are almost unknown, but the sulphite and thio¬
sulphate form double salts. Thus by adding acid sodium sulphite
to, or by passing sulphur dioxide at 30" into, a solution of sodium
aurate, the salt, 3 Na a SO a -Au a SO a - 3 H a O is obtained, which, when
precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol, forms a purple
powder, appearing yellow or green by reflected light. Sodium
aurothiosuiphale, 8 N aAO., ■ AUjS., 0 ,, • 4 H ,6, forms colourless needles ;
it is obtained in the direct action of sodium thiosulphate on gold in the
presence of an oxidizing agent, or by the addition of a dilute solution
of auric chloride to a sodium thiosulphate solution.
Mining and Metallurgy.
The various deposits of gold may be divided into two classes—
“ veins ” and “ placers.” The vein mining of gold does not
greatly differ from that of similar deposits of metals (see Mineral
Deposits). In the placer or alluvial deposits, the precious metal
is found usually in a water-worn condition imbedded in earthy
matter, and' the method of working all such deposits is based on
the disintegration of the earthy matter by the action of a stream
of water, which washes away the lighter portions and leaves the
denser gold. In alluvial deposits the richest ground is usually
found in contact with the “ bed rock ” ; and, when the overlying
cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the
older gravel is covered wiith a flow of basalt, regular mining by
shafts and levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be
required to reach the auriferous ground.
The extraction of gold may be effected by several methods;
we may distinguish the following leading types:
x. By simple washing, i.e. dressing auriferous sands,gravels, &c.;
2. By amalgamation, i.e. forming a gold amalgam, afterwards
removing the mercury by distillation;
3. By chlorination, i.e. forming the soluble gold chloride and
then precipitating the metal;
4. By the cyanide process, i.e. dissolving the gold in potassium
cyanide solution, and then precipitating the metal;
5- Electrolytically, generally applied to the solutions obtained
in processes (3) and (4).
1. Extraction 0/ Gold by Washing .—In the early days of gold-
washing in California and Australia, when rich alluvial deposits
were common at the surface, the most simple appliances sufficed.
The most characteristic is the “ pan,” a circular dish of sheet-
iron or " tin,” with sloping sides about 13 or 14 in, in diameter.
The pan, about two-thirds filled with the " pay dirt ” to be washed,
is held in the stream or in a hole filled with water. The larger
stones having been removed by hand, gyratory motion is given
to the pan by a combination of shaking and twisting movements
GOLD toy
so as to keep its contents suspended in the stream of water, which
canies away the bulk of the lighter material, leaving the heavy
minerals, together with any gold which may have been present. The
washing is repeated until enough of the enriched sand is collected,
when the gold is finally recovered by careful washing or “ panning
out" in a smaller pan. In Mexico and South America, instead of the
mn a wooden dish or trough, known as " batea," is used.
lire “ cradle " is a simple appliance for treating somewhat larger
quantities, and consists essentially of a box, mounted on rockers,
and provided with a perforated bottom of sheet iron in which the
“ pay dirt ” is placed. Wader is poured on the dirt, and the rocking
motion imparted to the cradle causes the finer particles to pass through
the perforated bottom on to a canvas screen, and thence to the base
of the cradle, where the auriferous particles accumulate on transverse
bars of wood, called “ riffles."
The " tom " is a sort of cradle with an extended sluice placed on
an incline of about I in 12. The upper end contains a perforated
riddle plate which is placed directly over the riffle box, and under
certain circumstances mercury may be placed behind the riffles.
Copper plates amalgamated with mercury are also used when the
gold, is very fine, and in some instances amalgamated silver coins have
been used for the same purpose. Sometimes the stuff is disintegrated
with water in a “ puddling machine,” which was used, especially in
Australia, when the earthy matters are tenacious and water scarce.
The machine frequently resembles a brickmaker’s wash-mill, and is
worked by horse or steam power.
In workings on a larger scale, where the supply of water is abundant,
as in California, sluices were generally employed. They are shallow
troughs about 12 ft. long, about 16 to 20 in. wide and 1 ft. in depth.
The troughs taper slightly so that they can be joined in series, the
total length often reaching several hundred feet. The incline of the
sluice varies with the conformation of the ground and the tenacity of
the stuff to be washed, from 1 in 16 to 1 in 8. A rectangular trough
of boards, whose dimensions depend chiefly on the size of the planks
available, is set up oil the higher part of the ground at one side of the
claim to be worked, upon trestles or piers of rough stone-work, at such
an inclination that the stream may carry off all but the largest stones,
which are kept back by a grating of boards about 2 in, apart. The
gravel is dug by hand and thrown in at the upper end, the stones
kept back being removed at intervals by two men with four-pronged
steel forks. The floor of the sluice is laid with riffles made of strips
of wood 2 in. square laid parallel to the direction of the current, and
at other points with boards having transverse notches filled with
mercury. These were known originally as Hungarian riffles.
in larger plant the upper ends of the sluices are often cut in rock
or lined with stone blocks, the grating stopping the larger stones
being known as a" grizzly." In order to save very fine and especially
rusty particles of gold, so-called " under-current sluices " are used;
these are shallow wooden tanks, 50 sq. yds. and upwards in area,
which are placed somewhat below the main sluice, and communicate
with it above and below, the entry being protected by a grating so
that only the finer material is admitted. These are paved with stone
blocks or lined with mercury riffles, so that from the greatly reduced
velocity of flow, due to (he sudden increase of surface, the finer
particles of gold may collect. In order to save finely divided gold,
amalgamated copper plates are sometimes placed in a nearly level
position, at a considerable distance from the head of the sluice, the
gold which is retained in it being removed from time to time. Sluices
are often made double, and they are usually cleaned up—that is,
the deposit rich in gold is removed from them—once a week.
The " pan ” is now only used by prospectors, while (he " cradle ”
and " tom " are practically confined to the Chinese; the sluice is
considered to be the best contrivance for washing gold gravels.
2. The Amalgamation Process. —This method is employed to
extract gold from both alluvial and reef deposits : in the first
case it is combined with “ hydraulic mining,” i.e. disintegrating
auriferous gravels by powerful jets of water, and the sluice
system described above; in the second case the vein stuff is
prepared by crushing and the amalgamation is carried out in
mills.
Hydraulicmining has for the most part been confined to the country
of its invention, California, and the western territories of America,
where the conditions favourable for its use arc more fully developed
than elsewhere—notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that
cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even
though consideiable-work may be required at times to make it avail¬
able. The general conditions to be observed in such workings
may be briefly stated as follows: (1) The whole of the auriferous
gravel, down to the " bed rock," must be removed,—that is, no
selection of rich or poor parts is possible; (2) this must be acoom-
lished by the aid of water alone, or at times by water supplemented
y blasting ; (3) the conglomerate must be mechanically disintegrated
without interrupting the whole system ; (4) the gold must be saved
without interrupting the continuous flow of water ; and (3) arrange¬
ments must be mads for disposing of the vast masses of impoverished
gravel
The water is brought from a ditch on the high ground, and through
a line of pipes to the distributing box, whence the branch pipes
supplying the jots diverge. The stream issues through a nozzle,
termed a " monitor " or " giant," which is fitted with a ball aail
socket joint, so that the direction of the jet may be varied through
considerable angles by simply moving a handle. The material Of
the bank being loosened by blasting and the cutting action of the
water, crumbles into holes, and the superincumbent mass, often
with large trees and stones, fails into the lower ground. The
stream, laden with stones ana gravel, passes into the sluices, where
the gold is recovered in the manner already described. Under the
most advantageous conditions the loss of gold may be estimated at
13 or 20 %, the amount recovered representing a value of about
two shillings per ton of gravel treated. The loss of mercury is
about the same, from 5 to 6 cwt. being in constant use per mile of
sluice.
In working auriferous river-beds, dredges have been used with
considerable success in certain parts of New Zealand and on the
Pacific slope in America. The dredges used in California are almost
exclusively of the endless-chain bucket or steam-shovel pattern.
Some dredges have a capacity, under favourable conditions of over
2000 cub. yds. of gravel daily. The gravel is excavated as in the
ordinary form of endless-chain bucket dredge and dumped on to the
deck of the dredge. It then passes through screens and grizzlies
to retain the coarse gravel, the finer material passing on to sluice
boxes provided with riffles, supplied with mercury. There are
belt conveyers for discharging the gravel and tailings at the end of the
vessel remote from the buckets. The water necessary to the process
is pumped from the river ; as much as 2000 gallons per minute is
used on the larger dredges.
The dressing or mechanical preparation of vein stuff containing gold
is generally similar to that of other ores (see Ore-dressing), except
that the precious metal should lie removed from the waste substances
as quickly as possible, even although other minerals of value that are
subsequently recovered may be present. In all cases the quartz
or other vein stuff must be reduced to a very fine powder as a pre¬
liminary to further operations. This may be done in several ways,
e.g. either (1) by the Mexican crusher or arrastra, in which the grinding
is effected upon a bed o' stone, over which heavy blocks of stone
attached to cross arms are dragged by the rotation of the arms about
a central spindle, or (2) by the Chilean mill or trapiche , also known
as the edge-runner, where the grinding stones roll upon the floor,
at the same time turning about a central upright—contrivances
which are mainly used for the preparation of silver ores; but
by far the largest proportion of the gold quartz of California,
Australia and Africa is reduced by (3) the stamp mill, which is similar
in principle to that used in Europe for the preparation of tin and other
ores.
The stamp mill was first used in California, and its use has since
spread over the whole world. In the mills of the Californian type the
stamp is a cylindrical iron pestle faced with a chilled cast iron shoe,
removable so that it can be renewed when necessary, attached to
a round iron rod or lifter, the whole weighing from 600 to 900 th ;
stamps weighing 1320 lb are in use in the Transvaal. The lift is
effected by cams acting on the under surface of tappets, and formed
by cylindrical boxes keyed on to the stems of the lifter about one-
fourth of their length from the top. As, however, the cams, unlike
those of European stamp mills, are placed to one side of the stamp, the
latter is not only lifted but turned partly round on its own axis, where¬
by the shoes are worn down uniformly. The height of lift may be
between 4 and 18 in., and the number of blows*from 30 to over 100
per minute. The stamps are usually arranged in batteries of five;
the order of working is usually 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, but other arrangements,
e.g. I, 3, 5, 2, 4, and 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, are common. The stuff, previously
broken to about 2-in. lumps in a rock-breaker, is fed in through an
aperture at the back of the " battery box," a constant supply of
water is admitted from above, and mercury in a finely divided state
is added at frequent intervals. The discharge of the comminuted
material takes place through an aperture, which is covered by a
thin steel plate perforated with numerous slits about ^,th in. broad
and j in. long, a certain volume being discharged at every blow
and carried forward by the flushing water over an apron or table
in front, covered by copper plates filled with mercury. Similar
plates are often used to catch any particles of gold that may be thrown
hack, while the main operation is so conducted that the bulk of the
gold may be reduced to the state of amalgam by bringing the two
metals into intimate contact under the stamp head, and remain in the
battery. The tablos in front are laid at an incline of about 8 0 and are
about 13 ft. long; they collect from 10 to 15 % of the whole gold;
a further quantity is recovered by leading the sands through a gutter ’
about 16 in. broad and 120 ft, long, also lined with amalgamated
copper plates, after the pyritic and other heavy minerals have been
separated by depositing in catch pits and other similar contrivances.
When the ore does not contain any considerable amount of free gold
mercury is not, as a rule, used during the crushing, but the amalgama¬
tion is carried out in a separate plant. Contrivances of the most
diverse constructions have been employed. The most primitive is
the rubbing together of the concentrated crushings with mercury in
iron mortars. Barrel amalgamation, i.e. mixing the crushings
with mercury in rotating barrels, is rarely used, the process being
wasteful, since the mercury is specially apt to. be " floured " (see
below).
GOLD
1^8
At Schemnitz, Kerpenyes, Kreuzbew and other localities in
Hungary quartz vein stuff containing a little gold, partly free and
partly associated with pyrites and galena, is, after stamping in mills,
similar to those described above, bnt without rotating stamps,
passed through the so-called " Hungarian gold mill" or " quick-mill."
This consists of a cast iron pan having a shallow cylindrical bottom
holding mercury, in which a wooden muller nearly of the same
shape as the inside of the pan, and armed below with several pro¬
jecting blades, is made to revolve by gearing wheels. The stuff
from the stamps is coftveyed to the middle of the muller, and is
distributed over the mercury, when the gold subsides, while the
quartz and lighter materials are guided by the blades to the cir¬
cumference and are discharged, usually into a second similar mill,
and subsequently pass over blanket tables, i.e. boards covered
with canvas or sacking, the gold and heavier particles becoming en¬
tangled in the fibres. The action of this mill is really more nearly
analogous to that of a centrifugal pump, as no grinding action takes
place in it. The amalgam is cleaned out periodically—fortnightly or
monthly—and after filtering through linen bags to remove the excess
of mercury, it is transferred to retorts for distillation (see below).
Many other forms of nan-amalgamators have been devised. The
Laszlo is an improve^ Hungarian mill, while the Piccard is of the
same type. In the Knox and Boss mills, which are also employed
for the amalgamation of silver ores, the grinding is effected between
flat horizontal surfaces instead of conical or curved surfaces as in the
previously described lorras.
One of the greatest difficulties in the treatment of gold by amalga¬
mation, and more particularly in the treatment of pyrites, arises from
the so-called " sickening " or " flouring ” of the mercury ; that is, the
particles, losing their bright metallic surfaces, are no longer capable
of coalescing with or taking up other metals. Of the numerous
remedies proposed the most efficacious is perhaps sodium amalgam.
It appears that amalgamation is often impeded by the tarnish
found on the surface of the gold when it is associated witli sulphur,
arsenic, bismuth, antimony or tellurium. Henry Wurtz iu America
(1864) and Sir William Crookes in England (1865) made independently
the discovery that, by the addition of a small quantity of sodium to
the mercury! the operation is much facilitated. It is also stated that
sodium prevents both the " sickening ” and the " flouring " of tile
mercury which is produced by certain associated minerals. The
addition of potassium cyanide has been suggested to assist the
amalgamation and to prevent " flouring,” but Skey has shown that
its use is attended with loss of gold.
Separation of Gold from the Amalgam .—The amalgam is first
pressed in wetted canvas or buckskin in order to remove excess ot
mercury. Lumps of the solid amalgam, about 2 in. in diameter,
are introduced into an iron vessel provided with an iron tube that
leads into a condenser containing water. The distillation is then
effected by heating to dull redness. The amalgam yields about
30 to 40 % of gold. Horizontal cylindrical retorts, holding from
■200 to 1200 lb of amalgam, are used in the larger Californian mills,
pot retorts being used in the smaller mills. The bullion left in the
retorts is then melted in black-lead crucibles, with the addition of
small quantities of suitable fluxes, e.g. nitre, sodium carbonate, Ac.
The extraction of gold from auriferous minerals by fusion, except as
an incident in their treatment for other metals, is very rarely practised.
It was at one time proposed to treat the concentrated black iron
obtained in the Ural gold washings, which consists chiefly of mag¬
netite, as an iron ore, by smelting it with charcoal for auriferous pig-
iron, the latter metal possessing the property of dissolving gold in
considerable quantity. By subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid
the gold could be recovered. Experiments on this point were made
by Anossow in 1835, but they have never been followed in practice.
Gold in galena or other lead ores is invariably recovered in the
refining or treatment of the lead and silver obtained. Pyritic ores
containing copper are treated by methods analogous to those of
the copper smelter. In Colorado the pyritic ores containing gold
and silver in association with copper are smelted in reverberatory
furnaces for regulus, whioh, when desilverized by Ziervogel’s method,
leaves a residue containing 20 or 30 oz. of gold per ton. This is
smelted with rich gold ores, notitbly those containing tellurium, for
white metal or regulus ; and by a following process of partial reduc¬
tion analogous to that of selecting in copper smelting, " bottoms "
of impure copper are obtained in which practically all the gold is
concentrated. By continuing the treatment of these in the ordinary
way of refining, poling and granulating, all the foreign matters
other than gold, copper and silver are removed, and, by exposing the
granulated metal to a high oxidizing heat for a considerable time the
3 er may be completely oxidized while the precious metals are
tered. Subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid renders the
copper soluble in water as sulphate, and-the final residue contains
only gold and silver, which is parted or refined in the ordinary way.
This method of separating golcf from copper, by converting the latter
into oxide and sulphate,Is also used at Oker in the Harz.
Extraction by Meant of Aqueous Solutions. —Many processes
have been suggested in whioh the gold of auriferous deposits is
converted into products stable in water, from which solutions
the gold thay be precipitated. Of these processes, two only are
of special importance, vie. the chlorination or Plattner process, in
which the metal is converted into the chloride, and the cyanide or
MacArthur-Forrest process, in which it is converted into potassium
atirocyanide.
(3) Chlorination or Plattner Process. —In this process moistened gold
ores are treated with chlorine gas, the resulting gold chloride dis¬
solved out with water, and the gold precipitated with ferrous sulphate,
charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen or otherwise. The process originated
iu 1848 with C. F. Plattner, who suggested that the residues from
certain mines at Reichcnstein, in Silesia, should be treated with
chlorine after the arsenical products had been extracted by roasting.
It must be noticed, however, that Percy independently made the
same discovery, and stated his results at the meeting of the British
Association (at Swansea) in 1849, but the Report was not published
until 1852. The process was introduced in 1858 by Deetken at Grass
Valley, California, where the waste minerals, principally pyrites from
tailings, had been worked for a considerable time by amalgamation.
The process is rarely applied to ores direct; free-milling ores are
generally amalgamated, and the tailings and slimes, after concentra¬
tion. operated upon. Three stages in the process are to be distin¬
guished : (i.) calcination, to convert all the metals, except gold
and sliver, into oxides, which are unacted upon by chlorine ; (ii)
chlorinating the gold and lixiviating the product; (iii.) precipitating
the gold.
The calcination, or roasting, is conducted at a low temperature in
some form ol reverberatory fumaoe. Salt is added in the roasting
to cor vert any lime, magnesia or lead which may be present, into
the corresponding chlorides, The auric chloride is, however, de¬
composed at the elevated temperature into finely divided metallic
gold, which is then readily attacked by the chlorine gas. The high
volatility of gold in the presence of certain metals must also be
considered. According to Egleston the loss may be from 40 to 90
of the total gold present in cupriferous ores according to the tem¬
perature and duration of calcination. The roasted mineral, slightly
moistened, is introduced into a vaf made of stoneware or pitched
planks, and furnished with a double bottom. Chlorine, generally
prepared by the interaction of pyrolusito, salt and sulphuric acid,
is led from a suitable generator beneath the false bottom, and rises
through the moistened ore, which rests on a bed of broken quartz;
the gold is thus converted into a soluble chloride, which is afterwards
removed by washing with water. Both fixed and rotating vats arc
employed, the chlorination proceeding more rapidly in the latter
case ; rotating barrels are sometimes used. There have also been
introduced processes in which the chlorine is generated in the
chloridizing vat, the reagents used being dilute solutions of bleaching
powder and an acid. Munktcll'g process is of this type. In the
Thies process, usexl in many districts in the United States, the vats
are rotating tiarrcls made, m the later forms, of iron lined with lead,
and provided with a filter formed of a finely perforated leaden
grating running from one end of the barrel to the other, and rigidly
held in place by wooden frames. Chlorine is generated within the
barrel from sulphuric acid and chloride of lime. After charging,
the harre) is rotated, and when the chlorination is complete the
contents are emptied on a filter of quartz or some similar material,
and the filtrate led to settling tanks.
After settling the solution is run into the precipitating tanks. The
precipitants in use are : ferrous sulphate, charcoal and sulphuretted
hydrogen, either alone or mixed with sulphur dioxide ; the use of
copper and iron sulphides has been suggested, but apparently these
substances have achieved no success.
In the case of ferrous sulphate, prepared by dissolving iron in
dilute sulphuric acid, the reaction follows the equation AuCL, 4 3 FeS 0 4
= FeCl., + Fe^SO,)., + Au. At the same time any lead, calcium,
barium and strontium present are precipitated as sulphates ; it is
therefore advantageous to remove these metals by the preliminary
addition of sulphuric acid, which also serves to keep any basic iron
salts in solution. The precipitation is carried out in tanks or vats
made with wooden sides and a cement bottom. The solutions are
well mixed by stirring with wooden poles, and the gold allowed to
settle, the time allowed varying from 12 to 72 hours. The super¬
natant liquid is led into settling tanks, where a lurther amount
of gold is deposited, and is then filtered through sawdust or
sand, the sawdust being afterwards burnt and the gold separated
from the ashes and the sand treated in the chloridizing vat. The
precipitated gold is washed, treated with salt and sulphuric acid
to remove iron salts, roughly dried by pressing in cloths or on filter
paper, and then melted with salt, borax and nitre in graphite
crucibles. Thus prepared it has a fineness of 800-960, the chief
impurities usually being iron and lead.
Charcoal is used as the precipitant at Mount Morgan, Australia.
Its use was proposed as early as 1818 and 1819 by Hare and Henry ;
Percy advocated it in 1869, and Davis adopted it on the large scale
at a works in Carolina in 1880. The action is not properly under¬
stood ; It may be due to the reducing gases (hydrogen, hydrocarbons,
Ac.) which are invariably present in wood charcoal. The process
consists essentially in running the solution over layers of charcoal,
the charcoal being afterwards burned. It has been found that the
reaction proceeds faster when the solution is heated.
GOLD
199
Precipitation with sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen
proceeds much more rapidly, and has been adopted at many works.
Sulphur dioxide, generated by burning sulphur, is forced into the
solution under pressure, where it interacts with any free chlorine
present to form hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Sulphuretted
hydrogen, obtained by treating iron sulphide or a coarse matte
with dilute sulphuric acid, is forced in similarly. The gold is
precipitated as the sulphide, together with any arsenic, antimony,
copper, silver and lead which may be present. The precipitate
is collected in a filter-press, and then roasted in muffle furnaces
with nitre, borax and sodium carbonate. The fineness of the gold so
obtained is 900 to 950.
4. Cyanide Process. —This process depends upon the solubility
of gold in a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in the presence
of air (or some other oxidising agent), and the subsequent precipita¬
tion oi the gold by metallic zinc or by electrolysis. The solubility
of gold in cyanide solutions was known to K. w. Scheole in 1782 ;
and M. Faraday applied it to the preparation of extremely thin
films of the metal. L. Eisner recognized, in 1846, the part played
by the atmosphere, and in 1879 Dixon showed that bleaching powder,
manganese dioxide, and other oxidizingagents, facilitated the solution.
S. B. Christy (Trans. A.I.M.E., 1896, vol. 26) has shown that the
solution is hastened by many oxidizing agents, especially sodium and
manganese dioxides and potassium ferricyanide. According to
G. Bodlander (Zeit. f. angew. Ghent., 1896, vol. 19) the rate of solu¬
tion in potassium cyanide depends upon the subdivision of the gold
—the finer the subdivision the quicker the solution,—and on the
concentration of the solution, -the rate increasing until the solution
contains 0-25 % of cyanide, and remaining fairly stationary with
increasing concentration. The action proceeds in two stages; in
the first hydrogen peroxide and potassium aurocyanidc are formed,
and in the second the hydrogen peroxide oxidizes a further quantity
of gold and potassium cyanide to aurocyanide, thus (1) 2Au + 4KCN
l O, + 2HjOW 2KAu(CN') a + 4KOH + H,,0„; (2)2Au + 4KCN + 2 H.O. =-
2K Au(CN) 2 + 4KOH. The end reaction maybe written 4 Au + 8KCN +
2H»0 + 0.,^4 KAu(CN)„ + 4KOH.
The commercial process was patented in 1890 by MacArlhur and
Forrest, and is now in use nil over the world. It is best adapted for
free-milling ores, especially after the bulk of the gold has been re¬
moved by amalgamation. It has been especially successful in the
Transvaal. In the Witwatersrand the ore, which contains about
9 dwts. of gold to the metric ton (2000 th), is stamped and amalgam¬
ated, and the slimes and tailings, containing about 3 J dwts. per ton,
are cyaiiided, about 2 dwts. more being thus extracted. The total
tost per ton of ore treated is about 6s., of which the cyaniding costs
from zs, to 4s.
The process embraces three operations : (1) Solution of tile gold ;
(2) precipitation of the gold ; (3) treatment of the precipitate.
The ores, having been broken and ground, generally in tube mills,
until they passa 130 to 200-mesh sieve, are transferred to the leaching
vats, which are constructed of wood, iron or masonry ; steel vats,
coated inside and out with pitch, of circular section and holding up to
1000 tons, have come into use. The diameter is generally 26 ft., but
may be greater; the best depth is considered to be a quarter of the
diameter. The vats are fitted with filters made of coco-nut matting
and jute cloth supported on wooden frames. The leaching is gener¬
ally carried out with a strong, medium, and with a weak liquor, in the
order given : sometimes there is a preliminary leaching with a weak
liquor. The strengths employed depend also upon the mode of
precipitation adopted, stronger solutions (up to 0-25 % KCN) being
used when zinc is the precipitant. For electrolytic precipitation the
solution may contain up to o-t % KCN. The liquors are run off
from the vats to the electrolysing baths or precipitating tanks, and the
leached ores are removed by means of doors in the sides of the vats
into wagons. In the Transvaal the operation occupies 3$ to 4 days
for fine sands, and up to 14 days for coarse sands ; the' quantity of
cyanide per ton of tailings varies from 0-26 to 0-28 It>, for fleet roly tic
precipitation, and 0 5 lb for zinc precipitation.
The precipitation is effected by zinc in the form of bright turnings,
or coated with lead, or by electrolysis. According to Christy, the
precipitation with zinc follows equations 1 or 2 according as potassium
cyanide is present or not:
(1) 4KAu(CN)„ + 4Zn + 2H,0=2Zn(CN)„ +
K,Zn(CN), + Zn(OK) 2 + 4H H 4-\u;
(2) 2KAu(CN),+ 8Zn + 4KCN 1 2Hj.O =
2K a Zn(C.N) J + Zn(OK),+4H + 2Au ;
one part of zinc precipitating 3-1 parts of gold in the first case, and
2-06 in the second. It may be noticed that the potassium zinc
cyanide is useless in gold extraction, for it neither dissolves gold nor
can potassium cyanide be regenerated from it.
The precipitating boxes, generally made of wood but sometimes of
steel, and set on an incline, are divided by partitions into alternately
wide and narrow compartments, so that the liquor travels upwards
in its passage through the wide divisions and downwards through the
narrow divisions, la the wider compartments are placed sieves
having sixteen holes to the square inch and bearing zinc turnings.
The gold and other metals are precipitated on the under Surfaces of
toe turnings and fall to the bottom <H the compartment as a black
shine. The dime is cleaned out fortnightly or monthly, the zinc
turnings being cleaned by rubbing and rite supernatant liquor
allowed to settle in the precipitating boxes or in separate vemels.
The slime so obtained consists of finely divided gold and silver
(5-5° %), zinc (30-60 %), lead (to %), carbon (to %), together with
tin, copper, antimony, arsenic and other impurities of the sine and
ores. After well washing with water, the slimes are roughly dried in
bag-filters or filter-presses, and then treated with dilute sulphuric
acid, the solution being heated by steam. This dissolves out the
zinc. Lime is added to bring down the gold, and the sediment, after
washing and drying, is fused in graphite crucibles.
5. Electrolytic Processes. —The electrolytic separation of the gold
from cyanide solutions was first practised in the Transvaal The
process, as elaborated by Messrs. Siemens and Haleke, essentially
consists in the electrolysis of weak solutions with iron or steel plate
anodes, and lead cathodes, the latter, when coated with, gold, being
fused and cupelled. Its advantages over the zinc process'are that the
deposited gold is purer and more readily extracted, and that weaker
solutions can be employe 1, thereby effecting an economy in cyanide.
In the process employed at the Worcester Works in the Transvaal,
the liquors, containing about 130 grains of gold per ton and from
0'08 to o-oi % of cyanide, are treated in rectangular vats in which is
placed a series of iron and leaden plates at intervals of 1 in. The
cathodes, which are sheets of thin lead foil weighing 11 lb to the
sq. yd., are removed monthly, their gold content being from o-j to
10 %, and after folding are melted in reverberatory furnaces to
ingots containing 2 to 4 % of gold. Cupellation brings op the gold to
about 900 fine. Many variations of the electrolytic process as above
outlined have been suggested. S. Cowper Coles has suggested
aluminium cathodes; Andreoli has recommended cathodes at iron
and anodes of lead coated with lead peroxide, the gold being removed
from the iron cathodes by a brief immersion in molten lead ; in the
Pelatan-Cerici process the gold is amalgamated at a mercury cathode
(see also below).
Refining or Parting of Gold. —Gold is almost always silver-
bearing, and it may hie also noticed that silver generally contains
some gold. Consequently the separation of these two metals is
one of the most important metallurgical processes. In addition
to the separation of the silver the operation extends to the
elimination of the last traces of lead, tin, arsenic, &c. which
have resisted the preceding cupellation.
The " parting " oi gold and silver is of considerable antiquity.
Thus Strabo states that in his time a process was employed for re¬
fining and purifying gold in large quantities by cementing or burning
it with an aluminous earth, which, by destroying the silver, left the
gold in a state of purity. Pliny shows that for this purpose the gold
was placed on the fire in an earthen vessel with treble its weight of
salt, and that it was afterwards again exposed to the fire with two
parts of salt and one of argillaceous rock, which, in the presence of
moisture, effected the decomposition of the salt; by this means the
silver became converted into chloride.
The methods of parting can be classified into " dry," “ wet” and
electrolytic methods. In the " dry " methods the silver is converted
into sulphide or chloride, the gold remaining unaltered; in the
“ wet'' methods the silver is dissolved by nitric acid or boiling
sulphuric acid ; and in the electrolytic processes advantage is taken
of the fact that under certain current densities and other circum¬
stances silver passes from an anode composecLof a gold-silver alloy
to tlie cathode more readily than gold. Of the dry methods only
F. B. Miller's chlorine process is of any importance, this method, and
the wet process of refining by sulphuric acid, together with the
electrolytic process, being the only ones now practised.
The conversion of silver into the sulphide may be effected by
heating with antimony sulphide, litharge and sulphur, pyrites, or with
sulphur alone. The antimony, or Cuss und Fluss, method was
practised up till 1846 at the Dresden mint; it is only applicable to
alloys containing more than 50 % of gold. The fusion results in the
formation of a gold-antimony alloy, from which the antimony is
removed by an oxidizing fusion with nitre. The sulphur and
litharge, or Pfannensckmied, process was used to concentrate the
gold in an alloy in order to make it amenable to " quartation," or
parting with nitric acid. Fusion with sulphur was used for the same
purpose as the Pfannenschmied process. It was employed in 1797
at the St Petersburg mint
The conversion of the silver into the chloride may be effected by
means of salt—the " cementation " process—of other chlorides, or
by free chlorine—Miller's process. The first process consists essenti¬
ally In heating the alloy with salt and brickdust; the lsttpy absorbs
the chloride formed, while the gold is recovered by washing. It is no
longer employed. The second process depends upon the fact that, if
chlorine be led into the molten alloy, the base metals and the silver
ore converted into chlorides. It was proposed in 1838 by Lewis
Thompson, but it was only applied commercially after Miller's im¬
provements in 1867, when it was adopted at the Sydney mint. Sir
W. C. Roberts-Austen introduced it at the Ixindoa mint; and it has
also been nsed at Pretoria. It is especially suitable to gold rrentplnkig
little silver and base metals—a character of Australian geld—but it
yields to the sulphuric acid and electrolytic methods in point of
economy.
GOLD AND SILVER THREAD
The (epiiation of gold from silver in the wet way may be effected
by nitric add, sulphuric add or by a mixture of sulphuric acid and
•fM regia. .
i Parting by nitric acid is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned
by Albertus Magnus (13th cent.), Biringuccio (1540) and Agricola
(1556). It is now rarely practised, although in some refineries both
the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid-processes are combined, the
alloy being first treated with nitric add. It used to be called " quar-
tation " or " inquartation," from the fact that the alloy best suited
for the operation of refining contained 3 parts of silver to 1 of gold.
The operation may be conducted in vessels of glass or platinum, and
each pound of granulated metal is treated with a pound and a quarter
of nitric acid of specific gravity I-32. The method is sometimes
employed in the assay of gold.
Refining by sulphuric acid, the process usually adopted for
separating gold from silver, was first employed on the large scale by
d’Arcet in Paris in 1802, and was introduced into the Mint refinery,
London, by Mathison in 1820. It is based upon the facts that con¬
centrated hot sulphuric acid converts silver and copper into soluble
sulphates without attacking the gold, the silver sulphate being
subsequently reduced to the metallic state by copper plates with the
formation of copper sulphate. It is applicable to any alloy, and is
the best method for parting gold with the exception of the electro¬
lytic method.
The process embraces four operations: (1) the preparation of an
alloy suitable for parting; (2) the treatment with sulphuric acid ;
(3) the treatment of the residue for gold ; (4) the treatment of the
solution for silver.
It is necessary to remove as completely as possible any load, tin,
bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tellurium, impurities which impair
the properties of gold and silver, by an oxidizing fusion, e.g. with
nitre. Over 10 % of copper makes the parting difficult; conse¬
quently in such alloys the percentage of copper is diminished by the
addition of silver free from copper, or else the copper is removed by a
chemical process. Other undesirable impurities are the platinum
metals, special treatment being necessary when these substances are
present. The alloy, after the preliminary refining, is granulated by
being poured, while molten, in a thin stream into cold water which is
kept well agitated.
The acid treatment is generally carried out in cast iron pots;
platinum vessels used to be employed, while porcelain vessels are only
used for small operations, e.g. for charges of igo to 225 oz. as at Oker
in the Harz. The pots, which are usually cylindrical with a hemi¬
spherical bottom, may hold as much as 13,000 to 16,000 oz. of alloy.
They are provided w-ith lids, made either of lead or of wood lined with
lead, which have openings to serve for the introduction of the alloy
and acid, and a vent tube to lead off the vapours evolved during the
operation. The bullion with about twice its weight of sulphuric acid
of 66° Be is placed in the pot, and the whole gradually heated.
Since the action is sometimes very violent, especially when the
bullion is treated in the granulated form (it is steadier when thin
plates are operated upon), it is found expedient to add the acid in
several portions. The heating is continued for 4 to r2 hours according
to the amount of silver present; the end of the reaction is known
by the absence of any hissing. Generally the reaction mixture is
allowed to cool, and the residue, which settles to the bottom of the
pot, consists of gold together with copper, lead and iron sulphates,
which are insoluble in strong sulphuric acid ; silver sulphate may
also separate if present in sufficient quantity and the solution be
sufficiently cooled. The solution is removed by ladles or by siphons,
and the residue is leached out with boiling water; this removes the
sulphates. A certain amount of silver is still present and, according
to M. Pcttcnkofer, it is impossible to remove all the silver by means
of sulphuric acid. Several methods are in use for removing the
silver. Fusion with an alkaline bisulphate converts the silver into the
sulphate, which may be extracted by boiling with sulphuric acid and
then with water. Another process consists in treating a mixture of
the residue with one-quarter of its weight of calcined sodium sulphate
with sulphuric acid, the residue being finally boiled with a large
quantity of acid. Or the alloy is dissolved in aqua regia, the solution
filtered from the insoluble silver .chloride, and the gold precipitated
by ferrous chloride.
The silver present in the solution obtained in the sulphuric acid
boiling is recovered by a variety of processes. The solution may he
directly precipitated with copper, the copper passing into solution
as copper sulphate, and the silver separating as a mud, termed
" cement silver." Or the silver sulphate may be separated from the
solution by cooling and dilution, and then mixed with iron clippings,
the interaction being accompanied with a considerable evolution of
heat. Or Gutzkow's method of precipitating the metal with ferrous
sulphate may be employed.
The electrolytic parting of gold and silver has been shown to be
more economical and free from the objections—such as the poisonous
fumes —of the sulphuric acid process. One process depends upon the
fact that, with a suitable current density, if a very dilute solution of
silver nitrate be electrolysed between an auriferous silver anode and a
silver Cathode, the silver of the anode is dissolved out and deposited
at tile cathode, the gold remaining at the anode. The silver is quite
free from gold, and the gold tfier boiling with nitric add has a fine¬
ness of over 999.
Gold is left m the anode dime when copper or silver are refined by
the usual processes, but if the gold preponderate in the anode these
processes are inapplicable' A .cyanide bath, as used in electroplating,
would dissolve the gold, but is not suitable for refining, because other
metals (silver, copper, Ac.) passing with gold into the solution would
deposit with it. Bock, however, in 1880 (Berg- und hilttenmdnnische
Zeitung, 1880, p. 411) described a process used at the North German
Refinery in Hamburg for the refining of gold containing platinum
with a small proportion of silver, lead or bismuth, and a subsequent
patent specification (1896) and a paper by Wohlwill (Zeiis. f. Eleh-
trochem., 1898, pp. 379, 402, 421) have thrown more light upon
the process. The electrolyte is gold chloride (2-5-3 parts of pure gold
per 100 of solution) mixed with from 2 to 6 % of the strongest
hydrochloric acid to render the gold anodes readily soluble, which
they are not in the neutral chloride solution. The bath is used at
65° to 70° C. (150° to 158° F.), and if free chlorine be evolved, which
is known at once by its pungent smell, the temperature is raised, or
more acid is added, to promote the solubility of the gold. The bath
is used with a current-density of 100 amperes per sq. ft. at 1 volt
(or higher), with electrodes about x-2 in. apart; In this process all
the anode metals pass into solution except iridium and other re¬
fractory metals of that group, which remain as metals, and silver,
which is converted into insoluble chloride; lead and bismuth form
chloride and oxychloride respectively, and these dissolve until the
bath is saturated with them, and then precipitate with the silver in
the tank. But if the gold-strength of the bath be maintained, only
gold is deposited at the cathode—in a loose powdery condition from
ure solutions, but in a smooth detachable deposit from impure
quors. Under good conditions the gold should contain 99-98 % of
the pure metal. The tank is of porcelain or glazed earthenware, the
electrodes for impure solutions are | in. apart (or more with pure
solutions), and are on the multiple system, and the potential differ¬
ence at the terminals of the bath is 1 volt. A high current-density
being employed, the turn-over of gold is rapid—an essential factor
of success when the costliness of the metal is taken into account.
Platinum and palladium dissolved from the anode accumulate in the
solution, and are removed at intervals of, say, a few months by
chemical precipitation. It is essential that tire bath should not
contain more than 5 % of palladium, or some of this metal will
deposit with the gold. The slimes are treated chemically for the
separation of the metals contained in them.
Authorities. —Standard works on the metallurgy of gold are the
treatises of T. Kirkc Rose and of M. Kissler. The cyanide process
is especially treated by M. Ei.ssler, Cyanide Process for the Extraction
of Gold, which pays particular attention to the Witwatersrand
methods ; Alfred J ames, Cyanide Practice ; H. Forbes J ulian and
lidgar Smart, Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores. Gold milling is treated
by Henry Louis. A Handbook of Gold Milling ; C. G. Warnford Lock,
Gold Milling ; T. A. Rickard, Stamp Milling of Gold Ores. Gold
dredging is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in Gold Dredging, and
hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his Hydraulic.
Mining. For operations in special districts see J. M. Maclaren, Gold
(1908) ; J. H. Curie, Gold Mines of the World ; Africa : F. H. Hatch
and ]. A. Chalmers, Gold Mines of the Rand ; S. J. Truscott, Wituiaters-
rand Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice ; Australasia : D. Clark,
Australiap Mining and Metallurgy, Karl Schmeisser, Goldfields of
Australasia ; A. G. Charleton, Gold Mining and Milling in Western
Australia; India: F. H. Hatch, The Kolar Gold-Field.
GOLD AND SILVER THREAD. Under this heading some
general account may be given of gold and silver strips, threads
and gimp used in connexion with varieties of weaving, embroidery
and twisting and plaiting or lace work. To this day, in many
oriental centres where it seems that early traditions of the
knowledge and the use of fabrics wholly or partly woven, orna¬
mented, and embroidered with gold and silver have been main¬
tained, the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still
strong and prevalent. One of the earliest mentions of the use
of gold in a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod
made for Aaron (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3), “ And he made the ephod
of gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen.
And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires
(strips), to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the
scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work.” This is
suggestive of early Syrian or Arabic in-darning or weaving with
gold strips or tinsel. In both the Iliad and the Odyssey allusion
is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden textiles.
Assyrian sculpture gives an elaborately designed ornament upon
the robe of King Assur-nasir-pal (884 b.c.) which was probably
an interweaving of gold and coloured threads, and testifies
to the consummate skill of Assyrian or Babylonian workers
at that date. From Assyrian and Babylonian weavers the
conquering Persians of the time of Darius derived their celebrity
as weavers and users of splendid stuffs. Herodotus describes
GOLDA&T/
the tortdet given by Amass king of Egypt to the Minerva of
Lind us and how it was inwoven orembroidered with gold. Darius,
we are told, wore a war mantle on whidi were figured (probably
inwoven) two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. Alex¬
ander the Great is said to have found Eastern kings and princes
arrayed in robes of gold and purple. More than two hundred
years later than Alexander the Great was the king of Peigamos
(the third bearing the name Attalus) who gave much attention
to working in metals and is' mentioned by Pliny as having
invented weaving with gold, hence the historic Attalic cloths.
There are several references in Roman writings to costumes
and stuffs woven and embroidered with gold threads and the
Graeco-Roman chryso-phrygtum and the Roman auri-phrygium
are evidences not only of Roman work with gold threads but
also of its indebtedness to Phrygian sources. The famous
tunics of Agrippina and those of lleliogabalus are said to have
been of tissues made entirely with gold threads, whereas the
robes which Marcus AureliuB found in the treasury of Hadrian,
as well as the costumes sold at the dispersal of the wardrobe
of Commodus, were different in character, being of fine linen
and possibly even of silken stuffs inwoven or embroidered with
gold threads. The same description is perhaps correct of the
reputedly splendid hangings with which King Dagobert decorated
the early medieval oratory of St Denis. Reference to these
and many such stuffs is made by the respectively contemporary
or almost contemporary writers ; and a very full and interesting
work by Monsieur Francisque Michel (Paris, 1852) is still a
standard book for consultation in respect of the history of silk,
gold and silver stuffs.
From indications such as these, as well as those of later date,
one sees broadly that the art of weaving and embroidering with
gold and silver threads passed from one great city to another,
travelling as a rule westward. Babylon, Tarsus, Bagdad,
Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and Sicily, Constantinople,
Venice and southern Spain appear successively in the process
of time as famous centres of these much-prized manufactures.
During the middle ages European royal personages and high
ecclesiastical dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver
for their state and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings
and decoration ; and various names—cidatuun, tartarium,
naques or nac, baudekin or baldachin (Bagdad) and tissue —were
applied to textiles in the making of which gold threads were
almost always introduced in combination with others. Hie
thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper is so called because it
originally was placed between the folds of gold “ tissue ” (or
weaving) to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each
other. Under the articles dealing with carpets, embroidery,
lace and tapestry will be found notices of the occasional use in
such productions of gold and silver threads. Of early date in
the history of European weaving are rich stuffs produced in
Southern Spain by Moors, as well as by Saracenic and Byzantine
weavers at Palermo and Constantinople in the 12th century,
in which metallic threads were freely used. Equally esteemed
at about the same period were corresponding stuffs made in
Cyprus, whilst for centuries later the merchants in such fabrics
eagerly sought for and traded in Cyprus gold and silver threads.
Later the actual manufacture of them was not confined to Cyprus,
but was also carried on by Italian thread and trimming makers
from the 14th century onwards. For the most part the gold
threads referred to were of silver gilt. In rare instances of
middle-age Moorish or Arabian fabrics the gold threads are
made with strips of parchment or paper gilt and still rarer are
instances of the use of real gold wire.
In India the preparation of varieties of gold and silver threads
is an ancient and important art. The “gold wire” of fhe
manufacturer has been and is as a rule silver wire gilt, the silver
wire being, of course, composed of pure silver. The wire is
drawn by means of simple draw-plates, with rude and simple
appliances, from rounded bars of surer, or gold-plated silver, as
the case may be. The wire is flattened into strip, tinsel
or ribbon-like form, by passing fourteen or fifteen strands
simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil and
aec
convex surface; SahTstripe or tjnwtl of wkf
woven into Indian sontri, tissue or doth of .goM* the web or warp
being composed entirely ^ goJ^strips.andn^an'rsimilawtiisue
of silver. Other gold and silver threads suitable for tow in
embroidery, pillow and needlepoint lace making, &&, consist of
fine strips of flattened wire wound round cores of orange fin the:
case of silver, white) silk thread so as to completely cover them.
Wires flattened or partially flattened are also twitted into
exceedingly fine spirals and much used for heavy embroideries.
Spangles for embroideries, &c., are made from spirals of compara¬
tively stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, Ikying each
C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart Mow with a hammer
flattening it out into a thin round disk with a slit extending
from the centre to one edge. The demand for marry kinds of
loom-woven and embroidered gold and silver work in India is
immense, and the variety of textiles so ornamented is also very
great, chief amongst which are the golden or silvery tinsel
fabrics known as kineobs.
Amongst Western communities the demand for gold and
silver embroideries and braid lace now exists chiefly ift connexion
with naval, military and other uniforms, masonic insignia,
court costumes, public and private liveries, ecclesiastical robes
and draperies, theatrical dresses, ire.
The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the
woven braid lace or ribbon trade varies, but in all cases the
proportion of gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary' gold braid
wire is drawn from a bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7
of copper, and plated with 3 of gold. On an average each ounce
troy of a bar so plated is drawn into r5oo yds. of wire; and there¬
fore about t6 grains of gold cover x m. of wire. (A. S. C.)
OOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR (1576-1633).
Swiss writer, art industrious though uncritical collector of
documents relating to the medieval history and Constitution of
Germany, was bom on the 6th of January 1576 (some say 1378),
of poor Protestant parents, near llischofszell, in the Swiss Canton
of Thurgau. His university career, first at Ingolstadt (1585-
1586), then at Altdorf near Nurembetg( 1597-1598), was cut short
by his poverty, from which he suffered all his life, and which
was the main cause of his wanderings. In 1598 he found a rich
protector in the person of Bartholomaeus Schobmger, of St
Gall, by whose liberality he was enabled to study at St Gall
(where he first became interested in medieval documents, which
abound in the conventual library) and elsewhere in Switzerland.
Before his patron’s death (1604) he became (1603) secretary to
Henry, duke of Bouillon, with whom he went to Heidelberg and
Frankfort. But in 1604 he entered the service of the Baron
von Rohensax, then the possessor of the precious MS. volume
of old German poems, now in the national library in Paris, and
partially published by Goldast. Soon he was back in Switzerland,
and by 1606 in Frankfort, earning his living by preparing and
correcting books for the press. In i6n he was appointed
councillor at the court of Saxe-Weimar, and in 1615 he entered
the service of the count of Schaumburg at Buckeburg. In 1624
he was forced by the war to retire to Bremen; there in 1625 he
deposited his library in that of the town (his books were bought
by the town in 1646, but many of his MSS. passed to Queen
Christina of Sweden, and hence are now in the Vatican library),
he himself returning to Frankfort. In 1627 he became councillor
to the emperor and to the archbishop-elector of Treves, and in
1633 passed to the service of the landgrave of Hesse Darmstadt.
He died at Giessen early in 1633.
His immense industry is shown by the fact that his biographer,
Senckenburg, gives a fist of 63 works published or written by
him, some extending to several substantial volumes. Among the
more important are his Paraeneticorum veterum pars i. (1604),
which contained the old German tales of Kunig Tyrol von Schotten,
the Winsbeke and the Winsbekin ; Suevicarum rerum scripiores
(Frankfort, 1605, new edition, 1727); Rerum Akmanmcarum
seriptores (Frankfort, 1606, new edition by Senckenburg, 1730);
Cotuiiiuiion.es imperials} (Frankfort, 1607-^613, 4 vols!); Mon¬
orchia s. Romani imperii (Hanover and Frankfort, 1612-1614,
xn. 7 a
202
GOLDBEATING—GOLDBERG
3 vols.); Commentarii de regni Bohemia/ juribus (Frankfort,
16*7, new edition by Schmink, 1719). He also edited De Thou’s
History (1609-1610) and Willibald Pirckheimer’s works (1610).
In 1688 a volume of letters addressed to him by his learned
friends was published.
Life by Senckenburg, prefixed to his 1730 work. See also R. von
Ranmer’s Gisckichte d. gtrmanischen Phtlologie (Munich, 1870).
(W. A. B. C.).
GOLDBEATING. —The art of goldbeating is of great antiquity,
being referred to by Homer; and Pliny (N.H. 33. 19) states
that i oz. of gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being
four fingers (about 3 in.) square; such a leaf is three times
as thick as the ordinary leaf gold of the present time. In all
probability the art originated among the Eastern nations, where
the working of gold and the use of gold ornaments have been
distinguishing characteristics from the most remote periods.
On Egyptian mummy ca*es specimens of original leaf-gilding
are met with, where, tjie |?old is so thin that it resembles modem
gilding (y.».). The minimum thickness to which gold can be
beaten is not known with certainty. According to Mersenne
(1621) 1 oz.'was spread out over 105 sq. ft .; Reaumur (1711)
obtained 1464 sq. ft.; other values are 189 sq. ft. and 300 sq. ft.
Its malleability is greatly diminished by the presence of other
metals, even in very minute quantity. In practice the average
degree of tenuity to which the gold is reduced is not nearly so
great as the last example quoted above. A “ book of gold ”
containing 25 leaves measuring each 3) in., equal to an area of
264 sq. in., generally weighs from 4 to 5 grains.
The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according
to the colour required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be
incapable of being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is
not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is undesirable
on account of its greater cost. It also adheres on one part of a
leaf touching another, thus causing a waste of labour by the
leaves being spoiled ; but for work exposed to the weather it is
much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not tarnish or
change colour. The external gilding on many public buildings.
e.g. the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, London, is done
with pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of
leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with
the proportions of alloy per oz. they contain.
Name of Leaf.
Proportion
of Gold.
Proportion
of Silver.
Proportion ]
of Copper. ,
Grains.
Grains.
Grains.
Red.
456-460
20-24
Rile red ....
464
16
Extra deep
456
12
12
Deep.
444
24
12
Citron.
44 °
3 °
10
I Yellow ....
408
72
..
Pale yellow .
3 S 4
96
Lemon ....
360
120
Green or pale .
312
168
White'.
240
24O
The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been
alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a
higher temperature than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its malle¬
ability is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden cooling
does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this respect
from some other metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and flattened,
by rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers, into a
ribbon of t) in. wide and jo ft. in length to the os. After being
flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about faj grs. each, or
about 73 per oz., and placed between the leaves of a " cutch," which
is about | in. thick and 3) in. square, containing about 180 leaves of
a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this purpose, and
generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of about one of
vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about 20 minutes
with a 17-lb hammer, which rebounds by the elasticity of the skin,
and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread to the
size of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out, and cut into four
r scea, and put between the skins of a " shoder,” 4J in. square and
In. thick, containing about 720 skins, which have been worn out
in the finishing or >' mould " process. The shoder requires about
two hours* beating upon wftfc a 9-lb hammer. As the gold will
spread unequally, the shoderfs beaten upon after the larger leaves
have reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of
larger leaves come out of the edges in a state of dust. This allows
time for the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus
producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again
cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a " mould,”
composed of about 930 of the finest gold-beaters' skins, 5 in. square
and } in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds.
The material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the
process; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment of the work¬
man the perfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During
the first hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre
of the mould. This causes piping cracks upon the edges of the
leaves, the sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving
any trace of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour,
when the gold is about the 150,000th part of an inch in thickness, it
for the first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure
gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays ; gold highly
alloyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires
in all about four hours’ beating with a 7-lb hammer, when the
ordinary thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. A
single ounce of gold will at this stage be extended to 73 x 4 x 4 = 1200
leaves, which will trim to squares of about 3! in. each. The finished
leai is then taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed
off by slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument
called a waggon, the leaf being laid upon a leathern cushion. The
leaves thus prepared are placed into *' books ” capable of holding
25 leaves each, which have been rubbed over with red ochre to
prevent the gold clinging to the paper. Dentist gold is gold leaf
carried no farther than the cutch stage, and should be perfectly pun-
gold.
By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the
inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable to
bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead,
cadmium, platinum and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves,
but not to the same extent as gold or silver.
The fine membrane called goldbeaters’ skin, used for making
up the shoder and mould, is the outer coat of the caecum or blind
gut of the ox. It is stripped off in lengths about 25 or 30 in.,
and freed from fat by dipping in a solution of caustic alkali and
scraping with a blunt knife, ft is afterwards stretched on a
frame; two membranes are glued together, treated with a
solution of aromatic substances or camphor in isinglass, and
subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally they are cut
into squares of 5 or 54 in.; and to make up a mould of 950 pieces
the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 2j skins being got
from each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in
the mould, after which it is fit for use in the shoder alone.
The dryness of the cutch, shoder and mould is a matter of extreme
delicacy. They require to be hot-pressed every time they are used,
although they may be used daily, to remove the moisture which they
acquire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty weather,
when they acquire so little moisture that a difficulty arises from their
over-dryness, whereby the brilliancy of the gold is diminished, and
it spreads very slowly under the hammer. On the contrary, if the
cutch or shoder be damp, the gold will become pierced with innumer¬
able microscopic holes; and in the moulds in its more attenuated
state it will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This condition
is more readily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is
necessary that each skin of the mould should be rubbed over with
calcined gypsum each time the mould may be used, in order to pre¬
vent the adhesion of the gold to the surface of the skin in beating.
GOLDBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, 1 14 m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach, an
affluent of the Oder. Pop. (1905) 6804. The principal buildings
are an old church dating from the beginning of the 13th century,
the Schwabe-Priesemuth institution, completed in 1876, for the
board and education of orphans, and the classical school or
gymnasium (founded in 1524 by Duke Frederick II. of Liegnitz),
which in the 17th century enjoyed great prosperity, and numbered
Wallenstein among its pupils. The chief manufactures are
woollen cloth, flannel, gloves, stockings, leather and beer, and
there is a considerable trade in com and fruit. Goldberg
owes its origin and name to a gold mine in the neighbourhood,
which, however, has been wholly abandoned since the time of
the Hussite wars. The town obtained civic rights in 1211. It
suffered heavily from the Tatars in 1241, from the plague in 1334,
from the Hussites in 1428, and from the Saxon, Imperial and
Swedish forces during the Thirty Years’ War. On the 27th of
May 1813 a battle took place near it between the French and the
1 Goldberg is also the name of a small town in the grand-duchy of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
GOLD COAST
Russians ; and on the 23rd and the 27th of August of the same
year fights between the allies and the French.
See Sturm, Geschichte der Sladt Goldberg in Schlesien (1887).
GOLD COAST, that portion of the Guinea Coast (West Africa)
which extends from Assini upon the west to the river Volta on
the east. It derives its name from the quantities of grains of
gold mixed with the sand of the rivers traversing the district.
The term Gold Coast is now generally identified with the British
Gold Coast colony. This extends from 3° 7' W. to 1° 14' E., the
length of the coast-line being about 370 m. It is bounded W. by
the Ivory Coast colony (French), E. by Togoland (German). On
the north the British possessions, including Ashanti (q.v.) and the
Northern Territories, extend to the nth degree of north latitude.
The frontier separating the colony from Ashanti (fixed by order
■miry Walker k.
in council, 22nd of October 1906) is in general 130 m. from the
coast, but in the central portion of the colony the southern limits
of Ashanti project wedge-like to the confluence of the rivers Ofm
and Prah, which point is but 60 m. from the sea at Cape Coast.
The combined area of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and the Northern
Territories, is about 80,000 sq. m., with a total population
officially estimated in 1908 at 2,700,000 ; the Gold Coast colony
alone has an area of 24,200 sq. m., with a population of over a
million, of whom about 2000 are Europeans.
Physical features., —Though the lagoons common to the West
African coast are found both at the western and eastern extremities
of the colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) the greater
part of the coast-line is of a different character. Cape Three Points
(4° 44' 40' N. 2 0 j' 45' W.) juts boldly into the sea, forming the most
southerly point of the colonv. Thence the coast trends E. hv N.,and
is but slightly indented. The usually low sandy beach is, however,
diversified by bold, rocky headlands. The flat belt of country does
not extend inland any considerable distance, the spurs of the great
plateau which forms the major part of West Africa advancing in the
east, in the Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach
an altitude of over 2000 ft. Out of the level plain rise many isolated
peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend
203
from the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the Gold
Coast possesses no harbours. Great Atlantic rollers break unceas¬
ingly upon the shore. The chief rivers are the Volta (q.v.), the
Ankobra and the Prah. The Ankobra or Snake river traverses
auriferous country, and reaches the sea some 20 m. West of Cape
Three Points. It has a course of about 150 m., and is navigable in
steam launches for about 80 m. The Prah (" Bus uni Prah, sacred
river) is regarded as a fetish stream by the Fanti and Ashanti. One
of its sub-tributaries has its rise near Kumasi. The Prah rises in the
N.E. of the colony and flows S.W. Some 60 m. from its mouth it is
joined by the Ofin, which comes from the north-west. The united
stream flows S. and reaches the sea in i° 35' W. As a waterway the
river, which has a.course of 400 m., is almost useless, owing to the
many cataracts in its course. Another river is the Tano, which for
some distance in its lower course forms the boundary, between the
colony and the Ivory Coast.
Geology. —Cretaceous rocks occur at intervals along the coast belt,
but are mostly hidden under an extensive development of superficial
deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland is a broad belt .of sand¬
stone and marl with an occasional band of auriferous conglomerate,
best known and most extensively worked for gold in the Wasaw
district. Though the conglomerates bear some resemhlance to the
“ Banket ” of South Africa they are most probably of more recent
date. The alluvial silts and gravels also carry gold.
Climate. —The climate on the coast is hot, moist and unhealthy,
especially for Europeans. The mean temperature in the shade in the
coast towns is 78° to 8o° F. Fevers and dysentery are the diseases
most to be dreaded by the European. The native inhabitants,
although they enjoy tolerable health and live to an average age, are
subject in the rainy season to numerous chest complaints. There are
two wet seasons. From April to August are the greater rains, whilst
in October and November occur the “ smalls " or second rains.
From the end of December to March the dry harmattan wind blows
from the Sahara. In consequence of the prevalence of the sea-
breeze from the south-west the western portion of the colony, up to
the mouth of the Sekum river (a small stream to the west of Accra),
is called the windward district, the eastward portion being known
as the leeward. The rainfall at Accra, in the leeward district,
averages 27 in. in the year, but at places in the windward district is
much greater, averaging 7 <j in. at Axim.
Flora. —t he greater part (probably three-fourths) of the colony is
covered with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant
that for great distances the sky is shut out from view. As a result of
the struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost
entirely vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the
bombax,and gigantic bard-wood trees, such as the African mahogany,
ebony, odum and camwood. The bombax rises for over 100 ft., a
straight column-like shaft, 25 to 30 ft. in circumference, and then
throws out horizontally a large number of branches. The lowest
growth in the forest consists of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of
the ferns some are climbers reaching 30 to 40 ft. up the stems of the
trees they entwine. Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they
include orchids and a beautiful white lily. The " bush *’ or inter¬
mediate growth is made up of smaller trees, the rubber vine and
other creepers, some as thick as hawsers, bamboos and sensitive
mimosa, and has a height of from 30 to 60 ft. The creepers are found
not only in the bush, but on the ground and hanging from the branches
of the highest trees. West of the Prah the forest comes down to the
edge of the Atlantic. East of that river the coast land is covered
with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional large trees and groves of
oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are numerous arborescent
Euphorbias, and immediately west of the lower Volta forests of oil
palms and grassy plains with fan palms. Behind all these eastern
regions is a belt of tlun forest country before the denser forest is
reached. In the north-east are stretches of orchard-like country
with wild plum, shea-butter and kola trees, baobabs, dwarf date
and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco plants grow wild. At the
mouths of the rivers and along the lagoons the mangrove is the
characteristic tree. There are numerous coco-nut palms along the
coast. The fruit trees and plants also include the orange, pineapple,
mango, papaw, banana and avocado or alligator pear.
Fauna. —The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto
lemurs, jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-hogs and many kinds of
monkey, including the chimpanzee and the Colobus vellerosus, whose
skin, with long black silky hair, is much prized in Europe, 'the
elephant has been almost exterminated by ivory hunters. The
snakes include pythons, cobras, homed and puff adders and the
venomous water snake. Among the lesser denizens of the forest are
the squirrel and porcupine. Crocodiles and in fewer numbers
manatees and otters frequent the rivers and lagoons and hippopotami
are found in the Volta. Lizards of brilliant hue, tortoises and great
snails are common. Birds, which are not very numerous, include
parrots and hombills, kingfishers, ospreys, herons, crossbills, curlews,
woodpeckers, doves, pigeons, storks, pelicans, swallows, vultures and
the spur plover (the last-named rare). Shoals of herrings frequent
the coast, and the other fish include mackerel, sole, skate, mullet,
bonito, flying fish, fighting fish and shynose. Starks abound at the
mouths of all the rivers, edible turtle are fairly common, as are the
sword fish, dolphin and sting ray (with poisonous caudal spine).
Oysters are numerous on rows running into the sea and on the
204
GOLD COAST
exposed roots of mangrove trees. I nsect life is multitudinous; beetles.
spiders, ants, fireflies, butterflies and jiggers abound. The earth¬
worm is rare. The mosquitos include the Cels* or ordinary kind,
the Anopheles, which carry malarial fever, and the Stegomyia, a
striped white and black mosquito which carries yellow-fever.
Inhabitants. —The natives are all of the Negro race.\ Tho most
important tribe is the Fanti {q.v.) , and the Kanti language is generally
understood throughout the colony. The Fanti and Ashanti are
believed to have a common origin. It is certain that the Fanti came
orig inall y from the north and conquered many of the coast tribes,
who anciently had owned the rule of tho king of Benin. Tho districts
in general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. Those in the
western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti stock ; the Accra and
allied tubes inhabit tire eastern portion and are believed to be the
aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north¬
east portion of the colony, have engaged in gold-digging from time
immemorial. The capital of their country is Kibbi. The Akwapim
(Aqiianem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are extensively en¬
gaged in agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever race, are to be
found in all the towns of the West African coast as artisans and
sailors. They are employed by the interior tribes as middlemen and
interpreters. On the tight bank oi the Volta occupying the low
marshy land near the sea are the Adangme. The Krobos live in
little villages in the midst of the palm tree woods which grow round
about the Krobobcrg, an eminence about 1000 ft. high. Their
country lies between that of the Akim aud the Adangme. In the
west of the colony is the Alianta country, formerly an independent
kingdom. The inhabitants were noted for their skill in war. They
are one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of Accra stock.
The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region nearest the
Ivory Coast.
The Tslii, Tehwi or Chi language,' which is that spoken on the
Gold Coast, belongs to the great prefix-pronominal group. It com-
prises many dialects, which may, however. Lie reduced
Native tw 0 classes or types. Akau dialects are spokeu in
Assini, Amanahia (Apollonia), Awini, Ahanta, Wasaw,
*"***'• Tshuforo (Jutfer or Tufcl), and Denkvera in the west,
and in Asen, Akim, and Akwapim in the east, as well as in the
different parts of Ashanti. Fanti dialects are spoken, not only in
Fanti proper, but in Afutu or the country round Cape Coast, in
Abora, Agymako, Akomfi, Gomoa and Agona. The difference
between the two types is not very great; a Fanti, for example, can
converse without much difficulty with a native of Akwapim or
Ashanti, his language being in fact a deteriorated form of the same
original. Akim is considered the finest and purest of all the Alum
dialects. The Akwapim, which is base;: on the Akim but has im¬
bibed Fanti influences, has been made the book-language by the
Basel missionaries. They had reduced it to writing before 1850.
About a million people in all, it is estimated, speak dialects of the
Tslii.
The south-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by another
language known as the Ga or Accra, which comprises the Ga proper
and the Adangme and Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about
40.000 people, including the inhabitants of Ga and Kinka (i.e. Accra,
in Tshi, Nkran and Kankan), Osu (i.e. Christiaasborg), La, Tessi,
Ningua and numerous inland villages. It has been reduced to writing
by the missionaries. The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken
by about 80,000 people. They differ very considerably from Ga
proper, but boolffi printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo aud
Adangme natives. Another language known as Guan is used in parts
of Akwapim and 111 Anum beyond the Volta ; but not much is known
either about it or the Obutu tongue spoken in a iew towns in Agona,
Gomoa and Akomfi.
Fetishism (4.11.) is the prevailing religion of nil the tribes. Belief
in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state. Christi¬
anity and Mahommedanism are both making progress.
KtUttaa yt,e natives professing Christianity number about 40,000.
*®* A Moravian mission was started at Christiansborg
education. about . y, e Basel mission (Evangelical) was begun
in 1818, the missionaries combining manual trainiug and lacm
labour with purely reli gi ous • work; the Wesleyans started a
mission among the Fanti in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman
Catholic Churches are also represented, as well as the Bremen
Missionary Society. Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of
the Wesleyan, Basel, Bremen and Roman Catholic missions, who
have schools at many towns along the coast and in the interior.
There are also government and Mahommcdan schools. The natives
generally are extremely intelligent. They obtain easily the means of
subsistence, and are disinclined to unaocustomed labour, such as
working in mines. They arc keen traders. The native custom of
burying the dead under thu floors of the houses prevailed until 1874,
when it was prohibited by the British authorities.
Towns.—Unlike the other British possessions on the west coast of
Africa, the colony has triamy towns along tbe shore, this being due to
tile multiplicity of traders of rival nations who went thither in quest
of gold. Beginning at the west, Newtown, on the Assini or Eyi
lagoon, is just within the British frontier. The first place of im-
1 This name appears in f -great variety of forms—Kwi, Ekwi,
Okwi, Oji, Odschf, Otrni, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee.
portance reached is Axim (pop., 1901, 2189), the site of an old Dutch
fort built near the mouth of the Axim river, and in the pre-railway
days the port of the gold region. Rounding Cape Three Points,
whose vicinity is marked by a line of breakers nearly aj m. long,
Dixoovo is reached. Twenty miles farther east Is Sekandi (4.0.),
(pop. about 5000), the starting-point of the railway to the goldcnelds
ana Kumasi. Elmina (q.v.), formerly one of the most important
posts of European settlement, is reached some distance after passing
the mouth of the Prah. Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast
(?.».), pop. (iqoi) 28,948. Auamabo is 9 m. farther east. Here, in
1807, a handful of English soldiers made a heroic and successful
defence of its fort against the whole Ashanti host. Saltpond, towards
the end of the 19th century, diverted to itself the trade formerly done
by Anamabo, from which it is distant 9 m. Saltpond is a well-built,
flourishing town, and is singular in possessing no ancient fort.
Between Anamabo and Saltpond is Kormantine (Cormantyne), noted
as the place whence tho English first exported slaves from this coast.
Hence the general name Coromantynes given in the West Indies to
slaves from the Gold Coast. Eighty miles from Cape Coast is Accra
(q.v.) (pop. 17,892), capital of the colony. (Winnebah is passed
30 m. before Accra is reached. It is an old town noted for the J nan ti¬
me turo of canoes.) There is no station of much importance in the
60 m. between Accra and the Volta, on the right bank of which river,
near its month, is the town of Addak (pop. 13,240). Kwitta (pop.
301S) lies beyond the Volta not far from the German frontier. Of
the inland towns Akropong, the residence of the king of Akwapim, is
one of the liest known. It is 39 m. N.E. of Accra, stands on a ridge
1400 ft. above soa-level, and is a healthy place for European residents.
At Akropong are the headquarters of the Basel Missionary Society.
Akuse is a large town on the banks of the Volta. Tarkwa is the
centre of the gold mining industry in the Wasaw district. Its im¬
portance dates from the beginning of the 20th century. Accra, Cape
Coast and Sekondi possess municipal government.
Agriculture and 1 rode. —The soil is everywhere very fertile and the
needs of the people being few there is little incentive to work. The
iorests alone supply an inexhaustible source of wealth, notably in the
oil palm. Among vegetable products cultivated are cocoa, cotton,
Indian com, yams, cassava, peas, peppers, onions, tomatoes, ground¬
nuts (Ararhts hypogaea), Guinea corn (Sorghum vulgar/' ) and Guinea
grains ( Anmmum graua-paradisi). The most common article of
cultivation is, however, the kola nut ( Sterculia acuminata ), the
favourite substitute in West Africa for the lietel nut. In 1890 efforts
were made by the establishment of a government botanical station at
Aburi in the Accra district to induce the natives to improve their
methods of cultivation and to enlarge the number of their crops.
This resulted in the formation of hundreds of cocoa plantations,
chiefly in the district immediately north of Accra. Subsequently the
cultivation of the plant extended to every district of the colony.
The industry had been founded in 1879 by a native of Accra, but it
was not until 1901, as the result of the government's fostering care,
that the export became pf importance. In that year the quantity
exported slightly exceeded 2,000,000 lb and fetched £42,000, I21
1907 the quantity exported was nearly 21,000,000 lb and in value
exceeded £515,000. In 1904 efforts were begun by the government
and the British Cotton Growing Association in co-opcration to foster
the growing of cotton for export and by 1907 the cotton industry
had become firmly established. Tobacco and coffee are grown at
some of the Basel missionary stations.
The chief exports are gold, palm oil and palm kernels, cocoa,
rubber, timber (including mahogany) and kola nuts. Of these
articles the gold and rubber are shipped chiefly to England, whilst
Germany, France and America, take the palm products and ground¬
nuts. The rubber comes chiefly from Ashanti. The imports consist
of cotton goods, rum, gin and other spirits, rice, sugar, tobacco, beads,
machinery, building materials and European goods generally.
The value of the trade increased from £1,628,309 in 1896 to
£4,055,351 in 1906. In the Inst named year the imports were valued
at £2,058,839 and the exports at £1,096,412. While the value of
imports had remained nearly stationary since 1902 the value of
exports had nearly trebled in that period. In the five years 1903-
1907 the total trade increased from £3,063,486 to £5,007,869. Great
Britain and British colonies take' 66 % of the exports and supply
over 60 % of the import*. In both import imd export trade Germany
is second, followed by France and the United States. Specie is in¬
cluded in these totals, over a quarter of a million being imported in
1904.
Fishing is carried on extensively along the coast, and salted and
sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta districts find a ready sale
inland. Cloths are woven by the natives from home-grown and
imported yarn; the making of canoes, from tiie silk-cotton trees,
is a flourishing industry, and salt from the lagoons near Addah is
roughly prepared. There are also native artificers in gold and other
metals, the workmanship in some cases being of conspicuous merit.
Odum wood is largely used in building and for cabinet work.
Gold Mining. —Gold is found in almost every part of the colony,
bat only in a few districts in paying quantities. Although since the
discovery of the coast gold had been continuously exported to
Europe from its ports, it was not until the last twenty years of the
19th century that efforts were made to extract gold according to
modem methods. The richness of the Tarkwa main reef was first
GOLD COAST 205
discovered by a French trader, M. J. Bonnat, about 1880. During
the period 1880 to 1900 the value of the gold exported varied from
a minimum of £32,000 to a maximum (1889) of £103,000. The
increased interest shown in the industry led to the construction of a
railway (see below) to the chief gold-fields, whereby the difficulties of
transport were largely overcome. Consequent upon the taking up of
a number of concessions, a concessions ordinance was issued in
August 1900. This was followed in 1901 by the grant of 2825 con¬
cessions, and a " boom ”m the West African market on the London
stock exchange. Many concessions were speedily abandoned, and m
1901 tire export of gold dropped to its lowest paint. 6162 02., worth
£22,186, but in 1902 a large company began crushing ore and the
output of gold rose to 26,911 or., valued at £96,880. In 1907 the
export was 292,125 or., worth £1,164,676. It should be noted that one
of the principal gold mines is not in the colony proper, but at Obuassi
in Ashanti. Underground labour is performed mainly by Basas and
Krumuu from Liberia. Of native tribes the Apollonia have proved
the best for underground work, as they have mining traditions dating
from Portuguese times. A good deal of alluvial gold is obtained by
dredging apparatus. The use of dredging apparatus is modem, but
the natives have worked the alluvial soil and the sand of the sea¬
shore for generations to get the gold they contain.
Communications .—The colony possesses a railway, built and
owned by the government, which serves the gold mines, and has its
sea terminus at Sckondi. Work was begun in August 1898, but
owing to the disturbance caused by the Ashanti rising of lyoo the
rails only reached Tarkwa (39 m.) in May 1901. Thence the line is
cairied to Kumasi, the distance to Obuassi (124 m.) being completed
by December 1902, whilst the first train entered the Ashanti capital
on the 1st of October 1903. The total length of the line is 168 m.
The cost of construction was £1,820,000. The line has a gauge
3 ft. 6 in. There is a branch line, 20 m. long, from Tarkwa N. W. to
Prcstea on the Ankobra river. Another railway, built 1907-10,
35 m. in length, runs from Accra to Mangoase, in the centre of the
chief cocoa plantations. An extension to Kumasi has been surveyed.
Tortnous bush tracks are the usual means of internal communica¬
tion. These are kept in fair order in the neighbourhood of govern¬
ment stations. There is a well-constructed road 141 m. long from
Cape Coast to Kumasi, and roads connecting neighbouring towns are
maintained by the government. Systematic attempts to make use
of the upper Volta as a means of conveying goods to the interior were
first tried in lyoo. The rapids about 60 m. from the mouth of the
river effectually prevent boats of large size passing up the stream.
Where railways or canoes are not available goods are generally
carried on the heads of porters, 60 lb lieing a full load. Telegraphs,
introduced in 1882, connect all the important towns in the colony,
and a line starting at Cape Coast stretches far inland, via Kumasi to
Wa in the Northern Territories. Accra and Sckondi are in telegraphic
communication with Europe, the Ivory Coast, Lagos and the Cape of
Good Hope. There is regular and frequent steamship communica¬
tion with Europe by British, Belgian and German lines.
Administration, Revenue, &-c .—The country is governed as a crown
colony, the governor being assisted by a legislative council composed
of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called ordin¬
ances, are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of
this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes
of general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local
ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of
Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the
legislative council has no authority.
Native laws and customs—which arc extremely elaborate and
complicated—are not interfered with " except when repugnant to
natural justice." Those relating to land tenure and succession may
be thus summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most
land is held by the tribe or by the family in common, each member
having the right to select a part of the common land for his own use.
Permanent alienation can only take place with the unanimous
consent of the family and is uncommon, but long leases are granted.
Succession is through the female, i.e. when a man dies his property
goes to his sister’s children. The government of the tribes is by their
own kings and chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners.
Slavery has been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Terri¬
tories the dealing in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be
put in pawn for debt; nor will any court give effect to the relations
between master and slave except in so far as those relations may he
in accordance with the English laws rotating to master and servant.
For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three
provinces under provincial commissioners, and each province is sub¬
divided into districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise
judicial as well as executive functions. The supreme court consists
of a chief justice and three puisne judges. The defence of the colony
is entrusted to the Gold Ooast regiment oi the West African Frontier
Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but officered
from the British army. 'There is also a corps of volunteers (formed
iSgz).
The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway
receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport (in¬
cluding railways) and mine surveys, medical and sanitary services,
and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the
period 1894-1898 averaged £244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an
average of £596,316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the
average revenue was £647,337 and the average annual
expenditure £615,696. Save for mu n i c i pal purposes there is no
direct taxation in the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a
public debt of (December 1907) £2,206,964. It should be noted that
the expenditure on Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included
in the Gold Coast budget
History .—It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was
discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence
available is insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is
no contemporary record, that a company of Norman merchants
established themselves about 1364 at a place they named La
Mina (Elmina), and that they traded with the natives for nearly
fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned. It is well estab¬
lished that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo d’Azambuja,
accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took possession
of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was
called variously Sfio Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina—the mouth
of the (gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also
worked the gold mines was proved by discoveries in the latter
part of the 19th century. The Portuguese remained undisturbed
in their trade until the Reformation, when the papal bull which
had given the country, with many others, to Portugal ceased to
have a binding power. English ships in 1533 brought back from
Guinea gold to the weight of 150 lb. The fame of the Gold Coast
thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every European
nation. The English were followed by French, Danes, Branden-
burgers, Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the
Dutch, who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the
Portuguese from the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portu¬
guese did finally withdraw in 1642, in return for the withdrawal
on the part of the Dutch of their claims to Brazil. The Dutch
henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on the coast. Traces
of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years, are still to
lie found, notahly in the language of the natives. Such familiar
words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash ( i.e. a gift) have all a
Portuguese origin.
An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to
1651, and some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The
settlements made by the English provoked the hostility Appettr-
of the Dutch and led to war between England and mnotpi
Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed
(1664-1665) all the English forts save Cape Coast
castle. The treaty of Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the
possession of their conquests, but the English speedily opened
other trading stations. Cnarlcs 11. in 1672 granted a charter to
the Royal African Company, which built forts at Dixcove,
Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing Cape
Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was
very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of
the gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosnian, the
chirf Dutch factor at Elmina, to be over £200,000. The various
European traders were constantly quarrelling among themselves
and exercised scarcely any control over the natives. Piracy was rife
along the coast, and was not indeed finally stamped out until the
middle of the 19th century. The Royal African Company, which
lost its monopoly of trade with England in 1700, was succeeded
by another, the African Company of Merchants, which was con¬
stituted in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual
subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its
height and some 10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many
of the slaves were prisoners of war sold to-the merchants by
the Ashanti, who had become the chief native power. The aboli¬
tion of the slave trade (1807) crippled the company, which was
dissolved in 1821, when the crown took possession of the forts.
Since the beginning of the 19th century the British had begun
to exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts,
and in i8t7 the right of the British to control the natives living in
the coast towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first
step towards the extension of British authority beyond the coast
region was taken by Governor Sir Charles M'Carthy, who incited
the Fanti to rise against their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The
Fanti’s country had been conquered by the Ashanti m 1807.)
206 GOLD COAST
Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated, the governor losing
bit life, but in 1826 the English.gained a victory over the Ashanti
at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home government,
disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual dis¬
turbances in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned,
determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for
the forts to lie destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The
merchants, backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiment,
the administrator, protested, and as a compromise the forts were
handed over to a committee of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were
given a subsidy of £4000 a year. The merchants secured (1830)
as their administrator Mr George Maclean—u gentleman with
military experience on the Gold ('oast and not engaged in trade.
To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the
interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty with the Ashanti advantage¬
ous to the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived
to extend British influence over the whole region of the present
colony. In the words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the
people, “ he sett'"<! things quietly with them and the people also
loved him." 1 t ompluints that Maclean encouraged slavery
reached England, but these were completely disproved, the
governor being highly commended on his administration by the
House of Commons Committee. It was decided, nevertheless,
th.it the Colonial Oflice should resume direct control of the forts,
which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native
affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on
the Gold Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844,
an agreement with the native chiefs by which the
ue crown received the right of trying criminals, repressing
Dutch human sacrifice, &c. The limits of the protectorate
J"** inland were not defined. The purchase of the Danish
f “ *** 'forts in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in
1871, led to the consolidation of the British power along the
coast ; and the Ashanti war of 1873 74 resulted in the extension
of the area of British influence. Since that time the colony hies
been chiefly engaged in the development of its material resources,
a development accompanied by a slow but substantial advance
in civilization among the native population. (For hirthcr
historical information s-'e Ashanti.)
For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the
" West African Settlements ” and was virtually a dc]xndency of
Sierra Leone. In 3874 the settlements on the Gold Coast and
1 .agos were created a separate ciown colony, this arrangement
lusting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off (rum the Gold Coast
administration.
Northern Territories.
The Northern Territories of the Gold Const form a British
protectorate to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and
N.—where 11° N. is the frontier line except at the eastern
extremity—by the French colonies of the 1 \ oyv Coast and Upper
Senegal and Niger, K. by the German colony of Togoland. The
southern frontier, separating the protectorate from Ashanti, is
the Black Volta to a point a little above its junction with the
White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and afterward i
east so as to includr the Brumasi district in the protectorate,
the frontier gaining the main Volta below Yeji, The Territories
include nearly all the country from the meridian of Greenwich
to 3 0 W. and between 8“ and 11° N., and cover an area of about
33,000 sq. m.
Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends
parallel to the Guinea roust, the greater part of the protectorate
consists of open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting
u park-like appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy
plains, and in the south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora
and fauna resemble those of Ashanti. The country is well
watered, the Black Volta forming the west and southern frontier
lor some distance, while the White Volta traverses its central
regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream, contain rapids
which impede hut do no* prevent navigation (see Volta). The
climate is much heulthier than that of the coast districts, and the
• Blue Book oh Africa (Western Coast ) (1865), p. *33.
fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on
the coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the
harmattan begins to blow) to March. The mean temperature at
Gambaga is 8o° F., the mean annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabi¬
tants were officially estimated in 1907 to number “ at least
l, 000,000." The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga, Moshi
and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the
people, and Fulu, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or
cattle raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the
rest are fetish worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained
by the British authorities, who found comparatively little
difficulty in putting an end to slave-raiding and gaining the
confidence of the chiefs. Trained by British officers, the natives
make excellent soldiers.
Agriculture anil Trade .—The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn,
millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is
grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many
districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found lii
the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by
Great Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees.
The British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango
and soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw.
A large number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced
by the administration.
Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep
there are large numliers of horses and donkeys in the Territories.
The chief exports are cattle, dawa-dawa (a favourite flavouring
matter for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea-
butter—(he latter used in cooking and a-, an illuminant The
principal imports are kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large
proportion ol the European goods imported is German and comes
through Togoland. The administration levies a tax on traders'
carav ans, and in return ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is
the chief local source of revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the
Territories, as well as statistics of trade, are included in those of the
Gold Coast.
Gold exists in quartz formation, i hicfly in the valley of the Black
Volta, and is lound equalli <>u the British and French sides ol the
frontier.
Town. s,—The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale
(or Taman), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the
White Volta and zoo m. N E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are I.ecu
traders, and it lorms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate.
Gambaga, an important commercial centre and from 1807 to 1007
the seat of government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the
protectorate and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty
miles due south of Gambaga is Salaga. Tins town is situated on the
caravan route from the Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a consider¬
able trade in kola-tiuts, shea-butter and salt. On the White Volta,
midway between Gambaga and Salaga, is the thriving town ol
Daboya. On the western frontier are Bole (Haulc) and Wa. They
carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku, the capital of jaman, and
other places m the Ivory Coast coldny. In all the towns the popula¬
tion largely consists of aliens—Hausa, Ashanti, Mandingos, &c.
Commiihti alioiis.— Lack of easy communication with the sea
hinders the development of the country. The ancient cars van routes
have been, however, supplemented by roads built by the British,
who have further organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large
cargo boats, chiefly laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to
Yeji and Dalioya. From Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150
m. long, has been made to Gambaga. There is also a river service
from Yeji to Longoro on the Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in
northern Ashanti. There is a complete telegraphic system connect¬
ing the tow ns of the protectorate with Kumasi and the Gold Coast
ports.
History .—It was not until the hist quarter of the 19th century
that the country immediately north of Ashanti became known
In Europeans. The first step forward was made by Monsieur
M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi captives, see Ashanti) who,
ascending the Volta, reached Salagu (1875-1876). In 1882
Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British colonial
service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku
in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his
way to Kintampo. In 1887- 1889 Captain L. G. Bingcr, a French
officer, traversed the country from north to south. Thereafter
the whole region was visited by British, French and German
political missions. Prominent among the British agents was
Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who had
previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897
Ferguson concluded several treaties guarding British interests.
In 1897 Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where
they were attacked by the sofas of Samory (see Senegal, § 3).
GOLDEN—GOLDEN BULL ao?
Henderson, who had gone to the sofa camp to parley, was
held prisoner for some time, while Ferguson was killed. Mean*
time negotiations were opened in Europe to settle the spheres
of influence of the respective countries. (The Anglo-French
agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the hinterlands
of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British colony
of the Gold Coast as far as 9 0 N. only.) A period of considerable
tension, arising from the proximity of British and French troops
in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a conven¬
tion in Paris (14th of June 1898), in which the western and
northern boundaries were defined. The British abandoned
their claim to the important town and district of Wagadugu
in the north. In the following year (14th of Novemher 1899)
an agreement defining the eastern frontier was concluded with
Germany. Previously a square block of territory to the north
of 8° N. had been regarded as neutral, both by Britain and
Germany. This was in virtue of an arrangement made in r888.
By the 1899 convention the neutral zone was parcelled out
between the two powers. The delimitation of the frontiers
agreed upon took place during 1000-1904.
In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate
district of the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge
of a chief commissioner. Colonel II. P. Northcott (killed in the
Boer War, 1899-1902) was the first commissioner and com¬
mandant of the troops. He wus succeeded by Col. A. II. Morris.
In 1901 the Territories were made a distinct administration,
under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast colony.
The government was at first of a semi-military character, but in
1907 a civilian staff was appointed to earn- on the administration,
and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops which
had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then
disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British ad¬
ministration has been marked.
Bim.ioukaiuiv.— A good summary of the condition and history of
the colons to the dose of the loth century will is- found in vof. 3,
" West AJrica," ot the Historual Geography 0/ the British Empire by
C. 1 ’. Lucas (2nd cd., Oxford, moo), l'or current information sec
the Gold Coast Civil Senior List (London, yearly), the annual Blue
B<s,ks published in the colony, and the annual Report issued by the
Colonial Office, London, lair Juller information consult the Report
/torn the Select Committee on Afina (Western Coast) (Loudon, 1865),
a mine of valuable inlormatiou; The Gold Coast, Past and Present,
b\ G. Macdonald (London, 1898) ; History' of the Gold Coast and
Ashanti, by C. C. Kemdorf, a native pastor (Basel, 18115) ; A History
at the Gold Coast, by Col. A. B. Lilis (London, 181.13) ; Wanderings in
[f Vs/ Afrua (London, 1863) and lathe Gold Coast far Gold (London,
1883), both liv Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier Issiks the most
notable are The Golden Coast or a Description of Gumnev together with
a lelatiou of sink persons as got wonderful estates by then trade thither
(Loudon, 1665), and A New and Accurate Description 0/ the Coast of
Guinea written (ill Dutch) by Willem Bosnian, chief factor for tile
Dutch at Klmina (Lug. trails.', and ed , 1721). For a complete survey
oi the Gold Coast under Dutch control see “ Die Niederluiidisch
West-Iudisi lie Cumpagnie an der Gold-Kiiste ” by J. G. Doorman
in Vi/ds Indisihe laal-, Land- eu Yolkenk, vol. 40 (1898). For
ethnography, religion, law; Ae., consult The Laud of Frtish (London,
1883) and The Tslii-speahmg 1‘eoplcs of the West Coast of Africa
(London, 1887), both by Col. A. B. Lilis ; Fanti Customary Law (and
ed.. London, 1904) and Fanti Law Report (London, 1904), Ixitli by
J. M. Sarbah. Tile Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa by Sir Alfred
Moloney (London, J887) contains a comprehensive list of economic
plants. See also Report on F.ionomie Agriculture on the Gold Coast
(Colonial Office Reports, No. am, 1890), and Papers relating to the
Construction of Railways in . . . the Gold Coast (I.omlon, 1904).
The best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisberg, over 70 sheets,
scale 1: 125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on
the scale 1 : 1,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under
Ashanti.
For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe
dt Gumee (Paris, 189a), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott,
Report on the Northern Territories of (he Gold Coast (War Office,
London, 1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then avail¬
able information. Annual Reports on the protectorate are issued by
the British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of 1: 1,000,000 is
issued by the War Office. (F. R. C.)
GOLDEN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
Colorado, U.S.A., on Dear Creek (formerly called the Vnsquez
fork of the South Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver.
Pop. (1890) 2383; (1900)2152. Golden is a residential suburb
of Denver, served by the Colorado & Southern, the Denver &
Intermountain (electric), and the Denver & North-Western
Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level. About
600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement perk,
and W. of Golden is'Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400
acres. About 1 m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for
boys, and in Golden is the Colorado State School of Mines
(opened 1874), which offers courees in mining engineering and
metallurgical engineering. The Independent Pyritic Smelter
is at Golden, and among the city’s manufactures are pottery,
firebrick and tile, made from clavs found near by, and flow.
There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the vicinity.
Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important industries
in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold
mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honow of
Tom Golden, one of the pioneer prospectors. The village was
laid out in i860, and Golden was incorporated as a town m 1865
and was chartered as a city in 1870. Golden was made the
capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several sessions (or
parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between 1864
and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established
at Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were
at Golden only in 1866-1867.
GOLDEN BOLL (Lut. Bulla Aurea), the general designation
of any charter decorated with a golden seal or bulla, cither owing
to the intrinsic importance of its contents, or to the rank and
dignity of the bestuwer or the recipient. The custom of thus
giving distinction to certain documents is said to be of Byzantine
origin, though if this be the case it is somewhat strange that the
word employed as an equivalent fur golden hull in Byzantine
Greek should lie the hybrid xpuabfiovkkov (cf. Codinus Curo-
palutes, 11 ply us AoyoffiTi/s Sultuttsi ra srufiu roe fjairtXiw
liiroirrcAAo/iti'a irpouTay/aara mu ypitruflovXXu irpoj Ti *Prjya«,
Soi)ATai-as,A«iroira'px">">; and .Anna Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. Siu
X/mrci/Joi'Aioii Aiiyon; lib. viii., xfmriijiovkor Anyoe). In Germany
a Golden Bull is mentioned under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler
in Chronica Cassin, ii. 31, and the oldest German exumplc, if it
be genuine, dates from 983. At first the golden seal was formed
after the type of a solid coin, but at a later date, while the golden
surface presented to the eye was greatly increased, the seal was
really composed of two thin metal plates filled in with wax.
The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery
must have been very large ; the city of Frankfort, for example,
preserves no fewer than eight.
The name, however, has become practieully restricted to a few
documents of unusual political importance, the golden bull of
the Empire, the golden bull of Brabant, the golden buff of
Hungary and the golden bull of Milan—and of these the first
is undoubtedly the Golden Bull par excellence. The main object
of the Golden Hull was to provide a set of rules for the election
of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as they are called
in this document. Since the informal establishment of the
electoral college about a century before (see Electors), various
disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to
vote at the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen
owing to the absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual
electors, it is true, had exercised their votes without challenge,
but far different was the case of the temporal electors. The
families ruling in Saxony and in Bavariu had been divided into
two main branches and, as the German states had not yet
accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was uncertain which
memlrer of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the
prince ruling in Saxc-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-
Wittenberg claimed the vote, and the two branches of the
family of Wittelsbach, one settled in Bavaria and the other in
the Rhenish palatinate, were similarly at variance, while the
duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote at the expense of the
king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several disputed
and double elections to the German crown during the past
century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a
minority of the electors, had claimed to exercise the functions
of king, and as often civil war had been the result. Under these
circumstances the emperor Charles IV. determined by on
GOLDEN BULL
206
muthoritatwepronouncement to make such proceedings impossible
in the future, and at the same time to add to his own power
and prestige, especially in his capacity asking of Bohemia.
Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in
April 1355 secured bis coronation in Rome, Charles gave instruc¬
tions for the bull to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is respon¬
sible for its actual composition. The honour has been assigned
to Bartolo of Hassoferrato, professor of law at Pisa and Perugia,
to the imperial secretary, Rudolph of Friedberg, and even to
the emperor himself, but there is no valid authority for giving
it to any one of the three in preference to the others. In its
first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of Nuremberg
on the 10th of January 1340, but it was not accepted by the
princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in
its final form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of
December following.
The text of the Golden Hull consists of a prologue and of
thirty-one chapters Some lines of verst invoking the aid of
Almighty God an tallowed by a rhetorical statement of the
evils which arise from discord and division, illustrations being
taken from Adicn, who was divided from obedience and thus fell,
and from Helen of 1 toy who was divided from her husband.
The early chapters ure mainly concerned with details of the
elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion
of an election. The number of 1 lectors is fixed at seven, the duke
of Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving
the Saxon vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria,
obtaining the vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were ar¬
ranged in order of precedence thus : the archbishops of Mainz,
of Irier and of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, qui inter electores
laicos ex regiae dignitatis jastigio jure rt mcrito obtinet primatiam,
the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the
margrave of Bntndenhurg. The three archbishops were respec-
tively arch-chancellors of the three principal divisions of the
Empire, Germany, Arles and Italy, and the four secular electors
each held un office in the imperial household, the functions of
which they were expected to discharge on great occasions.
The king of Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine
was the arch-steward ( dapifrr ), the duke of Saxony was arch-
marshal, and the margrave of Brandenburg was arch-chamlier-
lain. The work of summoning the electors and of presiding over
their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz, but if he
failed to discharge this doty the electors were to assemble without
summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections
were to be held at Frankfort; they were to lie decided by a
majority of votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-
Chapelle was to lie jierformcd by the archbishop of Cologne.
During a vacancy in the Empire tire work of administering the
greater part of Germany wus entrusted to the count palatine
of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible, however,
for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts ubi
Saxmira jura semmtur.
The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of
the electors; for, to quote Bryce (Holy Homan Empire), it
“ confessed and legalized the independence of the electors and
the powerlessness of the crown.” To tlicse princes were given
•overeign rights in their dominions, which were declared in¬
divisible and were to pass according to the rule of primogeniture.
Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal from the
sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the right
of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while
conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of
treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the
king of Bohemia, who, it must he remembered, at this time was
Charles himself, and others enjoined the observance of the public
peaw. Provision was made for an annual meeting of the electors,
to be held at Metz four weeks after Easter, when matters pro
iono H salute commmi were to be discussed. This arrangement
however, wus not carried out, although the electors met occasion¬
ally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive Pjahlburger,
forbade them to take men dwelling outside their walls trader
their protection. Ft may be foted that there is no adm ission
f
whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation f r om
the pope.
The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but
it weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct
humiliation for the other princes and for the cities. The status
of those rulers who did not obtain the electoral privilege was
lowered by this very fact, and the regulations about the Ffald-
burger, together with the prohibition of new leagues and associa¬
tions, struck a severe blow at the cities. The German kings were
elected according to the conditions laid down in the bull until
the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first the document
was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the name
of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present
elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially
employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original auto¬
graph was committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it
was preserved in the archives at Mainz tiU 1789. Official tran¬
scripts were probably furnished to each of the seven electors at
the time of the promulgation, and before long many of the other
members of the Empire secured copies for themselves. The
transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is preserved in
the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of Cologne in
the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of Bohemia
in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden
also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the
town of Kitzingcn has a contemporary copy in its municipal
archives. There appears, however, to be good reason to doubt
the genuineness of most of these so-called original transcripts.
But perhaps the best known example is that of F'ronkfort-on-
Main, which was procured from the imperial chancery in 1306,
and is adorned with a golden seal like the original. Not only
was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard
to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it
was from time to time officially consulted bv members of the
Empire.
Hie manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium
quality, each measuring aho.it ml in. in height by 7 J in breadth.
The seal is of the plate and wax type. O11 the obverse appears a
figure of the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his
right hand and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned
imperial eagle, occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and
a corresponding shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two
tails, occupies the space on the oilier side ; and round the margin
runs the legend, Kitrolus quartos divuia favente dementia, Romanorum
imperator semper A ugustus cl Jloemiae rex. (hi the reverse is a castle,
with the words A urea Roma on the gate, and the circumscription
reads, Roma caput mundi rrgit orbis Irena rotundi. The original Latin
text of the bull was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Cirussner in
1 474 , and a second edition by Anthonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared
at the same place in 1477. Since that time it has been frequently
reprinted from various manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave
toe Palatine text, compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort,
m his ( ollrrho constitutumum el kgum imperialium (Frankfort, 16x3).
Another is to lie found in Tie. cotnitiis imperii of O. Panvinius, and
a third, of unknown history, is prefixed to the Codex rectssuum
Imperii (Mainz, 1599, and again 1615). The F'rankfort text appeared
m .1742 as Aurea Bulla secundum exemplar originate Frankfurlense,
edited by W. C. Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss,
( orpus juris publics, edited by R. von Hommei (Leipzig, 1704), and
in the A usgcuidhltc Vrhmidcn eur Erlauterung icr Verfassungs-
gcschichtc Dcutschlands im Mitielalter, edited by W. Altmann and
E. Beniheim (Berlin, 1891, and again 1805). German translations,
none of which, however, had any official authority, were published
at Nuremberg aliout 1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in
1485, Among the earhet commentators ou the document are
H- Ganisius and J. Limnaeus who wrote InAuream Bullam (Strassburg,
1662). The student will find a good account of the older literature
ou the subject in C, G. Bieuer’s Commentarii de origins el progressu
legum juriumque Cermaniae (1787-1705). See also J. D. von
Olcqschlager, Xeue Erlduterungen der Guldenen Bulk (Frankfort and
Leipzig, tytsO); H. G, von Thulemeyer, De Bulla Aurea, Argentea, Ac.
(Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Putter, Historische Entwickelung der
heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen Reichs (Gfittingen, 1786-
1787), and O. Stoblie, Geschirhte der deutsehen Rechtsqucuen (Bruns¬
wick, 1860-1804). Among the more modern works may be
mentioned: £. Merger, Die Uotdne Butte nach ihrem Urxpmng
g iiVttingen, 1877), O. Hahn, Vrsprvng und Bedeutung der Goidmeu
utk (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, Die staalsrechtliche
Anmendung der Goldnen Bulk (Halle, 1894). There is a valuable
contribution to the subject In the Quellensammlune eur GeschicUe der
dautsehm Rttehstierfassimg, edited by K. Zeumer (Leipag, 1904), and
GOLDEN-EYE—GOLDEN ROSE
209
■natter by O. Harnaek in hia Das Kurfiieslen KoUegium hie tar
Iditte lies/penJohrhunderis (Giessen, 1883). Than is an English tnuis-
lation of the lull in E. F. Henderson's Select Historical Documents «/
(he Middle Ages (London, 1903). (A. W. H.*)
GOLDEN-EYE, a name indiscriminately given in many parts
of Britain to two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich
yellow colour of their irides. The commonest of them—the
Anas fuligula of Linnaeus and Fuligula cristata of most modern
ornithologists—is, however, usually called by English writers
the tufted duck, while “ golden-eye ” is reserved in books for
the A. clangula and A. glauciun of Linnaeus, who did not know
that the birds he so named were but examples of the same
Bpecies, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers
perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the “ Morillon,” which is the
female or young male, distinct from the “Golden-eye" or
“ Rattle-wings ” (as from its noisy flight they oftener call it),
which is the adult male. This s]iccics belongs to the group known
as diving ducks, and is the type of the very well-marked genus
Clangula of later systematists, which, among other differences,
has die posterior end of the sternum prolonged so as to extend
considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose, 1
protect the belly—a character possessed in a still greater degree
by the mergansers ( Merginae ), while the males also exhibit in !
the extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea
and its midway enlargement another resemblance to the members
of the same subfamily. The golden-eye, C. glaucion of modem
writers, has its home in the northern parts of both hemispheres, 1
whence in winter it migrates southward ; but as it is one of the
ducks that constantly resorts to hollow trees for the purpose !
of breeding it hardly transcends the limit of the Arctic forests
on either continent. So well known is this habit to the people
of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very commonly
devise artificial nest-lx>xes for its accommodation and their own
profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, tile top and bottom
closed, and a hole cut in the side. These arc affixed to the trunks
of living trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from
the ground, and, being readily occupied by the hirds in the breed¬
ing-season, are regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and
finally of the down they contain, by those who have set them up.
The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly
black above, but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflect¬
ing rich green lights, a large oval white patch under each eye
and elongated white scapulars; the lower parts are wholly
white and the feet bright orange, except the webs, which are
dusky. In the female and young male, dark brown replaces the
black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the elongated white
scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has been
by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named C.
americana, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North
America, however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct
species, C. islandtca, often called Barrow's duck, which is but
a rare straggler to the continent of Europe, and never, so far
as known, to Britain. In Iceland and Greenland it is the only
habitual representative of the genus, and it occurs from thence
to the Rocky Mountains. In breeding-habits it differs from the
commoner species, not placing its eggs in tree-holes ; but how
far this difference is voluntary may be doubted, for in the
countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a larger and
stouter bird, and in the male the white check-patches take a more
crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather
than green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New
World also possesses a third and still more beautiful species of
the genus in C. alii cola, known in books as the buffel-headed duck,
and to American fowlers as the “ spirit-duck ” and “ butter-ball ’’
—the former name being applied from its rapidity in diving, and
the latter from its exceeding fatness in autumn. This is of small
size, but the lustre iff the feathers in the male is most brilliant,
exhibiting a deep phun-coloured gloss on the head. It breeds
in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than once in
Britain. (A. N.)
GOLDIN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the
ram on which Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see
Axootuun. For the modem order of the Golden Fleece, see
Knighthood aim Chivalry, section Orders of Kni ght hood.
GOLDEN HORDE, the name of a body of Tatars who in the
middle of the 13th century overran a gnat portion of eastern
Europe and founded in Russia the Tatar empire or khanate
known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or Western Kipchakh
They invaded Europe about 1337 under the leadership of Bato
| Khan, a younger son of* Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed
| over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated
I into Silesia, Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II.,
j duke of Silesia, at Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt
| 00 the qth of April 1241. So costly was this victory, however,
| that Bitu, finding he could not reduce Neustadt, retraced hit
| steps and establislied himself in his magnificent tent (whence
the name “ golden ’’) on the Volga. The new settlement was
known as Sir Orda (“ Golden Camp,’’ whence “ Golden Horde
Very rapidly the powers of Batu extended over the Russian
princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct
descent from Batu nothing occurred to check the growth of the
empire. The names of iktu’s successors are Sartak (1236),
Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266), Mangu-Timfir (1266-1280), Tuda
Mango (1280-1287), (?) Tula Bugha (1287-1290), Tiiktu (1290-
1312), Uzbeg (1312 1,340). Tini-Beg (1340), J uni-Beg (1340-
1357). The death of Junl-Beg, however, threw the empire into
confusion. Birdi-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years,
after which two rulers, calling themselves sons of j tin i-Beg
occupied the throne during one year. From that time (1359)
till 1378 no single ruler held the whole empire under control,
various members of the other branches of the old house of Juji
assuming the title. At last in 1378 Tokfimish, of the Eastern
Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and establishing
himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a short
time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was
finally crushed bv Timur in 1305.
See further Monoolk and Russia ; Sir Henry Ho worth’s History
of the Mongols ; S. J-ane-Poole’s Muhammadan Dynasties (1894),
pp. 222-231 ; for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz,
sec Stockvis, Manuel d'histnire, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7.
GOLDEN HOD, in I >0 tuny, the popular name for Solidago
virgaurta (natural order Compositac), a native of Britain and
widely distributed in the north temperate region. It is an old-
fashioned border-plant flowering from July to September, with
an erect, sparingly-branched stem and small bright-yellow
clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in common soil and is
readily propuguted by division in the spring or autumn.
GOLDEN ROSE ( rosa aurea), an ornament made of wrought
gold and set with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed
! by the pope on the fourth ( l.actarc) Sunday of Lent, and usually
afterwards sent as n mark of special favour to some distinguished
1 individual, to a church, or a civil community. Formerly it
was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured red, but the form
finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and flowers, the
petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one
principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very
early times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday
of Lent, whence the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to
this feast. The practice of blessing and sending some such
symbol (e.g. rulogiae) goes back to the earliest Christian antiquity,
but the use of the rose itself does not seem to go farther back than
the nth century. According to some authorities it was used
by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope Urban II. sent one
to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the first crusade.
Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples in
1366, is alleged to have heen the first to determine that one
should he consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th
century there went regularly with the rose a letter relating the
reasons why it was sent, and reciting the merits and virtues
of the receiver. When the change was made from the form
of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The rose sent
by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of
Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamenta¬
tion, while the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the
210
GOLDEN RULE—GOLDFINCH
church dt St Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished
with five open and two closed 'roses enriched with a sapphire,
the whole having a value of seventy ducats. The value of the
gift varied according to the character or rank of the recipient.
John XXII. gave away some weighing rz or.., and worth
worn £150 to £325. Among the recipients of this honour have
been Henry VI. erf England, 1446 ; James III. of Scotland, on
whom the rose (made by Jacopo Magllolio) was conferred by
Innocent VIII.; James IV. of Scotland ; Frederick the Wise,
elector of Saxony, who received a rose from I,eo X. in 1518 ;
Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the last from Clement
VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on different
forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the third on
lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.;
the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius TV., in 1564; the
Lateran Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary
of I/ire to by Gregory XIII. in 1584 ; Maria Theresa, queen of
France, who received it from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary
Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent XI. in 1684 in recogni¬
tion of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband, John Sobieski;
Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of Capua,
and in 18.13 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St
Murk’s. Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon Ilf.
of France, the empress F.ugfnie, and the queens Isabella II.,
Christina (1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the
golden rose used almost invariably to accompany the coronation
of the king of the Romans. If in any particular year no one is
considered worthy of the rose, it is laid up in the Vatican.
Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been
employed in making the earlier roses ; and such intrinsically
valuable objects have, in common with other priceless historical
examples of the goldsmiths' art, found their way to the melting-
pot. It is, therefore, not surprising that the number of existing
historic specimen.-, is very small. These include one of the 14th
century in the Clunv Museum, Paris, believed to have been sent
by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another conferred
in 1 (iH on his native rity of Siena by Pope Pius II. ; and the
rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city,
which is depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo
Puhblico at Siena. The surviving roses of more recent date
include that presented by Benedict XITT. to Capua cathedral;
the rose conferred on the empress Caroline by Pius VII., 1810,
at Vienna ; one of 1X33 (Gregory XVI.) at St Mark’s, Venice ;
and Pope Leo XIII.’s rose sent to Queen Christina of Spain,
which is at Madrid.
Vt’TlioKlinis. - Angelo Rocea, Aurea Kota, tic c. (17m); Busenelh,
hr Wot a Aurra. lipistola (1750) ; Girbnl, La Hosa dr oro (Madrid,
! S-ol; C. Joret, La Hosr d'or dans t'antiifuite et au woven dge (Paris,
■892), PP- 43 ---U 5 .' Eug&iie Muntz m Kevuc d'art ihiilien (mm),
series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11 ; lie K, Mrly, It' It HO) dr Charlies
1 ) 886 ) : Marquis dc Mac Swmcy Mashanagiass, I.r Portugal et le
Saint Su'ge : Les Hoses d'or envoy res par les Papes aux rots dr
Portugal au X VP siMe (1004): Sir Young, Ornaments and Gift
consecrated by the Homan Pontiffs : the Golden Hose, the Cap and
Si ords presented to Sovereigns of lingland and Siotland (1864).
(J. T. S • ; K A. J.)
GOLDEN ROLE, the term applied in all European languages
to the rule of conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew
vii. 12 and Luke vi. 31), “ whatsoever ye would that men should
do to you, do ye even so to them, for this is the law and the
prophets.” This principle has often been stated as the funda¬
mental precept of social morality. It is sometimes put negatively
or passively, ” do not that to another which thou wouldst not
have done to thyself ” (rf. Hobbes, Leviathan, xv. 79, xvii. 85),
but it should Lie observed that in this form it implies merely
abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary
application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion
of action being strictly utilitarian in character.
„ Snlgwick, History of F.thics (5H1 ed., 1902), p. 167 ; James
Seth, Ethical PnnciNcs, p. 07 foil
GOLDFIELD, a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda
cotmw, Nevada, U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City.
Pop. (1908, local estimate), 20,000. It is served by the Tonopah
&• Goldfield, T.as Vegas 8: Tonopah, and Tonopah 8t Tidewater
railways. The town Iks in the midst of a desert abound ing j n
high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The
discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in
1900 was followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903 ;
in 1904 the Goldfield district produced about '800 tons of ore,
which yielded $2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30 % of that of the
state. This remarkable production caused Goldfield to grow
rapidly, and it soon became the largest town in the state. In
addition to the mines, there are large reduction works. In 1907
Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold output in 1907 was
$8,408,396 : ' n >9 d *L $4,880,251. Soon after mining on an ex¬
tensive scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local
branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch
weic included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners.
Between this branch and the mine-owners there arose a serie s of
more or less serious differences, and there were several set strikes
—in December 1906 and January 1907, for higher wages; in
March and April 1907, because the mine-owners refused to
discharge carpenters who were members of the American Federa¬
tion of Labour, but did not belong to the Western Federation of
Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World affiliated with
it, this last organization being, as a result of the strike, forced
out of Goldfield ; in August and September 1907, because a
rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to
change their clothing before entering and after leaving the
mines,—a rule made necessary, according to the operators, by
the wholesale stealing (in miners’ parlance, “ high-grading ”)
of the very valuable ore (some of it valued at as high as $20 a
pound); and in November and December 1907, because some
of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times,
adopted 11 system of paying in cashier’s checks. Excepting
occasional attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons
supposed not to be in sympathy with the miners' union, there
had been no serious disturbance in Goldfield ; but in December
1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of the mine-owners,
appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops to
Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous,
that destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that
the state had no militia and would be powerless to maintain order.
President Roosevelt thereupon (December 4th) ordered General
Frederick Funston, commanding the Division of California, at
San Francisco, to proceed with 300 Federal troops to Goldfield.
The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th of December, and
immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages and
announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners
would thereafter he employed in the mines. President Roosevelt,
becoming convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor
Sparks’s appeal for Federal assistance, but that the immediate
withdrawal of the troops might nevertheless lead to serious
disorders, consented that they should remain for a short time
on condition that the state should immediately organize an
adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special meeting
of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force
was organized, and on the 7th of March 1008 the troops were
withdrawn. Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the
mines, the contest having been won by the mine-owners.
GOLDFINCH (Ger. Goldfink ‘), the Fringilla carduelis of
Linnaeus and the Carduelis elegans of later authors, an extremely
well-known bird found over the greater parts of Europe and
North Africa, and eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay
plumage is matched by its sprightly nature ; and together they
make it one of the most favourite cage-birds among all classes.
As a songster it is indeed surpassed by many other species,
but its docility and ready attachment to’ its master or mistress
make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of
England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In i860
Mr Hussey reported {Zool,, p. 7144) the average annual captures
near Worthing to exceed 11,000 dozens—nearly all being cock-
birds ; and a witness before a committee of the House of
Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he could take forty
• The more common German name, however, is Distelfink (Thistle-
Finch) or Stieglits.
GOLDFISH—GOLDIE
dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts and others
the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part
to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during
the breeding-season ; but perhaps the strongest cause of their
growing scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and
the extirpation of weeds (particularly of the order Cimpositae)
essential to the improved system of agriculture ; for in many
parts of Scotland, East Lothian for instance, where goldfinches
were once as plentiful as sparrows, they are now only rare
stragglers, and yet there they have not been thinned by netting.
Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed in the coldest
weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in
autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and
orchards to breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the
bright yellow wings of both sexes, quickly attract notice. The
nest is a beautifully neat structure, often placed at no great
height from the ground, but generally so well hidden by the
leafy bough on which it is built as not to be easily found, until,
the young being hatched, the constant visits of the parents reveal
its site. When the broods leave the nest they move into the
more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths
and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer.
Eastward of the range of the present species its place is taken by
its congener C. caniceps, which is easily recognized by wanting
the black hood and white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its
home seems to he in Central Asia, but it moves southward in
winter, lieing common at that season in Cashmere, and is not
unfrequentlv brought for sale to Calcutta. The position of the
genus Carduelis in the family Fritigillidae is not very clear.
Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the siskins
(Ckrysomitns), though the members of the two groups have very
different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the
hawfinches ( CoccathrausUs ). See Finch. (A. N.)
GOLDFISH ( C'yprinus or Carassius auralus), a small fish
belonging to the Cvprinid family, a native of China, but natur-
Telcscope-fish.
alized in other countries. In the wild state its colours do not
differ from those of a Crucian carp, and like that fish it is tenacious
of life and easily domesticated. Albinos seem to be rather
common; and as in other fishes (for instance, the tench, carp,
cel, flounder), the colour of most of these albinos is a bright
orange or golden yellow ; occasionally even this shade of colour
is lost, the fish being more or less pure white or silvery. The
Chinese have domesticated these albinos for a long time, and
by careful selection have succeeded in propagating all those
strange varieties, and even monstrosities, which appear in every
domestic animal. In some individuals the dorsal fin is only
half its normal length, in others entirely absent; in others the
anal fin has a double spine ; in others all the fins are of nearly
double the usual length. The snout is frequently malformed,
giving the head of the fish an appearance similar to that of a
bull-dog. The variety most highly prized has an extremely
short snout, eves which almost wholly project beyond the orbit,
no dorsal fin, and a very long three- or four-lobed caudal fin
(Telescope-fish).
311
The domestication of the goldfish by the Chinese dates back
from the highest antiquity, and they were introduced into Japan
at the beginning of the 16th century; but the date of their
importation into Europe is still uncertain. The great German
ichthyologist, M. E. Bloch, thought he could trace it bade in
England to die reign of James I., whilst other authors fix the
date at 1691. It appears certain that they were brought to
France, only much later, as a present to Mme de Pompadour,
although the de Goncourts, the historians of the mistresses of
Louis XV., have failed to trace any records of this event. The
fish has since spread over a considerable part of Europe, and in
many places it has reverted to its wild condition. In many parts
of south-eastern Asia, in Mauritius, in North and South Africa,
in Madagascar, in the Azores, it has become thoroughly acclima¬
tized, and successfully competes with the indigenous fresh-water
fishes. It will not thrive in rivers; in large ponds it readily
reverts to the coloration of the original wild stock. It flourishes
best in small tanks and ponds, in which the water is constantly
changing and does not freeze ; in such localities, and with a full
supply of food, which consists of weeds, crumbs of bread, bran,
worms, small crustaceans and insects, it attains to a length of
from 6 to 12 in., breeding readily, sometimes at different times
of the same year.
GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST (1782-1848), German palaeon¬
tologist, bom at Thumau near Bayreuth on the r8th of April
1782, was educated at Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in
1804 and became professor of zoology in 1818. He was sub¬
sequently appointed professor of zoology and mineralogy in the
university of Bonn. Aided by Count G. Munster he issued the
important Petrejacta Gcrmaniae (1826-1844), a work which was
intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it
was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinids
and part of the molluscu had been figured. Goldfuss died at Bonn
on the 2nd of October 1848.
GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN (1846- ),
English administrator, the founder of Nigeria, was bom on the
20th of May 184b at the Nunnery in the Isle of Man, being the
youngest son of I.ieut.-Colonri John Tuubman Goldie-Taubman,
speaker of the House of Keys, by his second wife Caroline,
daughter of John E. Hoveden of Hemingford, Cambridgeshire.
Sir George resumed his patemai name, Goldie, by royal licence in
1887. He was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Wool¬
wich, and for about two years held a commission in the Royal
Engineers. He travelled in all parts of Africa, gaining an ex- ’
tensive knowledge of the continent, and first visited the country
of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the ideu of adding to the
British empire the then little known regions of the lower and
middle Niger, and for over twenty years nis efforts were devoted
to the realization of this conception. The method by which he
determined to work was the revival of government by chartered
companies within the empire—a method supposed to be buried
with the East India Company. The first step was to combine all
British commercial interests in the Niger, and this he accomplished
in 1879 when the United African Company was formed. In i88r
Goldie sought a charter from the imperial government (the and
Gladstone ministry). Objections of various kinds were raised.
To meet them the capita) of the company (renamed the National
African Company) was increased from £125,000 to £1,000,000, and
great energy was displayed in founding stations on the Niger.
At this time French traders, encouraged by Gambetta, established
themselves on the lower river, thus rendering it difficult for the
company to obtain territorial rights; but the Frenchmen were
bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin conference on West
Africa in 1885 Mr Goldie, present as an expert on matters relating
to the river, was able to announce that on the lower Niger the
British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had been
placed under British protection. Through Joseph Thomson,
David McIntosh, D. W. Sargent, J. Flint, William Wallace,
E. Dangerfield and numerous other agents, over 400 political
treaties—drawn up by Goldie—were made with the chiefs of the
lower Niger and the Hausa states. The scruples of the British
government being overcome, a charter was at length granted
GOLDING—GOLDMARK
212
(Jtilf 1886), the National African Company becoming the Royal
Niger Company) with Lord Aberdare as governor and Goldie as
vice-governor. In 1893, on Lord Aberdare’s death, Goldie
became governor of the company, whose destinies he had guided
throughout. .... • .
The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried
on in face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with
political missions, and also in face of German opposition. From
1884 to 1890 Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and
the strenuous efforts he made to secure for Germany the basin of
the lower Niger and Lake Chad were even more dangerous
to Goldie’s schemes of empire than the ambitions of France.
Herr E. R. Ftegel, who had travelled in Nigeria during 1882-1884
under the auspices of the British company, was sent out in 1885
by the newly-formed German Colonial Society to secure treaties
for Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After
Hegel's death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion
Ur Staudinger, while Herr Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir
up trouble in the occupied portions of the (Yimpany’s territory,—
or, as he expressed it, ‘ to burst up the charter." He was finally
arrested at Onitsha, and, after trial by the company’s supreme
court at Asaba, w .is expelled the country. Prince Bismarck then
sent out his nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, as German consul-
general to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and when
this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded
heavy damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck main¬
tained constant pressure on I lie British government to compel the
Royal Niger Company to a division of spheres of influence, where¬
by Great Britain would have lost a third, and the most valuable
part, of the company’s territory. But he fell from power in
March 1890, and in July following Lord Salisbury concluded the
famous “ Heligoland ” agreement wilh Germany. After this
event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely ceased,
and the door was opened for a final settlement of the Nigeria-
Cumcroun frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an
agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting
the advance of France into N igeria from the direction of the Congo.
By conceding to Germany a long but narrow strip of territory
between Adamawa and Lake Chad, to which she had no treaty
claims, a barrier was raised against French expeditions, semi-
military and semi-exploratory, which sought to enter Nigeria
from the east. Later French efforts at aggression were made
from the western or Duhomeyan side, despite an agreement
concluded with France in 1890 respecting the northern frontier.
The hostility of certain Pula princes led the company to
despatch, in 1897. an expedition against the Mahommcdan states
of N upland Illorin. This expedition was organized and personally
directed by Goldie and was completely successful. Internal peace
was thus secured, but in the following year the differences with
France in regard to the frontier line became acute, and compelled
the intervention of the British government. In the negotiations
which ensued Goldie was instrumental in preserving for Great
Britain the whole of the navigable stretch of the lower Niger. It
was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered company to
hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of France
and Germany, and in consequence, on the ist of January igoo,
the Royul Niger Company transferred its territories to the British
government for the sum of £865,000. The ceded territory
together with the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under
imperial control, was formed into the two protectorates of
northern and southern Nigeria (see further Nigeria).
In 190^-1904, at the request of the Chartered Company of
South Africa, Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation
in connexion with the agitation for self-government by the
Rhodesians. In iqoa-iqojhewasoneof therovsdcommissioners
who inquired into the military preparations for the war in South
Africa (1899-1002) and into the operations up to the occupation
of Pretoria, and in 1905-1906 was a member of the royal com¬
mission which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores
after peace bad been made. In 1903 he was elected president
of the Roval Geographical Society and held that office for three
years. Sn 1908 he was chosen an alderman of the London County
Council. G61die was created K.C.M.G. in 1687, and a privy
councillor in 1898. He became an F.R.S., honorary D.C.L. of
Oxford University (1897) and honoraiy LL.D. of Cambridge
(1897). Hemarriedin 1870 Matilda Catherine(d. 1898), daughter
of John William Elliott of Wakefield.
GOLDING, ARTHUR (c. 1336 -c. 1605), English translator, son
of John Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Halsted, Essex, one of
the auditors of the exchequer, was bom probably in London
about 1536. His half-sister, Margaret, married John de Vere,
16th earl of Oxford. In 1549 he was already in the service of
Protector Somerset, and the statement that he was educated at
Queen’s College, Cambridge, lacks corroboration. He seems to
have resided for some time in the house of Sir William Cecil, in
the Strand, with his nephew, the poet, the 17th earl of Oxford,
whose receiver he was, for two of his dedications are dated from
Cecil House. His chief work is his translation of Ovid. The
Fyrsl Fmer Hookes oj P. Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Meta¬
morphosis , translated ovte oj Latin into EngUshe meter (1565),
was supplemented in 1567 by a translation of the fifteen books.
Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was a man of strong
Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the works of
Calvin. To his version of the Metamorphoses he prefixed a long
metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work
of edification. He sets forth the moral which he supposes to
underlie certain of the stories, and shows how the pagan
machinery may be brought into line with Christian thought.
It was from Golding's pages that many of the Elizabethans drew
their knowledge of classical mythology, and there is little doubt
that Shakespeare was well acquainted with the book. Golding
translated also the Commentaries of Caesar (1565), Calvin’s
commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermons on the Galatians
and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the hook of Job, Theodore
Beza’s Tragedie oj Ahrahams Sacrifia (1577) and the De Benefiriis
of Seneca (1578). He completed a translation begun by Sidney
from Philippe de Momay, A Worke concerning the Trrwnesse 0/
the Christian Religion (1604). His only original work is a prose
Discourse on the earthquake of 1580, in which he saw a judgment
of God on the wickedness of his time. He inherited three con¬
siderable estates in Essex, the greater part of which he sold in
1595. The last trace we have of Golding is contained in an order
dated the 25th of July 1605, giving him licence to print certain
of his works.
GOLDINGEN (Lettish, Kuldiga), a town of Russia, in the
government of Couriand, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on
Windau river, in 56° 58' N. and 22° E. Pop. (1897) 0733. It
has woollen mills, needle and match factories, breweries and
distilleries, a college for teachers, and ruins of a castle of the
Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the 17th century as
the residence of the dukes of Couriand.
GOLDMARK, KARL (1832- ), Hungarian composer, was
bom at Keszthelv-am-Plattensee, in Hungary, on the 18th of
May 1832. His father, a poor cantor in the local Jewish syna¬
gogue, was unable to assist to any extent financially in the
development of his son’s talents. Yet in the household much
music was made, and on a cheap violin and home-made flute,
constructed by Goldmark himself from reeds cut from the river-
bank, the future composer gave rein to his musical ideas. His
talent was fostered by the village schoolmaster, by whose aid
he was able to enter the music-school of the Oedenburger Verein.
Here he remained but a short time, his success at a school concert
finally determining his parents to allow him to devote himself
entirely to music. In 1844, then, he went to Vienna, where
Jansa took up his cause and eventually obtained for him admis¬
sion to the conservatorium. For two years Goldmark worked
under Jansa at the violin, and on the outbreak of the revolution
after studying all the orchestral instruments he obtained an
engagement in the orchestra at Raah. There, on the capitulation
of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only saved
at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague.
In 1850 Goldmark left Raab for Vienna, where from hie friend
Mittrtch he obtained his first real knowledge of the daisies.
There, too, he devoted himself to composition, in 1857 Goldmark,
GOLDONI --GOLDSCHMIDT
who ms then engaged in the Karl-theater hand, gave a
concert of his own world with such success that his first quartet
attracted very general attention. Then followed the “ Salcun-
tala ” and “ Penthesilea ” overtures, which show how Wagner’s
influence had supervened upon his previous domination by
Mendelssohn, and the delightful “ Landliche Hochreit ” sym¬
phony, which carried his fame abroad. Goldmark’s reputation
was now made, and very largely increased by the production
at Vienna in 1875 of his first and best opera, Die Konsgin von
Saba. Over this opera he spent seven years. Its popularity
is stiU almost as great as ever. It was followed in November
1886, also at Vienna, by Merlin, much of which has been re¬
written since then. A third opera, a version of Dickens’s Cricket
on the Hearth, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company
in London in 1900. Goldmark’s chamber music has not made
much lasting impression, but the overtures “ Im Friihling,’
“ Prometheus Bound,” and ” Sapho ” are fairly well known.
A “ programme ” seems essential to him. In opera he is most
certainly at his best, and as an orchestra) colourist he ranks
among the very highest.
GOLDONI, CARLO (1707-1793), Italian dramatist, the real
founder of modem Italian comedy, was bom at Venice, on the
25th of February 1707, in a fine house near St Thomas’s church.
His father Giulio was a native of Modena. The first playthings
of the future writer were puppets which he made dance ; the
first books he read were plays,—among others, the comedies of
the Florentine Cieugnini. Later he received a still stronger
impression from the Mandragora of Machiavelli. At eight years
old he had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had
taken his degree in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at
Perugia, where he made his son join him ; hut, having soon
quarrelled with his colleagues in medicine, he departed for
( hioggia, leuving his son to the care of a philosopher, Professor
Caldini of Rimini. The young Goldoni soon grew tired of his
life at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players.
He began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the
same pursuit at Pavia, hut at tliat time he was studying the
Greek and Latin comic poets much more and much better titan
books about law. “ I have read over again,” he writes m his
own Memoirs, “ the Greek and Latin poets, and 1 have told to
myself that 1 should like to imitate them in their style, their
plots, their precision ; but 1 would not he satisfied unless I
succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues
to my plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy.”
For a satire entitled 11 Colusso, which attacked the honour of
several families of Pavia, he was driven from that town, and
went first to study with the jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then
to take his degree in law at Modena. After having worked
some time as clerk in the chanceries of Ghioggia and Feitre,
his father being deud, he went to Venice, to exercise there his
profession as a lawyer. Hut the wish to write for the stage
was always strong in him, and he tried to do so ; he made,
however, a mistake in his choice, and began with a tragedy,
Amcdasunta, which was represented at Milan and proved a failure.
In 1734 he wrote another tragedy, Bclisario, which, though not
much better, chanced nevertheless to please the public. This
first success encouraged him to write other tragedies, some of
which were well received ; but the author himself saw clearly
that he hud not yet found his proper sphere, and that a radical
dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the stage. He
wished to create a characteristic comedy in Italy, to follow the
example of Moliire, and to delineate the realities of social life
in as natural a manner as possible. His first essay of this kind
was Momolo Cortesan (Momolo the Courtier), written in the
Venetian dialect, and based on his own experience. Other
plays followed—some interesting from their subject, others
from the characters ; the best of that period are —Le Trentadue
Disgraeie d’ Arlecchino, La Node critica, La Baucarotta, La
Donna di Garbo. Having, while consul of Genoa at Venice,
been cheated by a captain of Ragusa, he founded on this his
play V Impostore. At Leghorn he made the acquaintance of the
comedian Medebac, and followed him to Venice, with his company,
for which he began to write his best plays. Once ; he promised
to write sixteen comedies in a year, sad kept his word; among
the sixteen are some of his very best, such as 11 Caffi, II Bugbsrdo,
La Pamela. When he left the company of Medebac, he passed
over to that maintained by the patrician Vendramin, continuing
to.write with the greatest facility. In 1761 he was called to
Paris, and before leaving Venice he wrote Una delle ultima sere
di Canevale (One of the Last Nights of Carnival), an allegorical
comedy in which he said good-bye to his country. At the end
of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with
applause, and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni,
at this proof of public sympathy, wept as a child. At Paris,
during two years, he wrote comedies for the Italian actors ; then
he taught Italian to the royal princesses ; and for the wedding
of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he wrote in French one
of his best comedies, Le Bourns bimfaisanl, which was a great
success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the king
made him a gift of 6000 francs, and fixed on him an annual
! pension of 1 aoo francs. 11 was at Versailles he wrote his Memoirs,
which occupied him till he reached his eightieth year. The
Revolution deprived him all at onre of his modest pension, and
reduced him to extreme misery ; he dragged on his unfortunate
existence till 1793, and died on the 6th of February. The day
after, on the proposal of Andre Chenier, the Convention agreed
to give the pension back to the poet: and as he had already
died, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow.
The limit comedies of Goldoni are : La Donna di Garbo, La Botteto
di Gaffe, Pamela nubile. Le Uaruffe ihiossotte, 1 Huslegki, lodtro
Jirontolon, Gli lunamorali, ]l I entuglio. 11 Bugiardo, La Casa nova,
II hurbero brncfUo, La Locandiera. A collected edition (Venice,
1788) was republished at Florence in >827. Her P. G. Mohnenti,
Carlo Goldoni (Venice, 1875) ; Rabany, Carlo Goldoni (Faria, 1896),
Tile Memoirs were translated into lingbsh by Johu Black (bouton,
1877), with preface by W. I). Howells.
GOLDS, a Mongolo-Tatar people, living on the Lower Amur
in south-eastern Siberia. Their chief settlements are on the right
bank of the Amur and along the Sungari and Usuri rivers. In
physique they are typically Mongolic. Like the Chinese they
wear a pigtail, and from them, too, have learnt the art of silk
embroidery. The Golds live almost entirely on fish, and are
excellent boatmen. They keep large herds of swine and dcigs,
which live, like themselves, on fish. Geese, wild duck, eagles,
bears, wolves and foxes are also kept in menageries. There is
much reverence paid to the eagles, and hence Hie Manchus call
the Golds “ Eaglets.” Their religion is Shamanism.
Sec L. Schrcnck, Die Y Hiker drs Amurlandes (St Petersburg, 1891);
Laufer, " The Amoor Trilies," in Atneriian Anthropologist (New
York, 1 goo) ; L. G. Kavcustein, The Russians on the Amur (18O1).
GOLDSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county.
North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Ncuse river, about 50 m. S.K. of
Raleigh. Pop. (r8qo) 4017 ; (1900) 58^7, of whom 2520 were
negroes. It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line
and the Norfolk & Southern railways. The surrounding country
produces large quantities of tobacco, cotton and grain, and
trucking is un important industry, the city being a distributing
point for strawberries and various kinds of vegetables. The
city’s manufactures include cotton goods, knit goods, cotton¬
seed oil, agricultural implements, lumber and furniture. Golds¬
boro is the seat of the Eastern insane asylum (for negroes) and
of an Odd Fellows’ orphan home. The municipality owns and
operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. Goldsboro
was settled in 18,38, and was first incorporated in 1841. In the
campaign of 1865 Goldsboro was the point of junction of the
Union armies under generals Sherman and Schofield, previous
to the final advance to Greensboro.
GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN (1802-1866), German painter
and astronomer, was the son of a Jewish merchant, and was born
at Frankfort on the 17th of June 1802. He for ten yean assisted
his father in his business; but, his love of art having been
awakened while journeying in Holland, he in 1832 began the
study of painting at Munich under Cornelius and Schnorr, and
in 1836 established himself at Paris, where he painted a number
of pictures of more than average merit, among which may be
mentioned the “ Cumacan Sibyl ” (1644); an “ Offering to
GOLDSMID—GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
Venus ’’ (1845) ; a " View of Rome ” (1849); the “ Death of
Romeo and Juliet ’’ <1857); and several Alpine landscapes.
In 1847 he' began to devote his attention to astronomy ; and
from >852 to 1861 he discovered fourteen asteroids between
Mars and Jupiter, on which account he received the grand
astronomical prise from the Academy of Sciences. His observa¬
tions of the protuberances on the sun, made during the total
eclipse on the loth of July i860, are included in the work of
Madler on the eclipse, published in 1861. Goldschmidt died at
Fontainebleau on die 26th of August 1866.
GOLDS MID, the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers
sprung from Aaron Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who
settled in England about 1763. Two of his sons, Benjamin
Goldsmid (c, 1753-1808) and Abraham Goldsmid (c. 1756-1810),
began business together about 1777 as bill-brokers in London,
and soon became great pov ers in the money market, during the
Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the government.
Abraham Goldsmid wus in 1810 joint contractor with the Barings
for a government loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip
he wus forced into bankruptcy and committed suicide. His
brother, in a fit of depression, had similarly taken his own life
two years before. Both were noted for their public and private
generosity, and Benjamin had a part in founding the Royal
Naval Asylum. Beniamin left four sons, the youngest being
Lionel Pragcr Goldsmid ; Abraham a daughter, Isabel.
Their nephew, Kir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859),
was born in London, and began in business with a firm of bullion
brokers to the Bank of England and the East India Company.
He amassed a large fortune, and was made Baron da Palmcira
by the Portuguese government in 1846 for services rendered in
settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and Brazil, but
he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the emancipation of
the Jews in England and for his part in founding University
College, I/indon. The Jewish Disabilities Bill, first introduced
in Parliament by Sir Robert Grant in 1830, owed its final passage
to Goldsmid’s energetic work. He helped to establish the
University College hospital in 1834, serving us its treasurer for
eighteen years, and also uided in the efforts to obtain reform in
the English penal code. Moreover he assisted by his capital
and his enterprise to build part of the English southern railways
and also the London docks. In 1841 he became the first Jewish
baronet, the honour being conferred upon him hv Lord Melbourne.
He had married his cousin Isabel (see above), and their second
son was Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid, Bart. (1808-1878), born in
London, and culled to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1833 (the first
Jew to become an English barrister; Q.C. 1858). After the
passing of the Jewish Disabilities Bill, in which he had aided
his father with a number of pamphlets that attracted great
attention, he entered Parliament in i860 (having succeeded to
the baronetcy) as member for Reading, and represented that
constituency until his death. He was strenuous on behalf of the
1 ewish religion, and the founder of the great Jews’ Free School.
He was u munificent contributor to charities and especially to
the endowment of University College. He, like his father,
married a cousin, and, dying without issue, was succeeded in the
baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-181)6),
son of Frederick David Goldsmid (1812-1866), long M,P. for
Honiton. Sir Julian was for many years in Parliament, and his
wealth, ability and influence made him a personage of consider¬
able importance. He was eventually made a privy councillor.
He had eight daughters, but no son, and his entailed property
passed to his relation, Mr d'Avigdor, his house in Piccadilly
lieing converted into the Isthmian Club.
Another distinguished member of the sume family, Sir
Frederic John Goldsmid (1818-1008), son of Lionel Prager
Goldsmid (see above), was educated at King's College, London,
and entering the Madras army in 1839 served in the China War
of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern Crimea in 1855-56,
and was given political employment by the Indian government.
He received the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of the
war office for services during the Egyptian campaign, and was
retired a major-general in 1875. Sir Frederic Goldsmid s name
is, however, associated less with military service than with much
valoable work in exploration and in surveying, for which he
repeatedly received the thanks of government. From 1865 to
1870 he was director-general of the Indo-European telegraph,
and carried through the telegraph convention with Persia; and
between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with Persia
the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan
boundaries. In the course of his work he had to travel exten¬
sively, and he followed this up by various responsible missions
connected with emigration questions. In 1881-1882 he was in
Egypt, as controller of the Daira Sanieh, and doing other mis¬
cellaneous military work ; and in 1883 he went to the Congo,
on behalf of the king of the Belgians, as one of the organizers
of the new state, but had to return on account of illness. From
his early years he had made studies of several Eastern languages,
and he ranked among the foremost Orientalists of his day. In
1886 he was president of the geographical section of the British
Association meeting held at Birmingham. He had married in
1849, and had two sons and four daughters. In 1871 he wus
made a K.C.S.I. Besides important contributions to the 9th
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and many periodicals,
he wrote an excellent and authoritative biography of Sir James
Outram (2 vols., 1880).
A sister of the last-named married Henry Edward Goldsmid
(1812-1855), an eminent Indian civil servant, son of Edward
Goldsmid; his reform of the revenue system in Bombay, and
introduction of a new system, established after his death, through
his reports in 1840-1847, and his devoted labour in land-surveys,
were of the highest importance to western India, and established
his memory there os a public benefactor.
GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (/ 1763-1846), Anglo-French publicist,
of Portuguese-Jewish extraction, was bom near I-ondon about
1763. Having published in 1801 The Crimes of Cabinets, or a
Review of the Plans and Aggressions for Annihilating the Liberties
of France, and the Dismemberment of her Territories, an attack on
the military policy of Pitt, he moved, in 1802, from England to
Paris. Talleyrand introduced him to Napoleon, who arranged
for him to establish in Paris an English tri-weekly, the Argus,
which was to review English affairs from the French point of
view. According to his own account, he was in 1803 entrusted
with a mission to obtain from the heud of the French royal
family, afterwards Louis XVIIl.,a renunciation of his claims to
the throne of France, in return for the throne of Poland. The
offer was declined, and Goldsmith says that he then received
instructions to kidnap Louis and kill him if he resisted, but,
instead of executing these orders, he revealed the plot. He was,
nevertheless, employed by Napoleon on various other secret
service missions till 1807, when his Republican sympathies began
to wane. In 1809 he returned to England, where he was at first
imprisoned but soon released ; and he became a notary in
London. In 1811, beingnow violently anti-republican, he founded
a Sunday newspaper, the Anti-Galliean Monitor and Anti-
Corsican Chronicle, subsequently known as the British Monitor,
in which he denounced the French Revolution, In 1811 he
proposed that a public subscription should lie raised to put a
price on Napoleon’s head, but this suggestion was strongly repro¬
bated by the British government. In the same year he published
Secret History of the Cabinet of Bonaparte and Recueil des mani¬
festos, or a Collection of the Decrees of Napoleon Bonaparte, and in
1812 Secret History of Bonaparte's Diplomacy. Goldsmith alleged
that in the latter year he was offered £200,000 by Napoleon
to discontinue his attacks. In 1815 he published An Appeal to
the Governments of Europe on the Necessity of bringing Napoleon
Bonaparte to a Public Trial. In 1825 he again settled down in
Paris, and in 1832 published his Statistics of France. His only
child, Geoigiana, became, in 1837, the second wife of Lord
Lyndhurst. He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1846.
GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728-1774), English poet, playwright,
novelist and man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon
family which had long been settled in Ireland. He is
usually said to have been bom at Pallas or Pallasmore, Co.
Longford; but recent investigators have contended, with much
GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
show of probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill
House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of bis mother's father,
the Rev Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at
Pallas, supporting with difficulty his wife and children on what
he could earn, partly as a curate and partly as a farmer.
While Oliver was still a child his father was presented to the
living of Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This
was worth about £ioo a year. The family accordingly quitted
their cottage at Pallas for a spacious house on a frequented road,
near the village of I.issoy. Here the boy was taught his letters by
a relative and dependent, Elisabeth Delap, and was sent in his
seventh year to a village school kept by an old quartermaster on
half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but reading, writing
and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible fund of stories
about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rappuree
chiefs, Baldearg O'Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the
exploits of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich
and the glorious disaster of Brihuega. This man must have been
of the Protestant religion ; but he was of the aboriginal race, and
not only spoke the Irish language, but could pour forth unpre¬
meditated Irish verses. Oliver early became, and through life
continued to lie, a passionate admirer of the Irish music, and
especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of the last notes
of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver, though
by birth one of the Englishry, and though connected by numerous
ties with the Established Church, never showed the leust sign of
that contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling
minority in Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority.
So far indeed was he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of
the caste to which he belonged that he conceived an aversion to
the Glorious and Immortal Memory, and, even when George Ill.
was on the throne, maintained that nothing but the restoration
of the banished dynasty could save the country.
From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith
was removed in his ninth year. He went to several grammar-
schools, and acquired some knowledge of the ancient languages.
His life at this time seems to have been far from happy. He had,
as appears from the admirable portrait of him by Reynolds at
Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox had set its
mark on him with more titan usual severity. Ilis stature was
small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tender¬
ness is shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by
poor Oliver's appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity
and a disposition to blunder which he retained to the last. He
became the common butt of boys und masters, was pointed at as
a fright in the play-ground, and flogged as a dunce in the school¬
room. When he had risen to eminence, those who had once
derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early
years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped
from him, and which, though little noticed at the time, were
supposed, a quarter of a century later, to indicate the powers
which produced the Vicar oj Wakefield and the Deserted Village.
On the j ith of June 1744, lieing then in his sixteenth year,
Oliver went up to Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars
paid nothing for food and tuition, and very little for lodging ;
but they had to perform some menial services from which they
have long been relieved. Goldsmith was quartered, not alone, in
a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range of buildings which lias
lung since disappeared. His name, scrawled by himself on one of
its window-panes is still preserved in the college library. From
such garrets many men of less parts than his have made their
way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith,
while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the
advantages of his situation. He neglected the studies of the
place, stood low at the examinations, was turned down to the
bottom of his class for playing the buffoon in the lecture-room,
was severely reprimanded for pumping on a constable, and was
caned by a brutal tutor for giving a ball in the attic storey of the
college to some gay youths and damsels from the city.
While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between
squalid distress and squalid dissipation, his father died, leaving
a mere pittance. In February 1749 the youth obtained his
bachelor's degree, and left the university. During tone time
the humble dwelling to which his widowed mother had retired
was his home, He was now in his twenty-first yew; it was
necessary that he should do something 7 and hit education
seemed to have fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself
in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a
hand at cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in
summer and to tell ghost stories by the fire in winter. He tried
five or six professions in turn without success. He applied for
ordination ; but, os he applied in scarlet clothes, he was speedily
turned out of the episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an
opulent family, but soon quitted his situation in consequence of a
dispute about play. Then he determined to emigrate to America.
His relations, with much satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork
on a good horse, with £30 in his pocket. But in' six weeks he
came back on a miserable hack, without a penny, and informed
his mother that the ship in which he had taken hip passage,
having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had
sailed without him. Then he resolved to study the law. A
generous uncle, Mr Conturine, advanced £50. With this sum
Goldsmith went to Dublin, was enticed into a gaming-house
and lost every shilling. He then thought of medicine. A small
purse was made up; and in his twenty-fourth year he was sent
to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed eighteen months in
nominal attendance on lectures, and picked up some superficial
information about chemistry and natural history. Thence he
went to Leiden, still pretending to study physic. He left that
celebrated university, the third university at which he had
resided, in his twenty-seventh year, without a degree, with the
merest smattering of medical knowledge, and with no property
but his clothes and his flute. His flute, however, proved a useful
friend. He rambled on foot through Flanders, France and
Switzerland, playing tunes which everywhere set the peasantry
dancing, and which often procured for him a supper and a bed.
He wandered as far as Italy. His musical performances, indeed,
were not to the taste of the Itulians ; but he contrived to live on
the alms which he obtained at the gates of convents. It should,
however, lie observed that the stories which he told about this
part of his life ought to be received with great caution ; for strict
veracity was never one of his virtues; and a man who is ordinarily
inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than ordinarily
inaccurate when he talks about his own travels. Goldsmith,
indeed, was so regardless of truth ns to assert in print that he was
present at a most interesting conv ersation between Voltaire and
Fontenelle, and that this conversation took place at Paris.
Now it is certain that Voltaire never was within a hundred
leagues of Paris during the whole time which Goldsmith passed
on the continent.
In February 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a
shilling, without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed,
if his own unsupported evidence may he trusted, obtained a
doctor’s degree on the continent; but this dignity proved
utterly useless to him. In England his flute was not in request;
there were no convents ; and he was forced to have recourse to
u series of desperate expedients. There is a tradition that he
turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran about
London with phials for charitable chemists. Hr asserted, upon
one occasion, that he had lived “among the beggars in Axe Lane."
He was for a time usher of a school, and felt the miseries and
humiliations of this situation so keenly that he thought it a
promotion to lie permitted to earn his bread as a bookseller’s
hack ; but he soon found the new yoke more galling than the
old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He obtained a
medical appointment in the service of the East fndia Company :
but the appointment was speedily revoked. Vt hy it was revoked
we are not told. The subject was one on which he never liked
to talk. It is probable that he was incompetent to perform
the duties of the place. Then he presented himself at Surgeons’
Hall for examination, as “ mate to an hospital.” Even to so
humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing remained but to
return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith took a
1 room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb
216 GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Break¬
neck Stef*. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long
disappeared. Here, at thirty, .the unlucky adventurer sat
down to toil like a galley slave. Already, in 7758, during his first
bondage to letters, he had translated Martcilhe’s remarkable
Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the Galleys ol France for his
Religion. In the years that now succeeded he sent to the press
some things which hove survived, and many which have perished.
He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers ;
children's books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with
hideous woodcuts, appeared in the window of Ncwbery's once
far-famed shop at the corner of Saint Paul’s Churchyard ; An
Inquiry into the State of Polite Learning in Europe, which, though
of little or no value, is still reprinted among his works; a volume
of essays entitled The Per ; a Life of Beau Sash ; a superficial
and incorrect, but very readable, History of England, in a series
of letters purporting to be addressed by a nobleman to his son;
and some very lively and amusing sketches of I/indon Society in
another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a Chinese
traveller to his friends. All these works were anonymous;
but some of them were well known to be Goldsmith's ; and he
gradually rose in toe estimation of the booksellers for whom he
drudged. lie was, indeed, emphatically a popular writer. For
accurate research or grave disquisition he was not well qualified
by nature or In- education. He knew nothing accurately ; his
reading had been desultory ; nor had he meditated deeply on
what he had read. He had seen much of the world ; hut he had
noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some
grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike
his fancy. Hut, though his miml was verv scantily stored with
material, he used what materials he had in such a way as to
produce a wonderful effect. There have been many greater
writers ; hut perhaps no writer was ever more uniformly agree¬
able. His style was always pure and easy, and, 011 proper
occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always
amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour rirh
and joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable
sadness. About everything that he wrote, serious or sportive,
there wus a certain natural grace and decorum, hardly to hr
exacted from a man a great part of whose life had been passed
among thieves and beggars, street-walkers and merrvandrews,
in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great capitals.
As his name gradually became known, the circle of his acquaint¬
ance widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then
considered as the first of living F.nglish writers ; to Reynolds,
the first of English painters ; and to Burke, who had not vet
entered parliament, but had distinguished himself greatly hv his
writings and by the eloquence of his conversation. With these
eminent mon Goldsmith became intimute, in 17(13 he was one
of the nine original members of that celebrated fraternity which
has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which has
always disclaimed that epithet, and still glories in the simple
name of the Club.
By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling
at the top of Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time
at No. b Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, had moved into the
Temple. But he was still often reduced to pitiable shifts, the
most populnr of which is oonnected with, the sale of his solitary
novel, the I tear of Wakefield. Towards the close of 1764 (?)
his rent is alleged to haw been so long in nrrear that his landlady
one morning called in the help of a sheriff’s officer. The debtor,
in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson ; and
Johnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent hack the
messenger with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily.
He came, and found that Goldsmith had changed the guinea,
and was railing at the landlady over n bottle of Madeira. Johnson
put the oork into the bottle, and entreated his friend to consider
calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith said that he
had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glaneed at the manu¬
script, saw that there were good things in it, took it to a Imokseller,
told it for £60 and soon returned with the money. The rent
was paid ; and the sheriff’s officer withdrew. (Unfortunately,
however, for this time-honoured version of the circumstances,
it has of late years been discovered that as early as October
176a Goldsmith had already sold a third of the Vicar to one
Benjamin Collins of Salisbury, a printer, by whom it was eventu¬
ally printed for F. Newbery, and it is difficult to reconcile this
fact with Johnson’s narrative.)
But before the Vicar of Wakefield appeared in 1766, came the
great crisis of Goldsmith’s literary life. In Christinas week 1764
he published a poem, entitled the Traveller. It was the first
work to which he had put his name, and it at once raised him
to the rank of a legitimate English classic. The opinion of the
most skilful critics was that nothing finer had appeared in verse
since the fourth book of the Dunciad. In one respect the
Traveller differs from all Goldsmith’s other writings. In general
his designs were had, and his execution good. In the Traveller
the execution, though deserving of much praise, is far inferior
to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modem, has
a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English
wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point
where three great countries meet, looks down on the boundless
prospect, reviews his long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of
scenery, of climate, of government, of religion, of national
character, which he has observed, and comes to the conclusion,
just or unjust, that our happiness depends little on political
institutions, and much on the temper and regulation of our own
minds.
While the fourth edition of the Traveller was on the counters
of the booksellers, the Vicar of Wakefield appeared, and rapidly
obtained a popularity which has lasted down to our own time,
and which is likely to last as long as our language. The fable
is indeed one of the wore' that ever was constructed. It wants,
not merely that probability which ought to lie found in a tale of
common English life, but that consistency which ought to be
found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and
fairies. But the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral
poetry, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his
spectacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his
cosmogony, the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are
related, Olivia preparing herself for the arduous task of converting
a rakish lover by studying the controversy between Robinson
Crusoe and Friday, the great ladies with their scandal about Sir
Tomkvn’s amours and Dr Burdock’s verses, and Mr Burchell
with his “ Fudge," have caused as much harmless mirth as has
ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of
pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the lieginning.
As we approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and
thicker, and the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer.
The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist
emboldened him to try bis fortune as a dramatist. He wrote
the Good Naim'd Man. a piece which had a worse fate than it
deserved. Garrirk refused to produce it at Drury Lane. It was
acted at Covent Garden in January 1768, but was coldly received.
The author, however, cleared by his benefit nights, and by the
sale of the copyright, no less than £50°, five times as much as he
had made by the Traveller and the Vicar of Wakefield together.
The plot of the Good Natur'd Man is, like almost all Goldsmith’s
plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely
ludicrous,—much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste
of the town at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled
False Delieary, had just been produced, and sentimentality
was all the mode. During some years more tears were shed at
comedies than at tragedies; and a pleasantry which moved the
audience to anything more than a grave smile was reprobated
as low. It is not strange, therefore, that the very best scene in
the Good Natur'd Man, that in which Miss Richland finds her
lover attended by the bailiff and the bailiff’s follower in full
court dresses, should have been mercilessly hissed, and should
have been omitted after rite first night, not to be restored for
several years.
In May 1770 appeared the Deserted Village. In mere diction
and versification this celebrated poem is fully equal, perhaps
superior, to the Traveller ; and it is generally preferred to the
GOLDSMITH. OLIVER 217
Traveller by that huge class of readers who think, with Bayes
in the Rehearsal, that the only use of a plot is to bring in fine
things. More discerning judges, however, while they admire
the beauty of the details, are shocked by one unpardonable fault
which pervades the whole. The fault which we mean is not that
theory about wealth and luxury which has so often been censured
by political economists. The theory is indeed false; but the
poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the worse
on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language—
indeed, the finest didactic poem in any language—was written
in defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of natural
and moral philosophy. A poet may easily be pardoned for
reasoning ill; but he cannot be pardoned for describing ill, for
observing the world in which he lives so carelessly that his
portraits bear no resemblance to the originals, for exhibiting as
copies from real life monstrous combinations of things which
never were and never could be found together. What would
be thought of a painter who should mix August and January in
one landscape, who should introduce u frozen river into a harvest
scene ? Would it be a sufficient defence of such a picture to say
that every part was exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges,
the apple-trees loaded with fruit, the waggons reeling under the
yellow sheaves, and the sun-burned reapers wiping their fore¬
heads were very tine, and that the ice and the boys sliding were
also very fine ? To such a picture the Deserted Village bears a
great resemblance. It is made up of incongruous parts. The
village in its happy days is a true English village. The village
in its decay is an Irish village. The felicity and the misery
which Goldsmith has brought close together belong to two
different countries and to two different stages in tile progress
of society. He had assuredly never seen in his native island such
a rural paradise, such a seat of plenty, content and tranquillity,
as his Auburn. He had assuredly never seen in England all
the inhabitants of such a paradise turned out of their homes in
one day and forced to emigrate in a body to America. The
hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the ejectment he had
probably seen in Munster; but by joining the two, lie has
produced something which never was and never will be seen in
any part of the world.
In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance at Covent Garden with a
second play. She Stoops to Conquer. The manager was, not
without great difficulty, induced to bring this piece out. The
sentimental comedy still reigned, and Goldsmith's comedies were
not sentimental. The Good Sutur’d Man had been too funny to
succeed ; yet the mirth of the Good Natur’d Man was sober when
compared with the rich drollery of She Stoops to Conquer, which
is, in truth, an incomparable farce in five acts. On this occasion,
however, genius triumphed, l’it, boxes and galleries were in a
constant roar of laughter. If any bigoted admirer of Kelly
and Cumberland ventured to hiss or groan, he was speedily
silenced by a general cry of “ turn him out,” or “ throw him
over.” Later generations have confirmed the verdict which was
pronounced on that night.
While Goldsmith was writing the Deserted Village and She
Stoops to Conquer, he was employed on works of a very different
kind—works from which he derived little reputation but much
profit. He compiled for the use of schools a History of Rome,
by which he made £250; a History oj England, by which he
made £500 ; a History of Greece, for which he received £250 ;
u Natural History, for which the booksellers covenanted to pay
him 800 guineas. These works he produced without any
elaborate research, by merely selecting, abridging and translating
into his own clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in
books well known to the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys
and girls. He Committed some strange blunders, for he knew
nothing with accuracy. Thus, in his History of England, he tells
us that Nascby is iff Yorkshire; nor did he correct this mistake
when the book was reprinted. He was very nearly hoaxed into
putting into the History of Greece an account of a battle between
Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his Animated Nature
he relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most
absurd lies which he could find in books of travels about gigantic
Patagonians, monkeys that preach sermons, nigh tinga les that
repeat long conversations. “ If he can tell a horse from a cow,”
said Johnson, “ that is the extent of his knowledge of zoology.’'
How little Goldsmith was qualified to write about the physical
sciences is sufficiently proved by two anecdotes. He on one
occasion denied that the sun is longer in the northern than in the
southern signs. It was vain to cite the authority of Maupertuis.
“ Maupertuis 1 ” he cried, “ I understand those matters better
than Maupertuis.” On another occasion he, in defiance of
the evidence of his own senses, maintained obstinately, and
even angrily, that he chewed his dinner by moving his upper
jaw.
Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more
to make the first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy
and pleasant. His compilations are widely distinguished from
the compilations of ordinary bookmakers. He was a great,
perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of selection and con¬
densation. In these respects his histories of Rome and of
England, and still more his own abridgments of these histories,
well deserved to be studied. In general nothing is less attrac¬
tive than an epitome; but the epitomes of Goldsmith,
even when most concise, are always amusing; and to read them
is considered by intelligent children not as a tusk but as a
pleasure.
Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosperous man.
He had the means of living in comfort, and even in wlial to one
who had so often slept in barns and on bulks must have been
luxury. His fame was great and was constantly rising. He
lived in what was intellectually far the best society of the king¬
dom, in a society in which no talent or accomplishment was
wanting, and in which the urt of conversation was cultivated
with splendid success. There probably were never four talkers
more admirable in four different ways than Johnson, Burke,
Beaucicrk and Garrirl:; and Goldsmith was on terms of intimacy
with all the four. He aspired to share in their colloquial renown,
but never was ambition more unfortunate. It may seem strange
that a man who wrote with so much perspicuity, vivacity and
grace should have been, whenever he took a part in conversation,
an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this point the
evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast
between Goldsmith’s published works and the silly things which
he said, that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot.
“ Noll,” said Garrick, “ wrote like an angel, and talked like poor
Boll.” Chamier declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to
lielieve that so foolish a chatterer could have really written the
Traveller. Even Boswell could say, with contemptuous com¬
passion, that he liked very well to hear honest Goldsmith run on.
“ Yes, sir,” said Johnson, “ but he should not like to hear him¬
self.” Minds differ as rivers differ. There arc transparent and
sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as they flow ;
to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may
be compared. But there are rivers of which the water when first
drawn is turbid and noisome, but becomes pellucid as crystal
and delicious to the taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has
deposited a sedirflent; and such a river is a type of the mind of
Goldsmith. His first thoughts on every subject were confused
even to absurdity, but they required only a little time to work
themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time, and
therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but
when he talked he talked nonsense and made himself the
laughing-stock of his hearers. He was painfully sensible of
his inferiority in conversation ; he felt every failure keenly ; yet
he had not sufficient judgment, and self-command to hold his
tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were always impelling
him to try to do the one thing which he could not do. After
every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself, and writhed
with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began
again.
His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which,
in spite of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with
contempt. In truth, there was in his character much to love,
but very little to respect. His heart was soft even to weakness :
218 GOLDSTUCKER
he wa* 10 generous that he quite forgot to be just ; he forgave
injuries so readily that he might be said to invite them, and was
so liberal to beggars that he had nothing left for his tailor and his
butcher. He was vain, sensual, frivolous, profuse, improvident.
One vice of a darker shade was imputed to him, envy. But there
is not the least reason to believe that this bad passion, though it
sometimes made him wince and utter fretful exclamations, ever
impeded him to injure by wicked arts the reputation of any of
his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more envious,
but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was
on his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common
among men of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a
man of the world does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed
with the simplicity of a child. When he was envious, instead of
affecting indifference, instead of damning with faint praise,
instead of doing injuries slvly and in the dark, be told everybody
that he was envious. " Do not, pray, do not, talk of Johnson in
such terms,” he said to Boswell; “ you harrow up my very soul.”
George Steevrns and Cumberland were men far too cunning
to say such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the
man whom they envied, and then have sent to the newspapers
anonymous libels upon him. Both what was good and what was
bad in Goldsmith’s character was to his associates a perfect
security that he would never commit such villainy. He was
neither ill-natured enough, nor long-headed enough, to be
guilty of any mulicious art which required contrivance and
disguise.
(ioldsmilh has somet imes been represented as a man of genius,
cruelly treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with
difficulties, which at lost broke his heart. But no representation
ran he more remote from the truth. He did, indeed, go through
much sharp misery liefore he had done anything considerable
in literature. Hut ufter his name had appeared on the title-puge
of the Traveller, he had none but himself to blame for his dis¬
tresses. His average income, during the last seven years of his
life, certainly exceeded £400 a year, and £400 a year ranked,
among the incomrs of that day, at least as high as £Hoo a year
would rank at present. A single man living in the Temple, with
£400 a ycur, might then lie called opulent. Not one in ten of the
young gentlemen of good families who were studying the law
there had so much. But all the wealth which Lord Give had
brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from Germany,
joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He
spent twice as much as he had. flc wore fine clothes, gave
dinners of several courses, paid court to venal beauties. He had
also, it should be remembered, to the honour of his heart, though
not of his head, a guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of
his purse, ready for any tale of distress, true or false. But it was
not in dress or feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous
charities, that his chief expense lay. He had been from boyhood
a gambler, und ut once the most sanguine and the most unskilful
of gamblers. For a time he put off the day of inevitable ruin by
temporary expedients. He obtained advances from booksellers
bv promising to execute works which lie never began. But at
length this source of supply failed. He owed tore than £2000;
and he saw no hope of extrication front his embarrassments.
His spirits and health gave wav. He was attacked by a nervous
fever, which hr thought himself competent to treat. It would
have hecn happy for him if his medical skill had been appreciated
its justly by himself as by others. Notwithstanding the degree
winch he pretended to have received on the continent, he could
procure no patients. “ 1 do not practise,” he once said; “ I
make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends.” “ Pray, dear
Doctor,” said Beauclerk, “ alter your rule : and prescribe only
for your enemies." Goldsmith, now. in spite of this excellent
advice, prescribed for himself. The remedy aggravated the
malady. The sick man was induced to call in real physicians ;
and they ut one time imagined that tliev had cured the disease.
Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He could get no
sleep. He could take no tod. “ You are worse,” said one of his
medical attendants, than you should b. 1 from the degree of
lever which you have. Is your mind at ease ? ” “ No; it is
not," were the last recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He
died on the 4th of April 1774, in his forty-sixth year. He was
laid in the churchyard of the Temple; but the spot was not
marked by any inscription and is now forgotten. The coffin
was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men
were sincere mourners. Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith’s
death, had burst into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so
much moved by the news that heTiad flung aside his brush and
palette for the day.
A short time after Goldsmith’s death, a little poem appeared,
which will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of
his two illustrious friends with his own. It has already been
mentioned that he sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his
wild blundering talk brought upon him. He was, not long
before his last illness, provoked into retaliating. He wisely
betook himself to his pen; and at that weapon he proved
himself a match lor all his assailants together. Within a small
compass he drew with a singularly easy and vigorous pencil
the characters of nine or ten of his intimate associates.
Though this little work did not receive his last touches, it
must always be regarded as a masterpiece. It is impossible,
however, not to wish that four or five likenesses which have
no interest for posterity were wanting to that noble gallery,
and that their places were supplied by sketches of Johnson
and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and
Garrick.
Some of Goldsmith’s friends and admirers honoured him
with a cenotaph in Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the
sculptor, and Johnson wrote the inscription. It is much to be
lamented that Johnson did not leave to posterity a more durable
and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A life of Goldsmith
would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives of the Poets.
No man appreciated Goldsmith’s writings more justly than
Johnson ; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith’s
character and habits; and no man was more competent to
delineate with truth and spirit the peculiarities of a mind in
which great powers were found in company with great weaknesses.
But the list of poets to whose works Johnson was requested by
the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton, who
died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for
the purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have
most fitly closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been
fortunate in his biographers. (M.)
Goldsmith's hie 1ms been written by Prior (iS.j7), by Washington
Irving (1844-1849), and by John Forster (1848, aiid ed. 1854).
Thu diligence of Prior deserves great praise; the style of Washington
Irving is always pleasing ; but the highest place must, in justice, be
assigned to the eminently interesting work of Forster. Subsequent
biographies are by William Black (1878), and Austin Hobson (1888,
American ed. i8yo). The above article by Lord Macaulay has been
slightly revised ior this edition by Mr Austin Dobson, as regards
questions of iart ior which there lias been new evidence.
aOLDSTtICKER, THEODOR (1821-1872), German Sanskrit
scholar, was bom of Jewish parents at Konigsherg on the 18th of
January 1K21, and, after attending the gymnasium of that
town, entered the university in 1836 as a student of Sanskrit,
in 1838 he removed to Bonn, and, after graduating at Kiinigsbcrg
in 1840, proceeded to Paris ; in 1842 he edited a German trans¬
lation of the Praboiha Chandrodava. From 1847 to 1850 he
resided at Berlin, where his talents and scholarship were recog¬
nized by Alexander von Humboldt, but where his advanced
political views caused the authorities to regard him with suspicion.
In the latter year he removed to London, where in 1852 he was
appointed professor of Sanskrit in University College. He now
worked on a new Sanskrit dictionary, of which the first instal¬
ment appeared in 1856. In 1861 he published his chief work:
PSmiti: his place in Sanskrit Literature; and he was one of the
founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society ;
he was also an active member of the Philological Society, and of
other learned bodies. He died in London on the Ath of March
1872.
As Literary Remains some of his writings were published ill two
volumes (London, 1879), but his papers were left to the India Office
with the request that they were not to be published until 1920.
GOLDWELL—GOLF
GOLD WELL, THOKAI (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began
his career as vicar of Cheriton in 1531, after graduating M.A. at
All Souls College, Oxford. He became chaplain to Cardinal
Pole and lived with him at Rome, was attainted in 1539, but
returned to England on Mary's accession, and in 1555 became
bishop of St Asaph, a diocese which he did much to win back
to the old faith. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from
England and in 1561 became superior of the Theatines at Naples,
tic was the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in
1 S ) '- was again attainted. In the following year he was appointed
vicar-general to Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died
in Rome in 1585, the last of the English bishops who hod refused
to accept the Reformation.
GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850- ), Jewish Hungarian orient¬
alist, was bom in Stuhlcnwcissenburg on the 22nd of June
1850. He was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin,
Leipzig and Leiden, and became privat docent at Budapest in
1872. In the next year, under the uuspiccs of the Hungarian
government, he begun a journey through Syria, Palestine and
LgypL and took the opportunity oi attending lectures of
Muhommedon sheiks in the mosque of el-Azliar in Cairo. He
was the first Jewish scholar to become professor in the Budapest
University (1894), and represented the Hungarian government
and the Academy of Sciences at numerous international con¬
gresses. lie received the large gold medal at the Stockholm
Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a memlicr of several
Hungarian and other learned societies, was appointed secretary
of the Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt.D.
of Cambridge (1904) and LL.I). of Aberdeen (1906). His eminence
in the sphere of scholarship is due primarily to his careful in¬
vestigation of pre-Mahommcdan and Mahommedan law, tradition,
religion and poetry, in connexion with which he published a large
number of treatises, review articles and essays contributed to
the collections oi the Hungarian Academy.
Among Ills chief works arc: DrUrage tur Uteraturgeschuhtc Act
S-.hia (TS74); Bcitragc tut lieuhtchlc dcr S/vuthgclehrsamliett bci
den Arabnti (Vienna, 1871-1873) ; Ih'r Mythns bci den Hrbrtiern und
wc gesc/tu httii hr Rntxmckelung (Leipzig, 187O ; Eng. trans., K.
Martinrau, London, 1877)! Mukammedamuhr Sludten (Halle,
1 She-1 rtf)!-, 2 vols.) ; Abhaudlungen tur arabxschcn Philologte (Leiden,
1806—iSyy, 2 vols.); Ituchv. Wcseti d. .S eeie (ed. 19,17)
GOLETTA | La Goclette], a town on the Gulf of Tunis in
36° 50' N. 10“ 19' E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and
on the north side of the ship canal which traverses the shallow
Lake of Tunis and leads to the city of that name. Built on the
narrow strip of sand which separates the lake from the gulf,
Golettu is defended by a fort and buttery. The town contains
a summer palace of the bey, the old seraglio, arsenal and custom¬
house, and many villas, gardens and pleasure resorts, Golettu
being a favourite place for sea-bathing. A short canal, from
which the name of the town is derived (Arab. Halk-el-Wad,
“ throat of the canal "), 40 ft. broad and 8{ ft. deep, divides the
town and affords communication between the ship canal and
a dock or basin, 1082 ft. long and 541 ft. broad. An electric
tramway which runs along the north bank of the ship canal
connects Goletta with the city of Tunis (q.v.). Pop. (1907)
about 5000, mostly Jews and Italian fishermen.
Beyond (kip*; Cartilage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a
summer resort overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here,
and the French resident-general, the British consul, other
officials, and many Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded
by groves of olive trees.
Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the
port of Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The
basin at the Goletta end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary
liarhour to that of Tunis. The most stirring events in the
history of the town are connected with the Turkish conquest
of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa having made
himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked in
1535 by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate’s fleet,
which was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass
cannon. The Turks regained possession in 1574. (See Tunisia :
History.)
21$
GOLF (in its older forms Gorr, Gouts or Gowtf, the last of
which gives the genuine old pronunciation), a game which
probably derives its name from the Ger. kalbe, a dub—in Dutch,
Ad/— which last is nearly in sound identical and might suggest a
Hutch origin, 1 which many pictures and other -witnesses further
support.
History. —One of the most ancient and most interesting of the
pictures in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an
illuminated Book of Hows made at Bruges at the beginning of
the 16th century. The original is in the British Museum. The
players, three in number, have but one dub apiece. The heads
of the clubs are steel or steel covered. They play with a ball each.
That which gives this picture a peculiar interest over the many
pictures of Hutch schools that portray the game bi progress is
that most of them show it on the ice, the puttmgbcmg at a stake.
In this Book of Hows they are putting at a hole in the turf, as in
our modem golf. It is scarrely to lie doubted that thegame is of
Hutch origin, and that it has been in favour since very early days.
Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutch¬
men plaved golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it.
It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland,
but in 1457 the popularity of the game had already become so
great as seriously to interfere with the more important pursuit
of areheiy. In March of that year the Scottish parliament
“ decreted and ordained that wapinshaaingis be halden be the
lordis and lmronis spiritual and temporale, four times in the
zeir; and that the futc-ball and golf be utterly cryit dotm, and
aocht usit ; and that the bowc-merkis be maid at ilk paroche kirk
a pair of buttis, and sekuttin be usit ilk Sunday.” Fourteen years
afterwards, in May 1471, it was judged necessary to pass another
act “ anem wapenshawings," and in 1491 a final and evidently
angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with pains
und penalties annexed. It runs thus—“ Futcball and Golfc
forbidden. Item, it is statut and ordainit that in na place of the
realmc there be usit fule-l>ull, golfe, or uther sik unprofUabill
sporlis ,” &c. This, be it noted, is an edict of James IV,; and it is
not a little curious presently to find the monarch himself setting
an ill example to his commons, by practice of this “ unprofitabili
sport,” as is shown by various entries in the accounts of the lord
high treasurer of Scotland (1303-1506).
About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of
history, and it Ls quite as popular as before. In the year 1592
the town council of Edinburgh “ ordanis proclamation to be made
threw this burgli, that na inhabitants oi the samvn be seen at ony
pastymes within or without the toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sit:
as golfe, &c.” a The following year the edict was re-announced,
hut with the modification that the prohibition was “ in tyme of
sermons.”
Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as “ The
Royal and Anaenl Game of Goff.” Though no doubt Scottish
monarchs handled the club before him, James IV. b the first who
figures formally in the golfing record. James V. was also very
partial to the game distinctively known as “ royal ” ; and there
is some scrap of evidence to show that his daughter, the unhappy
Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her enemies that, as
showing her shameless indifference to the late of her husband, a
very few days after his murder, she “ was seen playing golf and
palimall in the fields beside Seton.” * That her son, James VI.
(afterwards James 1 . of England), was a golfer, tradition con¬
fidently asserts, though the evidence which connects him with the
personal practice of the game is slight. Of the interest be took in
it we have evidence in his act—already alluded to- “ anent golfe
ballis,” prohibiting their importation, except under certain
1 From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England),
bearing date 161H, we find that a considerable importation oi golf
balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby ‘"na
small unantitie of gold and silver is transported zicrly out of his
Hienetr kingdome of Scotland ” (see letter ot His Majesty from
Salisbury, the 5th oi August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at
once as a wise economy of the national moneys, aiul a protection to
native industry in the article. From this it might almost seem that
the same was at that date still known and practised m Holland.
4 Records of the City of Edinburgh.
* Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots, preiacc, p. Ixx. (1863).
220 GOLF
restrictions. I. (as his brother Prince Henry bed been 5 )
wu devotedly attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on
the links of Leith, in 164*, the news reached him of the Irish
rebellion of that year. He had not the equanimity to finish his
match, but returned precipitately and in much agitation to
Holynood. J Afterwards, while prisoner to the Scots army at
Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in “ the royal game.”
" The King was nowhere treated with more honour than at New¬
castle, as he himself confessed, kith he and his train having liberty
to go abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the
walls.” * Of his son, Charles IIas a golfer, nothing whatever is
ascertained, but James II. was a known devotee. 4 After the
Restoration, James, then duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in
i68r/a as commissioner of the king to parliament, and an
historical monument of his prowess as a golfer remains there to
this day in the “Golfer's Land,” as it is still railed, 77 ('anongate.
The duke having been challenged by two English noblemen of his
suite, to play a match against them, for a very large stake, along
with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner one
" fohne Patersone,” a shoemaker. The duke and the said Johne
won easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to liis
humble coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house men¬
tioned above. In 1834 William ]V. berame patron of the St
Andrews Golf Club (St Andrews being then, as now, the most
famous seat of the game), and approved of its being styled “ The
Royal and Anrinit Golf (ilub of St Andrews.” In 1837, ns
further proof of royal favour, lie presented to it a magnificent gold
medal, which “ should be challenged and played for annually ” ;
and in 1838 the queen dowager, duchess of St Andrews, became
patroness of the club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal
—“ The Royal Adelaide ’’—with a request that it should be worn
by the captain, as president, on all public occasions. In June
1863 the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward Vii.) signified his
desire to 1 lecome patron of the club, and in the following September
was elected captain by acclamation. Ilis engagements did not
admit of iiis coming in person to undertake the duties of the
office, but his brother Prince Leopold (the duke of Albany), having
in 1876 done the club the honour to become its captain, twice
visited the ancient city in that capacity.
In more reeent days, golf has become increasingly popular in
a much wider degree. In 1880 the man who travelled about
England with a set of golf clubs was an object of some astonish¬
ment, almost of alarm, to his fellow-travellers. In those days the
commonest of questions in regard to the game was, “ You have to
lie a fine rider, do you not, to play golf ? ” so confounded was it in
the popular mind w’ith the game of polo. At Blackheath a few
Srotsmen resident in 1/melon had long played golf. In 1864 the
Royal North Devon Club wus formed at Westward Ho, and this
was the first of the seaside links discovered and laid out for golf in
England. In 1869 the Royal Liverpool Club established itself in
possession of the second English rotirse of this quality at Hoylake, in
Cheshire. A golf club was formed in connexion with the London
Scottish Volunteers corps, which had its house on the Putney end
of Wimbledon Common on Putney Heath; and, after making so
much of a start, the progress of the game was slow, though steady,
for many years. A few more clubs were formed ; the numbers of
golfers grew ; but it could not be said that the game was yet in
any sense popular in England. All at once, for no very obvious
reason, the qualities of the ancient Scottish game seemed to strike
home, and from that moment its popularity has been wonderfully
and increasingly great. The English links that rose into most
immediate favour was the fine course of the St George’s Golf
Club, near Sandwich, on the coast of Kent. To the London golfer
it was the first course of the first class that was reasonably
accessible, and the fact made something like an epoch in
English gulf. A very considerable increase, it is true, in the
number ol English golfers and English golf clubs had taken place
before the discovery for golfing purposes of the links at Sandwich.
> Anonymous author of MS. in the HarMan Library.
* See History 0/ LrilA, by 4 > Campbell (1817).
» l.acti Records v/ Xorlhumlnrlaml, by John Sykes (Newcastle,
• Robertson’* Historical Notices e/ l.eith
Already there was a chain of links an -round the -coast, besides
numerous inland courses ; but since 1890 their increase has been
extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the
colonies and abroad is very large also, so that in the Golfer’s
Year Book for 1906 a space of over 300 pages was allotted" to the
Gub Directoiy alone, each page containing, on a rough average,
six clubs. To compute the average membership of these clubs is
very difficult. There is not a little overlapping, in the sense that
a member of one club will often be a member of several others;
but probably the average may be placed at something like 200
members for each club.
The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the
large industry in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep
of links, in the actual work of club-carrying by the caddies,
and m the instruction given by the professional class, is obvious.
Golf has taken a strong hold on the affections of the people in
many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for golf in England has
reacted strongly on Scotland itself, the ancient home of the game,
where since 1880 golfers have probably increased in the ratio of
forty to one. Besides the industry that such a growth of the
game denotes in the branches immediately connected with it,
as mentioned above, there is to be taken into further account
(he visiting population that it brings to all lodging-houses and
hotels within reach of a tolerable golf links, so that many a
fishing village has risen into a moderate watering-place by virtue
of no other attractions than those which are offered by its golf
course. Therefore to the Briton, golf has developed from
something of which he had a vague idea—as of “ curling
to something in the nature of an important business, a business
that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the receipts
of railway companies.
Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this
is a crude and brief sentence, it does not state the fact too
widely nor too forcibly, for though it is true that before 1885
many played on the short links of St Andrews, North Berwick,
Westward Ho and elsewhere, still it was virtually unknown
that they should play on the longer courses, which till then
had been in the undisputed possession of the men. At many
places women now have their separate links, at others they play
on the same course as the men. But even where links are set
apart for women, they are far different from the little courses
that used to be assigned to them. They are links only a little
less formidable in their bunkers, a little less varied in their
features tlum those of men. TTie ladies have their annual
championship, which they play on the long links of the men,
sometimes on one, sometimes on another, but always on courses
of the first quality, demanding the finest display of golfing skill.
The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with
Scotland was conceded very strikingly by the admission of
three English greens, first those of Hoylake and of Sandwich,
and in 1909 Deal, into the exclusive list of the links on which
the open championship of the game is decided. Before England
had so fully assimilated Scotland’s game this great annual
contest was waged at St Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick
in successive years. Now the ancient green of Musselburgh,
somewhat worn out with length of hard and gallant service, and
moreover, as a nine-holes course inadequately accommodating
the numbers who compete in the championships to-day, has been
superseded by the course at Muirfield as a championship arena.
While golf had been making itself a force in the southern
kingdom, the professional element—men who had learned the
game from childhood, had become past-masters, were capable
of giving instruction, and also of making clubs and balls and
looking after the greens on which golf was played—had at first
been taken from the northern side of the Border. But when
golf had been started long enough in England for the little boys
who were at first employed as “ caddies ”—in carrying the
players’ dubs—to grow to sufficient strength to drive the ball
as far as their masters, it was inevitable that out of the number
who thus began to play in their boyhood some few should
develop an exceptional talent for the game. This, in fact,
actually happened, and English golfers, both of the amateur
GOLF
xx i
and the professional dosses, have proved themselves so adept
at Scotland’s game, that the championships in either the Open
or the Amateur competitions have been won more often by
English than by Scottish players of late years. Probably in the
United Kingdom to-day there are as many English as Scottish
professional golf players, and their relative number is increasing.
Golf also “ caught on,” to use the American expression, in
the United States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an
unknown thing. Since then, however, golf has become perhaps
a greater factor in the life of the upper and upper-middle classes
in the United States than it ever has been in England or Scotland.
Golf to the English and the Scots meant only one among several
of the sports and pastimes that take the man and the woman
of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the
fresh air. To the American of like status gulf came as the one
thing to take him out of his towns and give him a reason for
exercise in the country. To-day golf has become an interest
all over North America, but it is in the Eastern States that it
has made most difference in the life of the'classes with whom it
has become fashionable. Westerners and Southerners found
more excuses before the coming of golf for being in the open
country air. It is in the Eastern States more especially that it
has had so much influence in making the people live and take
exercise out of doors. In a truly democratic spirit the American
woman golfer plays on a perfect equality with the American
man. She does hot compete in the men's championships ; she
has championships of her own ; but she plays, without question,
on the same links. There is no suggestion of relegating her, as a
certain cynical writer in the Badminton volume on golf described
it, to a waste comer, a kind of “ Jews’ Quarter,” of the links.
And the Americans have taken up golf in the spirit of a sumptuous
and opulent people, spending money on magnificent clubhouses
beyond the finest dreams of the Englishman or the Scot. The
greatest success achieved by any American golfer fell to the lot
of Mr Walter Travis of the Garden City dull, who in 1904 won
the British amateur championship.
So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not
failed to make their influence felt in the United Kingdom.
Naturally and inevitably they have created a strong demand
for professional instruction, lxith by example and by precept,
and for professional advice and assistance in the laying-out and
upkeep of the many new links that have been created in all parts
of the States, sometimes out of the least promising material.
By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of wages
that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the
shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and
English professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the
case may be, and thus a new opening has been created for the
energies of the professional golfing class.
The Game .—The game of golf may be briefly defined as
consisting in hitting the ball over a great extent of country,
preferably of that sand-hill nature which is found by the sea-side,
and finally hitting or “ putting ” it into a little hole of some
4 in. diameter cut in the turf. The place of the hole is commonly
marked by a flag. Eighteen is the recognized number of these
holes on a full course, and they are at varying distances apart,
from too yds. up to anything between a J and j m. For the
various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the ball over
the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a number
of different “ clubs ” has been devised to suit the different
positions in which the ball may be found and the different
directions in which it is wished to propel it. At the start
for each hole the ball may be placed on a favourable position
(e.g. “ tee'd ” on a small mound of sand) for striking it, but after
that it may not be touched, except with the club, until it is
hit into the next hole. A “ full drive,” as the farthest distance
that the ball can bo hit is called, is about 200 yds. in length,
of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and the
rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be
understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall
sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required
for raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed
when it is placed on the tee to start with; and again, that
another dub is needed to strike the ball out of a cup or out of
heavy grass. It is this variety that gives the game its charm.
Each player plays with his own ball, with no interference from
his opponent, and the object of each is to hit the ball from the
starting-point into each successive hole in the fewest strokes.
The player who at the end of the round (i.t. of the course of
eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the winner
of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end
of the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to
play. For instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and
only three holes remain to be played, it is evident that the
former must be the winner, for even if the latter win every
remaining hole, he still must be one to the bad at the finish.
The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tourna¬
ment in matches thus played, each defeated player retiring, and
his opponent passing on into the next round. In the cose of the
Open Championship, and in most medal competitions, the scores
are differently reckoned—each man’s total score (irrespective
of his relative merit at each hole) being reckoned at the finish
against the total score of the other players in the competition.
There is also a species of competition called “ bogey ” play, in
which each man plays against a “ hogev ” score—a score fixed
for each hole in the round before starting-and his position in
tiie competition relatively to the other players is determined
by the number of holes that lie is to the good or to the bad of the
” bogey ” score at the end of the round. The player who is most
holes to the good, or fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition.
It may be mentioned incidentally that golf occupies the almost
unique position of being the only sport in which even a single
player can enjoy his game, his opponent in this event being
“ Colonel Bogey ”—more often than not a redoubtable adversary.
The finks winch have been thought worthy, by reason of their
geographical positions und their merits, of being the scenes on which
the gtili I hampionships are fought out, are, as we have already said,
three in Scotland— St Andrews, Prestwick aiul Muirfield —and three
in England—Hoylakc, Sandwicli and Deal. This brief list is very
far from being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great
Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland—CamouBtie,
North Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon,
Machrihauish, South Uist, Islay, (.ullaue, Luffncss and many more.
In England there an—Westward Ho, Bemliridgc, Littlestone, Great
Yarmouth, Brancaster, Seaton Carew, Formby, Lytham, Harlech,
Burnham, among the seaside ones ; while of the inland, some of them
of very fine quality, we cannot even attempt a selection, so large is
their number and so variously estimated their comparative merits.
Ireland has Portrush, Newcastle, Portsalou, Dollymount and many
more of the first class ; and there are excellent courses in the Isle of
Man. In America many fine courses have been constructed. There
is not a British colony of uny standing that is without its golf course—
Australia, India, South Africa, all have their golf championships,
which are keenly contested. Canada has had courses at Quebec and
Montreal for many years, and the Calcutta Goll Club, curiously
enough, is the oldest established {next to the Blackheath Club), the
next oldest being the club at Pau lit the Basses-Pyrtates.
The Open Championship of golf was started in i860 by the
Prestwick Club giving a belt to be played for annually under the
condition that it should become the property of any who could win
it thrice in succession. The following is the list of the champions:—
1860. W. Park, Musselburgh .
1861, Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick
i86z. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick
1863. W. Park, Musselburgh . .
1864. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick
1863. A. Strath, St Andrews .
i 860 . W. Park, Musselburgh . .
1867. Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews
1868. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews
1869. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews
1870. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews
174 —at Prestwick.
163 —at Prestwick.
163 —at Prestwick.
168—at Prestwick.
160 —at Prestwick.
162 —at Prestwick.
160 —at Prestwick.
1 70 —at Prestwick,
t J4—at Prestwick.
157 —at Prestwick.
149—at Prestwick.
Tom Morris, junior, thus woa the belt finally, according to the
conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the
three clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had sub¬
scribed ior a cup which should be played for over the course of each
subscribing club successively, but should never become the property
oi the winner. In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted
for that at Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted
into the list oi championship courses. Up to ibqi, inclusive, the
play of two rounds, or thirty-six holes, determined the championship,
bnt from 189s the result has been determined by the play oi 72 holes.
222
Afterthamtsroitnumof 1871, the following wore the champion*
GOLF
>971.
*f! 3 '
1 * 74 -
««75
1876.
I« 77 -
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
188a.
188 j.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
189T.
1892.
1893.
J894.
189s.
1898.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902 .
190.4
1904 .
H»5.
1906.
1907 .
1908.
1909 .
1910 .
.Tom Moms, )un., St Andrew*
Tom Kidd, St Andrews .. .
Mungo Park, Musselburgh .
Wilur I’ark, Musselburgh
Bob Martin, St Andrews
Jamie Anderson, St Andrews
Jamie Anderson, St Andrew*
Jamie Anderson, St Andrews
Bob Ferguason, Musselburgh
Bob Fergosson, Musselburgh
Bob Ferguason, Musselburgh
W. Fertile, Iiumfries . .
Jack Simpson, Carnoustie
Bob Martin, St Andreas
D. Brown, Musselburgh . •
WilUe Park, |un„ Musselburgh
Jack Burns, Warwick . .
Willie l’ark, inn., Musselburgh
Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylakc
Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews
Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake .
W. A uch ter Ionic, St Andrews
11 . Taylor, Winchester
, H. Taylor, Winchester
I. Vardon Scarborough
Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake
H. Vardon, Scarborough
H. Vardon, Scarborough
J. H. Taylor, Richmond
J. Braid, Romford . .
A, Herd, Huddersfield .
H. Vardon, (Ianton . .
. White, Suunuigdale .
Braid, Walton Heath .
Braid, Walton Heath .
Arnaiul Massey, 1 21 Bonlie
J. Braid, Walton Heatli
I . 11 . Taylor, Richmond
J. Braid, Wnlton Heath .
166—at Prestwick.
179—at St Andrews.
159— at Musselburgh.
1 is, -at Prestwick.
1 7 f>—at St Andrews.
160— at Musselburgh.
137—at Prestwick.
1 ju —at St Andrews.
162—at Musselburgh.
170— at Prestwick.
171— at St Andrews.
1 59—at Musselburgh,
ibo—at Prestwick.
171—at St Andrews.
157—at Musselburgh.
161— at Prestwick.
171—at St Andrews.
155—at Musselburgh.
164- -at Prestwick.
166- at St Andrews.
305— -at Muirfield.
322— at Prestwick.
32O—at Sandwich.
322—at St Andrews,
.jib -at Mnirfleld.
314—at Hoylake.
307—at Prestwick.
310—at Sandwich.
30y--.it St Andrews.
309 at Muirfield.
307—at Movlake.
30a—at Prestwick.
29b - at Saudwith.
318— at St Andrews.
300—at Muirfield.
312—at Hoylake.
291— at Prestwick.
2o3—at Heal.
29S al St Vndrcws.
Amatem Championship is of far more recenl institution.
t88(>.
Mr Horace Hutchinson
at St Andrews.
i88 7 .
Mr Horace Hutchinson
at Hoylake.
188H.
Mr John hall ....
at Prestwick.
1889.
Mr j. E. Lanlhiy
at St Andrews.
1890.
Mr John Hall ....
at Hoylake.
1891.
Mr 1 . K. Laidlaj
at St Andrews.
l8f)2.
Mr John Ball ....
at Sandwich.
1893.
Mr P. Anderson
at Prestwick.
18114.
Mr John Hall ....
at Hoylake.
18113.
Mr t.. Ballntu-Melville . .
at St Andrews.
189ft
MrF. G. Tail ....
at Sandwich.
1807.
Mr J.T. Allan . . .
at Muirfield.
1898.
Mr John Ball ....
at Prestwick.
1899.
MrF. C. Tail . . . ,
at Hoylake.
ioou.
Mr H. 11 . Hilton . . .
at Sandwich.
1901.
Mr H.H. Hilton . , .
at St Andrews.
TQ02.
Mr C. Hutchings
at Hoylake.
1003.
Mr R. Maxwell ....
at Muirfield.
1904
Mr W. 1 . Travis . . .
at Sandwich.
icj05.
Mr A. <S. Barrv . .
at St Andrews.
TOOfl
Mr J. Robb.
at Hoylake.
I 907 -
Mr John Rail ...
at St Andrews.
I90H.
Mr R. A. lessen
at Sandwich.
i go<).
Mr Robert Maxwell
at Muirfield.
ItJFO.
Mr John Ball ....
at Hoylake,
The Ladies’ Championship was started m 1893.
1893.
1894.
1893.
189(1.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
X901.
1902.
100 .1.
UK'S.
W07.
190S.
ivoy.
1910.
Lady M. Scott
Lady M. Scott .
Lady M. Scott
Miss A. B. Pascoe
MiasF.C. Orr .
Mum L. Thompson
Miss M. He/lot
Miss R. K. \dair
Miss M. A. Graham
Miss M. Herlrt .
Miss R. K. Adair
Miss L. Dod .
Miss B. Thompson
Mrs Keaniou
Miss M. H«ikt .
Miw M. Titterton
Mist* D. Campbell
Mist. Grant Suttie
at St Aimes,
at Littlustonc.
at Portrush.
at Hoylake.
at Gullanc.
at Yarmouth,
at Newcastle,
at Westward Ho.
at Aberdovy.
at Deal,
at Portrush.
at Troon,
at Cromer,
at Bnmham.
at Newcastle (Co. Down)
ntSt Andrews,
at Hirkdalc.
at Westward Ho,
of the Rules should be consulted). A new class of golfer has
arisen, requiring a code of rules framed rather more exactly
than the older code. The Scottish golfer, who was “ teethed "
on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has described it, imbibed all
the traditions of the game with his natural sustenance. Very
few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman, and still
more die American (less in touch with the traditions), began to
play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of
rulk that should be lucid and illuminating on every point—
an ideal perhaps impossible to realize. It was found, at least,
that the code put forward by the Royal and Ancient Club of
St Andrews did not realize it adequately. Nevertheless the new
golfers were very loyal indeed to the club that had ever of old
held, by tacit consent, the position of fount of golfing legislation.
The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by English golfers
to step into the place, analogous to that of the Marylebone
Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and anxious
to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not
in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insist¬
ently upon it, that there was no declining. The latest effort to
meet the demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the
thousand and one points that continually must arise for decision
in course of playing a game of such variety as golf, consists of
the appointment of a standing committee, called the “ Rules
of Golf Committee.” Its members all belong to the Royal and
Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership from
all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite con¬
sistent with a very general representation of the views of north,
south, east and west—from Westward llo and Sandwich to
Dornoch, and all the many first-rate links of Ireland—on the
committee. Ireland has. indeed, some of the best links in the
kingdom, and yields to neither Scotland nor England in en¬
thusiasm for the game. This committee, after a general revision
of the rules into the form in which they now stand, consider
every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the
questions that are sent up to it. by clubs or by individuals ; and
the committee’s answers to these questions have the force of law
until they have come liefore the nest general meeting of the
Royal and Ancient Club at St Andrews, which may confirm or
may reject them at will. The ladies of Great Britain manage
otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which settles questions
for them ; but since this union itself accepts as binding the
answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really arrive
at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does the
American Union, governing the play of men and women alike
in the States, really act differently. The Americans naturally
reserve to tliemselves freedom to make their own rules, but in
practice they conform to the legislation of Scotland, with the
exception nf a more drastic definition of the status of the amateur
player, and certain di 'erene.es as to the dubs used.
A considerable modification has been effected in the implements
of the game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to
be short in the head as compared with ihe clubs of, say, 1880 or
1885. The advantage claimed (’probably with justice) for this
shape is that it masses the weight behind the point on which
the ball is struck. Better material in the wood of the club is a
consequence of the increased demand for these articles and the
increased competition among their makers. Whereas under
the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in
existence were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there
is a very large industry in golf club and ball making, w hich not
only employs workers in the local club-makers’ shops all the
kingdom over, but is an important branch of the commerce of
the stores and of the big athletic outfitters, both in Great Britain
and in the United States. By far the largest modification in
the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from balls
of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to thp American
invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an
American invention that it is still regarded, although the British
law courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had
been “ prior users ” of the principle of the balls' manufacture,
There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement
as time has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition | and therefore that the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the
GOLF 123
first balls of tbe kind were called, was not good. It is singular
to remark that in the first introduction of the gutta-percha
balls, superseding the leather and feather compositions, they also
were called by the name of their first maker, “ Gourlay.” The
general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored ball, which is
now everywnere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of gutta-percha
or some other such substance; round this is wound, by
machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and
over all is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have
tried to dispense with the kernel of hard substance, or to sub¬
stitute for it kernels of some fluid or gelatinous substance, but
in general the above is a sufficient, though rough, description of
the mode of making all these balls. Their superiority over the
solid gutta-percha lies in their superior resiliency. The effect
is that they go much more lightly off the club. It is not so much
in the tee-shots that this superiority is observed, as in the
second shots, when the ball is lying badly ; balls of the rubber-
cored kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to raise
in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well
off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the
player within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he
would have to use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid
gutta-percha ball. They also tend to make the game more easy by
the fact that ii they are at all mis-hit they go much better than
a gutta-percha bail similarly inaccurately struck. As a slight set¬
off against these qualities, the ball, lieeause of the greater liveliness,
is not quite so good for the short game us the solid bull; but on
the whole its advantages distinctly overbalance its disadvantages.
When these balls were first put on the market they were sold
at two shillings each and even, when the supply was quite
unequal to the demand, at a great deal higher price, rising to as
much as a guinea a ball. But the normul price, until about a
year after the decision in the British courts of law affirming that
there was no patent in the bails, was always two shillings for the
best quality of ball. Subsequently there was a reduction down
to one shilling for the balls made by many of the manufacturing
companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of rubber sent up
the cost. The rubber-cored hall does not go out of shape so
quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other
marks of ill-usage with the club so obviously, it has had the
effect of making the game a good deal easier for the second- and
third-class players, favouring especially those who were short
drivers with the old gutta-percha ball. To the liest players it lias
made the least difference, nevertheless those who were best with
the old ball are also best with the new ; its effect Iras merely
been to bring the second, third and fourth iiest closer to each
other and to the best.
Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has
been touched on in this notice of the new balls. There is no
doubt that the bails themselves tend to a greater economy, not
only because of their own superior durability but also because,
as a consequence of their greater resiliency, they arc not nearly
so hard on the clubs, and the clubs themselves lieing perhaps
made of hettcr material than used to be given to their manu¬
facture, the total effect is that a man's necessary annual expendi¬
ture on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty
constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average
of golfers will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that
the outlay on the weapons is very’ moderate. On the other
hand the expenditure of the clubs on their courses has increased
and tends to increase. Demands arc more insistent than they
used to be for a well-kept course, for perfectly mown greens,
renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably the modem
golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants than
his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and
workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription
is required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten
or fifteen guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is
very moderate compand with the subscriptions to some of the
clubs in the United States, where a hundred dollars a year, or
twenty pounds of our money, is not unusual. But on the whole
golf is a very economical pastime, as compared with almost
any other sport or pastime which engages the attention of
Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and for all
the life of a man or woman.
Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game.
Addressing the Hall— Putting oneself in position to (trike the ball.
All Square. —Term used to express that the score stands level,
neither side being a hole up.
Baff.— To Strike the ground with the club when playing, and so
loft the ball unduly.
Baffy .—A short wooden club, with laid-back face, tar lofting shots.
Bogey.--The number of strokes which a good average player
should take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known
as " Colonel Bogey," anil plavs a fine game.
Brassy. —A wooden dub with a brass sole.
Bulger .— A driver in which the face ” bulges *’ into a convex shape.
The head is shorter than in tbe oldnr-fashioned driver. ,
Bunko .—A sand-pit.
Bye .—The holes remaining after one side ha* beoomo more holes up
than remain for play.
Caddie.— The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of
“ cad " ; cf. laddie (from Fr. cadet).
Cleek. —Tbe iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive
of any of the dulls with iron beads.
Cup .—A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly.
Bead. —A hall is said to lx " dead " when so near the hole that
the putting it in in the next stroke is a " dead ” certainty. A ball
is said to " fall dead " when it pitches with hardly any run.'
Divot .—A piece of turf eut out in the act of playing, which, be it
noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on.
barmy. — One side is said to lx* ” dormv "when it is as many
holes to the good as remain to be played—so that it cannot be
beaten.
Z)n,,T.—The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very
well and along shot is needed.
Foosle .—Any very badly missed or bungled stroke,
" Fore ! ”—A cry of warning lo people in front.
Foursome. —A match in which four persons engage, two on each
side playing alternately with the same ball.
Green.—{a) The links as a whole; (b) the "putting-greens''
around the holes.
Grip.—(a) The part oi the club-shaft which is held in the hands
while playing; ('') the grasp itself— e.g. " a firm grip," " a loose
grip,” are common expressions.
Half-Shot. ~ A shot played with sometliing less than a full swing.
Halved.— \ hole is " halved " when both sides have played it la
the same number of strokes. A round is " halved " when each ride
lias won and lost the same number oi holes.
Handicap. —The strokes w hieti a player receives either in match
play or competition.
Hanging .—Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards
in regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive.
Husard .—A general term lor bunker, whin, long grass, roads and
all kinds of bad ground.
Heel .—To hit the ball on the “ heel " of the dub, i.c. the part of
the face nearest the shaft, anil so send the ball to the right, with the
same result as from a slice.
Honour .—The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to
decline) of striking oh first from the tee.
Iron. — An iron-headed club intermediate between the deck and
lofting mashic. There are driving irons amPlnfting irons according
to the purposes for which thev are intended.
I.te. —(a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a " flat
he," " an upright he "); (I/) the position of tbe ball on the ground
(e.g. " a good he,” " a had lie ”).
I.the, The.—The stroke which makes the player’s score equal to
his opponent's in course of playing a hole.
Like-as-ive-Lie .—Said when both sides have played tbe same
number of strokes.
Line.— The direction in which the hole towards which the player
is progressing lies with reference to the prcsentjxaition of his ball.
Mashic. —An iron club with a short head. The lofting mashie has
the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The
driving mashie hus tbe blade less laid back, and is used for longer,
less lofted shots.
Match-Play. —Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won
and lost,
Medal-Plav. —Play in which the score is Reckoned by the total
of strokes taken on the round.
Niblick. —A short stiff dub with a short, laid back, iron head,
used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie.
Odd, The —A stroke more than the opponent has played.
Press. —To strive to hit harder than yon can hit with accuracy.
Pull. —To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the elub, so as
to make it curve to the left.
Putt. —To play tile short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in
" hut").
Putter. —The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole.
Some have a wooden head, some an iron bead.
224
GOLIAD—GOLIARD
SubwHke-Grten.—Any chance deflection that the ball receive* as
** Vp^-To send the ball low and close to the ground in
sspproachuig the Imli— opposite to lofting it uij.
Scratckrlayer. — I’laver who receives no odds in handicap com-
^ Slice. —To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flics curving
to the right. . , . . . .
Stance, (a) The place on which the player has to stand when
playing—e.g- " a bad stance,” ” a good stance," are common ex-
preittioriN ; (b) the position relative to each other of the player h feet.
Stymie. — When one ball lies in a straight line between another and
the hole the first is said to ” stymie," or " to be a stymie to ” the
other—from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean " the
faintest form of anything " The idea probably was, the " stymie
onlv left you the " faintest form " of the fiole to aim at.
tee. —The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally
placed for the first drive to each hole.
Teetng-Ground —The place marked as the limit, outside of which
it is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is
also sometimes called " the toe."
Top —To hit the hall above the centre, so that it does not rise
much from the ground.
player is said to be " one up,” " two up,” &c., when lie is so
many holes to the good of his opponent.
Wnst-Shot. —A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than
a putt.
Bidmooraiuiv.—T he literature of the game has grown to some
considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in
till* fine work by Mr Robert Clark, Golf ; A Royal and Ancient Game,
together with two handlxioks on the game by Mr Chambers and by
Mr Korean respectively, and the Go'fiima Misirllanea of Mr Stewart.
A small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named Hints on Golf, was
very shortly billowed by a much mim important work by Sir Walter
Simpson, Bart., called The Art of Golf, a title which sufficiently
explains itself. The Badminton Library Ixxilc on Golf attempted to
collect into one volume the most interesting historical facts knowm
about the game, with obiter dicta and advice to learners, and, on
similar didactic lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S.
Kverard, Mr Garden Smith and W l'arlt, the professional player.
Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime amateur champion golfer of the
United States, has given us a lxiok about the game in that country.
The Hook of Golf and Golfer'., compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace
Hutchinson, is m the first place a picture-gallery of famous golfers
in their respective attitudes ol play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have
each contributed a volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has
published a book with admirable photographs of players in action,
called Great Golfers : their Methods at a Glance.. A work intended for
the use oi green committees is among the volumes of the Country Life
Library of Sport. Much interesting loro is contained in tile Golfing
Annual, in the Golfer’s Year Hook and ill the pages of Golf, which
has now become Golf Illustrated, a weekly paper devoted to the game.
Among works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain
much of historical value about the game, may be cited the Golf Hook
of Hast Lothian, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the Chromite of Hlack-
heatli Golfers, by Mr W. E. Hughes. (H. G. H.)
GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-scut of
Goliad county, Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio
river, 85 m. S.E. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It
is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio railway
(Southern Pacific. System). Situated in the midst of a rich
farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour mills, cotton
gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting ruins of
the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this
point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle
between Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez
(1778-1814) was besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an
anagram of the name of the Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753 1811),
was first used about 1829. On the outbreak of the Texan War
of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small force of Mexicans,
who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835. and on the 20th
of December a preliminary " declaration of independence ”
was published hero, antedating by several months the official
Declaration issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of
March 183b. In 183(1, when Santa Anna began his advance
against the Texan posts, Goliad was occupied by a force of about
350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin (c. 1800-1836),
who was overtaken on the Colette Creek while attempting to
curry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with
General Houston ; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March
19-20) in which lie inflioted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and
was marched back with bis force to Goliad, where on the morning
of the 27th of March they were shot down by Santa Anna's
orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a tornado on the 19th
of May 1903.
GOLIABD, a name applied to those wandering students
(vagantes) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during
the 12th and 13th centuries, who were better known for their
rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship.
The derivation of the word is uncertain. It may come from
the Lat. gula, gluttony (Wright), but was connected by them
with a mythical “ Bishop Golias,” also called “arehipoeta ” and
“primas ”—especially in Germany—in whose name their satirical
poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted
Biidinger’s suggestion (Vber tinige Reste drr Vagantenpoesie in
Osterrcich, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to
the letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred
to Abelard as Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the
keen-witted student adherents of that great medieval critic.
Giesebrecht and others, however, support the derivation of
goliard from gaiUiard, a gay fellow, leaving “ Golias ” as the
imaginary “ patron ” of their fraternity.
Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography
of an arehipoeta who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at
Salzburg from 1160 to tieyond the middle of the 13th century ;
but the proof of the reality of this individual is not convincing.
It is doubtful, too, if the jocular references to the rules of the
“ gild ’’ of goliards should be tuken too seriously, though their
aping of the “ orders ” of the church, especially their contrasting
them with the mendicants, was too hold for church synods.
Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the church,
attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Treves forbude
priests to permil the goliards to take part in chanting the service.
In 122Q they played a lonspicuous part in the disturbances at
the university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the
papal legate. During the century which folluwed they formed
a subject for the deliberations of several church councils, notably
in 1280 when it was ordered that “ no clerks shall Be jongleurs,
goliards or buffoons,” and in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were
forbidden to preach or engage in the indulgence traffic. This
legislation was only effective when the “ privileges of clergy ”
were withdrawn from the goliards. Those historians who regard
the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic ideals, regard
the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of the time.
But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in temperament
among those who rrowded to the universities in the 13th century,
and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage
and attraction in the student fife. The goliard poems are as
truly “ medieval ” as the monastic fife which they despised ;
they merely voice another section of humanity. Yet their
criticism was most keenly pointed, and marks a distinct step
in the criticism of abuses in the church.
Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine
and riotous living. A remarkable collection of them, now at
Munich, from the monastery at Benedictbcuren in Bavuria,
was published by Schmeller(3rd ed., 1895) under the title Carmina
Rttrona. Many of these, which form the main part of song-books
of German students to-day, have been delicately translated by
John Addington Symonds in a small volume, W me, Women and
Song (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude to the
Renaissance. The poems of “ Bishop Golias ” were later
attributed to Waller Mapcs, and have lieen published by Thomas
Wright in The Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes
(London, 1841).
The word " goliard ” itself outlived these turbulent bands
which had given it birth, and passed over into French and
English literature of the 14th century in the general meaning of
jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association.
It is thus used in Piers Plowman, where, however, the goliard
still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.
See, besides the works quoted above, M. Hacxner, Gnliardendirh-
tung uni die Satire tm jjten Jakrhunderl 1« England (Leipzig, 1905) ,
Spiegel, Die Vaganteu und tar " Or den " (Spires, 1802); Hubatsch,
Die laleinisrhrn Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters (Gfirlitz, 1870) : and
the article in l a grande Encyclopedic All of these have biblio¬
graphical apparatus. (J. T. S.*)
GOLIATH—GOLITSUIN, V. V.
a *5
GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David
achieved renown (i Sam. xvii.). The Philistmes had come up to
make war against Saul and, as the rival camps lay opposite each
other, this warrior came forth day by day to challenge to single
combat. Only David ventured to respond, and armed with a
sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, seeing
their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight.
The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his
famous sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul
(i Sam. xxi. 1-9). From another passage we leam that Goliath
of Gath, “ the shaft of whose spear was like a weaver’s beam,”
was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in one of David’s
conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi, 18-22 )—the parallel
1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading the “ brother
of Goliath.” But this old popular story has probably preserved
the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo
in the list of David’s mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the
resemblance between the two names may have led to the trans¬
ference. The narratives of David’s early life point to some
exploit by means of which he gained the favour of Saul, Jonathan
and Israel, but the absence of all reference to his achieve¬
ment in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. u, xxix. 5)
is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which
in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in
David’s life (Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps. cli., Ecclus.
xlvii. 4).
See David; Samuel (Books) and especially Oheyne, Aids and
Devout Study of Cnlutsm, pp. 80 aqq., 125 sqq. ' In the old Hfjyptian
romance of Sinukii (ascribed to about 2000 B.c.), the story of the
slaying of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that
of David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, Hist. 0/ Syr. and Pal. p. 60 ;
A. Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lichte d. alien Orients, 2nd ed. pp. 200, 4m •
A. R. S. Kennedy, Century Dibit ■. Samuel, |>. 1 22 , argues that David's
Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii. he is
named only in 1. 4.
GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654-1714), Russian
statesman, came of a princely family, claiming descent from
Prince Gedimin of Lithuania. Earlier members of the family
were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous soldier, and his great-grandson
Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was sent us ambassador to Poland
to offer the Russian crown to Prince Ladislaus. Boris became
court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar Peter’s chief
supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of his
elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which
assembled atthe Troitsa monastery during thecrisis of thestruggle.
Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong
fortress and won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690
he was created a boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter's
uncle, the conduct of home affairs. After the death of the
tsaritsa Natalia, Peter’s mother, in 1694, his influence increased
still further. He accompanied Peter to the White Sea (1694-
1695); took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was one of
the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter’s first foreign
tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected
all the districts under his government, shook Peter’s confidence
in him, and seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was
superseded in the Volgan provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A
year before his death he entered a monastery. Golitsuin was a
typical representative of Russian society of the end of the 17th
century in its transition from barbarism to civilization. In
many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was highly
educated,spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the society
of scholars and had his children carefully educated according
to the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior
personage was an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who
intruded upon the hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not
ashamed to seize upon any dish he took a fancy to, and send it
home to his wife. _ It was his reckless drunkenness which
ultimately ruined him in the estimation of Peter the Great,
despite his previous inestimable services.
See S. Solovev, History of Russia (Run.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 185*);
R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)
GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665-1737),
Russian statesman, was sent in 1697 to Italy to leam “ military
affairs ”; in 1704 he was appointed to the command ft ;aa
auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.; from 1711 to
1718 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1718 he was appointed
president of the newly erected Kammer {Collegium and a senator.
In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the vice-
chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and
dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the
empress Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great,
Golitsuin became the recognized head of the old Conservative
party which had never forgiven Peter for putting away Eudoxia
and marrying the plebeian Martha Skavronskaya. But the
reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov and Peter
Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background
till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last yearsof’Peter II.
(1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent .statesman in
Russia and his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the
death of Peter II. he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy
by subordinating it to the authority of the supreme privy council,
of which he was president. He drew up a form of constitution
which Anne of Courland, the newly elected Russian empress,
was forced to sign at Mittau before being permitted to proceed to
St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating this constitution,
and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in peace, how¬
ever, and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736, when he
was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy
of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however,
was a mere pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments
that he was really prosecuted. A court, largely composed of
his antagonists, condemned him to death, but the empress
reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment in Schlusselburg
and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his prison on the
14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement.
See R. jil. Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1897).
(R. N. B.)
GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian
statesman, spent his eariy days at the court of Tsar Alexius
where he gradually rose to the rank of boyar. In 1676 he was
sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the Crimean Tatars and
took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal experience of the
inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of prefer¬
ment, the so-called myestnichcstvo, or rank priority, which had
paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to pro¬
pose its abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore Ill.
(1678). The May revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the
head of the Posolsky Prikas, or ministry of foreign affairs, and
during the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose
lover he became, he was the principal minister of state (1682-
1689) and “ keeper of the great seal," a title bestowed upon
only two Russians before him, Athonasy, Orduin-Nashchokin
and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence was
insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the
peace with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered
Kiev. By the terms of the same treaty, he acceded to the
grand league against the Porte, but his two expeditions against
the Crimea (1687 and 1689), “ the First Crimean War," were
unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only with the
utmost difliculty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to
decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned
a victor. In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-
September 1689), Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress
and shared her ruin. His life was spared owing to the supplica¬
tions of his cousin Boris, but he was deprived of his boyardom,
his estates were confiscated and he was banished successively to
Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on the 21st of
April 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He under¬
stood German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could
express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of
foreigners, who generally alluded to him os “the great Golitsuin.”
His brother Mikhail (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who
is best known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where
his admirable qualities earned the remembrance of the people
whom he had conquered. And Mikhail's son Alexander (1718-
xii. 8
it 6 GOLIUS—
tf Bjj) mi a diplomat and soldier, who rose to be field mondial
had governor of St Petersburg.
8m & N. Bain, The First Romanova (London, 190J); A.
Brttckner, Fvtrst (Minn (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, History 0/
Russia (But.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, Sc.). (R. N. B.)
GOLIUS or (Goki.), JACOBUS (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist,
was bom at the Hague in 1596, and studied at the university of
Leiden, where in Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the
most distinguished pupil of Erpcnius. In 1622 he accompanied
the Dutch embassy to Morocco, arid on his return he was chosen
to succeed Erpemiis (1624). In the following year he set out on a
Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not return until 1629.
The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where he held the
chair of mathematics as well us that of Arabic. He died on the
28th of September 1667.
Hi* mcmt important work is tire Lexicon Arabico-Latinum, fol.,
Leiden, 1053, which, based on the Si hah of Al-Jauhari, was only
superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier
pnbHcafions may 1* mentioned editions of various Arabic texts
(Pvovsrbia quantum Alls, imperaloris Muslemici, et Carmen Tograi,
pottos doctiieimi, unman dissertatio quaedam Alien Synae, 1629; and
Akmedis ArabsiaUae vitae et rcrum geslarum Timuri, out outgo Tamer-
lanes iicitur, hislntia, 1636). In 1636 lie published a new edition,
with considerable additions, of the Orammatica Arabian of Erpenius.
After his death, there wss lounil among his pajiers a Dictionarium
Persico-Lahtntm which was published, with additions, by Edmund
Castcll iu bis Lexintn hcptaglotton (1069), Golius also edited, trans¬
lated and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan (Muham-
medts, fitii Keitri brrganensis, qut rulgo Alfragamts diritur, elementa
eutsonstmea Arabiee it Latino, 1660).
GOLLNOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, on the right bank of the ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin,
with which it has communication by roil and steamer. Pop.
(1905) 8539. It possesses two Evangelical churches, a synagogue
and some small manufactures. Gotlnow was founded in 1190,
and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It was for a time
a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in 1720,
having belonged to Sweden since 1648.
GOLOSH, or Galosh (from the Fr. galoriir, Low Lat. ealtrpedes,
a wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Or. KaAoirnSu.r,
a diminutive formed of naKov, wood, and irofs, foot), originally
a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to
the foot by a strap or eord. In the middle ages “ galosh ” was a
general term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden
sole. In modem usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather
to protect the inner one, and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are
now almost universally made of rublier, and in the United States
they are known as “ rubbers ” simplv, the word golosh being
rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers’ trade, a “ golosh 55
is the pieee of leather, of a make stronger than, or different from
that of the “ tippers,” which runs artmnd the bottom part of a
boot nr shoe, just above the sole.
GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, Count (d. t 7 o6),
Russian statwman, learnt, like so many of his countrymen in
later times, the business of a ruler in the Far Hast. During the
regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, he was sent to the
Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of Albazin against
the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial empire the
treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as its
tributary the Gorhitsu, was retroceded to China because of the
impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter’s grand embassy
to the West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place
immediately after Lefort. It was his chief duty to hire foreign
sailors and olitain everything necessary for the construction and
complete equipment of a fleet. On Effort's death, in March 1699,
he succeeded him as admiral-general. The same year he was
treated the first Russian count, and was also the first to lie
decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew.
The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted
to him, and from 1699 to his death he was “ the premier minister
of the tsar.” Golovin’s first achievement as foreign minister was
tre «y Carlowiti, by which peace with
Turkey had only heen secured for three years, by concluding with
the Porte a new treaty at Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by
which the term of the peace was extended to thirty years and,
SOLTZ, B.
besides other concessions, the Azov district and a strip of territory
extending thence to Ktiban were ceded to Russia. He also
controlled, with consummate ability, the operations of the
brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts.
His superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due
to the fact that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense
while they were still learning the elements of statesmanship’
His death was an irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the
despatch announcing it, the words “ Peter filled with grief.”
See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). (R fl n.1
GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, Count (1660-1734)
Russian statesman, was attached (1677), while still a lad, to the
court of the tsarevitch Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with
whose mother Natalia he was connected, and vigilantly guarded
him during the disquieting period of the regency of Sophia
sister of Peter the Great (1682—1689). He accompanied the
young tsar ubroad on his first foreign tour, and worked by his
side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he succeeded Golovin
in the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian
grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held
this office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I.
he became a member of the supreme privy council which had
the chief conduct of affairs during this and the succeeding reigns
The empress also entrusted him with her last will whereby she
appointed the young Peter II. her successor and Golovkin one
of his guardians. On the death of Peter TI. in 1730 he declared
openly in favour of Anne, duchess of Courland, in opposition
to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins, and his determined
attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause of the failure
of the proposed constitution, which would have converted Russia
into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the
first cabinet formed in Russia, hut had kiss influence in affairs than
Ostermann and Miinnich. In 1707 he was created a count of
the Holy Roman empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian
empire, lie was one of the wealthiest, and at the same time
one of the stingiest, magnates of his day. His ignorance of any
language hut Ins own made his intercourse with foreign ministers
very inconvenient.
See It. N. Bam, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1807).
GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831*' Russian
mce-admiral, was born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village
of Gnlynki in the province of Ryazan, and received his education
at the fronstadt naval school. From 1801 to 1806 he served as
a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807 he was commissioned
by tlie Russian government to survey the cousts of Kamchatka
and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands.
Golovnin sailed round the Gape of Good Hojm>, and on the 5th of
October 1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1R10, whilst attempting
to survey tlie coast of the island of Kunashtri, he was seized bv
the Japanese, and was retained by them as a prisoner, until the
>3th of October 1813, when he was lilierated, and in the following
year he returned to St Petersburg. Soon after this the govern¬
ment planned another expedition, which had for its object the
circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and Golovnin
was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg
on the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and
arrived in Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to
F.urope hy way of the Cape of Good Hope, and landed at St
Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819. He died on the 12th
of July 1831.
Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the
most important —Jcmrnry to Kamchatka (2 vols., 1819) ; Journey
Round the World (z vols., 1832); ami Narrative of my Captivity in
Japan, 1811-1813 ( 2 vols., 1816). The last has lx-en translated into
French, German and English, the English edition being in three
volumes (1824). A complete edition of his works was published at
St Petersburg in five volumes in 18(14, with maps and charts, and a
biography of the author by N. Grech.
GOLTZ, BOGUMIL (1801-1870), German humorist and
satirist, was born at Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After
attending the classical schools of Marienwerder and Kdnigsberg,
he learnt farming on an estate near Thorn, and in i8s* entered
the university of Breslau as a student of nhilosonhv. But he
GOLTZ, G,—GOLUGHOWSKI
soon abandoned an academical career, and, after returning for
a white to country life, retired to the small town of Gollub,
where be devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled
at Thom, “ the home of Copernicus,” where he died on the nth
of November 1870. - Goltz k best known to literary fame by his
Buck dtr Kindliest (Frankfort, 1847 ; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in
which, after the style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but
with a mote modem realism, he gives a charming and idyllic
description of the impressions of his own childhood. Among his
other works must be noted Em Jugendleben (185a); Dtr Mensch
urtd dit Leule (1858); Zur Charakicristih and Naturgesckichte
dtr Frauen (1859) j Zur Gesckichte uni Charakteristik des drutschen
Genius (1864), and Die Welthlugheit tend die Lcbcnsweisheit
(t86o).
Goltz s works have not been collected, but a selection will lie found
in Reclam's Umversalbibhothck (ed. by J’. Stein, 1901 and 190b).
See O. Roquette, Siebsig Jahren, 1. (1894;.
GOLTZ, COLMAB, Freiherr Von Der (1843- ),
Prussian soldier and military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld,
F.ast Prussia, on the 12th of August 1843, and entered the
Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he entered the Berlin
Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in 1866 to
serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau.
In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff,
and at the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71
was attached to the staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took
part in the battles of Vionvillc and Gravelotte and in the siege
of Metz. After its fall he served under the Red Prince in the
campaign of the Loire, including the battles of Orleans and Le
Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at the military school
at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain and placed
in the historical section of the general staff. It was then he
wrote Die Operationen der 11 . Armec bis zur Capitulation von
Metz and Die. Sieben Tage von Le Mans, both published in 1873.
In 1874 he was. appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and
while so employed wrote Die Operationen der II. Armec an der
Loire and Leon Gamhetta und seine Arnteen, published in 1875
and 1877 respectively. The latter was translated into French
the same year, and both are impartially written. The views
expressed in the latter work led to his heing sent back to regi¬
mental duty for a time, hut it was not long before he returned
to the military history section. In 3878 von der Goltz was
appointed lecturer in military history at the military academy
at Berlin, where he remained for fir e years and attained the rank
of major. He published, in 3883, Rossbaeh und Jena (new and
revised edition. Von Rossbaeh bis Jena und Aurrstadt, 3906),
Das Volt: in Waffrn (English translation The Nation in Arms),
both of which quickly became military classics, and during his
residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the military
journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to
reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent
twelve years in this work, the result of which appeared in the
, Greco-Turkish War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in
1895 a tnushir or field marshal. On his rcturn # to Germany in
1896 he became a lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th
division, and in 189S, head of the F.ngineer and Pioneer Corps
and inspector-general of fortifications. In 3900 he was made
general of infantry and in 1902 commander of the 1. army corps.
In 1907 he was made inspector-general of the newly created
sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in 1908 was
given the rank of colonel-general ( Gcneraloberst).
In addition to the works already named and frequent contribu¬
tions to military periodical literature, he wrote Krieg/ithrung (1895,
later edition Krug- und Httr/Uhrung, 1901 ; Lng. trams. The Conduct
of War ) ; Der thessahsche Krug (Berlin, 1898) ; Em Aus/lug nach
Metiedonien (1894) ; Anatolische Ausfliige (1896) ; a map and de¬
scription of the environs of Constantinople ; Von Jena bis Pr. Evtau
(1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story of
Kvstback und Jena to the peace of Tilsit, dec.
GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (1558-1617), Dutch painter and
engraver, was bom in 1558 at Miilebrecht, in the duchy of
Jiilich. After studying painting on glass for some years under
bis father, he was taught the use of the burin by Dirk Volkertsz
Coomlert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment, whom he
327
soon surpassed, but who setsinad his services for hh own
advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galleto engrave a
set of prmts of the history of Lueretia. At the ageof twenty^one
he married a widow somewhat advanced in yean, whose money
enabled him to establish at Haarlem an independent busmen;
but his unpleasant relations with her so affected his health that
he found it advisable in JJ90 to make a tour through Germany
to Italy, where he acquired an intense admiration lot the works
of Michelangelo, which ted him to surpass that master in the
gxotesqueness and extravagance of his designs. He returned
to Haarlem considerably unproved in health, and laboured them
at his art till his death, on the 1st of January *617. Goltzius
ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most,
his eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though
mostly miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on
account of their exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual
character. Of his larger heads, the life-size portrait ofihimself
is probably the most striking example. His “ master-pieces,”
so called from their being attempts to imitate the style of the
old masters, have perhaps been overpraised. In his command
of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed oven by Dfirer j but his
technical skill is often unequally aided by higher artistic qualities.
Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances are greatly
counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution.
He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his
works in this branch of art—some of which are in the imperial
collection at Vienna—display any special excellences. He
also executed a few pieces in chiaroscuro.
His prints amount to more than 300 plaice, and are fully described
in Uartsch's i’eintre-gravcur, and Weigel's supplement to the same
work.
GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR, Count (1849- ), Austrian
statesman, was bom on the 25th of March 1849. His father,
descended from an old and noble Polish family, was governor
of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service, the son was in
1872 appointed attache to the Austrian embassy at Berlin,
where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was
transferred to Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of
legation, he was in 1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he
remained till 1893. In these positions he acquired a great
reputation as a firm und skilful diplomatist, and on the retirement
of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was chosen to succeed him as
Austro-H ungarian minister for foreign affairs. The appointment
of a Pole caused some suiprise in view of the importance of
Austrian relutionswith Russia(thcn rather strained) and Germany,
but the choice was justified by events. In his speech ol that
year to the delegations he declared the maintenance ol the Triple
Alliance, and in particular the closest intimacy with Germany,
to be the keystone of Austrian policy ; at the same time he
dwelt on the traditional friendship between Austria and Great
Britain, and expressed his defrire for a good understanding with
all the fiowers. In pursuance of this policy he effected an under¬
standing with Russia, by which neither power was to exert any
separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed
a long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was
formally ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he
accompanied the emperor in April 1897. lie took the lead in
establishing the European concert during the Armenian troubles
of 1896, and again resisted isolated action on the part of any of
the great powers during the Cretan troubles and the Greco-
Turkish War. In November 1897, when the Austro-Hungarian
flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard the
town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm
attitude greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his
speech to the delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of
expanding Austria's mercantile marine, and of raising Use fleet
to a strength which, while not vying with the fleets of the great
naval powers, would ensure respect lot the Austrian flag wherever
her interests needed protection. He also hinted at the necessity
for European combination to resist American competition.
The understanding with Russia in the matter of the Balkan
States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy,
228 GOMAL—GOMER
who' thought her interest* threatened, until Goluchowski
guaranteed in 1898 the existing order. He further encouraged
a good understanding with Italy by personal conferences with
the Italian foreign minister, Tittoni, in sg04 and 1905. Grunt
Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December 1902, when arrangements
were made for concerted action in imposing on the sultan reforms
in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were taken after
Goluchowski’* interview with the tsar at Murzsteg in 1903, and
two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for
two years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This
period was extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief
mover in forcing the Porte, by an international naval demonstra¬
tion at Mitylene, to accept financial control by the powers in
Macedonia. At the conference assembled at Algeciras to settle
the Morocco Question, Austria supported the German position,
and after the close of the conferences the emperor William II.
telegraphed to Goluchowski: “ You have proved yourself a
brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain
of like services from me in similar circumstances.” This pledge
was redeemed in 1908, when Germany’s support of Austria in
the Balkan crisis proved conclusive. By the Hungarians,
however, Goluchowski was hated ; he was suspected of having
inspired the emperor's opposition to the use of Magyar in the
Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight
offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September
1905. So long as he remained in office there was no hope of
arriving at a settlement of a matter which threatened the dis¬
ruption of the Dual monarchy, and on the nth of October 1906
he was forced to resign.
GOMAL , or Gumal, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of
a mountain pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-
West Frontier Province of British India. The Gomal river, one
of the most important rivers in Afghanistan, rises in the un¬
explored regions to the south-east of Ghazni. Its chief tributary
is the 7 ,hob. Within the limits of British territory the Gomal
forms the boundary between the North-West Frontier Province
and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and
Baluch races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on
the Indian frontier between the Khyber and the Bolan. It
connects Dera Ismail Khan with the Gomal valley in Afghanistan,
and has formed for centuries the outlet for the povindah trade.
Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to the Anglo-
Indian official; but in that year the government of India
decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway
as well as to perfect communication between Quetta and the
Punjab, the Zhob valley should, like the Bori valley, be brought
under British protection and control, and the Gomal pass should
be opened. After the Waziristan expedition of 1894 Wana was
occupied by British troops in order to dominate the Gomal and
Waziristan ; hut on the formation of the North-West Frontier
Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these troops by the
South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the
pass.
G 0 MARV 8 , FRANZ (*563-1641), Dutch theologian, was horn
at Bruges on the 30th of January 1563. His parents, having
embraced the principles of the Reformation, emigrated to the
Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy freedom to profess their
new faith, and they sent their son to be educated at Strassburg
under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there three
veani, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors
of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because
they were not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were
AAcharius Ursinus (1534-1583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1.560-
1 S 1 * 0 )’ an ® Hamel Tossunus (1541-1602). Crossing to England
towards the end of 1582, he attended the lectures of John Rainolds
(15411-1607) at Oxford, and those of William Whitaker (1548-
* 595 ) C ambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in 1584, and
then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been hv this time
re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in
Frankfort from 1587'till 1593, when the congregation was
dispersed by persecution. In 1594 he was appointed professor
of theology at !.ei(lcn, and before going thither received from
the university of Heidelberg the degree of doctor. He taught
quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jukobus Arminius came to be
one of his colleagues in the theological faculty, and began to
teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the uni¬
versity. Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose
these views in his classes at college, and was supported by
Johann B. Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became
professor of theology at Franeker. Arminius “ sought to mat-.
election dependent upon faith, whilst they sought to enforce
absolute predestination as the rule of faith, according to which
the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted” (J. A Domer
History of Protestant Theology, i. p. 4x7). Gomarus then became
the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that circum¬
stance came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in
personal disputation with Atminius in the assembly of the
estates of Holland in 1608, and was one of five Gomarists who
met five Armimans or Remonstrants in the same assembly of
1609. On the death of Arminius shortly after this time, Konrad
Vorstius (1569-1622), who sympathized with his views was
appomted to succeed him, in spite of the keen opposition of
Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so ill
that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in t6i 1 where
he became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology
and Hebrew in the newly founded Illustre SchuU. From this
place he was called in 1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur
where he remained four years, and then accepted a call as’
professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen, where he stayed
till his death on the nth of January 1641. He took a leading
part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the
doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm
and learning, a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen
controversialist. He took part in revising the Dutch translation
of the Old Testament in 1633, and after his death a book by him,
called the Lyra Davidis, was published, which sought to explain
the principles of Hebrew metre, and which created some con¬
troversy at the time, having been opposed by Louis Cappel.
His works were collected and published in one volume folio,
in Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643
by his pupil Samuel Maresius (1599-1673).
GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY. Sieub nu Parc rr be
( 1600-1674), French novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born
at Paris in 1600. At fourteen years of age he wrote a volume
of verse, at twenty a Discours sur Vhistoire and at twenty-two
a pastoral, La Carithee, which is really a novel. The persons in
it, though still disguised as shepherds and shepherdesses, repre¬
sent real persons for whose identification the author himself
provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious attempt,
Polexartdre (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the
world in search or the island home of the princess Alcidiane.
It contains much history and geography ; the travels of Polex-
andre extending to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary
Islands, Mexico and the Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that
was then known of Mexican history. Cytheree (4 vols.) appeared •
in 1640-1642, afld in 1651 the Jeune Alcidiane, intended to undo
any harm the earlier novels may have done, for Gombcrville
became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five years of his
life in pious retirement. lie was one of the earliest and most
energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the
14th of June 1674.
GOMER, the biblical name of a race appearing in the table
of nations (Gen. x. 2), as the “ eldest son ” of Japheth and the
father ” of Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah ; and in Ezek.
xxxviii. 6 as a companion of “ the house of Togarmah in the
uttermost parts of the north,” and an ally of Gog ; both Corner
and Togarmah being credited with “hordes,” 1 E.V., t.e.
bands ” or “armies.” The “sons ” of Corner are probably
tribes of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Comer is
identified with the Cimmerians. These are referred to in cunei¬
form inscriptions under the Assyrian, name gimmira ( gimirrai)
as raiding, Asia Minor from the north and north-east of the Black
1 v* ‘Agaph, a word peculiar to Ezekiel, Clarendon Press Heh.
Lex.
GOMERA—GOMM
Sea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th century b.c. (tee
Cimmekii, Scythia, Lydia). They do not seem to have made
any permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by
the fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia Gamir, It is,
however, suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old
Testament. 1
The name Gamer (Corner bath Diblaim) was also borne by the
unfaithful wife of Hoses, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea
i. 3). Hosea uses these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment
and redemption of Israel, but there is no need to regard Gomer as a
purely imaginary person. (W. H. Be.)
GOMERA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of
the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop.
(1900) 15,358; area 144 sq. m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of
Tencriffe. Its greatest length is about 23 m. The coast is
precipitous and the interior mountainous, but Gomera has the
most wood and is the best watered of the group. The inhabitants
are very poor. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large
numbers. San Sebastian (3187) is the chief town and a port.
It was visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in
1492.
GOMEZ, DIOGO (Diego) (fl. 1440-1482), Portuguese seaman,
explorer and writer. We first trace him as a cavalleiro of the
royal household; in 1440 he was appointed receiver of the royal
customs—in 1466 judge—at Cintra (juts das causa; r feilarias
contadas de Cintra); on the 5th of March 1482 he was confirmed
in the last-named office. He wrote, especially for the benefit
of Martin Behaim, a Latin chronicle of great value, dealing with
the life and discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator, and
divided into three parts: (1 ) Dc prima inventions Guineae ;
(2) De insults prima inventis in mart (sic) Occidentis ; (3) De
invmtione insularum de A cares. This chronicle contains the
only cont imjiorary account of the rediscovery of the Azores
by the Portuguese in Prince Henry’s service, and is also note¬
worthy for its clear ascription to the prince of deliberate scientific
and commercial purpose in exploration. For, on the one hand,
the infante sent out his caravels to search for new lands (ad
quacrendas terras) from his wish to know the more distant parts
of the western ocean, and in the hope of finding islands or terra
firma beyond the limits laid down by Ptolemy (ultra descrip-
tionem Tolomei); on the other hand, his information as to the
native trade from Tunis to Timbuktu and the Gambia helped
to inspire his persistent exploration of the West African coast—
“ to seek those lands by way of the sea.” Chart and quadrant
were used on the prince’s vessels, as by Gomez himself on reach¬
ing the Cape Verde Islands; Henry, at the time of Diogo’s first
voyage, was in correspondence with an Oran merchant who
kept him informed upon events even in the Gambia hinterland;
and, before the discovery of the Senegal and Cape Verde in 1445,
Gomez’ royal patron had already gained reliable information
of same route to Timbuktu. In the first part of his chronicle
Gomez tells how, no long time after the disastrous expedition
of the Danish nobleman “ Vallartc” (Adalbert) in 1448, he was
sent out in command of three vessels along the West African
Coast, accompanied by one Jacob, an Indian interpreter, to be
employed in the event of reaching India. After passing the Rio
Grande, beyond Cape Verde, strong currents checked his course ;
his officers and men feared that they were approaching the
extremity of the ocean, and he put back to the Gambia. He
ascended this river a considerable distance, to the negro town of
“ Cantor,” whither natives came from “ Kukia ” and Timbuktu
for trade; he gives elaborate descriptions of the negro world
he had now penetrated, refers to the Sierra Leone (“ Serra Lyoa”)
Mountains, sketches the course of this range, and says much of
Kukia (in the upper Niger basin ?), the centre of the West African
gold trade, and the resort of merchants and caravans from Tunis,
Fez, Cairo and “ all the land of the Saracens.” Mahoramcdan-
ism was already dominant at the Cambria estuary, but Gomez
seems to have won over at least one important chief, with his
court, to Christianity and Portuguese allegiance. Another
African voyage, apparently made in 1462, two years after Henry
1 A. Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lickte dts alien Orients, pp. 143 f.
229
the Navigator’s death (though assigned by some to 1^0), resulted
in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde Islands, already found by
Cadamosto (q.v.). To the island of Santiago Gomez, like hit
Venetian forerunner, claims to ha^ve given its present name.
His narrative is a leading authority on the laBt illness and death
of Prince Henry, as well as on the life, achievements and pur*
poses of the latter; here alone is recorded what appears to have
been the earliest of the navigator’s exploring ventures, that
which under J0S0 de Trasto reached Grand Canary in 1415.
Of Gomez' chronicle there ie only one MS., viz. Cad. Hisp. 27, in the
Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich; the original Latin text was
printed by Schmeller " Uber Valenti in Fernandez Alemfio " in the
Abkandlungen der philosopk.-philolog. Kl. der bayerisch. Akademie dvr
Wissensekaften, vol. iv.,part iii. (Munich, 1847); sec also Sophus Rage,
” Die Entdeckung der Azoren,” pp. 149-180 (esp. 178-179) in the
27th ]akresbericht des Veretns /tie hrdkunde (Dresden,, 1901): Jules
Uees,Htsloiredeladicouvertedes ites Aqores.pp. 44-45,123-127 (Ghent,
1901); R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator, pp. xviii.,
xix., 64-63, 287-299,303-305 (London, 1868) ; C. R. Beasley, Prince
Henry tke Navigator, 280-298,304-305; and Introduction to Aurora's
Discovery and Conquest of Ciu iwa.’ii., iv., xiv., xxv.-xxvii.. xcii.-xcvi.
(London, 1899). (C. R. B.)
GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GSRTRDDIS (1814-1873),
Spanish dramatist and poet, was bom at Puerto Principe
(Cuba) on the 23rd of March 1814, and removed to Spain in 1836.
Her Poeslas liricas (1841), issued with a laudatory preface by
Gallego, made a most favourable impression and were republished
with additional poems in 1850. In 1846 she married a diplo¬
matist named Pedro Sabater, became a widow within a year,
and in 1853 married Colonel Domingo Verdugo. Meanwhile
she had published Sab (1839), Guatimosin (1846), and other
novels of no great importance. She obtained, however, a series
of successes on the stage with Alfonso Muttio ( 1844), a tragedy
in the new romantic manner; with Saul (1849), a biblical drama
indirectly suggested by Alfieri ; and with Baltasar (1858), a
piece which bears some resemblance to Byron’s Sardanapalus.
Her commerce with the world had not diminished her natural
piety, and, on the death of her second husband, she found so
much consolation in religion that she had thoughts of entering
a convent. She died at Madrid on the 2nd of February 1873,
full of mournful forebodings as to the future of her adopted
country. It is impossible to agree with Villemain that “ le
gtaie de don Luis de IAon et de sainte Th 4 r 4 se a reparu sous le
voile funibre de Gomez de Aveltaneda,” for she has neither the
monk’s mastery of poetic form noi the nun’s sublime simplicity of
soul. She has a grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous
eloquence rooted in pietistic pessimism, a dramatic gift effective
in isolated acts or scenes; but she is deficient in constructive
power and in intellectual force, and her lyrics, though instinct
with melancholy beauty, or the tenderness of resigned devotion,
too often lack human passion and sympathy. The edition of her
Obras literarias (5 vols., 1869-1871), still'incomplete, shows a
scrupulous care for minute revision uncommon in Spanish
writers ; but her emendations are seldom happy. But she is
interesting as a link between the classic and romantic schools of
poetry, and, whatever her artistic shortcomings, she has no rivals
of her own sex in Spain during the 19th century.
GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD (1784-1875), British
soldier, was gazetted to the 9U1 Foot at the age of ten, in recog¬
nition of the services of his father, Lieut.-Colonel William Gomm,
who was killed in the attack on Guadaloupe (1794). He joined 1
his regiment as a lieutenant in 1799, and fought in Holland under
the duke of York, and subsequently was with Pulteney’s Ferrol
expedition. In 1803 he became Captain, and shortly afterwards
qualified as a staff officer at the High Wycombe military college.
On the general staff he was with Cathcart at Copenhagen, with
Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore’s staff at Corunna.
He was also on Chatham’s staff in the disastrous Walcheren
expedition of 1809. In 1810 he rejoined the Peninsular army as
Leith's staff officer, and took part in all the battles of 1810,
1811 and 1812, winning his majority after Fuentes d’Onor and
his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca. His careful reconnais¬
sances and skilful leading were invaluable to Wellington in the
Vittoria campaign, and to the end of the war he was one of the
GOMPERS—GONCHAROV
230
mart trusted men of hi* staff. His reward was a transfer to the
Coldstream Guard* and the K.C,B. In the Waterloo campaign
he served on the staff of the, 5th British Division. From the
peace until 1839 he was employed on home service, becoming
colonel in r8rg and major-general in 1837. From 1839 to 184*
he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He became lieutenant-
general in 1846, and was sent out to 1* commander-in-chief in
India, arriving only to find that his appointment had been
cancelled in favour of Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he
eventually succeeded {1850-1855). In 1854 he became general
and in 1868 field marshal. In 1872 he was appointed constable
of the Tower, and he died in 1875. He was twice married, but
had no children. His Letters and Journals were published by
F. C. Carr-Gomm m 1881. Five “Field Marshal Gomm ”
scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble
College, Oxford.
GOMPERS, SAMUEL (1850- ), American labour leader,
was bom in lxindon on the 27th of January 1850. He was
put to work in a shoe-factory when ten years old, but soon
became apprenticed to a cigar-maker, removed to New York
in 1863, became a prominent member of the International
Cigar-makers’ l nion, was its delegate at the convention of the
Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United
States and Canada, later known as the American Federation of
Labor, of which he became first president in 1882. He was
successively re-elected up to 1805, when the opposition of the
Socialist Labor Party, then attempting to incorporate the
Federation into itself, secured his defeat; he was re-elected
in the following year. In 1894 he became editor of the Federa¬
tion’s organ, The American Eederationist.
GOMPERZ, THEODOR (1832- ), German philosopher and
classical scholar, was bom at Briinn on the 29th of March 1832.
He studied at Briinn and at Vienna under Herman Tionitz.
Graduating at Vienna in 1867 he became Privatdment, and
subsequently professor of classical philology (1873). In 1882
he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He
received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy honoris causa from
the university of Konigsberg, and Doctor of Literature from
the universities of Dublin and Cambridge, and became corre¬
spondent for several learned societies. His principal works are :
Demosthenes der Stoats m/m (1864), Philodemi de nu liber (t 864),
Traumdeutung unit Zauberei (1866), Herkulanische Studien
(1863 1866), Bcitriigc sur Kritik uni Erkldrung griech. Srhrift-
steller (7 vols., 1875-1000), Nette Brurhstiicke Epikurs (187b),
Die Brurhshirke der griech. Tragikrr und'Cabets neucste kritische
Martier (1878), Herodoteische Studien (1883), Kin Usher unbe-
kanntes griech. Schriftsystem (1884), Zu Philoden/s liiichern
von der Mttsik (1885), Vber den AbsMuss des herodoteischen
Geschichtswcrkrs (1886), Phttonische Aufsiite (3 vols., 1887-1905),
Zu Heruklits l.ehre und den Vhrrresten seines H'erkes (1887),
Zu Aristotelcs' Poetih (2 parts, iXS8-i8qf>), t'krr ire Charaktere
Theophrasts {1888), Narhlese su den BruchsHicken der griech.
Tragiker (1888), l)ie Apologie der Uciltnenst (1890), Philodem
und die iisthctischen Schriflcn der herculanisrhen Hihl/othek (1891),
Dir.St.hr/jt vom Slantswcsen der Athener( 1891), Die jimgst entdeekten
Vherreste finer den Platnnischen Pltddon evth/illenden Papsrt/s-
rollr (1892), A us der Hekalc des KaUiniachos (1893), Essays
und Erimerungen (1905). He supervised a translation of J. S.
Mill’s complete works (12 vols., Leipzig, 1869-1880), and
wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His Griechische Denher:
Gesckichte der anliken Philosophic (vols. i. and ii., Leipzig, 1893
and 1902) was translated into English bv L. Magmis(vol. i., 1901).
OONAGUAS (“ borderers "), descendants of a very old cross
between the Hottentots and the Kaffirs, on the “ ethnical divide ”
between the two races, apparently before the arrival of the
whites in South Africa. They have been always a despised race
and regarded os outcasts by the Bantu peoples. They were
threatened with extermination during the Kaffir wars, but were
protected by the British. At present they live m settled com¬
munities under civil magistrates without any tribal organization,
and in some districts could be scarcely distinguished from the other
natives but for their broken Hottentot-Duteh-Engfish speech.
GOHQALVES DIAS, AMTOMIO (1823-1864), Brazilian lyric
poet, was born near the town of Caxias, in MaranhAo. From, the
university of Coimbra, in Portugal, he returned in 1845 to hit
native province, well-equipped with legal lore, but the literary
tendency which was strong within him led him to try his fortune
as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Hue he wrote for the newspaper
press, ventured to appear as a dramatist, and in 1846 established
his reputation by a volume of poems— Primeiros Cantos —which
appealed to the national feelings of his Brazilian readers, were
remarkable for their autobiographic impress, and by their beauty
of expression and rhythm placed their author at the head of the
lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by
Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Anton, in which, as the title
indicates, he puts a number of the pieces in the mouth of a simple
old Dominican friar ; and in the following year, in fulfilment of
the duties of his new post as professor of Brazilian history in the
Imperial College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an
edition of Berredo’s Annaes historicos do Maranhao and added a
sketch of the migrations of the Indian tribes. A third volume of
poems, which appeared with the title of Ultimas Cantos in 1851,
was practically the poet’s farewell to the service of the muse, for
he spent the next eight years engaged under government patronage
in studying the state of public instruction in the north and the
educational institutions of Europe. On his return to Brazil in
i860 he was appointed a member of an expedition for the explora¬
tion of the province of Ceara, was forced in 1862 by the state of
his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe, and died in
September 1864, the vessel that was carrying him lieing wrecked
off his native shores. While in Germany he published at Leipzig
a complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through
several editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called Os
Tymbiras (1857) and a Diccionario da lingua Tupy (1858).
A complete edition of tin- works of Dias has made its appearance
at Rio de Janeiro. Bee Wolf, Brest/ littCraire (Berlin, t86j) ; Inno-
conc-io da Silva, Diccioneno bibtiogvapkioo portuguez , viii. r57;
Sotoro dos Kras, Carso de ItUeratura puriugt/esa e braziletra,
iv. (Maranhao, 1868 ) ; Jos6 Verissimo, Esludos de bteratura
braziletra, segtiitda sent (Rio, 1001),
GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH (1812-1891), Rus¬
sian novelist, was born 6/18 July 1812, being the son of a rich
merchant in the town of Simbirsk. At the age of ten he was
placed in one of the gymnasiums at Moscow, from which he passed,
though not without some difficulty on account of his ignorance
of Greek, into the Moscow University. He read many French
works of fiction, and published a translation of one of the novels
of Eugene Sue. During his university career he devoted himself
tostudy, taking no interest in the political and Socialistic agitation
among his fellow-students. lie was first employed as secretary to
the governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the ministry of
finance at St Petersburg. Being absorbed in bureaucratic work,
Goncharov paid no attention to the social questions then ardently
discussed by such men as Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinski. He
began his literary career by publishing translations from Schiller,
Goethe and English novelists. His first original work was
Obuiknovennaya Istoria, “ A Common Store' ”(1847). Ini856he
sailed to Japan as secretary to Admiral Putiatin fur the purpose of
negotiating a commercial treaty, and on his return to Russia he
published a description of the voyage under the title of “Tlie
Frigate Pallada.'' Ills best work is Oblomov (1857), which exposed
the laziness and apathy of the smaller landed gentry in Russia
anterior to the reforms of Alexander II. Russian critics have
pronounced this work to be a faithful characterization of Russia
and the Russians. Dobrolubov said of it, “ Olilomofka |the
country-seat of the Oblomovs] is our fatherland : something of
Oblumov is to be found in every one of us.” Peesarev, another
celebrated critic, declared that “ Oblomovism,” as Goncharov
called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the hero
of liis story, “ is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic
character and the life of Russian society.” In 1858 Goncharov
was appointed a censor, and in 1868 he published an ither novel
called Obreev. He was not a voluminous writer, and during the
latter part of his life produced nothing of any importance. His
death occurred on 15/2; September 1891.
GOMCOURT—GQNDAR
GOffCOCHT, SB, a name famous in French literary history.
ErmoND Loins Antoine Hoot de Goncouet was bom at
Nancy on the 36th of May 1812, and died a* Champrosay on the
16th of July 1896. Jules Alfeed Hoot de Goncouet, his
brother, was bom in Paris on the 17th of December 1830, and
died in Paris on the 10th of June 1870.
Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the younger,
it was their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing a new
kind of novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the
historians of a particular century, and of what was intimate and
what is unknown in it; to be also discriminating, indeed innovating,
critics of art, but of a certain section of art, the i8tb century, in
France and Japan; and also to collect pictures and bibelots,
always of the French and Japanese 18th century. Their histories
( Portraits intimes du XV 11 F sitrle (1857 ),La Femme an XVIIl"
siecle (1862), La du Bam• (1878), &c.) are made entirely out of
documents, autograph letters, scraps of costume, engravings,
songs, the unconscious self-revelations of the time; their three
volumes on L'ArtduXVIII ' siide(iR^-iSis) 6 ta,\ with Watteau
and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening
way, with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when
they came to write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give
the inner, undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence,
the inedit of life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the
inedit, of whatever came to them from their own sensations of
things and people around them, gives its curious quality to the
nine volumes of the Joixnal, 1887-1896, which will remain,
perhaps, the truest and most poignant chapter of human history
that they have written. Their novels, Soetir Pkilomene (1861),
lienee Mauperin (1864), Germinie Lacerteux (1865), Manctte
Salomon (1865). Madame Gervaisais (1869), ami, by Edmond
alone, La FiUc F.lisa (187B), Les Ferres Zrmgannn (1879), La
Faustin (1882), Cfieric (1884), are, however, the work by which
they will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and
teaching almost everything to ZoIr, they invented a new kind of
novel, and their novels are the result of a new vision of the world,
in which the very element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture
of Monet. Seen through the nerves, in this conscious abandon¬
ment to the tricks of the eyesight, the world becomes a thing of
broken patterns and conflicting colours, and uneasy movement.
A novel of the (ioncourts is made up of an infinite number of
details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent. While a
novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an
impression of unity, anovel of theOoncourts deliberately disjienses
with unitv in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the
heat and form of its moments as they pass. 11 is written in little
chapters, sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a
separate notation of some significant event .some emotion or sensa¬
tion which seems to throw sudden light on the picture of a soul.
To the Goncourts humanity is as pictorial a thing as the world it
moves in; they do not search further than “ the physical basis
of life,” and they find everything that am be known of that
unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces of little
incidents, little expressive moments. The soul, to them, is a
series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without
any of the too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived of
character as a solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly
stories at all, but picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the
momentary aspects of the world. French critics have complained
that the language of the Goncourts is no longer French, no longer
the French of the past; and this is true. It is their distinction—
the finest of their inventions—that, in order to render new
sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new
language. (A. Sy.)
In his will Edmond de Goocourt left his estate for the endowment
of an academy, the formation of which wan entrusted to MM.
Alphonse Daudet and Ltou Hennique. The society was to consist of
ten members, each of whom was to receive an annuity of 6000 francs,
and a yearly prize of 5000 franca was to be awarded to the author of
some work of fiction. Eight of the members of the new academy
were nominated in the will. They woo: Alphonse Daudet, J. K.
Uuyamans, IAon Hennique, Octave Mirbeau, the two brothers
J. H. Rosny, Gustave Gefiroy and Paul Margueritte. On the 19th
of January 1903, alter much litigation, the academy was constituted,
with EMmir Bourges, Luries Deecavos and'Lton Daudet as members
in addition to those mentioned in de Goncouit'i will, the place nf
Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by hia.death in 1897.
On the brothers de Goncourt see the Journal dju Goncourt already
cited; also M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes) and M. L. Shedloclt,
Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, unit Letters and Leave) from their
Journals (1S93); Alidor Deizant, LasGonoomt (1889) which co n tai ns
a valuable bibliography ; IMtres de Jules de Goncourt (1868), with
urefaoe by H. Ciard ; X. Doumic, Portraits d'tcrivains iiSgi) ; Paul
tkmrget, * Nonveaux Essais de psychologic contemporalne ( 1886 ) ;
Emile Zola, has komemciers naturalistes fiSBt), Ac.
GOUDA, a town and district of British India, in the Fyrabad
division of the United Provinces. The town is 38 m. N.W. of
Fytabad, and is an important junction on the Bengal & North-
Western railway.- The site on which it stands was originally a
jungle, in the centre of which was a cattle-fold (Gontha or Gothik),
where the cattle were enclosed at night as a protection against
wild beasts, and from this the town derives its’ name. Pop.
(1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in 1863.
The district of Gondu has an area of S813 sq. m. It Consists
of a vast plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves
of mango trees. The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit
which is naturally divided into three great belts known as the
tarai or swampy tract, the uparhar or uplands, and the tarhar
or wet lowlands, all three being marvellously fertile. Several
rivers flow through the district, but only two, the Gogra and
Rapti, are of any commercial importance, die first being navigable
throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy season.
The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is
largely used for irrigation. On tlie outbreak of the Mutiny in
1857, the raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the govern¬
ment treasure to Fyzabnd, joined the rebels. His estates, altmg
with those of the rani of Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred
as rewards upon the maharajas of Bulmmpur and Ajodhya, who
had remained kryai. In 1901 the population was 1403,195,
showing a decrease of 4 % in one decade. The district is traversed
by the main line and three branches of the Bengal & North-
Western railway.
GONDAL, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political
agency of Bombay, situated in the centre of die peninsula of
Kathiawar. Its area is 1024 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 162,859. The
estimated gross revenue is about £100,000, and the tribute
£7000. Grain and cotton are the chief products. The chief,
whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput, of the same dan
as the Rao of Cutch. The Thakur Sahib, Sir Bhagvat Sinhji
(b. 1B65), was educated at the Rajkot college, and afterwards
graduated in arts and medicine at the university of Edinburgh.
He published (in English) a Journal oj a Visit to England and
A Short History 0/ Aryan Medical Science. In 1892 he received
the honorary degree of D.G.I.. of Oxford University. He was
created K.C.I.E. in 1887 and G.C.LE. in 1897. The state has
long been conspicuous for its progressive administration. It
is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhaunagar, Rajkot
and the sea-board. The town of Gondal is 23 m. by Cal S. of
Rajkot; pop. (1901) 19.502.
GONDAR, property G[tends*, a town pf Abyssinia, formerly
the capital of the Amharie kingdom, situated on a basaltic ridge
some 7500 ft. above the sea, about 31 m. N.E. of Lake Tsana,
a splendid view of which is obtained from the caatle. Two
streams, the Angreb on the east side and the Gaha or Kaha on
the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the town, pass
onwards to the lake. In the early years of the 30th century the
town was much decayed, numerous ruins of castles, palaoes
and churches indicating its former importance. It was never a
compact city, being divided into districts separated from each
other by open spaces. The chief quarters were those of the
Abun-Bed or bishop, the Etchege-Bed or chief of the monks,
the Debra Berhan or Church of the Light, and the Gemp or
castle. There was also a quarter for the Mahommedans. Gondar
was a small village when at the beginning of the 16th century
it was chosen by the Negus Sysenius (Segad I.) as the capital
of his kingdom. His son Fasilidas, or A’lem-Seged (1633-1667),
was the builder of the castle which bean his name. Later
emperors built other castles and palaces, the latest is date being
GONDOKDRO—GONDOMAR
332
that of the Negus Yetu II. This was erected about 17361 at
which time Gondar appeal's to have been at the height ol its
prosperity. Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil wars
which raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked. In
1868 it was much injured by the emperor Theodore, who did
not spare either the castle or the churches. After the defeat
of the Abyssinians at Debra Sin in August 1887 Gondar was
looted and fired by the dervishes under Abu Anga. Although
they held the town but a Bhort time they inflicted very great
damage, destroying many churches, further damaging the castles
and carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by
James Bruce in 1770 at 10,000 families, had dwindled in 1005
to about 7000. Since the pacification of the Sudan by the
British (1886-1880) there has lieen some revival of trade between
Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among the inhabitants
are numbers of Mahoromedans, and there is a settlement of
Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper
wares, fancy articles in bone and ivory, excellent saddles and
shoes are among the products of the local industry.
Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and
palaces of Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the
medieval fortresses of Europe, the style of architecture being
the result of the presence in the country of numbers of Portuguese.
The Portuguese were expelled by Fasilidas, but his castle was
built, by Indian workmen, under the superintendence of
Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture from the
Portuguese adventurers, helped possibly by Portuguese still in
the country. The castle has two storeys, is 90 ft. by 84 ft.,
has a square tower and circular domed towers at the corners.
The most extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed
in a wall. These ruins include the palace of Yesu II., which has
several fine chambers. Christian Levantines were employed in
its construction and it was decorated in part with Venetian
mirrors, &c. In the same enclosure is a small castle attributed
to Yesu 1 . The exterior walls of the castles and palaces named
are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character among
African towns. Of the forty-four churches, all in the circular
Abyssinian style, which ure said to have formerly existed in
Uondur or its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton
found only one intact in 1900. This church contained some
well-executed native paintings of St George and the Dragon,
The Last Supper, &c. Among the religious observances of the
Christians of Gondar is that of bathing in largr crowds in the
Gaha on the Feast of the Baptist, and again, though in more
orderly fashion, on Christmas day.
See E. Kiippell, Retse m Abvsstuien (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1838-
1S40); T. von ileuglin, Reise nach Ahessinien (Jena, 1868); G.
uejean, Voyage en Abyssinie (Paris, 1872) ; AchUlc Raft ray, Ajrique
orientals; Abyssinie (Paris, 1876) ; P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, A
Sporting Trip through Abvssima, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902); and
Boll. Soc. Geog. Itahana for 1909. Views of the castle ure given by
Henglm, Raftray and Powell-Cotton.
GONDOKORO, a government station and trading-place on the
east bank of the upper Nile, in 4° 54' N., 31 0 43' E. It is the
headquarters of the Northern Province of the (British) Uganda
protectorate, is 1070 m. by river S. of Khartum and 350 m.
N.N.W. in a direct line of Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza. The
station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top of a cliff 25 ft.
above die rivet-level. Besides houses for the civil and military
authorities and the lines for the troops, there are a few huts
inhabited by Bari, the natives of this part of the Nile. The
importance of Gondokoro lies in the fact that it is within a few
miles of the limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum up
stream. From this puint the journey to Uganda is continued
overland.
Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842,
when expeditions sent out by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt,
ascended the Nile as far as the foot of the rapids above Gondokoro.
It soon became an ivory and slave-trading centre. In 1851 an
Austrian Roman Catholic mission was established here, but it
was abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that J. H. Speke
and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery of its
source, met, on the 15th of February 1863, Mr (afterwards Sir)
Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river.
In 1871 Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces
of Egypt, established a military post at Gondokoro which he
named Ismailia, after the then khedive. Baker made this post
his headquarters, but Colonel (afterwards General^ C. G. Gordon,
who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned the station on account
of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado. Gondokoro, however,
remained a trading-station. It fell into the hands of the Mahdists
in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in 1898
Gondokoro was occupied by British troops and has since formed
the northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate
(see Sudan ; Nile ; and Uganda).
GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUffA, Count or
(1567-1626), Spanish diplomatist, was the son of Garcia Sarmiento
dr Sotomayor, corregidor of Granada, and governor of the
Canary Islands, by his marriage with Juana de Acuna, an
heiress. Diego Sarmiento, their eldest son, was bom in the
parish of Gondomar, in the bishopric of Tuy, Galicia, Spain,
on the 1st of November 1567. He inherited wide estates both
in Galicia and in Old Castile, In 1583 he was appointed by
Philip II. to the military command of the Portuguese frontier
and sea coast of Galicia. He is said to have taken an active
part in the repulse of an English coast-raid in 1585, and in the
defence of the country during the unsuccessful English attack
on Corunna in 1589. In 1593 he was named corregidor of Toro.
In 1603 he was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the
distribution of the treasure brought from America by two
galleoas which were driven to take refuge at Vigo, and on his
return was named a member of the board of finance. In 1609
he was again employed on the coast of Galicia, this time to repel
a naval attack made by the Dutch. Although he held military
commands, and administrative posts, his habitual residence was
at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol and was already
collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and
apparently as a friend of the favourite, the duke of Lerma.
In 1612 he was chosen as ambassador in England, but did not
leave to take up his appointment till May 1613.
His reputation as a diplumatist is based on his two periods
of service in England from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622.
The excellence of his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James
I., whose character he judged with remarkable insight. He
flattered the king’s love of books and of peace, and he made
skilful use of his desire for a matrimonial alliance between the
prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. The ambassador's
task was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states
against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English
attacks on Spanish possessions in America. His success made
him odious to the anti-Spanish and puritan parties. The active
part he took in promoting the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh
aroused particular animosity. He was attacked in pamphlets,
and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a principal
person in the strange political play A Game of Chess, which was
suppressed by order of the council. In 1617 Sarmiento was
created count of Gondomar. In 1618 he obtained leave to come
home for his health, but was ordered to return by way of Flanders
and France with a diplomatic, mission. In 1619 he returned to
London, and remained till 1622, when he was allowed to retire.
On his return he was named a member of the royal council and
governor of one of the king’s palaces, and was appointed to a
complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid
when the prince of Wales- afterwards Charles I.—made his
journey there in search of a wife. He died at the house of the
constable of Castile, ncur Haro in the Rioja, on the 2nd of
October 1626.
Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix
Sarmiento, by whom he had no children, and then to his cousin
Constanza de Acuna, by whom he had four sons and three
daughters. The hatred he aroused in England, which was
shown by constant jeers at the intestinal complaint from which
he suffered for years, was the best tribute to the zeal with which
he served his own master. Gondomar collected, both before he
came to London and during his residence there, a very fine
GONDOPHAR®S4^J6NGOIDA Y ARGOTE
library of printed books end maouacripts. (Men for the
arrsfigeraeriti binding and storing of his hooks in his house at
Valladolid take a prominent place in his voluminous correspond¬
ence. In 1785 the library was ceded by his descendant end
representative the marquis of Maiptca to King Charles III.,
and it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid. A portrait of
Gondomar, attributed to Velazquez, was formerly at Stowe.
It was mezzotinted by Robert Cooper.
Authobiiies.—G ondomar',-. missions to England are largely dealt
with in S. R. Gardiner s History of England (London, 1883-1884).
In Spanish, Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a naeful biographical
introduction to a publication of a few of his letters — Cinco Cartas
politico-litararias de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuna, Ctmde de
Gondomar, tamed at Madrid i860 by the Sociedad de BibliSfUos of the
Spanish Academy; and there is a life in English by F. H. Lyon
()yio). (D.H.)
GONDOPHARES, or Gondopherses, an Indo-Parthian king
who ruled over the Kabul valley and the Punjab. By means
of his coins his accession may be dated with practical certainty
at A.n. 21, and his reign lasted for some thirty years. He is
notable for his association with St Thomas in early Christian
tradition. The legend is that India fell to St Thomas, who
showed unwillingness to start until Christ appeared in a vision
and ordered him to serve King Gondophares and build him a
palace. St Thomas accordingly went to India and suffered
martyrdom there. This legend is not incompatible with what
is known of the chronology of Gondophares’ reign.
GONDWANA, the historical name for a large tract of hilly
country in India which roughly corresponds with the greater
part of the present Central Provinces. It is derived from the
aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who still form the largest element
in the population and who were at one time the railing power.
From the 12th to as late as the 18th century three or four Gond
dynasties reigned over this region with a degree of civilization
that seems surprising when compared with the existing condition
of the people. They built large walled cities, and accumulated
immense treasures of gold and silver and jewels. On the whole,
they maintained their independence fairly well against the
Mahommedans, being subject only to a nominal submission and
occasional payment of tribute. But when the Mahratta invaders
appeared, soon after the beginning of the 18th century, the Gond
kingdoms offered but a feeble resistance and the aboriginal
population fled for safety to the hills. Gondwana was thus
included in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, from
whom it finally passed to the British in 1853.
The Gonds, who call themselves Koitur or “ highlanders,”
are the most numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. Their
total number in 1901 was 2,286,913, of whom nearly two millions
were enumerated in the Central Provinces, where they form 20 %
of the population. They have a language of their own, with
many dialects, which is intermediate between the two great
Dravidiun languages, Tamil and Tcfugu. It is unwritten and
has no literature, except a little provided by the missionaries.
More than half the Gonds in the Central Provinces have now
abandoned their own dialect*, and have adopted Aryan forms
of speech. This indicates the extent to which they have become
Hinduized. The higher class among them, called Raj Gonds,
have been definitely admitted into Hinduism as a pure cultivating
caste; but the great majority still retain the animistic beliefs,
ceremonial oliservances and impure customs of food which arc
common to most of the alioriginal tribes of India.
GONFALON (the late French and Italian form, also found in
other Romanic languages, of gonjanort, which is derived from
the O.H. Ger. gundfana, gund, war, and /ano, flag, cf. Mod. Ger.
Fahne, and English “ vane ”), a banner or standard of the
middle ages. It took the form of a small pennon attached below
the head of a knight’s lance, or when nsed in religious processions
and ceremonies, or as the banner of a city or state or military
order, it became a many-streamered rectangular ensign, fre¬
quently swingh^ from a cross-bar attached to a pole. This is
the most frequent use of the word. The title of “ gonfalonier,”
the bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both mffitery
and civil. It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as leaders of the
* 2 %
I men of Saint Denis, and wtar the Vezdn nBts meorpteatadm the
kingdom at Fiance the title of Gmfdo m w de SmS £>wn> passed
I to the kings of France^ who thus became the beasesr. at the
“ nriflanune,” as the banner of St Deni* was called. “-Gnnr
falooier ” was the title «£ .civic magistrates of various, degrees
of authority m many of the city mpublicc at Italy, notably of
Florence, Sienna and Lucca. At Florence the functions of the
office varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of die
various military divisions of the inhabitant*, in 1*93 was
created the office of gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the
orders of the signiory. By the end of the 14th century the
gonfalonier was the chief of the signiory. At Luooa he was tbe
chief magistrate of the republic. At Rome two gonfalonier*
must be distinguished, that of the church and, that of the
Roman people ; both offices were conferred fey thfc pope. The
first was usiwlly granted to sovereigns, who were bound to
defend the church and lead her armies. The second bore a
standard with the letters S-P.QJt. on any enterprise undertaken
in tiie name of the church and the people of Rome, and also at
ceremonies, processions, Sic. This was granted by the pope to
distinguishea families. Thus the Ccsarini held the office till
the end of the 17th century. The Poraphiii held it from 1686
till 1764.
GONG (Chinese, gong-gong or tam-tam), a sonorous or musical
instrument of Chinese origin and manufacture, made in the form
of a broad thin disk with a deep rim. Gongs vary in diameter
from about 20 to 40 in, and they are made oi bronze containing
a maximum of 22 ports of tin to 78 of copper ; but in many cases
the proportion of tin is considerably less. Such an alloy, when
cast and allowed to cool slowly, is excessively Iwittle, but it can be
tempered and annealed in a peculiar manner. If suddenly cooled
from a cherry-red heat, the alloy becomes so soft that it can be
hammered und worked on the lathe, and afterwards it may be
hardened by re-heating and cooling it slowly. In these properties
it will be observed, the alloy behaves in a manner exactly opposite
to steel, and the Chinese avail themselves of the known peculiari¬
ties for preparing the thin sheets of which gongs are. made. They
cool their castings of bronze in water, and after hammering out
the alloy in the soft state, harden the finished gongs by heating
them to a cherry-red and allowing them to cool slowly. These
properties of the alloy long remained a secret, said to nave been
first discovered in Europe by Jean Pierre Joseph d'Atcct at the
beginning of the 19th century. Riche and Champion are said
to have succeeded in producing tam-tams having all the qualities
and timbre of the Chinese instruments. The'composition of the
alloy of bronze used for making gongs is stated to be as follows;' •
Copper, 76-52 ; Tin, 22-43 5 Lead, 0-62 ; Zinc, 0-23; Iron, o-i8.
The gong is beaten with a round, hard, leather-covered pad,
fitted on a short stick or handle. It emits a peculiarly sonorous
sound, its complex vibrations bursting into a wave-like succession
of tones, sometimes shrill, sometimes deep. In China and Japan
it is used in religious ceremonies, state processions, marriages
and other festivals ; and it is said that the Chinese tan modify
its tone variously by particular ways of striking the disk.
The gong has hern effectively used iu the orchestra to intensify the
impression of fear and horror in melodramatic scenes. The tam-tam
was flint introduced into a western orchestra by Franyota Joseph
Gossec in the fnneral march composed at the death of Mirabrau in
f 791. Gaspard Sponlmi used it in l.a Veetale (1807), in the finale of
act II., an impressive scene in winch the high jiontm pronounces the
anathema on the faithless vestaL It was alsoused in .the funeral
music played when the remain* of Napoleon the Great were brought
back to France in 1840. Meyerbeer made use of the'instrument in the
scene of the resurrection of the three nuns in Robert 1 e diable. Four
tam-tams arc now used at Bayreuth in Parsifal to reinforce the bell
Instruments, although there is no indication given in the score (see
Pa**ifa 1.). The tam-tam has been treated from its ethnographical
side by Franz Heger. a (K. S.)
GdRGOSA T ARGOTS, LUIS DE (1561-1627), Spanish lyric
poet, was bom at Cordova on the » itb of July 1561. His father,
Francisco de Argote, tats corregidor of that city ; the poet early
adopted the surname of his mother, Leonora de Gbngoia, who
’ See, La grande Mncycloptdie, vol. viiL (Paria), " Bronze," p. 1460*
* AUe Mstalltrommeln out SUdost-Asieu (Leipzig, 1902], Bd. i.,
Text ; Bd. ii., Tafeln.
xn. 8 a
234
GONIOMETE1.
was descended from so ancient family. At the age of fifteen he
entered ea a student of civil and canon law at the university of
Salamanca; but he obtained no academic distinctions and was
content with an ordinary pass degree. He was already known
as a poet in 1585 when Cervantes praised him in the Galatea ; in
this same year he took minor orders, and shortly afterwards
was nominated to a canonrv at Cordova. About 1605-1606
he was ordained priest, and thenceforth resided principally at
Valladolid and Madrid, where, os a contemporary remarks, he
“ noted and stabbed at everything with his satirical pen.” His
circle of admirers was now greatly enlarged ; but the acknowledg¬
ment accorded to his singular genius was both slight and tardy.
Ultimately indeed, through the influence of the duke of Sandoval,
he obtained an appointment as honorary chaplain to Philip III.,
but even this slight honour he was not permitted long to enjoy.
In 1626 a severe illness, whirli seriously impaired his memory,
compelled his retirement to Cordova, where he died on the 24th
of May 1627. An edition of his poems was published almost
immediately after his death by Juan I-opez de Vicuna; the
frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear till 1633.
The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs
for the guitar, am: of certain larger poems, surh as the Soledades
and the Foli/emo. Too many of them exhibit that tortuous
elaboration of style {estilo eulto) with which the name of Gongora
is inseparably associated ; but though Gongora has been justly
censured for affected Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained
metaphors and frequent obscurity, it must be admitted that he
was a man of rare genius,—a fact cordially acknowledged by
those of his contemporaries who were most capable of judging.
It was only in the hands of those who imitated Gongora’s style
without inheriting his genius that culteranismo became absurd.
Besides his lyrical poems Gongora is the author of a play entitled
Las Firmrcas de Isabel and of two incomplete dramas, the
Camedia venaioria and El Doctor Carlino. The only satisfactory
edition of his works is that published by R. FoulcM-Delbose in
the Bibliotheca lHspanica.
See Edward Churton, GAngora (Ixindon, 1862, 1 vols.); M.
'.oiizalez y Francds, Gongora ractonero (Cdrdoba, 1895); M. GonzUez
y Erancds, Do n Luis de GAngora mndicando su jama ante el prubio
msfx) (C (Vrdnba, i8ycj); u Vingt-six Lettren de (lungora ” in the Revue
uspanique, vol. x. pp. 184-2.15 (Paris, 1903).
GONIOMETER (from Gr. ymn'a, angle, and pirpov, measure),
in instrument for measuring the angles of crystals ; there are two
rinds—the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer.
Nicolaus Stcno irt 16(19 determined the interfacial angles of
piartz crystals by cutting sections perpendicular to the edges,
be plane angles of the sections being then the angles between the
aces which are perpendicular to the sections. The earliest instru-
nent was the contact goniometer devised by Carangcot in 1783.
The Contact Goniometer (or Band-Goniometer). —This consists of
;wo metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semi-
■ircle (fig. 1). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular
to an edge betwe en
two faces of the
crystal to be meas¬
ured, and the rules
are brought into
contact with tin-
faces; this is best
done by holding the
crystal up against
the light with the
edge in the line of
sight. The angle
between the rules,
as read on the
graduated semi-
,, „ . . _ . circle, then gives
J-io. 1.—Contact Goniometer. the angle between
faf .ui y" 1 .',? 0 that they may be shortened andthriJ ^applied
toacryst*! partly embedded m its matrix. The instrument repre-
jentod to hg. t is practically the same in aU Its details ms that made
am !' 'he present day for the ap^to-
u la rge cry stals with dull and rough faces.
‘ *r hRS devised some cheap and simple forms of
rc^Srt^tuulmd * ®* )0inted * m,S P"**** 0 " ™de
Flo. 2,—Vertical-Circle Goniometer.
The Reflecting Goniometer.—This is an instrument of for greater
precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of tbs
angles when small crystals with bright faces are available. As a rule
the smaller ttw crystal the more even are its faces, and when these are
smooth and bright they reflect sharply defined images of a bright
object. By turning the crystal 0
about an axis parallel to the
edge between two faces, the
image reflected from a second
face may be brought into the
same position as that formerly
occupied by the image reflected
from the first face; the angle
through which the crystal has
been rotated, as determined by
a graduated circle to which the
crystal is fixed, is the angle
between the normals to the
two faces.
Several forms of instruments
depending on this principle
have been devised, the earliest
being the vertical-circle gonio¬
meter of W. H. Wollaston,
made in 1809. This consists
of a circle m (fig. 2), graduated
to degrees of arc and reading
with the vernier h to minutes,
which turns with the milled
head t about a horizontal
axis. Tho crystal is attached
witli Wax (a mixture of bees¬
wax and pitch) to the holder
thl in L h L?™ n \ 0< t ] le P i , voted arcs ft ®ay be adjusted so that
the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and coincident
with, the axis of the instrument. The crystal-holder and adjustment-
arcs, together with the milled head s, are carried on an axis which
passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and may thus
■"dependent])' of the circle. In use, the goniometer is
placed directly opposite to a window, with its axis parallel to the
horizontal window-bars, and as far distant as possible. The eye is
placed quite close to the crystal and the image of an upper window-
bar (or better still a slit 111 a dark screen) as seen in the crystal-face
is made to coincide with a lower window-bar (or chalk mark on the
floor) as seen directly: this is done by turning the milled head s,
the readmg of the graduated circle having previously been observed.
Without moving the eye, the milled head t, together with the crystal,
is then rotated until the image from a second face is brought into the
same position ; the difference between the first and second readings
0 graduated circle will then give the angle between the normals
of the two faces.
Several improvements have been made on Wollaston’s gonio-
n } eter : ■/■e adjustment-arcs have been modified ; a mirror of black
glass fixed to the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of
the signal, with 0
which the reflec¬
tion irora the
crystal can be
more conveni¬
ently made to co¬
incide; atelcscope
provided with
cross-wires gives
greater precision
to the direction
of the reflected
rays of light; and
with the telescope
a collimator has
sometimes been
used.
A still greater
improvement was
effected by plac¬
ing the graduated
circle in a hori¬
zontal position,
as in the instru¬
ments of E. L.
Mains (1810), F.
C. von Riese (1829) and J. Babinet (1839). Many forms of
the horuontal-circle goniometer have been constructed; they are
provided with a telescope and collimator, and to construction are
essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of arrange¬
ments for adj rating and centring the crystal. The instrument shown
In fig. 3 is marie by R. Fuess of Berlin. It has four concentric axes,
which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the adjust* ent-
arcs B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or to be rotated
independently of the circle H; further, either the crystal-holder or
the telescnttf T rnffl 4 aA ...UK -I_a.. ...
FltOs 3.—Horizontal-Circle Goniometer.
GONTAOT^GONZAGA
'a; *:
remains fixed. The crystal is placed on the holder and adjusted
so that the edge (s o ne-axis) between two laces iscoincidsnt with the
axis o i the instrument Light from an incandeecent gas-burner
passes through the slit of the collimator C, and. the image of the slit
(signal) reflected from the crystal face is viewed in the telescope.
The clamp a and slow-motion screw F enable the image to be
brought exactly on-the cross-wires of the telescope, and the position
of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens.
The crystal and the circle are then rotated together until the image
from a second face is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope, and
the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between
the normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between
the faces of crystals the telescope remains fixed by the clamp ft, but
when this is released the instrument may be used as a spectrometer
or refractometer for determining, by the method of minimum
deviation, the indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or of a
transparent crystal when the faces are suitably inclined to one
another.
With a ono-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is
necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the measure¬
ment of each rone of faces (t'.c. each set of faces intersecting in parallel
edges); with very small crystals this operation takes a considerable
time, and the minute faces are not readily identified again. Further,
in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the angles between zones,
nor to determine the position of small faces wliich do not lie in pro¬
minent zones on the crystal. These difficulties have been overcome
by the use of a two-circle goniometer or theodolite-goniometer,
which as a combination of a vertical-circle goniometer and one with a
horizontal-circle was first employed by W. H. Miller in 1874. Special
forms have been designed by E. S. Fedorov (1889), V. Goldschmidt
(1893), S. Czapski (1893) and F. Stocber (1898), which differ mainly
in the arrangement of the optical parts. In these instruments the
crystal is set up and adjusted once for all, with the axis of a prominent
zone parallel to the axes of either the horizontal or the vertical
circle. As a rule, only in this zone can the angles between the faces he
measured directly; the positions of all the other faces, which need
be observed only once, are fixed by the simultaneous readings of the
two circles. These readings, corresponding to the polar distance and
azimuth, or latitude and longitude readings of astronomical tele¬
scopes, must be plotted on a projection before the symmetry of the
crystal is apparent; and laborious calculations are necessary in
order to determine the indices ol the faces and the angles between
them, and the other constants o( the crystal, or to test whether any
three faces are accurately in a zone.
These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another gradu¬
ated circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis
of the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With
such an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or
between any two faces without re-adjusting the crystal; further the
troublesome calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument
may be used for solving spherical triangles. Different forms of
three-circle goniometers have been designed by G. F. H. Smith
(1899 and 1904), E. S. Fedorov (1900) and J. F. C. Klein (1900).
Besides being used as a one-, two-, or three-circle goniometer for
the measurement of the interfacial angles of crystals, and as a re¬
fractometer for determining refractive indices by the prismatic
method or by total reflection, Klein’s instrument, which is called a
polymeter, is fitted with accessory optical apparatus which enables
it to be used for examining a crystal in parallel or convergent polar¬
ized light and for measuring the optic axial angle.
Goniometers of special construction have been devised for certain
purposes ; for instance, the inverted horizontal-circle goniometer of
H. A. Miers (1903) for measuring crystals during their growth in the
mother-liquid. A. E. Tutton (1894) has combined a goniometer with
lapidaries' appliances for cutting section-plates and prisms from
crystals accurately in any desired direction. The instrument
commonly employed for measuring the optie axial angle of biaxial
crystals is really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope.
For the optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope,
various forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated
circles have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with
cross-wires and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a
goniometer for measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or section,
being the same in principle as the contact goniometer.
For fuller descriptions of goniometers reference may be made to
the text-lmoks of Crystallography and Mineralogy, especially to
P. H. Groth, Pkysikaliscke Krystallograpkit (4th ed., Leipzig, 1903).
See also C. Leisa, Die optiseken Instrument* dtr Firma K. Fusts, derm
Beschreibung, Justserung und Anwettdung (Leipzig, 1899). (L. J. S.).
GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE, Duchjsse dk
(1773-1857), was born in Paris on the 3rd of August 1773,
daughter of Augustin Francois, comte de Montaut-Navaiiles,
who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two brothers when
children. The count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.)
and his wife stood sponsors to Josephine de Montaut, rad she
shared the lesson* given by Madame de Genlis to die Means
family, with whom her mother broke off relations after the out¬
break of die Revolution. Mflfher and dftrightbfMTdgrated tb
Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to RotieWaip, and -finally
to England, where Josephine married the marquis CBW
Michel de Gontaut-Samt-Bladard. They returned to F*ahoe
at the Restoration, and reswned theirplaecat court. MadaWie
de Gontaut became lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess Of
Berry, and, on the birth of the princess Louise (Mile d’Artois,
afterwards duchess of Parma), governess to the chiWrefi bf
France. Next year the birth of Henry, duke of BordeBQk
(afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), added to her
charge the heir of the Bourbons. She remained faithful to his
cause all her life. Her husband died in, 1822, and in 1827 she
was created duchesse de Gontaut. She followed the exiled rejlal
family in 1830 to Holyrood Palace, and then to Pnsgiie, but in
1834, owing to differences with Pierre Louis, due denlacas, who
thought her comparatively liberal views dangerous for the
prince and princess, she received a brusque cong6 from Charles X’.
Her twin daughters, Josephine (1796-1844) and Charlotte (1796-
1818), married respectively Ferdinand de Oiabot, prince de lion
and afterwards due de Rohan, and Francois, comte de Bourbon^
Busset. She herself wrote in her old age some naive memoirs,
which throw an odd light on the pretensions of the “ governess
of the children of France.” She died in Paris in 1857.
See her Memoirs (Eng. oil. 2 voln., 1894) , and Lettrrs rntdites (1893).
GONVILE, EDMUND (d. 1351), founder of Gonville Hall,
now Gonville and Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is
thought to have been the son of William de Gonvile, and the
brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile. In 1320 he was rector of
Thelnetham, Suffolk, and steward there for William, earl Warren
and the earl of Lancaster. Six years later he was rector of
Rushworth, and in 1342 rector of Terrington St John and com¬
missioner for the marshlands of Norfolk. In this year he
founded and endowed a collegiate church at Rushworth, sup¬
pressed in 1541. The foundation of Gonville Hall at Cambridge
was effected by a charter grunted by Edward III. in 1348.
It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of the
Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville
Hall. Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus
Christi College now stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to
be devoted to training for theological study, but after his death
the foundation was completed by William Bateman, bishop of
Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a different site and with
considerably altered statutes. (See also Caius, John.)
GONZAGA, an Italian princely family named after the town
where it probably had its origin. Its known history begins with
the 13th century, when Luigi I. (1267-1360), after fierce struggles
supplanted his brother-in-law Rinaldo (nicknamed Passenno)
Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua in August 1328, with the title 01
captain-general, and afterwards of vicar-general of the empire,
adding the designation of count of Mirandola and Concordia,
which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354. In July 1335
his son Guido, with the help of Filippino and Feltrino Gonzaga,
wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it until 1371. Luigi
was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter’s son Luigi 11 .
came next in succession (d. 1382), and then Giovan Francesco I.
(d. 1407), who, although at one time allied with the treacherous
Gian Galeazzo Visconti, incurred the latter’s enmity and all but
lost his estates and his life in consequence ; eventually he joined
the Florentines and Bolognese, enemies of Visconti. He pro¬
moted commerce and wisely developed the prosperity of his
dominions. His son Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444) succeeded him
under the regency of his uncle Carlo Malatesta and the protection
of the Venetians. He became a famous general, and was rewarded
for his services to the emperor Sigismund with the title'of
marquess of Mantua for himself and his descendant* (143a), <an
investiture which legitimatized the usurpations of the house of
Gonzaga. His son Luigi III. " Q Turco ” (d. 1478) likewise
became a celebrated soldier, and was also a learned and liberal
prince, a patron of literature and the arts. His son Federijgo I.
(d. 1484) followed in his father’s footsteps, and served under
various foreign sovereigns, including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo
de' Medici; subsequently he upheld the rights of the house of
GONZAGA, T. A.—GOMZALO DE BERCEO
Bate Pope Sixtu* IV. end the Venetian*, who*# ambitious
rtffn r 'were a menace to hi* own dominions of Ferraraond
Mentova. Hi* ion Giovan Francesco III. (d. 1519) continued the
military tradition* of the family, and commanded the allied
Italian forces against Charles vlll. at the battle of Fomovo;
he afterward* fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuscany,
until captured by the Venetians in 1509, On hi* liberation he
adopted a more peaceful and conciliatory policy, and with the
help of his wife, the famous Isabella d’ Este, he promoted the
fine art* and letters, collecting pictures, statues and other works
of art with intelligent discrimination. He was succeeded by his
son Federigo U. (d. 1540), captain-general of the papal forces.
After the peace of Cambrai (15*9) his ally and protector, the
emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in
ijjo ; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the
succession of Monferrato between Federigo and the house of
Savoy in favour of the former. His son Francesco I. succeeded
him, and, being a minor, was placed under the regency of his
uncle Cardinal Ercoif; he was accidentally drowned in 1550,
leaving his possession* to his brother Guglielmo. The latter
was an extravagant spendthrift, but having subdued u revolt
in Monferrato was presented with that territory by the emperor
Maximilian II. At his death in 1587 he was succeeded by his
son Vincenzo I. (d. 1612), who was more addicted to amusements
than to warfare. Then followed in succession hi* sons Francesco
II. (d. 161s), Ferilinando (d. 1626), and Vincenzo II. (d. 1627), all
three incapable and dissolute princes. The last named appointed
as his successor Charles, the son of Henrictte, the heiress of the
French family of Nevers-Kethel, who was only able to take
possession of the ducal throne after a bloody struggle; his
dominions were laid waste by foreign invasions and he himself
was reduced to the sorest straits. He died in 1637, leaving his
po»ses»ions to his grandson C'hurles (Carlo) II. under the regoney
of the latter’s mother Maria Gonzugu, which lasted until 1647.
Charles died in consequence of his own profligacy and was
succeeded by his son Ferdinand Charles (Ferdinando Carlo),
who was likewise for some years under the regency of his mother
Isabella of Austria. Ferdinand diaries, another extravagant
and dissolute prince, acquired the county of Guastulla by
marriage in 1678, hut lost it soon afterwards ; he involved his
country in useless warfare, with the result that in 170B Austria
annexed the duchy. On the 5th of July of the same year he
died in Venice, and with him the Gonzagas of Mantua came to an
end.
Of the cadet branches of the house one received the lordship
of Bozzolo, another the counties of Novellara and Ragnolo, a
third, of which the founder was Kerrante 1. (d. 1557), retained
the county of Guustalla, raised to a duchy in 1621, and came to
an end with the death of Giuseppe Maria on the >6th of August
1746.
BinuoonAjoiY.—Maffoi, A miali ii U uniova (Tortona, 1675) ;
(’.. Voroncsi, Quadro slorii 0 della ftliraiidttla (Modena, 1847); T. Att6,
Storm di Guaslalla (Guastulla, 1873, 4 vol*.); Alessandro Lazio,
I Precatlorid' Isabella d’ F.str (Ancona, 1887); A. T.uzioand R. Renicr,
" Francesco Gonzuga alia lattaglia ill Fornovo (1405), secimdo i
document! Mantovani ” (in Archuno stortro ilahano, sat. v. voi. vi.,
205-246); id., Manlooa e Urbina, Isabella W lisle » Elisabeth Gonscij/a
nelle relationi latnighari e uelle viiende /’olitiche (Turin, 1893); I.. G.,
lV'tarter, “ Les Relations (tc Francois dc Gonzague, miirquis dc
Man to' aveo Ludovico Sforxa et Irani XII " (in Annates de la
faenlti de Lettns de Bordeaux, 18113); Antonino Bertolotti, “ Lettorc
del duca di Savoia Eroanuele Filibmrto a Gugliolmo Gonzuga, duca di
Montoya” (A reh. star. it., sit. v., vol. ix. pp. 250-283); Edmonuo Solan,
I.ettcre tnsdite 4*1 bard. llasparo Contarini net carteggio del card.
F.rcole Gomaga (Venice, 1004) ; Arturo Scgrfi, II Biekiamo ii Dim
berranto Geneaga dal goveriiu di Milana, e sue innseguenxe (Turin,
1904).
CONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO (1744-1809), Portuguese
poet, was a native oi Oporto and the son of a Brazilian-born
judge. He spent a past of his boyhood at Bahia, where his
father was tksembargodae of the appeal court, and returning to
Portugal he went to the university of Coimbra and took his law
degree at the age of twengjMqur. He remained on there for some
yean and compiled a treatise of natural law on legalist lines,
dedicating it to Pombal, but the fall of the marquis led him to
leave Coimbra and become a candidate for a magistracy, and in
1783 he obtained the posts of otmdor and prateior of the goods of
deceased and absent persons at Villa Rka in the province of Minas
Geraes in Brazil. In 1786 he was named disembargador of the
appeal court at Bahia, and three years later, as he was about to
marry a young lady of position, D. Maria de Seixag Brandlo, the
Marilia of his verses, he suddenly found himself arrested on the
charge of being the principal author of a Republican conspiracy in
Minas. Conducted to Km, he was imprisoned in a fortress and
interrogated, but constantly asserted his innocence. However,
his friendship with the conspirators compromised him in the eyes
of his absolutist judges, who, on the ground that he had known of
the plot and not denounced it, sentenced him in April 1792 to
perpetual exile in Angola, with the confiscation of his property.
Later, this penalty was commuted into one of ten years of exile to
Mozambique, with a death sentence if he should return to America.
After having spent three years in prison, Gopzaga sailed in May
1792 for Mozambique and shortly after his arrival a violent fever
almost ended his life. A wealthy Portuguese gentleman, married
to a lady of colour, charitably received him into his house and
when the poet recovered, he married their young daughter who
had nursed him through the attack. He lived in exile until his
death, practising advocacy at intervals, but his last years were
embittered by fits of melancholia, deepening into madness, which
were brought on by the remembrance of his misfortunes. His
reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled
Marilia, which includes all his published verses and is divided into
two parts, corresponding with those of his life. The first extends
to his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while
the main theme of the second part, written in prison, is his
saudade for Marilia and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his
forms from the best models, Anacreon and Theocritus, but the
matter, except for an occasional imitation of Petrarch, the
natural, elegant style and the harmonious motrification, arc all
his own. The booklet comprises the most celebrated collection of
erotic poetry dedicated to a single person in the Portuguese
tongue; indeed its popularity is so great as to exceed its intrinsic
merit.
Twentv-nino editions had appeared up to 1854, but the Paris
edition of 1862 in a vols. is in every way the best, although the
authenticity of the verses in its 3rd part, which do not relate to
Marilia, is doubtful. A popular edition ot the first two parts was
published in 1888 (Lisbon, Corazzi). A French version of Martha by
Monglave and Chains appeared in Paris in 1825, an Italian by
Vcpczzi Jtuaealla at T urin in 1844, a 1 a tin by Dr Castro Lopes at
Rio in >868, and there is a Spanish one by Veaia.
See liuiucencin da Silva, Dtccionano bihhographico portugues,
voL vii. p. 320, also Dr T. Braga, Filinto Elysto e os Dissidentas da
AtoaeUa (Oporto, toot). (K. Px.)
GONZALEZ-C ARVA J AL, TOMAS JOSfi (1753-1834), Spanish
poet and statesman, was bom at Seville in 1753. He studied at
the university of Seville, and took the degree of LL.D. at Madrid.
He obtained an office in the financial department of the govern¬
ment ; and in 1795 was made Attendant of the colonics which had
just been founded in Sierra Morena and Andalusia. During
1809-1811 he held an intendancy in the patriot army. He
liecame, in 1812, director of the university of San Isidro ; but
having offended the government by establishing a chair of inter¬
national law, he was imprisoned for five years (1815-1820). The
revolution of 1820 reinstated him, but the counter-revolutkm of
three years later forced him into exile. After four years he was
allowed to return, and he died, in 1834, a member of the supreme
council of war. Gonzalez-Carvajal enjoyed European fame us
author of metrical translations of the poetical books of the Bible.
To fit himself Cor this work he commenced the study of Hebrew at
the age of fifty-four. He also wrote other works in verse and
prose, avowedly taking Luis de Leon as his model.
See biographical notice in Bibliokoa de Rsvadeneyra, vol. lx vii.,
Poetas del sigh rg.
GONZALO DE BERCEO (c. ti8o-e. 1246), the earliest Castilian
poet whose name is known to us, was bom at Berceo, a village in
the neighbourhood of Cakhorra in the province of Logroao. In
1221 he became a deacon and was attached, as a secular priest,
to the Benedictine monastery of San Millan de la Cogolla, in the
GGGGH^GOQ© FRIDAY
*3?
diocesedfCriaherak Hi»;iMnieUtobeaMtwithiiecauntaeof
documents between the y ears 1237 and 1246. He wrote upwanls
of 13,000 verses, ah on devotions! subjects. His best work is *
life of St Oria ; others treat of the life of St Millan, of St Domnic
of Silos,of the Sacrifice of the Maes, the Martyrdom of St Laurence,
the visible signs preceding the Last Judgment, the Praises of
Our Lady, the Miracles of Our Lady and the Lamentations of the
Virgin on the Passion of her Son. He writes in the common
tongue, the roman poladino, and his claim to the name of poet
rests on Iris use of the tuadema via (single-rhymed quatrains,
each verse being of fourteen syllables). Sometimes, however, lie
takes the more modest title of juglar (jongleur), when claiming
payment for his poems. His literary attainments are not great,
and he lacks imagination and animation of style, but he has a
certain eloquence, and in speaking of the Virgin and the saints a
certain charm, while his verse bears at times the imprint of a
passionate devotion, recalling the lyrical style of the great
Spanish mystics. There is,however,a verystrong popular element
in his writings, which explains his long vogue. The great
majority of his legends of the Virgin are obviously borrowed
from the collection of a Frenchman, Gautier de Coinci; but he
has succeeded in making this material entirely his own by reason
of a certain conciseness and a realism in detail which make his
work far superior to the tedious and colourless narrative of his
model.
His Potsias sro in the bihlioteca ie autores espaiolcs of Riva-
deneyra, vol. lvii. (1S64); La Vida de San Domingo de Silos has been
edited by J. 13 . FitzGerald (Paris, 1004 ; see the Bibliothique de
I’ScoU des Hautes Etudes, part 140 ); see also F. Fernandez y
Gonzalez In the Kanin (vol. i., Madrid, i860); N. Hergueta, “ Docn-
mentoe referentes a Gonsalo de Bereeo," in the Kevisia de archives,
(3rd series, Feb.-Marcb, I9»4, PP- ‘76-17y)- (P- A.)
GOOCH, SIB DANIEL, Bart. (1816-1889), English mechanical
engineer, was bom at Bedlington, in Northumberland, on the
16th of August 1816. At the age of fifteen, having shown a taste
for mechanics, he was put to work at the Tredegar Ironworks,
Monmouthshire. In 1834 he went to Warrington, where, at the
Vulcan foundry, under Robert Stephenson, he acquired the
principles of locomotive design. Sulisequently, after passing a
year at Dundee, he was engaged by the Stephensons at their
Gateshead works, where he seems to have conceived that predilec¬
tion for the broad gauge for which he was afterwards distinguished,
through having to design some engines for a 6-foot gauge in
Russia and noticing the advantages it offered in allowing greater
space for the machinery, &c., as compared with the standard
gauge favoured by Stephenson. In 1837, on I. K. Brunei’s
recommendation, he was appointed locomotive superintendent to
the Great Western railway at a time when the engines possessed
by the railway were very poor and inefficient, lie soon improved
this state of affairs, and gradually provided his employers with
locomotives which were unsurpassed for general excellence and
economy of working. One of the most famous, the “ Lord of the
Isles,” was awarded a gold medal at the Grout Exhibition of 1851,
and when, thirty years afterwurds, it was withdrawn from active
service it had run more than three-quarters of a million miles, all
with its original boiler. In 1864 he left the Great Western and
interested himself in the problem of laying a telegraph cable
across the Atlantic. At this time the “ Great Eastern ” was in
the hands of the bondholders, of whom he himself was one of the
most important, and it occurred to him that she might advan¬
tageously be utilized in the enterprise. Accordingly, at his
instance she was chartered by the Telegraph Construction
Company, of which also he was a director, and in 1865 was
employed in the attempt to lay a cable, Gooch himself super¬
intending operations. The cable, however, broke in mid-ooean,
and the attempt was a failure. Next year it was renewed with
more success, for not only was a new cable safely put in place, but
the older one was picked up and spliced, so that there were two
complete lines between England and America. For this achieve¬
ment Gooch was created a baronet. Meanwhile the Great
Western railway had fallen on evil days, being indeed on the
verge at bankruptcy, when in 1866 the directors appealed to him
to aeoept the chairmanship of the board and undertake the
rahahrirtatsan of the Company, He agreed to thnpnopoeai,a»d
ms so sucoessftri in rastaring, its pros p e rity ttwt *1*889*: wt the
Mot meeting over which he prerided^i dividend was deriaredustthe
rate of 74 %. Under hisadraihistration the system wtusigmafy
enlarged and consolidated by theahsorptioh of varietn emaller
lines, such as the Bristol and Exeter ana the Cornwall railways.;
and hit appreciation of its strategic value caused him to be a
strenuous supporter qf the construction of thg Severn 1 Tunnel.
HR death occurred on the 15th of October 1889 at bR raridehce,
CiswerPark, near Windsor. < ■
GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827), English writer arimediod,
religious and classical subjects, was bom on the 25th of May
1764 at Epping, Essex. After attending * school at Romeey
kept by his father, the Rev. Peter Good, who wasaNonoonformist
minuter, he was, at about the age of fifteen, apprenticed to a
surgeon-apothecary at Gosport. In 1783 he went to London to
prosecute his medical studies, and in the autumn of 17B4 he
began to practise as a surgeon at Sudbury in Suffolk: In 1793
he removed to London, where he entered into partnership with
a surgeon and apothecary. But the partnership was soon
dissolved, and to increase his income he began to devote attention
to literary pursuits. Besides contributing both ini prose and
verse to the Analytical and Critical Reviews and the British
and Monthly Magazines, and other periodicals, he wrote a large
number of works relating chiefly to medical and religioua subjects.
In 1704 he became a member of the British Pharmaceutical
Society, and in that connexion, and especially by the publication
of his work, A History of Medicine (1795), he did much to effect
a greatly needed reform in the profession of the apothecary.
In 1820 he took the diploma of M.I). at Mariscbal College,
Aberdeen. He died at Shepperton, Middlesex, an the 2nd of
January 1827. Good was not only well versed in classical
literature, but was acquainted with the principal European
languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and Hebrew. HR
prose works display wide erudition ; but their style is dull and
tedious. HR poetry never rises above pleasant and well-vertified
commonplace. His translation of Lucretius, The Nature of
Things (1805-1807), contains elaborate philological and ex¬
planatory notes, together with parallel passages and quotations
from European and Asiatic authors.
GOOD FRIDAY (probably “God’s Friday”), the English
name for the Friday before F,astor, kept as the anniversary of
the Crucifixion. In the Greek Church it his been or fs known
as iruirxa \<rravfiiemis.ov], itapassKtirq, rapewwrt/ puytlhaj or oyta,
o-mrqpla or Ta cram/pia., qpfpa noli trravpov, while among tile
Latins the names of most frequent occurrence are Paacha Crock,.
Dies Dominicae Passioms, Parascevc, Feria Sexto Pasohae,
Feria Sexta Major in Iiiorusolem, Dies Absolution!*. It was
called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons 1 and Dans, pos s i bl y ir
allusion to the length of the services which marked the.dr¬
ill Germany it is sometimes designated Stiller Freitag(conr aw
Greek, ipbuphs airpanTot •, Latin, hebdomad imfjhdiesd * m
tabonosa), but more commonly Charfreitag. The eM 0 ‘°Sy
of this last name has been much disputed, but there e^ 3 ntm
to be little doubt that it R derived from the Old Hi n German
char a, meaning suffering or mourning.
The origin of the custom of a yearly eomaawr*^® 1 !t * .
Crucifixion is somewhat obscure. It may be retarded as certain
that among Jewish Christians it almost impe«*P““y 8***
of the old habit of annually celebrating t w Fas saver on the
14th of Nisan, and of observing the “ days-*! unleavened1 bread
from the 15th to the erst of that month. tbfGentile churches,
on the other hand, it seems to be well dtablished that originally
no yearly cycle of festivals was know! aCall- „
From its earliest observance, the rhy was marked by a specially
rigorous fast, and also, on -the wfele, by a tendency to greater
simplicity in the services of the oiurdi. Prior to me 4th to^hrry
there R no evidence of non-celebration of the euchanst on Good
Friday; but after that dste Hie prohibition of communion
1 See Johnson's Collection of Ecclesiastical Lat>« (vol. l.,«nno 9 J 7 ) ■
" House! ought not to be hallowed ott Long Friday, because Christ
suffered for us on that day.”
23*
GOODMAN—GOODSIR
ffwimnn In Spain, indeed, it became cu*ternary to
dm tke churches altogether ai a aign of mourning; but this
«*■**&» mi condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the
Roman Catholic Church thi Good Friday ritual at present
obaerved ia marked by many ipecul feature*, mo«t of win™
can be traced back to a date at least prior to the cloae of the 8th
century (see the Ordo Romanus in Muratori’s Ltturg. Rom. Vet.).
The altar and officiating clergy are draped in black, this being the
only day on which that colour is permitted. Instead of the
epistle, sundry passages from Hosea, Habakkuk, Exodus and
the Psalms are read. The gospel for the day consist* of the
hiitory of the Passion as recorded by St John. This is often
sung in plain-chaunt by three priests, one representing the “ nar¬
rator,” the other two the various characters of the story. The
singing of this is followed by bidding prayers for the peace and
unity of the church, for the pope, the clergy, all ranks and
conditions of men, the sovereign, for catechumens, the sick and
afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews and heathen. Then
Mows the “ adoration of the cross ” (a ceremony derived from
the church of Jerusalem and said to date back to near the time
of Helena's “ invention of the cross ”); the hymns Pange
lingua and Vexitta regie are sung, and then follows the “ Mass
of the Presanctified.” The name is derived from the fact that
it is celebrated with elements consecrated the day before, the
lituigy being omitted on this day. The priest merely places the
Sacrament on the altar, censes it, elevates and breaks the host,
and communicates, the prayers and responses interspersed being
peculiar to the day. This again is followed by vespers, with a
special anthem; after which the altar is stripped in silence.
In many Roman Catholic countries—in Spain, for example—it is
usual for the faithful to spend much time in the churches in
meditation on the “ seven last words ” of the Saviour; no
carriages are driven through the streets; the bells and organs
are silent; and in every possible way it is sought to deepen the
impression of a profound and universal grief. In the Greek
Church also the Good Friday fast is excessively strict; as in the
Roman Church, the Passion history is read and the cross adored ;
towards evening a dramatic representation of the entombment
takes place, amid open demonstrations of contempt for Judas
and the Jews. In Lutheran churches the organ is silent on this
day, and altar, font and pulpit are draped in black, as indeed
throughout Holy Week. In the Church of England the history
of the Passion from the gospel according to John is also read ;
the collects for the day are based upon the bidding prayers
which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The “ three hours ”
service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and consisting
of prayers, addresses on the “ seven last words from the cross ”
and intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very
ppular in the Anglican Church, and the observance of the day
14 more marked than formerly among Nonconformist bodies,
ev " in Scotland.
®*f>DMAN, GODFREY (1583-1656), bishop of Gloucester,
was bor, a t Ruthin, Denbighshire, and educated at Westminster
and Carnage. j| { . took orders in 1603, and in 1606 obtained
the living ,f Stapleford Abbots, Essex, which he held together
wl “ 1 ® everal 'ther livings. He was canon of Windsor from 1617
and dean of Rochester 16*0-1621, and became bishop of
Gloucester in From this time his tendencies towards
.Roman Catholic« m constantly got him into trouble. He
preached an unsatufactury sermon at court in 1626, and in
ifia8 incurred charge 0 f introducing popery at Windsor. In
1633 1 * secured the set ,,f Hereford by bribery, but Archbishop
•aud persuaded the king to refuse his consent. In 1638 he was
said to he converted to R« m e, and two years later he was im¬
prisoned for refusing to sign the new canons denouncing popery
and affirming the-divine right of .kings. He afterwards signed
and was released on bail, but text year the bishops who had
signed were all imprisoned in the Tower, by order of parliament,
on the charge of treason. After eighteen weeks’ imprisonment
Goodnwa was allowed to return to feu diocese. About 1650 he
settled.in London, wherfrht died a confessed Roman Catholic.
His best known book is The Fall oj Min (London, :6i6).
GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD 1(1793-1860), American
author, better known under the pseudonym of “ Peter Parley,”
was born, the son of a Congregational minister, at Ridgefield,
Connecticut, on the 19th of August 1793. He was largely
self-educated, became an assistant in a country store at Danbury,
Conn., in 1808, and at Hartford, Conn., in 1811, and from 1816 to
1822 was a bookseller and publisher at Hartford. He visited
Europe in 1823-1824, and in 1826 removed to Boston, where
he continued in the publishing business, and from 1828 .to 1842
he published an illustrated annual, the Token, to which be was
a frequent contributor both in prose and verse. A selection
from these contributions was published in 1841 under the title
Sketches from a Student’s Window. The Token also contained
some of the earliest work of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis,
Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia Maria Child. In 1841 he
established Merry’s Museum, which he continued to edit till
1854. In 1827 he began, under the name of “ Peter Parley,” his
scries of books for the young, which embraced geography,
biography, history, science and miscellaneous tales. Of these
he was the sole author of only a few, but in 1857 he wrote that he
was “ the author and editor of about 170 volumes,” and that
about seven millions had been sold. In 1857 he published
Recollections oj a Lifetime, which contains a list both of the
works of which he was the author or editor and of the spurious
works published under his name. By his writings and publica¬
tions he amassed a large fortune. He was chosen a member of
the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1836, and of the
state Senate in 1837, his competitor in the last election being
Alexander H. Everett, and in 1851-1853 he was consul at Paris,
where he remained till 1855, taking advantage of bis stay to have
several of his works translated into French. After his return
to America he published, in 1859, Illustrated History of the
Animal Kingdom. He died, in New York, on the 9th of May
i860.
His brother, Charles Augustus Goodrich (1790-1862), a
Congregational clergyman, published various ephemeral books,
and helped to compile some of the “ Peter Parley ” series.
GOODRICH, or Goodkickk, THOMAS (d. 1554), English
ecclesiastic, was a son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby,
Lincolnshire, and was educated at Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus College in the
same university. He was among the divines consulted about the
legality of Henry VIII.’s marriage with Catherine of Aragon,
became one of the royal chaplains about 1530, and was conse¬
crated bishop of Ely in 1534. He was favourable to the Reforma¬
tion, helped in 1537 to draw up the Institution of a Christian
Man (known as the Bishops’ Book), and translated the Gospel
of St John for the revised New Testament. On the accession of
Edward VI. in 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor,
and took a conspicuous part in public affairs during the reign.
“ A busy secular spirited man, as Burnet calls him, he was
equally opposed to the zealots of the “ old ” and the “ new
religion.” He assisted to compile the First Prayer Book of
Edward VI., was one of the commissioners for the trial of Bishop
Gardiner, and in January 1551-1552 succeeded Rich as lord high
chancellor. This office he continued to hold during the nine
days' reign of “ Queen Jane ” (Lady Jane Grey); but he con¬
tinued to make his peace with Queen Mary, conformed to the
restored religion and, though deprived of the chancellorship,
was allowed to keep his bishopric until his death on the 10th of
May 1554.
See the Diet. Nat. Biog., where further authorities are cited.
GOODSIR, JOHN (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, bom at
Anstruther, Fife, on the 20th of March 1814, was the son of Dr
John Goodsir, and grandson of Dr John Goodsir of Largo. He
was educated at the burgh and grammar schools of his native
place and at the university of St Andrews. In 1830 he was
apprenticed to a surgeon-dentist in Edinburgh, where he studied
anatomy under Robert Knox, and in 1835 he joined his father
in practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communicated
to the British Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of the
human teeth, his researches on the whole process of dentition
QOODWILL^GOODWIN, TV«
being at' this tin* distinguished by their' cempMtetttis; And
about the same date, on die nomination of Edward Forbes, he
was elected to the famous coterie called the “ Universal' Brothec-
hood of the friends of Truth,” which comprised artists, scholars,
naturalists and others, whose relationship became a potent
influence in science. With Forties he worked at marine zoology,
but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his
chief study. In 1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where in the
following year he was appointed conservator of the museum of
the College of Surgeons, in succession to William Macgillivray.
Much of his reputation rested on his knowledge of the anatomy of
tissues. In his lectures in the theatre of the college in 1843-1843
he evidenced the largeness of his observation erf cell-life, both
physiologically and pathologically, insisting on the importance
of the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointing out that the
organism is subdivided into a number of departments. R.
Virchow recognized his indebtednem to these discoveries by
dedicating his Cellular Pathologic t™ Goodsir, is “ one of the
earliest and most acute observers of celklife.” In i 8.;3 Goodsir
obtained the post of curator in the university of Edinburgh;
the following year he was appointed demonstrator of anatomy,
and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A year later he was
elected to the chair of anatomy in the university, and devoted
all his energies to anatomical research and teaching.
Human myology was his strong point; no one had laboured
harder at the dissecting-table; and he strongly emphasized
the necessity of practice as a means of research. He believed
that anatomy, physiology and pathology could never be properly
advanced without daily consideration and treatment of disease.
In 1848 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons,
and in the same year he joined the Highland and Agricultural
Society, acting as chairman of the veterinary department, and
advising on strictly agricultural matters. In 1847 he delivered
a series of systematic lectures on the comparative anatomy
of the invertebrata; and, about this period, as member of an
aesthetic club, he wrote papers on the natural principles of
beauty, the aesthetics of the ugly, of smell, the approbation or
disapprobation of sounds, &c. Owing to the failing health of
Professor Robert Jameson, Goodsir was induced to deliver the
course of lectures on natural history during the summer of 1853.
The lectures were long remembered for their brilliancy, hut
the infinite amount of thought and exertion which they cost
broke down the health of the lecturer. Goodsir, nevertheless,
persevered in his labours, writing in 1855 on organic electricity,
in 1856 on morphological subjects, and afterwards on the structure
of organized forms. His speculations in the latter domain gave
birth to his theory of a triangle as the mathematical figure
upon which nature had built up both the organic and inorganic
worlds, and he hoped to complete this triangle theory of formation
and law as the greatest of his works. In his lectures on the skull
and brain he held the doctrine that symmetry of brain had more
to do with the higher faculties than bulk or form. He died at
Wardie, near Edinburgh, on the 6th of March 1867, in the same
cottage in which his friend Edward Forbes died. His anatomical
lectures were remarkable for their solid basis of fact; and no one
in Britain took so wide a field for survey or marshalled so many
facts for anatomical tabulation and synthesis.
See Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited bv W.
Turner, with Memoir by H. Lonsdale (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868), in
which Goodsir’s lectures, addresses and writings are epitomized;
Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. iv, (1868) ; Trans. Rot. Soe. Edin. vol. ix. (1B68).
GOODWILL, in the law of property, a term of somewhat
vague significance. It has been defined as every advantage
which has been acquired in carrying on a business, whether
connected with the premises in which the business has been
carried on, or with the name of the firm by whom it has been
conducted (Churton v. Douglas, 1859, Johns, 174). Goodwill
may be cither professional or trade. Professional goodwill
usually, takes the form of the recommendation by a retiring
professional man, doctor, solicitor, &c., to his clients of the suc¬
cessor or purchaser coupled generally with an undertaking not
to compete with him. Trade goodwill varies with the nature of
m
the business with which It Is connected, bet there ate two rights
which, whatever the nature of the business rnaybe,arki»v»lrtably
associated with it, viz. the right of the puttihaser to represent
himself as the owner of the business, end the right to restrain
competition. For the purposes of the Stamp Act, the goodwill <rf
a business is property, and the proper duty must bipkid on the
conveyance of such. (See also Partwcmhip ; Patents.)
GOODWIN, JOHN (c. 1594-1663), English Nonconformist
divine, was born in Norfolk and educated at Queens’ Collage,
Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in rdiy. He was vicar
of St Stephen’s, Coleman Street, London, from 1633 to 1643,
when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on Presbyterian¬
ism, especially to his 6copa^ a (1644). He thereupon established
an todependenpeongregation, and put his literary gifts at Oliver
Cromwell’s service. In 1648 he justified the proceedings of the
army against the parliament (“ Pride's Purge ”) in a pamphlet
Might and Eight Well Met, and in 1649 defended the proceedings
against Charles I. (to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in
"I lipurroSUai. At the Restoration this tract, with some that
Milton had written to Monk in favour of a republir, was publicly
burnt, and Goodwin was ordered into custody, though finally in¬
demnified. He died in 1605. Among his other writings are Anti-
Cavalierisme (1642), a translation of the Stratagenmta Satemete of
Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan advocate of toleration, tracts
against Fifth - Monarchy Men, Cromwell’s " Triers ” and
Baptists, and Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough
discussion of . , . election, reprobation and the perseverance of
the saints (1651, reprinted 1840), Goodwin’s strongly Antonian
tendencies brought him into ronliirt with Robert Baflhe, professor
of divinity at Glasgow, George Kendall, the Calvinist prebendary
of Exeter, and John Owen (</.»>.), who replied to Redemption
Redeemed to The Doctrine of the Saints’ Perseverance, paying a
high tribute to his opponent's learning and controversial skill.
Goodwin answered all three in the Triumviri (1658). John
Wesley in later days held him in much esteem and published an
abridged edition of his Imputatw fidrt, a work on justification
that had originally appeared in 1642.
Life by T. Jackson (London, 18 jq).
GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL (1857- ), American actor,
was born in Boston on the 25th of July 1857. While clerk to a
large shop he studied for the stage, and made his first appearance
in 1873 in Boston in Stuart Robson’s company as the newsboy
in Joseph Bradford V Lam. He made tin immediate success by his
imitations of popular actors. A hit in the burlesque Black-eyed
Susan led to his taking part in Rice and Goodwin’s Evangeline
company. It was at this time that he married Eliza Weathersby
(d. 1887), an English actress with whom he played in B. E.
Woollf's Hobbies. It was not until j88q, however, that Nat
Goodwin's talent as a comedian of the “ legitimate " type began
to lie recognized. From that time he appeared in a number of
plays designed to display his drily humorous method, such as
Brander Matthews’ and George H. Jessup’s A Gold Mine,
Henry Guy Carleton's A Gilded Fool and Ambition, Clyde Fitch’s
Nathan Hale, H. V. Esmond’s When me were Twenty-one, tec.
Till 1903 he was associated to his performances with his third
wife, the actress Maxine Elliott (b. 1873), whom he married in
1898; this marriage was dissolved in 1908.
GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-1680), English Nonconformist
divine, was bom at Rollesby, Norfolk, on the 5th of October
1600, and was educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where in
1616 he graduated B.A. In 1619 he removed to Catharine Hall,
where to 1620 he was elected fellow. In 1625 he was licensed
a preacher of the university; and three, years afterwards he
became lecturer of Trinity Church, to the vicarage of which he
was presented by the king in 1632. Worried by his bishop, who
was a iealous adherent of Latld,he resigned all his preferments anrl
left the university in 1634. He lived for some time in London,
whereto 1638 he married the daughter of an alderman ; but in the
following year he withdrew to Holland, and for some time was
pastor of a small congregation of English merchants and ref ugees
atAmheim. Returning toLondon soon after Laud’s impeachment
by the Long Parliament, he ministered for some years to the
a+o
GOODWIN,? «Wi W.—i© 0 QD¥>EAR
Tntfaipwtilrat rwvrrf>ti'nn meeting at Paved Alley Gbarch,Lii»e
Street,in the polish of St Dunstan’s-in-the-EMt, and tepidly tew
to considerable eminence m a preacher ; in 1643 he was chosen a
Member ef the Westminster Assembly, aed at ence identified
himself with the Congregational -party, generally referred to in
contemporary documents as “the dissenting brethren.” He
frequently preached by appointment before the Commons, and in
January 1650 his talants and learning were rewarded by the
Howe with the presidentship of llagdalen College, Oxford, a post
which be hdd until the Restoration. He rose into high favour with
the protector, and Was one of his intimate advisers , attending him
on his death-bed. He was also a commissioner for the inventory
of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for tta approbation of
preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen £*.) drew up an
amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his
death on the 13rd of February 1680 he lived in London, and
devoted himself exclusively to theological study and to the
pastoral charge of the Fetter Lane independent Church.
The works published by Goodwin during his lifetime conrist
chiefly of sermons printed by order of the House of Commons ; but
he was also associated with Philip Nye and others in the preparation
of the ApolaftticaU Narration (1(143). His collected writings, which
include expositions of the Ejristle to the Ephesians and of the
Apocalypse, were published in five folio volumes between 1681 and
1704, and were reprinted in twelve 8vo volumes (JEdin,, 1861-1866).
Characterised by abundant yet one-sided readiug, remarkable at pnee
for the depth and ipr the narrowness of their observation and spiritual
experience, often admirably thorough in their workmanship, yet in
atyie intolerably prolix—they fairly exemplify both the merits aad
the defects of the special school of religious thought to which they
belong. Calaniy s estimutc of Goodwin's qualities may be quoted
as both friendly and just. " He was a considerable scholar and an
eminent divine, and had a very happy faculty in descanting upon
beripture so as to bring forth surprising remarks, which yet generally
tended to iUuslration.'' A memoir, derived from his own papers, bv
«» sun (Thomas Goodwin, " tlie younger," i6jo ?-i7i&T Inde-
pendent minister at 'London and Pinner, and author of the Uistorv
«/ Iht Reign of Henry V.) is prefixed to the fifth volume of his collected
* or | t,i 1 ** a patriarch and Atlas of Independency " he is also noticed
by Anthony Wood in the Athenoe OxQuienses. An amaning sketch
from Addison s point ol view, of Uic austere and somewhat fanaiicai
president of Magdalen is preserved in No. 41)4 of the Spectator
GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON (1831- * American
classical scholur, was born in Concord, Massachusetts, on the
9th of May 1831. He graduated at Harvard in 1851, studied in
Germany, was tutor in Greek at Harvard in 1856-1860, and
Faot professor of Greek there from 1860 until his resignation in
1 su 1 'k bc “ UBe an 0VBrsccr of Harvard in 1903. In 1882-
1883 he was the first director of the American School for Classical
Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the Panegyrtcus of Isocrates
(1864) and Demosthenes On The Crown (1901); and assisted in
preparing die seventh edition of laddeU and Scott’s Greek-
bnpish Lexicon* He rrviiH an English version by several
waters of Plutarch's Morals (5 vote., 1871; 6th ed., 1889), and
published the Greek text with literal English version of Aeschvlus
Agamemnon (1906) for the Harvard production of that pkv in
June 1906. Asa teacher he did much to raise the tone of classical
reading from that of a mechanical exercise to literary study
Hut his most important work was his Syntax of the Moods and
■ttrues of the Greek Verb (iXbo), of which the seventh revised
edition appeared m 1877 and another (enlarged) in 1890. This
was based in partem Madvig and Kroger/’ but, liesktes making
accessible to American students the works of these continental
grammarians, U presented original matter, including a “ radical
innovation in the classification of conditional sentences,” notably
the distinction between particular and general suppositions.”
Goodwin t Greek Grammar (elementary edition, 1870 ; enlarged
1879; revised and enlarged 189a) gradually superseded in most
Amtrican schools the Grammar of Hadley and Alien. Both the
Moods Tenses and the Grammar in later editions are largely
r" tli * ones °f Giidersleeve for additions and
Godwin also wrote a few Mabomte syntactical
^ ^lrih J 0UnCl *? HSV* SM * et «* CUuskal Philology,
rtunnlnrimM f’rh"* ^ 7 “ dwlical * <i *® «P°n the
* K " V * rd 4nd forty -° De
fiOODWIN SANDS, a dangerous hue of shoals at the entrance
to toe Strait of Dover from the North Sea, about 6 m. from the
Kent coast of England, fens which they are separated fay the
anchorage of the Downs. For this they form a shelter. They
are partly exposed at W water, tat the sands are shifting, and
in spite of lights and bell-buoys the Goodwins are frequently
the scene of wrecks, while attempts to 1 erect a lighthouse or
beaoon have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant
of an island called Lomea, which belonged to EarlGodwroe in
the tort half of the nth century, and was afterwands submerged
when the funds devoted to its protection were diverted to build’
the church steeple at Tenterden (qx.). Four lightship, mark
the limits of the sands, and also signal by rockets to the lifeboat
stations on the coast when any vessel is in distress on the sands
IVhap* the most terrible catastrophe recorded here was the
wreck of thirteen ships of war during a great storm in November
GOODWOOD, a manstta in the parish of Boxgrove, in the
Chichester pariiafnentary division of Sussex, England, 4 m.
N E. of Chichester. It was buflt from designs of Sir William
Lnarootrs with additions by Wyatt, after the purchase of the
property by the first duke of Richmond in 1710. The park ism
a hilly district, and is enriched with magnifioent trees of many
varieties, including some huge cedars. In it is a building con¬
taining a Roman slab recording the construction of a temple
to Minerva and Neptune at Chichester. There is mention of a
British tributary prince named Cogidubnus, who perhaps served
also as a Roman official. A reference to early Christianity in
Britain has been erroneously read into this inscription. On the
racecourse a famous annual meeting, dating from 1802, is held
in July, The parish church of SS. Mary and Blaise, Boxgrove
“ al ""°^«;tircly a rich specimen of Early English work. ’
GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-1860), American inventor,
was horn at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 39th of December
i8oo, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an inventor (especially of
farming implements) and a pioneer in the manufacture of hard-
ware in America. The family removed to Naugatuck, Conn.,
when Charles was a boy; he worked in his father’s button
factory and studied at home until 1816, when he apprenticed
himself to a firm of hardware merchants in Philadelphia. In
1 .** " e ^turned to Connecticut and entered into a partnership
with his father at Naugatuck, which continued till 1830, when it
was terminated by business reverses. Already he was interested
m an attempt to discover a method of treatment by which india-
rubber could be made mto merchandizable articles that would
stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of this problem
the next ten years of his life were devoted. With ceaseless
energy and unwavering faith in the successful outcome of his
labours, in the face of repeated failures and hampered by
poverty, which several times led him to a debtor’s prison, he
persevered in his endeavours. For a time he seemed to have
succeeded with a treatment (or “ cure ”) of the rubber with
aquafortis. In 1836 he secured a contract for the manufacture
of mail ^ for the u - s - government, but the
rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he met
and worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-1865), who had been
an employee of a rubber factory in Roxbury and had made
experiments with sulphur mixed with rubber. Goodyear bought
from Hayward the right to use this imperfect process. In Vsk
by dropping on a hot stove some mdiarubher mixed with sulphur,
he discovered accidentally the process for the vulcanization of
j 1 ■ , Tw ° - vears . more P* 85 *** before he could find anyone who
had faith enough in his discovery to invest money in it. At
test, in 1844, by which time he had perfected his process, his
first patent eras granted, and in the subsequent years more than
sixty patents were granted to him for the application of his
original process to various uses. Numerous infringements had
to be fought in the courts, the decisive victoty coming in 1852
m the case of Goodyear v. Day, in which his rights were defended
by Darnel Webster and opposed by Rufus Choate. In 1852 he
went to England, where articles made under his patents had
been daplayed at the International Exhibition of iRcr h«* h.
GOOGB-iuQOOSE 34a
nu tumble to establish factories there. In Knux* a 'compaay
for the maanfacture «f vulcanized rubber byhioproocia tailed,
and in December JS55 he was Arrested and impneone- < lor debt
in Paris. Owing to the expense of the litigation inwiiich he was
engaged and to bad bnsineas management, he profited little fsom
his inventions. He died in New York City on the 1st of July
i860. He wrote on account of his discovery entitled Gum-
Elastic and its Varieties (3 vols.. New Haven, 1853-1855).
See also B, K. Peirce. Trials of an'Inventor, life and Discoveries of
Charles Goodyear (New York, i 860 ); James Parton, Famous
Americans of Kecent Times (Boston, 1867); and Herbert L, Tory,
India Rubber and its Manufacture (New York, 1907).
GOOGE, BABNABE (1540-1594), English poet, son of Robert
Googe, recorder of Lincoln, was born on the 11th of June 1540
at Alvingham, Lincolnshire. He studied at Christ’s College,
Cambridge, and at New College, Oxford, but does not seem to
have taken a degree at either university. He afterwards removed
to Staple’s Inn, and was attached to the household of his kinsman,
Sir William Cecil. In 1563 he became a gentleman pensioner
to Queen Elizabeth, He was absent in Spain when his poems
were sent to the printer by a friend, L. Blundcston. Googe then
gave his consent, and they appeared in 1563 as Eglogs, Epytaplws,
and Sonettes. There is extant a curious correspondence on the
subject of Iris marriage with Mary Darrell, whose father refused
Googe’s suit on the ground that she was bound by a previous
contract. Tlic matter was decided by the intervention of Sir
William Cecil with Archbishop Parker, and the marriage took
place in 1564 or 1565. Googe was provost-marshal of the court
of Connaught, and some twenty letters of his in this capacity
are preserved in the record office. He died in February 1594.
He was an ardent Protestant, and his poetry is coloured by his
religious and political views. In the third “ Eglog,” for instance,
he laments the decay of the old nobility and the rise of a new
aristocracy of wealth, and he gives an indignant account of the
sufferings of Ills co-religionists under Mary. The other eclogues
deal with the sorrows of earthly love, leading up to a dialogue
between Corydon and Cornix, in which the heavenly love is
extolled. The volume includes epitaphs on Nicholas Grimald,
John Bale and on Thomas Phaer, whose translation of Virgil
Googe is uncritical enough to prefer to the versions of Surrey
and of Gavin Douglas. A much more charming pastoral than
any of those contained in this volume, “ Phyllida was a fayer
maid” (Toilet's Miscellany) has been ascribed to Burnabe
Gouge. He was one of the earliest English pastoral poets, and
the first who was inspired by Spanish romance, being consider¬
ably indebted to the Diana Enamorada of Montemayor.
llis other works include a translation from Marcellos Palingenius
(said to he an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manziflli) of a satirical
Latin poem, Zodioens vitae (Venice, 1531 >), in twelve Imoks, under
the title of The Zodvahe of Life (1360) ; The Popish Kingdoms, or
reign of Antichrist (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchnviyci or
Kaogcorgus; The Spiritual Pusbandrte from the same author,
Tinted with the last ; Fours lioolm of Husbanilrie (1577), collected
y Conradus Rcresbachius; and The Proverbes of .. . Lopes lie
Mcndata (1579).
GOOLE, u market town and port in the Osgoldeross parlia¬
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
at the confluence of the Don and the Ouse, 24 m. W. by S. from
Hull, served l>v the North Eastern, Lancashire Sr Yorkshire,
Great Central and Asholme joint railways. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 16,576. The town owes its existence to the
construction of the Knottingley canal in 1826 by the Aire and
Calder Navigation Company, after Which, in 1829, Goole was
made a bonding port. Previously it had been an obscure hamlet.
The port was administratively combined with that of Hull in
1885. It is 47 m. from the North Sea (mouth of the Humber),
and a wide system of inland navigation opens from it There are
eight docks supplied with timber ponds, quays, warehouses and
other accommodation. The depth of water is 21 or zi ft. at high
water, spring tide*. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen goods
and machinery ; imports, butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, timber
and wooL Industrie* 'indude the manufacture oY alum, sugar,
rope and agricultural instruments, and iron-founding. Ship¬
building is fdso carried on, and there is a large dry dock and a
patent dip for repairing Mtadt. Jtoeqger ata n tniM paeriice*
arewoekedinenanoxion-withtha lancashirefr Yorkshire railway
to Amsterdam, Antwerp, tBrogatv Copenhagen, So trend am and
other north European porta. The handsome church of StJohn
tha Evangelist,: oath a lofty tower and spire, dates from.tr&U- 1
GOOSE (a common Taut word, G. Eng. gi k, pi. gks, Ger.i&wr,
O. Norm gds, Irora Aryan root, gkans, whence Sons, frasbh, iLat.
anser (for hanser ), (Jr. g»jv. Sec.), the funeral English name fora
considerable number of birds, belonging to Che family A natidae
of modem ornithologists, which are mostly larger than ducks
and less than swans. Technically the word goose is reserved
for the female, the mab being called gander (A.-S. gandra).
The most important species of goose, and the type of the
genus Anser, is undoubtedly that which is the qdgtn of the
well-known domestic race (see Povcrev), the Aiiser ferns or
A. eirureus of most naturalists, commonly called in English the
grey or grey lag 1 goose, a bird of exceedingly wide range in the
(fid World, apparently breeding where suitable localities are
to be found in most European countries from Lapland to Spain
and Bulgaria. Eastwards it extends to China, but does not
seem to be known in japan. It is the only species indigenous
to the British Islands, and in former days bred abundantly in
the English Fen-country, where the young were caught in huge
numbers and kept in a more or less reclaimed condition with the
vast flocks of tarae-lired geese that ut one time formed so valuable
a property to the dwellers in and around the Fens. It is im¬
possible to determine when the wild grey kg goose ceased from
breeding in England, but it certainly did so towards the end Of
the 18th century, for Daniel! mentions (Rural Spurts; ixi. 242)
his having obtained two broods in one season. In Scotland this
goose continues to breed sparine lv in several ports of the High¬
lands and in certain of the Hebrides, the nests being generally
placed in long heather, and the tugs seldom exceeding five or
six in number. It is most likelv the birds reared here that are
from time to time obtained in England, for at the present day
the grey lag goose, though once so numerous, is, and for many
years has been, the rarest species of those that habitually resort
to the British Islands. The domestication of this species, as
Darwin remarks (Animals and Plants under Domestication, i.
287), is of very ancient date, and yet scarcely any other animal
that bus been tamed for so long a period, and bred so largely ia
captivity, has varied so little. It hits ituToased greatly in size
and fecundity, but almost the only change in plumage is that
tame geese commonly lose the browner and darker tints of the
wild bird, and are more or less marked with white—being often
indeed wholly Of that colour^ The most generally recognised
breeds of domestic geese are those to which t lie distinctive names
of Emden and Toulouse are applied ; but a singular breed, (aid
to have rome from Sevastopol, was introduced into western
Europe about tire year 1H50. In this the upper phOMge is
elongated, curled and spirally twisted, having their shaft
transparent, and so thin that it often splits into fine filaments,
which, remaining free for an inch or more, often coalesce again ; *
while the quills are aborted, so that the. birds cannot fly.
1 The meaning and derivation nf this word la <7 lmd long been a
puzzle until Skesrt suggested (lids, 1870, p. y> 1) that it signified
late, last, or slow, as in Jaggard, a ,loiterer, logman, the last man,
lagteeth, the posterior molar or " wisdom ” teeth (us the last to
appear), aud lagdork, a clock that is Indued time. Thus tiie grey
lag goose is the grey goose which in England when the name was
given was not migTatdry but lagged behind the other wild species at
the season when they betook themselves to their northern brnedmg-
quarters. iu connexion with this word, however uni-i be noticed
the curious fact mentioned by Rowley (Ore. Miv <l ,. 111. 213),
that the flocks of tame geese In Lincolnshire are urged on by their
drivers with theory of " fctg'em, lag’em."
“ From the times of the Romans white geese have been held in
great estimation, and hence, doubtless, they have been preferred as
breeding stock, but the practice of plucking geese alive, continued
for so many centuries, has not improbably also helped to perpetuate
this variation, for it is we# known to many bird-keeper, that a
white feather is Often produced in piece of one of the natural colour
that has been polled out
• In tome English counties, especially Norfolk and Lincoln, xt
was no uncommon tiling formerly for a man to keep a st™ k of a
thousand geese, each of which might be reckoned to rear on an
' GOOSE ').
84a
TOw other British species of typical geese are the bean-goose
( 4 . rrsifr—). the pink-footed ( 4 . brachyrhynckus) and the white-
nonted ( 4 . eWifrons). On the continent of Europe, but not
ret recognized as occurring in Britain, is a small form of the last
(A. erythropus) which is known to breed in Lapland. All these,
for the sake of discrimination, may be divided into too groups—
(i) those having the “ nail ” at the tip of the bill white, or of a
very pale flesh colour, and (z) those in which this “ nail ” is
To the former belong the grey lag goose, as well as A.
olbifrons and 4. erythropus, and to the latter the other two.
4 . olbifrons and A. erythropus, which differ little but in size,
the last being not much bigger than a mallard (Anas boschas),—
may be readily distinguished from the grey lag gome by their
bright orange legs and their mouse-coloured upper wing-coverts,
to say nothing of their very conspicuous white face and the
broad black bars which cross the belly, though the last two
characters are occasionally observable to some extent in the
grey lag goose, which has the bill and legs flesh-coloured, and
the upper wing-coverts of a bluish-grey. Of the second group,
with the black “ nail," A. segetum has the bill long, black at the
base and orange in the middle; the feet are also orange, and
the upper wing-coverts mouse-coloured, as in A. albifrons and
4 . erythropus, while A. brachyrhynchus has the bill short, bright
pink in the middle, and the feet also pink, the upper wing-coverts
being nearly of the same bluish-grey as in the grey lag goose.
Eastern Asia possesses in 4 . grandis a third species of this group,
which chiefly differs from A. segetum in its larger size. In North
America there is only one species of typical goose, and that
belongs to the white-" nailed ” group. It very nearly resembles
4. albifrons, but is larger, and has been described as distinct
under the name of 4 . gambeli. Central Asia and India possess
in the bar-headed goose ( 4 . indicus) a bird easily distinguished
from any of the foregoing by the character implied by its English
name; but it is certainly somewhat abnormal, and, indeed,
under the name of Eulabia, has been separated from the genus
Anser, which has no other member indigenous to the Indian
Region, nor any at all to the Ethiopian, Australian or Neotropical
Regions.
America possesses by far the greatest wealth of Anserine forms.
Beside others, presently to be mentioned, its northern portions
ire the home of all the species of snow-geese belonging to the
genus Chen. The first of these is C. hyperboreus, the snow-goose
proper, a bird of large size, and when adult of a pure white,
except the primaries, which are black. This has long been
deemed a visitor to the Old World, and sometimes in considerable
numbers, but the later discovery of a smaller form, C. albatus,
scarcely differing except in size, throws some doubt on the older
records, especially since examples which have been obtained in
the British Islands undoubtedly belong to this lesser bird, and
it would be satisfactory to have the occurrence in the Old World
of the true C. hyperboreus placed on a surer footing. So nearly
allied to the species last named as to have U-en often confounded
with it, is the blue-winged goose, C. cnerulescens, which is said
never to attain a snowy plumage. Then we have a very small
species, long ago described as distinct by Samuel Hearne, the
Arctic traveller, but until 1861 discredited by ornithologists.
Its distinctness has now been fully recognized, and it has received,
somewhat unjustly, the name of C. rmsi. Its face is adorned
with numerous papillue, whence it lias been removed by Elliot
to a separate genus, Exantkemops, and for the same, reason it
has long been known to the European residents in the fur
countries as the " horned wavev ”—the last word being a
rendering of a native nnme, Wawa, which signifies goose. Finally,
average seven goslings. The Socks were regularly taken to posture
and wuter, just as sheep are, and the man who’ tended them was
called the gooseherd, corrupted into gosxerd. The birds were
plucked live times in the year, and in autumn the flocks were driven
to London oi other large markets. They travelled at the rate of
about a mile on hour, and would get over nearly io m. in the day.
For further particulars the reader may be referred to Pennant's
British Zoology. Montagu's Omithologii at Dictionary: Latham's
General History at Birds and Rowley s Ornithological Miscellany
(iii. ao6-*ij), where some account also mav be found of the goose-
fatting nt Strasshurg.
then appears to belong to this section, though it has been
frequently referred to another ( ChUephaga ), and has alto been
made the type of * distinct genus (Phtiacte), the beautiful
emperor goose, P. caaagica, which is almost peculiar to the
Aleutian Islands, though straying to the continent in winter,
and may be recognized by the white edging of its remiges.
The southern portions of the New World are inhabited by
about half a dozen species of geese not nearly akin to the fore¬
going, and separated as the genus Ckloephaga. The most
noticeable of them are the rock or kelp goose, C. antarclica, and
the upland goose, C. magellanica. In both of these the sexes
are totally unlike in colour, but in others a greater similarity
obtains. 1 Formerly erroneously associated with the birds of
this group comes one which belongs to the northern hemisphere,
and is common to the Old World as well as the New. It contains
the geese which have received the common names of bcmacles
or brents, 2 and the scientific appellations of Bemicla and Branla
—for the use of either of which much may be said by nomen-
claturists. All the species of this section are distinguished by
their general dark sooty colour, relieved in some by white of
greater or less purity, and by way of distinction from the members
of the genus Anser, which are known as grey geese, are frequently
called by fowlers black geese. Of these, the best known both
in Europe and North America is the brent-goose—the Anas
bernicla of Linnaeus, and the B. torquaia of many modern
writers—a truly marine bird, seldom (in Europe at least) quitting
salt-water, and coming southwards in vast flocks towards
autumn, frequenting bays and estuaries on the British coasts,
where it lives chiefly on sea-grass ( Zostera maritima). It is
known to breed in Spitsbergen and in Greenland. A form which
is by some ornithologists deemed a good species, and called
by them B. nigricans, occurs chiefly on the Pacific coast of
North America. In it the black of the neck, which in the common
brent terminates just above the breast, extends over most of
the lower parts. The true bernacle-goose, 3 the B. leucopsis of
most authors, is hut a casual visitor to North America, but is
said to breed in Iceland, and occasionally in Norway. Its usual
incunabula, however, still form one of the puzzles of the ornitho¬
logist, and the difficulty is not lessened by the fact that it will
breed freely in semi-captivity, while the hrent-goose will not.
From the latter the bernacle-goose is easily distinguished by its
larger size and white cheeks. Hutchins’s goose ( B. Hutchinsi)
seems to be its true representative in the New World. In this
the face is dark, but a white crescentic or triangular patch
extends from the throat on either side upwards behind the eye.
Almost exactly similar in coloration to the last, but greatly
superior in size, and possessing 18 rectrices, while all the fore¬
going have but 16, is the common wild goose of America, B.
canadensis, which, for more than two centuries has been intro¬
duced into Europe, where it propagates so freely that it has been
included by nearly all the ornithologists of this quarter of the
globe as a member of its fauna. An allied form, by some
deemed a species, is B. leucopareia, which ranges over the western
part of North America, and, though having 18 rectrices, is
distinguished by a white collar round the lower part of the
neck. The most diverse specie* of this group of geese are the
lieautiful B. ruficollis, a native of north-eastern Asia, which
occasionally strays to western Europe, and has been obtained
more than once in Britain, and that which is peculiar to the
Hawaian archipelago, B. sandvicensis.
The largest living goose is that called the Chinese, Guinea or
swan-goose, Cygnopsis cygnoides, and this is the stock whence
the domestic geese of several eastern countries have sprung.
It may often he seen in English parks, and it is found to cross
readily with the common tame goose, the offspring being fertile,
1 See Sclater and Salvin, Prot. Zool. Society (1876). PP- 361-369.
« The etymology of these two words is exceedingly obscure.
The ordinary spelling bcmicle seems to be wrong, if we may judge
from the analogy of the French Bernache. In both words the t
should he sounded as a.
• The old fable, perhaps still believed by the uneducated in some
C ol the world, was that bemacle-geese were produced from the
teles (lepadidae) that grow on timber exposed to salt-water.
GOOSE (GAME CH^UGOOSEBERRY 443
and Blyth hats said that these croons an very abundant in India
The true hone of the species is in eastern Siberia or Mongolia.
It is distinguished by its long smooth neck, marked dorsally
by a chocolate streak. The. reclaimed form is usually distin¬
guished by the knob at the base of the bill, bat the evidence of
many observers shows that this is not found in the wiki tame.
Of this bird there is a perfectly white breed.
We have next to mention a very curious form, Cereopsis
novac-hoUandiae, which is peculiar to Australia, and is a more
terrestrial type of goose than any other now existing. Its short,
decurved bill and green efere give it a very peculiar expression,
and its almost uniform grey plumage, bearing rounded black
spots, is also remarkable. It bears captivity well, breeding in
confinement, but is now seldom seen. It appears to have been
formerly very abundant m many parts of Australia, from which
it has of late been exterminated. Some of its peculiarities seem
to have been still more exaggerated in a bird that is wholly
extinct, the Cnemiornis calcitrant of New Zealand, the remains
of which were described in full by Sir R. Owen in 1873
{Trans. Zool. Society, ix. 253). Among the first portions of this
singular bird that were found were the tibiae, presenting an
extraordinary development of the patella, which, united with
the shank-bone, gave rise to the generic name applied. For some
time the affinity of the owner of this wonderful structure was
in doubt, but all hesitation was dispelled by the discovery of a
nearly perfect skeleton, now in the British Museum, which proved
the bird to be a goose, of great size, and unable, from the shortness
of its wings, to fly. In correlation with this loss of power may
also be noted the dwindling of the keel of the sternum. Generally,
however, its osteological characters point to an affinity to Cere-
apsis, as was noticed by Dr Hector (Trans. New Zeal. Institute,
vi. 76-84), who first determined its Anserine character.
Birds of the genera Chenalopex (the Egyptian and Orinoco
geese), Plectropterus, Sarcidiornis, Chlamyiiochett and some others,
are commonly called geese. It seems uncertain whether they
should be grouped with the Anserinae. The males of all, like
those of the above-mentioned genus Chloephaga, appear to have
that curious enlargement at the junction of the bronchial tubes
and the trachea which is so characteristic of the ducks or
Analinae. (A. N.)
GOOSE (Game ok), an ancient French game, said to have been
derived from the Greeks, very popular at the close of the middle
ages. It was played on a piece of card-board upon which was
drawn a fantastic scroll, called the jarditt de. VOie (goose-garden),
divided into 63 spaces marked with certain emblems, such os
dice, an inn, a bridge, a labyrinth, &c. The emblem inscribed on
1 and 63, as well as every ninth space between, was a goose.
The object was to land one’s counter in number 63, the number
of spaces moved through being determined by throwing two
dice. The counter was advanced or retired according to the space
on which it was placed. For instance if it rested on the inn it
must remain there until each adversary, of which there might
be several, had played twice; if it rested on the death's head
the player must begin over again ; if it went beyond 63 it must
be retired a certuin number of spaces. The game was usually
played for a stake, and special fines were exacted for resting on
certain spaces. At the end of the r8th century a variation of
the game was called the jeu de la Revolution Frangaise.
GOOSEBERRY, Ribes Grossularia, a well-known fruit-bush
of northern and central Europe, placed in the same genus of
the natural order to which it gives name (Ribesiaceae) as the
closely allied currants. It forms a distinct section Grossularia,
the members of which differ from the true currants chiefly in
their spinous stems, and in their flowers growing on short foot¬
stalks, solitary, or two or three together, instead of in racemes.
The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly re¬
sembling the cultivated plant,—the branches being thickly
set with sharp spines, standing out singly or in diverging tufts
of two or three from the bases of the short spurs or lateral leaf
shoots, on which the bell-shaped flowers are produced, singly
or in pairs, from the groups of rounded, deeply-crenated 3- or 5-
lobed leaves. The fruit is smaller than in the garden kinds,
but is often of'good flavour ; it is generally hairy, but in eae
variety smooth, constituting the R. Vtm-crispa of writntn; the
colour is usually green, but plants an occasionally met with
having deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in
Europe and western Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets
and. rocky woods in the tower country, from France eastward,
perhaps as far as the Himalaya. In Britain it is often found in
copses and hedgerows and about old mins, but has been so long
a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to decide upon its claim
to a place in the native flora of the island. Common as it isnow
on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont sad Savoy,
it is uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the
gooseberry, though it may possibly be alluded to in a vague
passage of Pliny: the hot summers of Italy, in ancient times as
at present, would be unfavourable to its cultivatipn. Abundant
in Germany and France, it does not appear to have been much
grown there in the middle ages, though the wild fruit was held
in some esteem medicinally for the cooling properties of its acid
juice in fevers; while the old English name, Feu-berry, still
surviving in some provincial dialerts, indicates that it was
similarly valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens
at a comparatively early period. William Turner describes the
gooseberry in his Uerball, written about the middle of the 16th
century, and a few years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas
Tusser’s quaint rhymes as an ordinary object of garden culture.
Improved varieties were probably first raised by the skilful
gardeners of Holland, whose name for the fruit, Kruisbetie, may
have been easily corrupted into the present English vernacular
word. 1 Towards the end of the i$th century the gooseberry
became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially in
Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised
numerous varieties from seed, their efforts having been chiefly
directed to increasing the size of the fruit. Of the many hundred
sorts enumerated in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal
in flavour some of the older denizens of the fruit-garden, such
as the “ old rough red ” and “ hairy amber." The climate of
the British Islands seems peculiarly adapted to bring the goose¬
berry to perfection, and it may be grown successfully even in
the most northern parts of Scotland ; indeed, the flavour of the
fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In Norway
even, the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up
to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63“.
The dry summers of the French and German plains are less
suited to it, though it is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable
success. The gooseberry in the south of England will grow well
in cool situations, and may be sometimes seen in gardens near
London flourishing under the partial shade of apple trees; but
in the north it needs full exposure to the sun to bring the fruit
to perfection. It will succeed in almost any soil, but prefers a
rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a plant of
rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained.
The varieties are most easily propagated by cuttings planted
in the autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few yean form
good fruit-bearing bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails
regarding the mode of pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable
that in different situations it may require varying treatment.
The fruit being borne on the lateral spurs, and on the thoots of
the last year, it is the usual practice to shorten the side branches
in the winter, before the buds begin to expand ; some reduce the
longer leading shoots at the same time, while others prefer to
nip off the ends of these in the summer while they are still
1 The first part of the word has been usually treated as an ety¬
mological corruption either of this Dutch word or the allied Ger.
Krausbeere, or of the earlier forms of the Fr. groseiUt. The New
English Dictionary takes the obvious derivation from " goose "and
" berry " as probable; " the grounds on which plants and fruits
have received names associating them with animals are so commonly
inexplicable, that the want of appropriateness in the meaning affords
no sufficient ground for assuming that the word Is an etymologizing
corruption." Skeat (Etym. Did., 1808) connects the French, Dutch
and German words, and finds the origin In the M.H.G. hr us, curling,
crisped, applied here to the hairs on the fruit. The French word
was latinised aa grestularia and confused with gtoseus, thick, fat.
2+4
•GOOSEBERRY
«■««»«»>■ Whan large <ruit ■ desitwi, plenty of manure should
be (applied to the root*, end the greater portion of the berried
picked off while still smell, If standards ere desired, the goose*
Berry may be with advantage grafted or budded on nodes of
some other species of Ribts, R. aurtum, the ornamental golden
Currant of the flower garden, answering well for the purpaee. The
giant gooseberries of the Lancashire “ hinders " are obtained
by the careful culture of varieties specially raised with this
object, the growth being encouraged by abundant manuring, and
the removal of all but a very few berries from each plant. Single
gooseberries of nearly s oz. in weight have been occasionally
exhibited ; but the produce of such fanciful horticulture is
generally insipid. The bushes at times suffer much from the
lavages of the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth,
Abraxas grossulariata, which often strip the branches of leaves
in the early summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is
accomplished. The most effectual way of getting rid of this
pretty but destructive insect is to look over each bush carefully,
and pick off the larvae by hand; when larger they may be
shaken off by striking the branrhes, but by that time the harm
is generally done—the eggs are laid on the leaves of the previous
season. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva
of the V-moth, Halias venaria, which often appears in great
numbers, and is not so reudily removed. The gooseberry is
sometimes attacked by the grub of the gooseberry sawfly.
Mental us ribrsit, of which several broods appear in the course of
the spring and summer, and ore very destructive. The grubs
bury themselves in the ground to pass into the pupal state;
the first brood of flies, hatched just as the bushes are coming into
leaf in the spring, lay their eggs on the lower side of the leaves,
where the small greenish larvuc soon after emerge. For the
destruction of the first broods it has been recommended to syringe
the bushes with tar-water; perhaps a very weak solution of
carbolic acid might prove more effective. The powdered root
of white hellebore is said to destroy both this grub and the
caterpillars of the gooselierry moth and V-moth; infusion of
foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise tried by some growers.
If the fullen leaves arc carefully removed from the ground in the
autumn and burnt, and the surface of the soil turned over with
the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids will lie destroyed.
The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the
early settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities
of the green fruit are produced and sold for culinary use in the
towns ; but the excessive heat of the American summer is not
adapted for the healthy maturation of the berries, especially of
the English varieties. Perhaps if some of these, or those raised
in the country, could he crossed with one of the indigenous
species, kinds might he obtained better fitted for American
conditions of culture, ulthough the gooselierry does not readily
hybridize. The attacks of the American goosoherry mildew
have largely con-
tributed to the
K 4. failure of the crop
WMf? in America.
which forms little
cups with white
torn edges clus¬
tered together on
Fig. i. — A Fungal Disease of the Gooseberry reddish spots on
{Aeadium (.rout tlariat.) the leaves or fruits
I, 1 /eai showing patches of cluster-cups on /«„ i. u,
surface; j, Fruit, showing some; 3, Cluster-I 1 *' , "
cups much enlarged. recently lieen dis
covered that the
spore* contained in the** cups win not reproduce the disease on
the gooseberry, but infect species of Cam (sedges) on which
they produce a fungus of a totally different appearance. This
stage in the life-history of the parasite givea' its name to the
whoiefungus,so that it is now known as Pttarinia Pringsheiman*.
Boris wedospares , and ,
tdeutospores are formed
on the sedge, and the
latter live through the
winter and produce tile
disease on the goose¬
berry in the succeeding
year. In cases where
the disease proves
troublesome the sedges
in the neighbourhood
should be destroyed.
A much more pre¬
valent disease is that
caused by Mitro-
sphaeria Gressulariae.
This is a mildew grow¬
ing on the surface of
the leaf and sending
suckers into the epi¬
dermis. The white
mycelium gives the
leaves of the plant the
appearance of having
been whitewashed
(fig. 2). Numerous
white spores are pro-
- From GwrgsMauM'i Ttrt-Rook efPlant THttasu,
by yenainttwi of Uuckwortb Si Co.
Flu. 2.—Gooseberry Mildew (.Microspbaeria
Gressulariae.)
1, Leaf attacked fey the fungus; 2,
Fructification or perithecium (x 75) ; the
end of one of its numerous appendages
duced in the summer is shown more highly magnified (x 300)
which are able to gcr- ln 3 , 4 , 5 , spore sacs (aset) from the ^cri¬
minate immediately, ‘ hec " ,m ’ containin S s P ores < * 4 00 >-
and later small blackish fruits ( peritheeia) are produced that pass
uninjured through the winter liberating the spores they contain
in the spring,
which infect the
young developing
leaves of the
bush. In bad
cases the plants
are greatly in¬
jured but fre¬
quently little
harm is done.
Attacked plants
should be sprayed
with potassium
sulphide.
An allied fun¬
gus, Sphaerotheca
mors-uvae, of
much greater vir¬
ulence, has re¬
cently appeared in
England, causing
the disease known
as “ American
gooselierry mil¬
dew” (fig. 3A). ln
the main themode
of attack is simi¬
lar to that of the
last - mentioned,
but not only me
the leaves at¬
tacked, but the
tips of the young
shoots and the
fruits become
covered by the
cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the
death of the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a
From the Journal of the Board of dfoitwftttre (Mny IQ07),
by pvrmlwion erf the iJept. of Agriculture and Tooliuicul
Instruction for Ireland.
Fig. 3A.—American Gooseberry Mildew ( Sphaer -
otheca mors-uvae). Plant with leaves and fruit
attacked by the fungus.
GOOTr—GORAKHPUR 345
tima the mycelium becomes rusty brown and produce* the
winter form of the fungus. Through the winter the shoots
are covered thickly with the brown mycelium and in the opting
the spores contained in the peritbecia germinate and start the
infection anew, as in the case of the European mildew. This
fungus has recently been the subject of legislation,, and when it
appears in a district strong repressive measures aw called for.
In bad cases the attacked bushes should be destroyed, while in
milder attacks frequent spraying with potassium sulphide and
the pruning off and immediate destruction by fire of all the
young shoots showing the mildew should be resorted to.
The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a fine wine by the fermenta¬
tion of the juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling
liquor retaining much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly
treating the juice of the green fruit, picked just before it ripens,
an effervescing wine is produced, nearly resembling some kinds
of champagne, and, when skilfully prepared, far superior to
Ftc. jb.— 1, Fructification (ptritheciim) bursting, asms containing
spores protruding ( x 4001; 2, Ascus with spares more highly magnified
( x looo).
much of the liquor sold under that name. Brandy lias been
made from ripe gooseberries by distillation; by exposing the
juice with sugar to the acetous fermentation a good vinegar
may be obtained. The gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains
a large quantity of sugar, most abundant in the red and amber
varieties; in the former it amounts to from 6 to upwards of
8 %. The acidity of the fruit is chiefly due to malic acid.
Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit,
though none have as yet been brought under economic culture.
Among them may be noticed R. oxyacanthoides and R. Cynosbali,
abundant in Canada and the northern parts of the United States,
and R. cradle, common along the Alleghany range. Tlte
group is a widely distributed one in the north temperate zone,-—
one species is found in Europe extending to the Caucasus and
North Africa (Atlas Mountains), five occur in Asia and nineteen
in North America, the range extending southwards to Mexico
and Guatemala.
GOOTY, a town and hill lortress in southern India, in the
Anantapur district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary. Pop. (ryor)
9682. The town is surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connected
by a wall. On the highest of these stands the citadel, 2100 ft.
above sea-level and 1000 ft. above the surrounding country.
Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao Ghorpade, a famous
Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was ultimately
starved into surrender by Ilayder Ali in 1775.
GOPHER ( Tcstudo polyphtmus), the only living representative
on the North American continent of the genus Testudo of the
family Testudinidae or land tortoises; it occurs in the south¬
eastern parts of the United Slates, from Florida in the south to
the river Savannah in the north. Its carapace, which is oblong
and remarkably compressed, measures from 12-18 in. in extreme
length, the shields which cover it being grooved, and of a yellow-
brown colour. It is characterized by the shape of the front lobe
of the plastron, which is bent upwards and extends beyond the
carapace, the gopher abounds chiefly in the forests, but
occasionally visits the open plains, where it does great damage,
especially to the potato crops,on which it feeds. It is a nocturnal
anunal, remaining concealed by day in its deep burrow, and
cqming forth at night to feed. The eggs, five in number, almost
round and e| in. in diameter, ore laid in a separata oarity hear
the entrance. The flesh of the gopher or mungofa, as it M alee
called, is ooroudnred exoeliest caitmg.
The name “ gopher ” is more commonly applied to certain
small rodent mammals, particularly the pocket-gopher.
GOPMMfiKN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wfirttom*
berg, on the right bank of the Fils, as m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on
the railway to Friedricshafen. Pop. (ryoy) *0,870. It possesses
a castle built, partly with stones from the ruined castleof Hofaen-
staufen, by Duke Christopher of Wurttemberg in the 16th century
and now used as public offices, two Evangelical churches, a
Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, a classical school, and a
modern school.' The manufactures are considerable and include
linen and woollen doth, leather, glue, paper and toys. There sue
machine shops and tanneries in the town. Three'in. N. of the
town are the ruins of the castle of Hohenstaufen. Gdppingen
originally belonged to the house of Hohenstaufen, and in 1370
came into possession of the counts of Wilrttemberg. It was
surrounded by walls in 1120, and was almost entirely rebuilt after
afire in 1783.
See Heiflor, Beschttibuut; unit GtschicMt der Stait Gippiugtn
GORAKHPUR, a city, district and division of the United
Provinces of British India. The city is situated on the left bank
of the river Rapti. Pop. (1901) 64,148. It is believed to have
been founded about 1400 a.i>. ft is the civil headquarters of the
district and was formerly a military cantonment. It consists of
a number of adjacent village sites, sometimes separated by
cultivated land, and most of the inhabitant* are agriculturists.
The District of Gorakhfik has an arte of 4535 sq. m. It
lies immediately south of the lower Himalayan slope*, but itself
forms u portion of the great alluvia! plain. Only a few sandhills
break the monotony of it* level surface, which is,however, inter¬
sected by numerous rivers studded with lakes and marshes. In
the north and centre dense forests almond, and the whole country
has a verdant appeurance. The principal rivers are the Rapti,
the Gogra, the Gawluk and Little Gandak, the Kuana, the Rohin,
the Ami and the Gunghi. Tigers are Iuund in the north, and
many other wild animals abound throughout the district. The
lakes arc well stocked with fish. The district is not subject to
very intense heut, from which it is secured by its vicinity to the
hills and the moisture of its soil. Dust-storms arc rare, and cool
breezes from the north,rushing down the gorges of the Himalayas,
succeed each short interval of warm weather. The climate is,
however, relaxing. The southern and eastern portions are as
healthy as most parts of the province, but the iarai and forest-
tracts are still subject to malariu.
Gautama Buddha, the founder of the religion liearinghis-Rame,
was born and died near the boundaries of the district. From the
beginning of the 6th century the country Vas the scene of a con¬
tinuous struggle between the Bhars und their An an antagonists,
the Rathors. About 900 the Domhatars or military Brahmans
appeared, and expelled the Rathors from the town of Gorakhpur,
but they also were soon driven back by other invaders. During
the 15th and 16th centuries, after the district had beep desolated
by incessant war, the descendants of the various conquerors held
parts of the territory, and each seems to have lived quite isolated,
os no bridges or roads attest any intercourse with each other.
Towards die end of the z6th century Mussulmans occupied
Gorakhpur town, but they interfered very little with the district,
and allowed it to be controlled by the native rajas. In the
middle of the 18th century a formidable foe, the Banjarasfrom the
west, so weakened the power of the rajas that they could not resist
the fiscal exactions of the Oudh officials, who plundered the
country to a great extent. The district formed part of the
territory cededby Oudh to the British under the treaty of i8or.
During the Mutiny it was lost for a short time, but under the
friendly Gurkhas Hie rebels were driven out The population in
1901 was 3,957*074, showing a decrease of 3 % in the decade.
The district is traversed by tee main line and several branches of
tee Bengal & North-Western railway, and the Gandak, the Gogra
and the Rapti are navigable. .
GORAI^UQO&GHAKOV
246
Hie Division has an area of 9534 sq. m. The population in
1901 was 6,333,012, giving an average density of 664 persons per
sq. m., being more than one to every acre, and the highest for
any huge tract in India.
GORAL, the native name of a small Himalayan rough-haired
and cylindricai-homed ruminant classed in the same group as the
chamois. Scientifically this animal is known as Urotragus (or
Cemas) gored ; and the native name is now employed as the
designation of all the other members of the same genus. In
addition to certain peculiarities in the form of the skull, gorals
arc chiefly distinguished from serows (q.v.) by not possessing a
gland below the eye, nor a corresponding depression in the skull.
Several species are known, ranging from the Himalaya to Burma,
Tibet and North China. 01 these, the two Himalayan gorals
(U. goral and U. bedfordi) are usually found in small parties, but
less commonly in pairs. They generally frequent grassy hills, or
rocky ground clothed with forest; in fine weather feeding only
in the mornings and evenings, but when the sky is cloudy grazing
throughout the day.
GORAMY, or (Iouhamy (Osphromcnus ol/ax), reputed to be one
of the best-flavoured freshwater fishes in the East Indian archi¬
pelago. Its original home is Java, Sumatra, Borneo and several
other East Indian islands, but thence it has been transported to
and acclimatized in Penang, Malacca, Mauritius and even
Cayenne. Being an almost omnivorous fish and tenacious of life,
Uoramy.
it seems to recommend itself particularly for acclimatization in
other tropical countries ; and specimens kept in captivity become
as tame as carps. It attains the size of a large turbot. Its
shape is flat and short, the body covered with large scales; the
dorsal and anal fins arc provided with numerous spines, and
the ventral fins produced into long filaments. Like Anabas,
the climbing perch, it possesses a suprabranchial accessory
respiratory organ.
GdRBERSDORF, a village and climatic health resort of
Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, romantically
situated in a deep and well-wooded valley of the Waldenburg
range, 1900 ft. above the sea, 60 m. S.W. of Breslau by the
railway to Friedland and 3 m. from the Austrian frontier. Pop.
700. It has four large sanatoria for consumptives, the earliest of
which was founded in 1854 by Hermann Brehmer (1826-1889).
GORBODUC, a mythical king of Britain. He gave his kingdom
away during his lifetime to his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex.
The two quarrelled and the younger stabbed the elder. Their
mother, loving the latter most, avenged his death by murdering
her son, and the people, horrified at her act, revolted and
murdered both her and King Gorboduc. This legend was the
subject of the earliest regular English tragedy which in 1561
was played before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple hall.
It was written hv Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst and
Thomas Norton in collaboration. Under the title of Gorboduc it
was published first very corruptly in 1565, and in better form as
The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex in 1570.
GORCHAKOV, or Goktchakost, a noble Russian family,
descended from Michael Vsevolodovich, prince of Chernigov,
who, hi 1246, was assassinated by the Mongols. Prince Andrey
Ivanovich (i768-i855) f4 general in the Russian army, took a
conspicuous part in the final campaigns against Napoleon.
Alexander Ivanovich (1769-1825) served with distinction
under his relative Suvarov in the Turkish Wars, and took part
as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799,
and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806-1807 (battle
of Heilsbeig). Petr Dmitrievich (1790-1868) served tinder
Kamenski and Kutusov in the campaign against Turkey, and
afterwards against France in 1813-1814. In 1820 he suppressed
an insurrection in the Caucasus, for which service he was raised
to the rank of major-general. In 18*8-1829 he fought under
Wittgenstein against the Turks, won an action at Aldus, and
signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made
governor of Eastern Siberia, and in 1851 retired into private
life. When the Crimean War broke out he offered his services
to the emperor Nicholas, by whom he was appointed general of
the VI. army corps in the Crimea. He commanded the corps
in the battles of Alma and Ihkerman. He retired in 1855 and
died at Moscow, on the 18th of March 1868.
Prince Mikhaii. Dmitrievich (1795-1861), brother of the
last named, entered the Russian army in 1807 and took part
in the campaigns against Persia in 1810, and in 1812-1815
against France. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829
he was present at the sieges of Silistria and Shumla. After
being appointed, in 1830, a general officer, he was present in the
campaign in Poland, and was wounded at the battle of Grorhow,
on the 25th of February 1831. He also distinguished himself
at the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. For
these services he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general.
In 1846 he was nominated military governor of Warsaw. In
1849 he commanded the Russian artillery in the war against the
Hungarians, and in 1852 he visited London as a representative
of the Russiun army at the funeral of the duke of Wellington.
At this time he was chief of the staff of the Russian army and
adjutant-general to the tsar. Upon Russia declaring war
against Turkey in 1853, he was appointed commander-in-chief
of the troops which occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1854
he crossed the Danube and besieged Silistria, but was superseded
in April by Prince Paskevich, who, however, resigned on the 8th
of June, when Gorchakov resumed the command. In July
the siege of Silistria was raised, and the Russian armies recrossed
the Danube ; in August they withdrew to Russia. In 1855 he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the
Crimea in place of Prince Menshikov. Gorchakov’s defence of
Sevastopol, and final retreat to the northern part of the town,
which he continued to defend till peace was signed in Paris, were
conducted with skill and energy. In 1856 he was appointed
governor-general of Poland m succession to Prince Paskevich.
He died at Warsaw on the 30th of May 1861, and was buried,
in accordance with his own wish, at Sevastopol.
Prince Gorchakov, Alexander Mikhailovich (1798-1883),
Russian statesman, cousin of Princes Petr and Mikhail Gorchakov,
was bom on the 16th of July 1798, and was educated at the
lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, where he had the poet Pushkin as a
school-fellow. He became a good classical scholar, and learnt
to speak and write in French with facility and elegance. Pushkin
in one of his poems described young Gorchakov as “ Fortune’s
favoured son,” and predicted his success. On leaving the lyceum
Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode.
His first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a
marriage between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince
Charles of Wiirttcmberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some
years as Russian minister and confidential adviser of the crown
princess. He foretold the outbreak of the revolutionary spirit
in Germany and Austria, and was credited with counselling the
abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis Joseph. When the
German confederation was re-established in 1850 in place of the
parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed Russian
minister to the diet. It was here that he first met Prince
Bismarck, with whom he formed a friendship which was after¬
wards renewed at St Petersburg. The emperor Nicholas found
that his ambassador at Vienna, Baron Meyendorff, was not a
sympathetic instrument for carrying out his Schemes in the East.
He therefore transferred Gorchakov, to Vienna, where the latter
remained through the critical period of the Crimean War.
GORDlAN^iJiGORDIUM
Gorchakov perceived that Russian designs against Turkey,
supported by .Great Britain and France, were impracticable,
and he counselled Russia to make no mom useless sacrifices,
but to accept the bases of a pacification. At the same time,
although he attended the Paris conference of 1856, .he putposely
abstained from affixing his signature to the treaty .of peace after
that of Count Orlov, Russia’s ohief representative. For the time,
however, he made a virtue of necessity, and Alexander 11 .,
recognizing the wisdom and courage which Gorchakov had
exhibited, appointed him minister of foreign affairs in place of
Count Nesselrode. Not lung after his accession to office Gorcha¬
kov issued a circular to the foreign powers, in which he announced
that Russia proposed, for internal reasons, to keep herself as
free as possible from complications abroad, and he added the
now historic phrase, “ La Russie nt boude pas; die st recutille.’'
During the Polish insurrection Gorchakov rebuffed the sugges¬
tions of Great Britain, Austria and France for assuaging the
severities employed in quelling it, and he was especially acrid
in his replies to Earl Russell’s despatches. In July 1863
Gorchakov was appointed chancellor of the Russian empire
expressly in reward for his bold diplomatic attitude towards an
indignant Europe. The appointment was hailed with enthusiasm
in Russia, and at that juncture Prince Chancellor Gorchakov
was unquestionably the most powerful minister in Europe.
An approchement now began between the courts of Russia and
Prussia ; and in 1863 Gorchakov smoothed the way for the
occupation of Holstein by the Federal troops. This seemed
equally favourable to Austria and Prussia, but it was the latter
power which gained all the substantial advantages; and when
the conflict arose between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Russia
remained neutral and permitted Prussia to reap the fruits and
establish her supremacy in Germany. When the Franco-German
War of 1870-71 broke out Russia answered for the neutrality
of Austria. An attempt was made to form an anti-Prussian
coalition, but it failed in consequence of the cordial understanding
between the German and Russian chancellors. In return for
Russia’s service in preventing the aid of Austria from being
given to France, Gorchakov looked to Bismarck for diplomatic
support in the Eastern Question, and he received an instalment
of the expected support when he successfully denounced the
Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. This was justly regarded
by him as an important service to his country and one of the
triumphs of his career, and he hoped to obtain further successes
with the assistance of Germany, but the cordial relations between
the cabinets of St Petersburg and Berlin did not subsist much
longer. In 1875 Bismarck was suspected of a design of again
attacking France, and Gorchakov gave him to understand, in a
way which was not meant to be offensive, but which roused the
German chancellor’s indignation, that Russia would oppose any
such scheme. The tension thus produced between the two
statesmen was increased by the political complications of 1875-
1878 in south-eastern Europe, which began with the Herze¬
govinian insurrection and culminated at the Berlin congress.
Gorchakov hoped to utilize the complications in such a way as
to recover, without war, the portion of Bessarabia ceded by the
treaty of Paris, but he soon lost control of events, and the
Slavophil agitation produced the Russo-Turkish campaign of
1877-78. By the preliminary peace of San Stefano the
Slavophil aspirations seemed to be realized, but the stipulations
of that peace were considerably modified by the congress of
Berlin (13th June to 13th July 1878), at which the aged chancellor
held nominally the post of first plenipotentiary, but left to the
second plenipotentiary, Count Shuvalov, not only the task of
defending Russian interests, but also the responsibility and
odium for the concessions which Russia had to make to Great
Britain and Austria. He had the satisfaction of seeing the lost
portion of Bessarabia restored to his country by the Berlin
treaty, but at the cost of greater sacrifices than he anticipated.
After the congress he continued to hddthepost of minister for
foreign affaire, but lived chiefly abroad, and resigned formally in
1882, when he was succeeded by H. de Giers. He died at Baden-
Baden on the nth at March 1883. Prince Gorchakov devoted
*4-7
himself entirely to foreign affairs, and toofc'no paft in the great
interred reforms of Alexander IL’s reign. As a diplomatist he
displayed many brilliant q«drt»—adroitness m negotiation,
incisiveness in argument and elegance in style. His statement
ship, though maned occasionally by personal vanity and.love
of popular applause, was far-seeing and prudent. In the Jaitter
part of his career ids main object was to raise the prestige of
Russia by undoing the results of the Crimean War, and it may
fairly be said that he in great measure succeeded. (D. M. W.)
GORDIAN, or Gordianus, the name of three Roman
emperors. The first, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus
Romanus Africanus (a.d. 159-238), an extremely wealthy man,
was descended from the Gracchi and Trajan, while his wue was
the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius. While he gained
unbounded popularity by his magnificent games and shows, hi*
prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicionof Caracalla,
in whose honour he wrote a long epic called Antonimas. Alexander
Severus called him to the dangerous honours of government in
Africa, and during his proconsulship occurred the usurpation of
Maximin. The universal discontent roused by the oppressive rule
ol Maximin culminated in a revolt in Africa in 238, and Gordian
reluctantly yielded to the popular clamour and assumed the
purple. His son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus (192-238), was
associated with him in the dignity. The senate confirmed the
choice of the Africans, and most of the provinces gladly sided
with the new emperors; but, e\ en while their cause was so
successful abroad, they had fallen before the sudden inroad of
CappelliunuB, legatus of Numidia and a supporter of Maximin.
They had reigned only thirty-six days. Both the Gordians had
deserved by their amiable character "their high reputation; they
were men of great accomplishments, fond of literature, and
voluminous authors ; but they were rather intellectual voluptu¬
aries than able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced
the cause of Gordian, the senate was obliged to continue the
revolt against Maximin, and appointed Pupiemia Maximus
and Caeiius Baihinus, two of its noblest and most esteemed
members, as joint emperors. At their inauguration a sedition
arose, and the popular outcry for a Gordian was appeased
by the association with them of M. Antonius Gordianus
Pius (224-244), grandson of the elder Gordian, then a boy of
thirteen. Maximin forthwith invaded Italy, but was murdered
by his own troops while besieging Aquileia, and a revolt of the
{ iraetorian guards, to which Pupienus and Balbinus fell victims,
eft Gordian sole emperor. For some time he was under the
control of his mother's eunuchs, till Timesitheus, 1 his father-in-
law and praefect of the praetorian guard, persuaded him to assert
his independence. When the Persians under Shapur (Sapor) 1 .
invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the temple of
Janus for the last time recorded in history, and marched in person
to the East. The Persians were driven balk over the Euphrates
and defeated in the battle of Resaena (243), and only the death
of Timesitheus (under suspicious circumstances) prevented an
advance into the enemy’s territory. Philip the Arabian, who
succeeded Timesitheus, stirred up discontent in the army, and
Gordian was murdered by the mutinous soldiers in Mesopotamia.
See lives of the Gordians by Capitolinus in the Scriptores kistoruu
Augustas ; Herodian via vui.; Zosimus i. 16, 18; Ammianua
Marcellinus xxiii. 5 ; Eutropius ix. 2; Aurelius Victor, Cursor es,
27; article Shapur ( 1 .); Pnuly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie, i.
2610 f. (von Rehden).
GORDIUM, an ancient city of Phrygia situated on the Persian
“ Royal road ’’ from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the
Sangarius. It lies opposite the village Pebi, a little north of
the point where the Constantinople-Angora railway crosses the
Sangarius. It is not to beconfused with Gordiou-kome, refounded
as Juliopolis, a Bithynian town on a small tributary of the
Sangarius, about 47 m. in an air-line N.W. of Gordium. Accord¬
ing to the legend, Gordium was founded by Gordius, a Phrygian
peasant who had been called to the throne by his countrymen in
obedience to an oracle of Zeus commanding them to select the
first person that rode up to the temple of the god in a wagon.
The king afterwards dedicated his car to the god, and another
1 For this name see footnote to Srapcr.
* 4 $ GORDON (TAMIL Y)^-GORDON, A.
erode declared that whoever aueceeded in untying the strangely
entwined knot of cornel beck which hetrad the yoke to the pole
should reign over all Asia. Alexander the Great, according to
the story, cut the knot by a stroke of his sword. Gordium was
captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon after 189 B.C. and
disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small vtttage
existed on the site. Excavations made in 1900 by two German
scholars, G. and A. Koerte, revealed practically no remains later
than the middle of the 6th century a.r. (when Phrygia fell under
Persian power).
Sec Juhrtmch dot institute, Erjtaniunasiieft v. (1904). (J.G.C.A.)
GORDON, the name of a Scottish family, no fewer than 157
main branches of which arc traced by the family historians. A
laird of Gorden, in Berwickshire, near the English border, is said
to have fallen in the buttle of the Standard (11,48). The families
of the two sons ascribed to him by tradition, Richard Gordon of
Gordon and Adam Gordon of Huntly, were united by the marriage
of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir Adam, whose grandson
Sir Adam (killed at Halidon Hill, 1333) at first took the English
side in the Scottish struggle for independence, and is the first
member of the family definitely to emerge into history. He was
justiciar of Scotland in 1310, but after Bannockburn he attached
himself to Robert Bruce, who granted him in 1318 the lordship of
Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire, to which Gordon gave the name of
Huntlv from a village on the Gordon estate in Berwickshire. He
had two sons, Adam and William. The younger son, laird of
Stitchel in Roxburghshire, was the ancestor of William de
Gordon of Stitchel and Lochinvar, founder of the Galloway
branch of the family represented in the Scottish peerage by the
dormant viscounty of Kenmtire (q.v.), created in 1633 ; most of
the Irish and Virginian Gordons are offshoots of this stock. The
elder son, Adam, inherited the Gordon-Hnntly estates. He had
two grandsons,Sir john (d. 1304) and Sir Adam (slain at Homildon
Hill, 1403). Sir John had two illegitimate sons, Jock of Scur-
darguc, the ancestor of the earls of Aberdeen, and Tam of
Ruthven. From these two stocks most of the northern Gordon
families are derived. Sir Adam’s daughter and heiress, Elisabeth,
married Sir Alexander SeIon, and with her husband was confirmed
in 1408 in the possession of the barony of Gordon and Hunt!)' in
Berwickshire and of the Gordon lands m Aberdeen. The Seton-
Gordons are their descendants. Their son Alexander was created
ear! of Huntly (see Hiwtlv, Eakls and Mamjwxsses of),
probably in 1445 ; and his heirs became dukes of Gordon, George
Gordon (r. 1630-1716), 4th marquess of Huntlv, being created
duke of Gordon in 1684. lie had lieen educated in a French
Catholic seminary, and served in the French army in the cam¬
paigns of 1673 to 1675. Under James II. he was made keeper of
Edinburgh Castle on account of his religion, but he refused to
support James's efforts to impose Roman Catholicism on his
subjects. He offered little active resistance When the castle was
besieged by William UI.’s forces. After his submission he was
more than once imprisoned on suspicion of Jacobite leanings, and
was ordered by George I. to reside on parole in Edinburgh. For
some time before his duath he was separated from his wife Elizabeth
Howard, daughter of the 6th duke of Norfolk. His son Alexander,
and duke of Gordon (r. 1678-1718), joined the Old Pretender, but
gained the royal pardon after the surrender of Gordon Castle in
>716. Of his children by his wife Henrietta Mordaunt, second
daughter of Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough, Cosmo
George (c. 1730-1752) succeeded 3rd duke; Lord Lewis Gordon
(d. 1754) took an active part in the Jacobite rising of 1745 ; and
General Lard Adam Gordon (c. 1726-1801) became commander of
the forces in Scotland in 1782, and governor of Edinburgh Castle
in 1786. .Lord George Gordon (q.v.) was a younger son of the
3rd duke.
The title, with the earldom of Norwich and the barony of
Gordon Huntly, became extinct on the death of George, 5th
duke (1770-1836), a distinguished soldier .who raised the corps
now known as the and battalion of the Gordon Highlanders.
The marqoessate of Huntly passed to his cousin and heir-mule,
Georye,, jth earl of Aboyrte. Ludy Charlotte Gordon, aiatter of
and co-heiress with the 5th duke, married Charles Lennox, 4th
duke of Richmond, whom son took the name of Gordon-Lennox.
The dukedom of Gordon was revived in 1S76 in favour of the
6th duke of Richmond, who thenceforward was styled duke of
Richmond and Gordon. Adam Gordon' of Aboyne (d. 1537)
took the courtesy title of earl of Sutherland in right of his wife
Elizabeth, countess of Sutherland in her own right, sister of the
9th earl. The lawless and turbulent Gordons of Gight wen: the
maternal ancestors of Lord Byron.
Among the many soldiers of fortune bearing the name of
Gordon was Colonel John Gordon, one of the murderers of
Wallenstein. Patrick Gordon (1635-1699) was born ait Aueh-
leuchries in Aberdeenshire, entered the service of Charles X.
of Sweden in 1651 and served against the Poles. He changed
sides more than once before he found his way to Moscow m 1661
and took service under the tsar Alexis. He became general in
1687 ; in 1688 he helped to secure Peter the Great’s ascendancy ;
and later he crushed die revolt of the Streltzi. His diary was
published in German (3 vote,, 1849-1853, Moscow and St Peters¬
burg), and selections from the English original by the Spalding
Club (Aberdeen, 1859).
The Gordons fill a considerable place m Scottish legend and
ballad. “ Captain Car,’’ or “ Edom (Adam) of Gordon ’’ describes
an incident in the struggle between the Forbeses and Gordons
in Alwrdecnahire in 1571 ; “ The Duke of Gordon’s Daughter ”
has apparently no foundation in fact, though “ Geordie ” of the
ballad is sometimes said to have been George, 4th earl of Hntttly ;
“ The Fire of Frendraught ’’ goes hack to a feud (1630) between
James Crichton of Frendraught'and William Gordon of Rothie-
may ; the “ Gallant Gordons Gay ” figure m “ Chevy Chase ” ;
William Gordon of Earlston. the Covenanter, appears in “Both-
well Bridge ” Ac.
See William Gordon (of old Aberdeen), The History of the Ament.
Noble, ami Illustrious House of Gordon (i vois., Edinburgh, 1720-
1727), of which A Concise History of the . . . House 0/ Cordon, by
C. A. Gordon (Aberdeen, rysr) is little more than an abridgment ;
The Records of Aboyne, ro;o~iMr, edited by Charles, 11th marquess
of Huntly, Ac. (New Spalding Club, A herd ceil, 1804); The Gordon
Hook, id. J. M. Bulloch (.lyes); The House 0/ Gordon, cd. J. M.
Bulloch (Alterdeun, vol. i., 1007) ; and Mr Bulloch's The Hirst Duke
of Gordon (1009).
GORDON, ADA* UNDSAT (1833-1870), Australian poet,
was born at Fayal, in the Azores, in 1833, the son of a retired
Indian officer who taught Hindustani at Cheltenham College.
Young Gordon was educated there nnd at Merton College,
Oxford, but a youthful indiscretion led to his being sent in r8j3
to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He then
became a horsehrealrer, but on his father’s death he inherited
a fortune and obtained a seat in the House of Assembly. At
this time he held the reputation of being the best non-professional
steeplechase rider in the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria
and set up a livery stable at Ballarat. Two volumes of poems,
Sea Spray and Smoke Drift and Ashtarotfi, were published in this
year, and two years later he gave up his business and settled
at New Brighton, near Melbourne. A second volume of poetry.
Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes, appeared in 1870. It
brought him more praise than emolnmertt, and, thoroughly
discouraged by his failure to make good his claim to some
property in Scotland to which he lidieved himself entitled,
he committed suicide on the 24th of Tune 1870. His reputation
rose after his death, and he became the best known and most
widely popular of Australian poets. Much of Gordon’s poetry
might have been written in England; when, however, it is
really local, it is vividly so; his genuine feeling frequently
kindles into passion ; his versification is always elastic and
sonorous, but sometimes too reminiscent of Swinburne. His
compositions are almost entirely lyrical, and their merit is
usually in proportion to the degree in which they partake of the
character of the ballad.
Gordon’s poems were collected and published in 1880 with a
biographical introduction by Marcus Clarke.
GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692-2.1754), Scottish antiquary,
is believed to have been bom in Aberdeen in 1692. He is
die “ Sandy Gordon ’’ of Scott's Antiquary. Of his parentage
and early history nothing is known. He appears to have
GORDON, C. G*
distinguished himself in classics at Aberdeen University, and to
have made a living at first by teaching languages and music.
When still young he travelled abroad, probably in the capacity of
tutor. He returned to Scotland previous to 1736, and devoted
himself to antiquarian work. In 1716 appeared the ltinerarium
SeptentrumaU, his greatest and best-known work. He was already
the friend of Sir John Clerk, of Penicuik, better known as Baron
Clerk (a baron of the exchequer); and the baron and Roger Gale
(vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries) are the “ two
gentlemen, the honour of their age and country,” whose letters
were published, without their consent it appears, as an appendix
to the ltinerarium. Subsequently Gordon was appointed secre¬
tary to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning, with an
annual salary of £50. Resigning this post, or, as there seems
reason for believing, being dismissed for carelessness in his
accounts, he succeeded Dr Stukeley as secretary to the Society
of Antiquaries, and also acted for a short time as secretary to
the Egyptian Club, an association composed of gentlemen who
had visited Egypt. In 1741 he accompanied James Glen (after¬
wards governor), to South Carolina. Through his influence Gor¬
don, besides receiving a grant of land in South Carolina, became
registrar of the province and justice of the peace, and filled
several other offices. From his will, dated the 22nd of August
1754 , it appears he had a son Alexander and a daughter Frances,
to whom he bequeathed most of his property, among which were
portraits of himself and of friends painted by his own hand.
See Sir Daniel Wilson, Alexander Gordon, the Antiquary-, anil his
Papers in the 1 ‘roieedtngs of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,
with Additional Notes and an Appendix of Original Letters by
Dr David Laing ( Proc. Soc. of Antiq. of Scot. x. 363-38z).
GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-1885), British soldier
and administrator, fourth son of General H. W. Gordon, Royal
Artillery, was bom at Woolwich on the 28th of January 1833.
lie received his early education at Taunton school, and was
given a cadetship in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
in 1848. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the
corps of Royal Engineers on the 23rd of June 1852. After
passing through a course of instruction at the Royal Engineers’
establishment, Chatham, he was promoted lieutenant in 1854,
and was sent to Pembroke dock to assist in the construction of
the fortifications then lreing erected for the defence of Milford
Haven. The Crimean War broke out shortly afterwards, and
Gordon was ordered on active service, and landed at Baloldava
on the 1st of January 1855. The siege of Sevastopol was in
progress, and he had his full share of the arduous work in the
trenches. He was attached to one of the British columns which
assaulted the Redan on the 18th of June, and was also present
at the capture of that work on the 8th of September. He took
part in the expedition to Kinburn, and then returned to Sevas¬
topol to superintend a portion of the demolition of the Russian
dockyard. After peace with Russia had been concluded, Gordon
was attached to an international commission appointed to de¬
limit the new boundary, as fixed by treaty, between Russia and
Turkey in Bessarabia; and on the conclusion of this work he
was ordered to Asia Minor on similar duty, with reference to
the eastern boundary between the two countries. While so
employed Gordon took the opportunity to make himself well
acquainted with the geography and people of Armenia, and
the knowledge of dealing with eastern nations then gained
was of great use to him in after life.
He returned to England towards the end of 1858, and was
then selected for the appointment of adjutant and field-works
instructor at the Royal Engineers’ establishment,
" and took up his new duties at Chatham after promotion
to the rank of.captain in April 1859. But his stay in England
was brief, for in 1860 war was declared against China, and
Gordon was ordered out there, arriving at Tientsin in September.
He was too late for the attack on the Taku forts, but was present
at the occupation of Peking and destruction of the Summer
Palace. He remained with the British force of occupation in
northern China until April 1862, when the British troops,
under the command of General Staveley, proceeded to Shanghai,
249
in order to protect the European settlement at that place from
the Taiping rebels. The Taiping revolt, which had some remark¬
able points of similarity with the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan,
had commenced in 1850 in the province of Kwangii. The
leader, Hung Sin Tsuan, a semi-political, semi-religious en¬
thusiast, assumed the title of Tien Wang, or Heavenly King,
and by playing on the feelings of the lower class of people gradu¬
ally collected a considerable force. The Chinese authorities
endeavoured to arrest him, but the imperialist troops were
defeated. The area of revolt extended northwards through
the provinces of Hunan and Hupeh, and down the valley of
the Yangtsze-kiang as far as the great city of Nanking, which
was captured by the rebels in 1853. Here the Tien Wang
established his court, and while spending his own time in heavenly
contemplation and earthly pleasures, sent the assistant Wangs
on warlike expeditions through the adjacent provinces. For
some years a constant struggle was maintained between the
Chinese imperialist troops and the Taipings, with varying success
on both sides. The latter gradually advanced eastwards, and ap¬
proaching the important city of Shanghai, alarmed the European
inhabitants, who subscribed to raise a mixed force of Europeans
and Manila men for the defence of the town. This force, which
was placed under the command of an American, Frederick
Townsend Ward (1831-1862), took up a position in the country
west of Shanghai to check the advance of the rebels. Fighting
continued round Shanghai for about two years, but Ward’s
force was not altogether successful, and when General Staveley
arrived from Tientsin affairs were in a somewhat critical con¬
dition. He decided to clear the district of rebels within a radius
of 30 m. from Shanghai, and Gordon was attached to his staff
as engineer officer. A French force, under the command of
Admiral Protet, co-operated with Staveley and Ward, with his
little army, also assisted. Kuhding, Singpo and other towns
were occupied, and the country was fairly cleared of rebels
by the end of 1862. Ward was, unfortunately, killed in die
assault of Tseki, and his successor, Burgevine, having had a
quarrel with the Chinese authorities, Li Hung Chang, the gover¬
nor of the Kiang-su province, requested General Staveley to
appoint a British officer to command the contingent. Staveley
selected Gordon, who had been made a brevet-major in December
1862 for his previous services, and the nomination was approved
by the British government. The choice was judicious as
further events proved. In March 1863 Gordon proceeded to
Sungkiang to take command of the force, which had received
the name of " The Ever-Victorious Army,” an encouraging
though somewhat exaggerated title, considering its previous
history. Without waiting to reorganize his troops he marched
at once to the relief of Chansu, a town 40 m. north-west of
Shanghai, which was invested by the rebels. The relief was
successfully accomplished, and the operation established Gordon
in the confidence of his troops. He then reorganized his force,
a matter of no small difficulty, and advanced against Quinsan,
which was captured, though with considerable loss. Gordon
then marched through the country, seizing town after town
from the rebels until at length the great city of Suchow was
invested by his army and a body of Chinese imperialist troops.
The city was taken on the 29th of November, and after its
capture Gordon had a serious dispute with Li Hung Chang,
as the latter had beheaded certain of the rebel leaders whose
lives the former had promised to spare if they surrendered. This
action, though not opposed to Chinese ethics, was so opposed
to Gordon’s ideas of honour that he withdrew his force from
Suchow and remained inactive at Quinsan until February
1864. He then came to the conclusion that the subjugation of
the rebels was more important than his dispute with Li, and
visited the latter in order to arrange for further operations.
By mutual consent no allusion was made to the death of the
Wangs. This was a good example of one of Gordon’s marked
characteristics, that, though a man of strong personal feelings,
he was always prepared to subdue them fur the public benefit.
He declined, however, to take any decoration or reward from
the emperor for his services at the capture of Suchow. After
GORDON, C. G.
250
the meeting with Li Hung Chang the u Ever-Victorious Army ”
tgae.t advanced and vtoi a number of towns from the rebels,
ending with Chanehufu, the principal military position of the
faipingi. Thh fell in May, when Gordon returned to Quinsan
and disbanded his force, in June the Tien Wang, seeing his
cause was hopeless, committed suicide, and the capture of Nan¬
king by the imperialist troops shortly afterwards brought the
1'aiping revolt to a conclusion. 'Jlte suppression of this serious
movement was undoubtedly due in great part to the skill and
snergy of Gordon, who had shown remarkable qualities as a
euder of men. The emperor promoted him to the rank of Titu,
:he highest grade in the Chinese army, and also gave him the
lellow Jacket, the most important decoration in China. He
vished to give him a large sum of money, but this Gordon refused,
fe was promoted lieutenant-colonel for his Chinese services,
ad made a Companion of the Bath. Henceforth he was often
amiliarly spoken of as " Chinese ” Gordon.
Gordon was appointed an his return to England Commanding
loyal Engineer at Gravesend, where he was employed in super-
utending the erection of torts for the defence of the Thumes,
le devoted himself with energy to his official duties, and his
sisure hours to prm-tical philanthropy. All the acts of kindness
'Inch he did for the |ioor during the six years he was stationed
t Gravesend will never be fully known! In October 1871 he
as appointed British representative on the international
jmmission which had been constituted after the Crimean War
> maintain the navigation of the mouth of the river Danube,
ith headquarters at Galatz. During 1872 Gordon was sent to
ispect the British military cemeteries in the Crimea, and when
assing through Constantinople on his return to Galatz he made
ic acquaintance of Nubar Pasha, prime minister of Egypt,
ho sounded him us to whether lie would take service under the
hedive. Nothing further was settled at the time, but the
illowing year he received a definite offer from the khedive,
hich he accepted with the consent of the. British government,
id proceeded to Egypt curly in 1874, He was then a colonel
1 the army, though still only a captain in the corps of Royal
ngineers.
To understand the object of the appointment which Gordon
:cepted in Egypt, it is necessary to give n few facts with refer-
ire to the Sudan. In 1820-22 Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan
»d been conquered hv Egypt, and the authority of the Egyptians
as subsequently extended southward, eastward to the Red
ta and westward over Darfur feonquered by Zobeir Pasha in
i74). One result of the Egyptian occupation of the eountrv
as that the slave trade was largely developed, especially in the
r hitc Nile and Bahr-cl-Ghazal districts. Captains Speke and
rant, who had travelled through Uganda and came down the
'hite Nile in 1863, and Sir Samuel Buker, who went up the
ime river as far as Albert Nyanza, brought back harrowing
lies of the misery caused by the slave-hunters. Public opinion
us considerably moved, anil in i860 the khedive Ismail decided
1 send an expedition up the White Nile, with the double object
■ limiting the evils of the slave trade and opening up the district
1 commerce. The command of the ex|iedition was given to
if Samuel Baker, who Tfached Khartum in Februarv 1870, but,
ving to the obstruction of the river by the sudd or grass barrier,
d not reach Gondokoro, the centre of his province, for fourteen
ontlis. He met with great difficulties, and when his four years’
rvice came to an end little had been effected beyond establishing
few posts along the Nile and placing some steamers on the river,
was to succeed Baker as governor of the equatorial regions
the khedive asked for Gordon's services, having come to
it conclusion that the latter was the most likclv person to bring
le affair to a satisfactory conclusion. After a short stay m
airo, Gordon proceeded to Khartum by wnv of Suakin and
erber, a route which be ever afterwards regarded as the best
«de of access to the Sudan. From Khartum he proceeded up
te White Nile to Gondokoro. where he arrived m twentv-four
xys, the sudd, which hat proved such an obstacle to Baker,
tviiqt been removed since the departure of the latter bv the
gvptiaa governor-general. Gordon remained in the equatorial
provinces until October 1876, and then returned to Cairo. The
two years and a half thus spent m Central Africa was a time of
incessant toil. A line of stations was established from the Sobat
confluence on the White Nile to the frontier of Uganda—to
which country he proposed to open a route from Mombasa—and
considerable progress was made in the suppression of the slave
trade. The river and Lake Albert were mapped by Gordon and
his staff, anil he devoted himself with wonted energy to improving
the condition of the people. Greater results might have been
obtained but for the fact that Khartum and the whole of the
Sudan north of the Soliat were in the hands of an Egyptian
governor, independent of Gordon, and not too well disposed
towards his proposals for diminishing the slave trade. On
arriving in Cairo Gordon informed the khedive of his masons
for not wishing to return to the Sudan, but did not definitely
resign tlie appointment of governor of the equatorial provinces.
But on reaching London he telegraphed to the British consul-
general in Cairo, asking him to let the khedive know that he
would not go back to Egypt. Ismail Pasha, feeling, no doubt,
that Gordon's resignation would injure his prestige, wrote to him
saying that he had promised to return, and that he expected him
to keep his word. Upon this Gordon, to whom the keeping of a
promise was a sacred duty, decided to return to Cairo, but gave
an assurance to some friends that he would not go back to the
Sudan unless he was appointed governor-general of the entire
country. After some discussion the khedive agreed, and made
him governor-general of the Sudan, inclusive of Darfur and the
equatorial provinces.
One of the most important questions which Gordon had to
take up on his appointment was the state of the political lelations
between Egypt and Abyssinia, which had been in an
unsatisfactory condition for some years. The dispute
centred round the district of Bogos, lying not far
inland from Massawa, which both the khedive and King John of
Abyssinia claimed as belonging to their respective dominions.
War broke out in 1875, when an Egyptian expedition was
despatched to Abyssinia, and was completely defeated by King
John near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under
Prince Hassan. the son of the khedive,was sent the following year
from Massawa. The force was routed by the Abyssinians at
Gura, but l’rinee Hassan and his staff got back to Massawa.
Matters then remained quiet until March 1877, when Gordon
proceeded to Massawa to endeavour to make peace with King
John. He went up to Bogos, and had an interview with Wulad
Michael, an Abyssinian chief and the hereditary ruler of Bogos,
who had joined the Egyptians with a view to raiding on his own
account. Gordon, with his usual powers of diplomacy, persuaded
Michael to remain quiet, and wrote to the king proposing terms
of peace. But he received no reply at that time, as John, feeling
pretty secure on the Egyptian frontier after his two successful
actions against the khedive’s troops, hud gone southwards to
fight with Menelek, king of Shoa. Gordon, seeing that the
Abyssinian difficulty could wait for a few months, proceeded to
Khartum. Here he took up the slavery question, and proposed
to issue regulations making the registration of slaves compulsory,
but his proposals were not approved by the Cairo government.
In the meantime an insurrection had broken out in Darfur, and
Gordon proceeded to that province to relieve the Egyptian
garrisons, which were considerably stronger than the force he
had available, the insurgents also being far more numerous than
his little army. On coming up with the main body of rebels he
saw that diplomacy gave a better chance of success than fighting,
and, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy's
camp to discuss the situation. This bold move, which probably
no one but Gordon would have attempted, proved quite success¬
ful, as part of the insurgents joined him, and the remainder
retreated to the south. The relief of the Egyptian garrisons was
successfully accomplished, and Gordon visited the provinces of
Berber and Dongoia, whence he had again to return to the
Abyssinian frontier to treat with King John. But no satisfactory
settlement was arrived at, and Gordon came back to Khartum
in January 187$. There he had scarcely a week’s rest when the
GORDON, C. G;
khedive summoned him to Cairo to assist in settling the financial
affairs of Egypt. lie reached Cairo in March, and was at once
appointed by Ismail as president of a commission of inquiry into
the finances, ion the understanding that the European com¬
missioners of the debt, who were the representatives of the bond¬
holders, and whom Ismail regarded as interested parties, should
not be members of the commission. Gordon accepted the post
on these terras, but the consuls-general of the different powers
refused to agree to the constitution of the commission, and it fell
to the ground, as the khedive was not strong enough to carry
his point. The attempt of the latter to utilize Gordon as a
counterpoise to the European financiers having foiled, Ismail
fell into the hands of his creditors, and was deposed by the
sultan in the following year in favour of his son Tewfik. After
the conclusion of the financial episode, Gordon proceeded to the
province of Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and, finding the adminis¬
tration in a bad condition, dismissed Raouf Pasha, the governor.
He then returned to Khartum, and in 1879 went again into
Uarfur to pursue the slave traders, while his subordinate, Gessa
Pasha, fought them with great success in the Bahr-el-Ghazal
district and killed Suleiman, their leader and a son of Zobeir.
This put an end to the revolt, and Gordon went back to Khartum.
Shortly afterwards he went down to Cairo, and when there was
requested by the new khedive to pay a visit to King John and
make a definite treaty of peace with Abyssinia. Gordon had an
interesting interview with the king, but was not able to do much,
as the king wanted great concessions from Egypt, anti the
khedive's instructions wore that nothing material was to be
conceded. The matter ended by Gordon being made a prisoner
and sent back to Massawa. Thence he returned to Cairo and
resigned his Sudan appointment. He was considerably ex¬
hausted by the three years’ incessant work, during which he had
ridden no fewer than 8500 m. on camels and mules, and was
constantly engaged in the task of trying to reform a vicious
system of administration.
In March 1880 Gordon visited the king of the Belgians at
Brussels, and King Leopold suggested that he should at some
future date take charge of the Congo free State.
In April the government of the Cape Colony telegraphed
to him offering the position of commandant of the
Cape local forces, but he declined the appointment. In May
the marquess of Ripon, who had been given the post of governor-
general of India,asked Gordon to go with him as private secretary.
This he agreed to do, but a few days later, feeling that he was
not suitable for the position, asked Lord Ripon to release him.
The latter refused to do so, and Gordon accompanied him to
India, but definitely resigned his post on Lord Ripon’s staff
shortly afterwards. Hardly had he resigned when he received
a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general of customs
in China, inviting (lira to go to Peking. He started at once
and arrived at Tientsin in July, where lie met Li Hung Chang,
and learnt that affairs were in a critical condition, and that there
was risk of war with Russia. Gordon proceeded to Peking and
used all his influence in favour of peace. His arguments, which
were given with much plainness of speech, appear to have
convinced the Chinese government, and vtax was avoided.
Gordon returned to England, and in April r88r exchanged
with a brother officer, who had been ordered to Mauritius as
Commandite Royal Engineer, but who for family reasons was
unable to accept the appointment. He remained in Mauritius
until the March following, when, on promotion to the rank of
major-general, he had to vacate the position of Commanding
Royal Engineer. Just at the same time the Cape ministry
telegraphed to him to ask if he would go to the Cape to consult
with the government as regards settling affairs in Basutoland.
The telegram stated that the position of matters was grave,
and that it was of the utmost importance that the colony should
secure the services' of someone of proved ability, firmness and
energy. Gordon sailed at once for the Cape,and saw the governor,
Sir Hercules Robinson, Mr Thos. Scanlen, the premier, and
Mr J. X. Mesrisnan, a member of the ministry, who, for political
reasons, asked him not to go to Basutoland, but to take the
251
appointment of commandant of the colonial forcea at King
William’s Town. After a few months, which were apart m
reorganizing the cofamial forces, Gordon was requested to go up
to Basutoland to try to arrange a settlement with the chief
Masupha, one of the most powerful of the Basuto leaders.
Greatly to bis surprise, at the very time he was with M a mi pha,
Mr. j. W. Sauer, a member of the Cape government, was taking
stops to induce Lerethodi, another chief, to adyaaoe against
Masupha. This not only placed 'Gordon in a position *#.danger,
but was regarded by him as an act of treachery. He advised
Masupha not to deal with the Cape government until the hostile
force was withdrawn, and resigned his appointment. He 'Con¬
sidered that the Basuto difficulty was due to the bad system
of administration by the Cape government. That Gordon’s
views were correct is proved by the fact that a few years later
Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony and placed directly
under the imperial government. After his return to England
from the Cape, being unemployed, Gordon decided to go to
Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit. Here he
remained for a year, and devoted his time to the study of Biblical
history and of the antiquities of Jerusalem. The king of the
Belgians then asked him to take charge of the Congo Free State,
and he accepted the mission and returned to London to make
the necessary preparations. But a few days after his arrival he
was requested by the British government to proceed immediately
to the Sudan, to understand the reasons for this, it is necessary
briefly to recapitulate the course of events in that country since
Gordon had left it in 1871).
After his resignation of the post of governor-general, Raouf
Pasha, an officialof the ordinary it pr. who, as already mentioned,
had been dismissed by Gordon for misgovernment in 1878, was
appointed to succeed him. As Kaouf was instructed to increase
the receipts and dimmish the expenditure, the system of govern¬
ment naturally reverted to the old nicihods, which Gordon had
endeavoured to improve. The fact that justice and firmness
were succeeded by injustice and weakness tended naturally
to the outbreak of revolt, and unfortunately there was a leader
ready to head a rebellion—one Muhommed Ahmed, already
known for some years as a holy man, who was insulted by an
Egyptian official, and retiring with some followers to the island
of Abba on the White Nile, proclaimed himself os the raahdi,
a successor of the prophet. Raouf endeavoured to take him
prisoner but without success, and the revolt spread rapidly.
Raouf was recalled, and succeeded by Abdel Rader Ptuiha, a
much stronger governor, who had sonic success, but whose
forces were quite insufficient to rope with the rebels. The
Egyptian government was too busily engaged in suppressing
Arabi’s revolt to be able to send any help t" Atalel Rader, and
in Septemlier 1882, when the British troops entered Cairo,
the position in the Sudan was very perilous. Hud the British
government listened to the representations then made to them,
that, having conquered Egypt, it was imperative at once to
suppress the revolt in the Sudan, the rebellion could have been
crushed, but unfortunately Great Britain would do nothing
herself, while the steps she allowed Egypt to take ended in the
■disaster to Hicks Pasha’s expedition. Then, in liecember *883,
the British government saw that something must be done, and
ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan. But abandonment was
a policy most difficult to carry out, as it involved the withdrawal
of thousands ef Egyptian soldiers, Civilian employes and their
families. Alidel Kader Pasha was asked to undertake the work,
and he agreed on the understanding that he would be ■•iipported,
and that the policy of abandonment was not to be announced.
But the latter condition was refused, and he declined the task.
The British government then asked General Gordon to proceed
to Khartum to report on the best method of currying out the
evacuation. The mission was highly popular in England.
Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was, however, at first opposed
to Gordon’s appointment. His objections were overcome, and
Gordon received his instructions in London on the i8tii of
J anuary 1884, -and started at once for Cairo, accompanied by
ieut.-Colonel J. D. H. Stewart.
GORDON, C. G.
At Cairo be received further ini tractions from Sir Evelyn
Bering, end wes appointed by the khedive as governor-general,
with executive powers. Travelling by Korosko and
m*"' Berber, he arrived at Khartum on the 18th of February,
and was well received by the inhabitants, who believed
that he bad come to save the country from the rebels. Gordon
at once commenced the task of sending the women and children
and the sick and wounded to Egypt, and about two thousand
five hundred had been removed before the madhi’a forces closed
upon Khartum. At the same time he was impressed with the
necessity of making some arrangement for the future government
of the country, and asked for the help of Zobeir (?.».), who had
great influence in the Sudan, and had been detained in Cairo
for some years. This request was mude on the very day Gordon
reached Khartum, and was in accordance with a similar proposal
he had made when at Cairo. But, after delays which involved
the loss of much precious time, the British government refused
(13th of March) to sanction the appointment, because Zobeir
had been a notorious slave-hunter. With this refusal vanished
all hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptian garrisons. Waver¬
ing tribes went over to the madhi. The advance of the rebels
against Khartum was combined with a revolt in the eastern
Sudan, and the Egyptian troops in the vicinity of Suakin met
with constant defeat. At length a British force was sent to
Suakin under the command of General Sir Gerald Graham, and
routed the rebels in several hard-fought actions. Gordon
telegraphed to Sir Evelyn Baring urging that the road from
Suakin to Berber should lie opened by a small force. But this
request, though strongly supported by Baring and the British
military authorities in Cairo, was refused by the government in
London. In April General Graham and his forces were withdrawn
from Suukin, and Gordon and the Sudan were seemingly
abandoned to their fate. The garrison of Berber, seeing that
there was no chance of relief, surrendered a month later and
Khartum was completely isolated. Had it not been for the
presence of Gordon the city would also soon have fallen, but with
an energy and skill that were almost miraculous, he so organized
the defence that Khartum held out until January 1885. When
it is remembered that Gordon was of a different nationality
and religion to the garrison and population, that he had only
one British officer to assist him, and that the town was badly
fortified and insufficiently provided with food, it is just to say
that the defence of Khartum is one of the most remarkable
episodes in military history. The siege commenced on the 18th
of March, but it was not until August that the British govern¬
ment under the pressure of public opinion decided to take steps
to relieve Gordon. General Stephenson, who was in command
of the British troops in Egypt, wished to send a brigade at once
to Ikmgola, but he was overruled, and it was not until the
beginning of November that the British relief force was ready
to start.from Wadi Haifa under the command of Lord Wolseley.
The force reached Korti towards the end of December, and from
that place a column was despatched across the Bayuda desert
to Metcmma on the Nile. After some severe fighting in which
the leader of the column, Sir Herliert Stewart, was mortally
wounded, the force reuched the river on the 20th of January,
and the following duy four steamers, which had lieen sent down
by Gordon to meet the British advance, and which had been
waiting for them for four months, reported to Sir Charles Wilson,
who had taken command after Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded.
On the 241I1 Wilson started with two of the steamers
for Khartum, but on arriving there on tire 28th he
found that the place lutd lieen captured by the rebels and Gordon
killed two days before. A belief has been entertained that
Wilson might have started earlier and saved the town, but this
is quite groundless. In the first place, Wilson could not have
started sooner than he did ; and in tire second, even if he had
been able to do so, it would have made no difference, as the rebels
could have taken Khartum any time they pleased after the 5th
of January. when the provisions were exhausted. Another
popular notion, that the captve of the place was due to treachery
on the part of the garrison, is equally without foundation. The
attack was made at a point in the fortifications where the
rampart and ditch had been destroyed by the rising of the Nile,
and when the mahdi’s troops entered the soldiers were too weak
to make any effectual resistance. Gordon himself expected the
town to fall before the end of December, and it is really difficult
to understand how he succeeded in holding out until the 26th
of January. Writing on the 14th of December he said, “ Now,
mark this, if the expeditionary force—and I ask for no more
than two hundred men—does not come in ten days, the town
may fall, and I have done my best for the honour of my country,”
He had indeed done his best, and far more than could have been
regarded as possible. To understand what he went through
during the latter months of the siege, it is only necessary to read
his own journal, a portion of which, dating from 10th September
to 14th December 1884, was fortunately preserved and published.
Gordon was not an author, but he wrote many short
memoranda on subjects that interested him, and a considerable
number of these have been utilized, especially in the work by
his brother, Sir Henry Gordon, entitled Events in the Life of
Charles George Gordon, from its Beginning to its End. He was
a voluminous letter-writer, and much of his correspondence has
been published. His character was remarkable, and the influence
he had over those with whom he came in contact was very
striking. His power to command men of non-European races
was probably unique. He had no fear of death, and cared but
little for the opinion of others, adhering tenaciously to the course
he believed to be right in the face of all opposition. Though
not holding to outward forms of religion, he was a truly religious
man in the highest sense of the word, and was a constant student
of the Bible. To serve God and to do his duty were the great
objects of his life, and he died as he had lived, carrying out the
work that lay before him to the best of his ability. The last
words of his last letter to his sister, written when he knew that
death was very near, sum up his character: “lam quite happy,
thank God, and, like Lawrence, 1 have tried to do my duty.” 1
1 With this estimate of Gordon's character may he contrasted
those of Lord Cromer (the most severe of Gordon's critics), and of
Lord Morley of Blackburn ; in their strictures as in their praise
they help to explain both the causes of the extraordinary influence
wielded by Gordon over all sorts and conditions of men and also
his difliculties. Lord Cromer’s criticism, it should be remembered,
does not deal with Gordon's career as a whole but solely with his last
mission to the Sudan; laird Morley's is a more general judgment.
Lord Cromer (Modem Egypt, vol. i., ch. xxvii., p, 565-571) says:
" We may admire, and for my own part 1 do very much admire
General Gordon’s personal courage, his disinterestedness and his
chivalrous feeling in favour of the beleaguered garrisons, but ad¬
miration of these qualities is no sufficient plea against a condemna¬
tion of his conduct on the ground that it was quixotic. In his last
letter to hjs. sister, dated December 14, 1884, he wrote: ' I am
quite happy, thank God, and, like Lawrence, 1 have tried to do my
duty ' ... I am not now dealing with General Gordon's character,
which was in many respects noble, or with his military defence of
Khartoum, which was heroic, but with the political conduct of bis
mission, and from this point of view I have no hesitation in saying
that General Gordon cannot be considered to have tried to do his
duty unless a very strained and mistaken view be taken of what
his duty was. ... As a matter of public morality 1 cannot think
that General Gordon's process of reasoning is defensible. . . . 1
do not think that it can be held that General Gordon made any
serious efiort to carry out the main ends of British and Egyptian
policy in the Sudan. He thought more of his personal opinions
than of the interests of the state. ... In fact, except personal
courage, great fertility in military resource, a lively though some¬
times di-directed repugnance to injustice, oppression and meanness
of every description, and a considerable power of acquiring influence
over those, necessarily limited in numbers, with whom he was
brought into personal contact, General Gordon does not appear to
have possessed any of the qualities which would have fitted him
to undertake the difficult task he had in hand."
Lord Morley (Life of Gladstone, vol. ill., 1st ed., 1003, ch. y,
151) says : " Gordon, as Mr Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes,
e was a soldier of infinite personal courage and daring, of striking
military energy, initiative and resource; n high, pure and single
character, dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all
who knew him admit, and as bis own records testify, notwithstand¬
ing an undercurrent of shrewd common sense, he was the creature,
almost the sport, of impulse; his impressions and purposes changed
with the speed of lightning; anger often mastered him : he went
very often by in tuitions and inspirations rather than by coal
GORDON, LORD G.-
Autromti an.—The Journals of Major-General Gordon at Khartoum
(1885); Lord Cromer, Modem Egypt (2 vols., 1908); F. R. Wingate,
Mohdiism and the Egyptian Sudan (1801) ; the British Parlia¬
mentary Paper on Egypt (1884-1885) ; C. C. Gordon, Reflections
in Palestine (1884); edited by D. C. Boulger, General Gordon's
Letters from the Crimea, the Danube, and Armenia (1884) ; edited by
G. B. Hill, Colonel Gordon in Central Africa (1881) ; Letters of
General C, G. Gordon to his Sister (1888) ; H. W. Gordon, Events in
the Life of C. G. Gordon (1886) : Commander L. Brine, The Taeping
Rebellion in China (1862) ; A. Wilson, Gordon's Campaigns and the
Taeping Rebellion (t868) ; D. C. Bouiger, Life of Gordon (1896) ;
A. Egmont Hake, The Story of Chinese Gordon (1st vol. 1884, and
vol. 1885) ; Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, Charles George Gordon (1889);
Archibald Forbes, Chinese Gordon (2884) ; edited bv A. Egmont Hake,
Events in the Taeping Rebellion (1891) ; S. Mosema'n, General Gordon's
Diary in China (1885) ; Lieutenant T. Lister, R.E., With Gordon in
the Crimea (1891) ; Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham, Last Words
with Gordon (1887) ; " War Correspondent,” Why Gordon Perished
(1896). (C, M. W.)
GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793), third and youngest
son of Cosmo George, duke of Gordon, was bom in London on
the 26th of December 1751. After completing his education at
Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of lieutenant
in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of the admiralty,
would not promise him the command of a ship, and he resigned
his commission shortly before the beginning of the American
War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought
for him by General Fraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-
shire, in order to bribe him not to contest the county. He was
considered flighty, and was not looked upon as being of any
importance. In 1779 he organized, and made himself head of
the Protestant associations, formed to secure the repeal of the
Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1780 he headed
the mob which marched in procession from St George’s Fields
to the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster
petition against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a
terrific riot ensued, which continued several days, during which
the city was virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they
dispersed after threatening to make a forcible entry into the
House of Commons, but reassembled soon afterwards and
destroyed several Roman Catholic chapels, pillaged the private
dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set fire to Newgate and
broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank of England
and several other public buildings, and continued the work of
violence and conflagration until the interference of the military,
by whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded
before the riuts were quelled. For his share in instigating the
riots Lord Gordon was apprehended on a charge of high treason ;
but, mainly through the skilful and eloquent defence of Erskine,
he was acquitted on the ground that he had no treasonable
intentions. His life was henceforth full of crack-brained schemes,
political and financial. In 1786 he was excommunicated by the
archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear witness in an
ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of libelling the
queen of France, the French ambassador and the administration
of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to withdraw
from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland ;
but on account of representations from the court of Versailles
he was commanded to quit that country, and, returning to
England, was apprehended, and in January 1788 was sentenced
inference from carefully surveyed fact; with many variations of
mood he mixed, as we often see in people less famous an invincible
faith in his own rapid prepossessions while they lasted. Everyhody
now discerns that to despatch a soldier of this temperament on a
piece of business [the mission to the Sudan in 1884] that was not
only difficult and dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, but profoundly
obscure, and needing vigilant sanity and self-control, was little
better than to call in a wizard with his magic. Mr Gladstone always
professed perplexity in understanding why the violent end of the
gallant Cavagnari in Afghanistan stirred the world so little in
comparison with th.e fate of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon
seized the imagination of England, and Bcizcd it on its higher side.
His religion was eccentric, but it was religion ; the Bible was the
rock on which he founded himself, both old dispensation and new ;
he was known to hate forms, ceremonies and all the ' solemn plausi¬
bilities ’; his speech was sharp, pithy, rapid and ironic; above
all, he knew the ways of war and would not bear the sword for
nought."
-GORDON, SIR J. W.
to five yew*’ imprisonment in Newgate, where he lh»sd At his
ease, giving dinners and dances. As he oould not obtain securities
for his good behaviour on the termination of his term of imprison¬
ment, he was not allowed to leave Newgate, and there he died
of delirious fever on the 1st of November 1793. Some tone before
his apprehension he had become a convert to Judaism, and had
undergone the initiatory rite.
A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in
The Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his
Political Conduct, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1795). The
best accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found m th e Annual
Registers from 1780 to the year of his death.
GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788-1864). Scottish painter,
was the eldest son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the
family of Watson of Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He
was bom in Edinburgh in 1788, and was educated specially with
a view to his joining the Royal Engineers. He entered as a
‘student in the government school of design, under th^manage-
ment of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for art
quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow
him to adopt it as bis profession. Captain Watson was himself
a skilful draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, after¬
wards president of the Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait
painter, second only to Sir Henry Raeburn, who also was a
friend of the family. In the year 1808 John sent to the exhibition
of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject from the Lay of the
Last Minstrel, and continued for some years to exhibit fancy
subjects ; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they were
altogether without the force and character which stamped his
portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of
Sir Henry Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice.
He assumed in 1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest
of his famous sitters was Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first
portrait in 1820. Then came J, G. Lockhart in 1821 ; Professor
Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir Archibald Alison,
1839 ; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey, and Sir
David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may
be mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), > n the Archers' Hall,
Edinburgh; Sir Alexander Hope (>835), in the county buildings,
Linlithgow; Lord President Hope, in the Parliament House j
and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike his later works, are gener¬
ally rich in colour. The full length of Dr Brunton (1844),
and Dr l^e, the principal of the university (1846), both on the
staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his style,
which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both
of colour and treatment.
During the last twenty years of his life he painted many
distinguished Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him.
And it is significant thut David Cox, the landscape painter, on
being presented with his portrait, subscribed for by many
friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to have it executed by Watson
Gordon, although he neither knew the painter personally nor
had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits
painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style,
are De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London ;
General Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society ;
the prince of Wales, Lord Macaulay, Sir M. Pack mg ton, Lord
Murray, Lord Cockbum, Lord Rutherford and Sir John Shaw
Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These latter pictures
are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or no positive
colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling extremely
masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very
successful in rendering acute observant character. A good
example of his last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely
handled, yet highly finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw
Lefevre.
John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the
Royal Scottish Academy, and was elected its president in 1850;
he was at the same time appointed limner for Scotland to the
queen, and received the honour of knighthood. Since 1841 he
had been an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 he
was elected a royal academician. He died on the rat of Tune
1864.
GORDON, L.—GORE, C
*54
GORDON, LEON, originally Judak Loss ben Ash** (iNji-
1893), Rossian-Jewish poet tad novelist (Hebrew), was born at
Wflna in' 1831 »nd died ait St Peteraburg in 1891- H* *ook
a leading part in the modem revival of the Hebrew language
and culture. His satires did much to rouse the Russian Jews
to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon was the apostle
of enlightenment in the Ghettos. Hi* Hebrew style is classical
and pore. His poems were collected in four volumes, Kol Shire
Yehudah (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his novels in Kol Kithbe
Yehuda (Odessa, 1889).
For his works see Jewish Quarterly Review, xviii. 437 seq.
GORDON, PATRICK (1635-1899), Russian general, was
descended from a Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who
possessed the small estate of Auchleuchries, and were connected
with the house of Hadd". He was bom in 1635, and after
completing his education at the parish schools of Crudcn and
Ellon, entered, m his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at Brauns- -
berg, Prussia ; but, as “ his humour could not endure such a
still and strict way of living,” he soon resolved to return home.
He changed his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after
journeying on foot in several parts of Germany, ultimately, in
1655, enlisted at Hamburg in the Swedish service. In the
course of the next five years he served alternately with the
Poles and Swedes a? he was taken prisoner by either. In 1661,
after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he took service
in the Russian army under Alexis T., and in 1665 he was sent
on a special mission to England. After his return lie distin¬
guished himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in
southern Russia, and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was
made major-general, in 1679 was appointed to the chief command
at Kiev, and in 1683 was made lieutenant-general. He visited
England m 1686, and in 1687 and 1689 took part as quarter¬
master-general in expeditions against the Trim Tatars in the
Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite of the
dcnunciatkms of the. Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he
was exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow
in T689, Gordon with the troops he commanded virtually decided
events in favour of the tsar Peter I., and against the tsaritsa
Sophia. He was therefore during the remainder of his life in
high favour witli the tsar, who confided to him the command of
his capital during his absence from Russia, employed him in
organizing his army according to the European system, and
latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died
on the 29th of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him
frequently during his illness, was with him when he died, and
with his own hands closed his eyes.
General Gordon left behind him a diary of lus life, written in
English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian
foreign office. A complete Germnn translation, edited by l)r
Maurice Vuaaull (Tagehuchdes Generals Patrick Gordon) was published,
the first, volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in
1851, and the third at St Petersburg In 1851; and Passages from
the Diary of General Patrick Gordon 0/ Auihlntchries fiii.JS 16*10),
was printed, under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the
Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 18511.
GORDON-CUMMING, SOUALEYN GEORGE (1820-1866),
Scottish traveller and sportsman, known as the “ lion hunter,”
was barn on the 15th of March 1820. He was the second son of
Sir William G. Gordon-Cumming, 2nd baronet of Altyre and
Gordons town, Elginshire, From his early years he was distin¬
guished by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and
at eighteen joined the East India Co.'s service as a comet in the
Madras Light Cavalry. TV climate of India not suiting him,
after two years* experience he retired from the sendee and
returned to Scotland. During his stay in the East he had laid
the foundation of his collection of hunting trophies and specimens
of natural history. In 1843 he joined the Cape Mounted Rifles,
but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out at the end of the
year and with an ex wagon and a few native followers set out
for the interior. He bunted chiefly in Bechuanaland and the
Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In
1848 he returned to England. The story of his remarkable
exploits is vividly told in h’is book, Five Years of a Hunter’s
Life m the Far Interim of South Africa (London, 1850, 3rd
ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first with incredulity
by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who furnished
Gordon-Cumming with most of Itis native guides, wrote: “ I
have no hesitation in saying that Mr Gumming** book conveys a
truthful idea of South African hunting ” {Missionary Travels,
chap. vil). His collection of hunting trophies was exhibited
in London in 1851 at the Great Exhibition, and was illustrated
by a lecture delivered hy Gordon-Cumming. The collection,
known as “ The South Africa Museum," was afterwards exhibited
in various parts of the country. In 1858 Gordon-Cumming went
to live at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal, where the
exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died
there on the 24th of March 1866.
An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title
of The Lion Hunter of South Africa, and in this form was frequently
reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904.
GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCIS (1799-1861), English
novelist and dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine-
merchant, was born in 1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire.
In 1823 she was married to Captain Charles Gore ; and, in the
next year, she published her tost work, Theresa Marchmont, or
the Matd of Honour. Then followed, among others, the Lettre
1 le Cachet (1827), The Reign of Terror (1827), Hungarian Tales
(1829), Manners of the Day (1830), Mothers mid Daughters (1831),
and The Fair of May Fair (1832), Mrs Armytage (1836). Every
succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen : The Cabinet
Minister and The Courtier of the Days of Charles 11 ., in 1839 ;
Preferment in 1840. In 1841 Cecil, or the Adventures of a Cox¬
comb, attracted considerable attention. GreviUe, or a Season in
Paris appeared in the same year; then Ommgton, or Cecil a
Peer, Fascination, The Ambassador’s Wife ; and in 1843 The
Banker’s Wife. Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing
fertility of invention, till her death on the 29th of January 1861.
She also wrote some dramas of which the most successful was
the School for Coquettes, produced at the Haymarkct (1831).
She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to music Burns's
“ And ye shall walk in silk attire, - ’ one of the most popular songs
of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved by
the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best
novels are Cecil, nr the Adventures of a Coxcomb, and The Banker's
Wife. Cecil gives extremely vivid sketches of London fushionable
life, and is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the know¬
ledge of London clubs displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to
William Beckford, the author of Vathek. The Banker's Wife
is distinguished by some clever studies of character, especially
in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating money-maker,
and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton.
Mrs Gore’s novels had an immense temporary popularity ;
they were parodied by Thackeray in Punch, in his “ Lords and
Liveries by the author of Dukes and Dejeuners " ; but, tedious
as they are to present-day readers, they presented on the whole
faithful pictures of the contemporary life and pursuits of the
English upper classes.
GORE, CHARLES (1853- ), English divine, was born in
1853, the 3rd son of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother
of the 4th earl of Arran. His mother was a daughter of the 4th
earl of Besslxirough. He was educated at Harrow and at Balliol
College, Oxford, and was elected fellow of Trinity College in 1875.
From 1880 to 1883 he was vice-principal of the theological
college at Cuddesdon, and, when in 1884 Tusey House was
founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey’s library and a centre
for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed principal,
a position which he held until *893. As principal of Pusey House
Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the
younger cletgy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this
influence that the “ Oxford Movement ” underwent a change
which to the survivors of the old school of Tractarians seemed
to involve a break with its basic principles. “ Puseyism ” had
been in the highest degree conservative, basing itself on authority
and tradition, and repudiating any compromise with the modem
critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from the some
GORE—GORGE
basis of faith and authority, coon found from bis metical experi¬
ence in dealing with the “doubts and difficulties” of the younger
generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable,
and set himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority
in religion with that of scientific authority by attempting to
define the boundaries of their respective spheres of influence.
To him the divine authority of die Catholic Church was an
axiom, and in 1880 be published two works, the larger of which.
The Church and the Ministry, is a learned vindication of the
principle of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate against the
Presbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second,
Roman Catholic Claims, is a defence, couched in a more popular
form, of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the
attacks of the Romanists.
So far his published views had been in complete consonance
with those of the older Tractarians. But m 1890 a great stir
was created by the publication, under his editorship, of Lux
Mundi, a series of essays by different writers, being an attempt
“ to succour a distressed faith by endeavouring to bring the
Christian Creed into its right relation to the modern growth of
knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to modem problems
of politics and ethics.” Mr Gore himself contributed an essay
on “ The Holy Spirit and Inspiration.” The book, which ran
through twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a some¬
what mixed reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and
Tractarian alike, were alarmed by views cm the incarnate nature
of Christ that seemed to them to impugn his Divinity, and by
concessions to the Higher Criticism in the matter of the inspira¬
tion of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them to convert the
“ impregnable rock,” as Gladstone had called it, into ft founda¬
tion of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly
impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an
artificial line beyond which criticism was not to advance. None
the less the book produced a profound effect, and that far beyond
the borders of the English Church, and it is largely due to its
influence, and to that of the school it represents, that the High
Church movement developed thenceforth on “ Modernist ”
rather than Tractarian lines.
In 1891 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Hampton lectures
before the university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation.
In these lectures he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of
which in Lux Mundi had caused so much heart-searching. This is
an attempt to explain how it came that Christ, though incarnate
God, could be in error, c.g. in his citations from the Old Testa¬
ment. The orthodox explanation was based on the principle of
accommodation (gsi.). This, however, ignored the difficulty that
if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to human
limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other
men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations.
This difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the
Kfvwo-is. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into
the canon theologians hud, from various points of view, at¬
tempted to explain what St Paul meant when he wrote of
Christ (2 PhiL ii. ;) that “ he emptied himself and took upon
him the form of a servant ” Utvimnr yo/id»iv HovX.au
\afivr). According to Mr Gore this means that Christ, on his
incarnation, became subject to all human limitations, and had,
so far as his life on earth was concerned, stripped himself of all
the attributes of the Godhead, including the Divine omniscience,
the Divine nature being, us it were, hidden under the human. 1
Lux Mundi and the Bompton lectures led to a situation of
some tension which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned
his principalship and became vicar of Radley, a small parish
near Oxford. Ia 1894 he became canon of Westminster. Here
he gained commanding influence as a preacher and in 1898 was
appointed one of the court chaplains. In 190a he succeeded
1 Cf. the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his Lekn von
dor heiligen Lieht (1844b Lohre ii. pp. 21 et s«j, : " the Son of God
veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as
child of man opens hii eye as the gradually growing light of the
world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows
it to ehine forth la all 1 its glory." See Loafs, Art “ Kenesis " in
Hcreog-Hauck, Reatencyhlopidie (ed. 1901), x. 247.
*55
1 . S. Perowne as bishop cf Worcester and in 1905 was i nsta lled
’(shop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of winch had heat
mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to hit vaunt
on the divine institution oi episcopacy as essential to the
Christian Church, Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly
relations with the ministers of other denominations, and advo¬
cated co-operation with them in all matters when agreement
was possible. In social questions he became one of the loaders
of the considerable group of High Churchmen known, somewhat
loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against the
sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Mace¬
donia, and was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of sped.
In 1892 he founded the clerical fraternity known as the Com¬
munity of the Resurrection. Its members are priests, who are
bound by the obligation of celilxroy, live tmder'* common rule
and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral, evangelistic,
literary and educational. In 1808 the House of the Resurrection
at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the com¬
munity ; in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was
established there, and in the same year a branch house, for
missionary work, was set up hi Johannesburg in South Africa.
Dr Gore's works include 7 hr Incarnation (Hampton Lectures,
iSyi), The Creed of the Christian (1895), The Body o) Christ (19OI).
The New Theology and tin Old Jfrtigion (1908), and expositions of
The Sermon on the Mount (i.Su(>), Inhesions (rHt»8), and Romans
(1899), while in 1910 lie published Order:, and Unity.
GORE. (1) ( 0 . Eng. gor, dung or filth), a word formerly
used in the sense of dirt, lint now confined to blood that has
thickened after bang shed. (2) ( 0 . Eng. gdra, probably con¬
nected with gate, an old word for “ spear ”), something of
triangular shape, resembling therefore a spear-head. The word
is used for a tapering strip of land, in the “ common or open
field ” system of agriculture, where Iron) the shape of the land
the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in straight
divisions. Similarly “ gore ” is used in the United States,
especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out
in surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked.
The triangular sections of material used in forming the covering
of a balloon or an umbrella are also called “ gores,” and in
dressmaking the term is used for u triangular piece of material
inserted in a dress to adjust the difference in widths. To gore,
i.e, to stab or pierce with any sharp instrument, but more
particularly used of piercing with the horns of u bull, is probably
directly connected with gate, a spear.
GORES, an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part
cf the French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the
large natural harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde.
The island, some 900 yds. long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distent
from the nearest point of the mainland, is mostly barren tuck.
The greater part of its surface is occupied by a town, formerly
a thriving commercial entrepot and a strong military post.
Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar (<J-v.),
c. i860, un the adjacent coast, Gorce lost its trade and its
inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1903 to about rjoo.
Its healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium.
The streets are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark-
red stone, are fiat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the gover¬
nor’s residence, the hospital and barracks, testify to the former
importance of the town. Within the castle is an artesian well,
the only water-supply, save that collected in rain tanks, on the
island. Goree was first occupied by the Dutch, who took posses¬
sion of it early in the 17th century and caked it Goeree at Goede-
reede, in memory of the island On their own coast now united
with Overfiakkee. its native name is Buys.*, a belly, in affusion
to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore
(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken
in the following year by do Ruyter. The Dutch wers finally
expelled in 11677 by the French under Admiral d*Estries.
Gores subsequently fell again into the hands of the English,
but was definitely occupied by France in 1817 (see Simbgal :
History).
GORGE, strictly Ike French word for the throat considered
externally. Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk’s crop.
256
GORGEI—GORGES
and thus, with the seme of something greedy or ravenous, to
food riven to a hawk and to the content* of a hawk a crop or
It i* from this sense that the expression of a penon s
« gome rising at ” anything in the sense of loathing or disgust
k derived. “Gorge,” from analogy with “throat, is used
with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley
between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or
bastion; and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman
Doric column, between the echinus and the astragal. From
“ gorge " also comes a diminutive " gorget,” a portion of a
woman’s costume in the middle ages, being a close form of
wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and also
that part of the body armour covering the neck and collar¬
bone (see Gorget). The word “gorgeous,” of splendid or
magnificent appearance, comes from the O. Fr. gorgias, with
the same meaning, and has very doubtfully been connected
with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a supposed elaborate
kind.
OdRQKI, ARTHUR (1818- ), Hungarian soldier, was
bom at Toporcz, in Upper Hungary, on the 30th of January
1818. He came of a Saxon noble family who were converts to
Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the Bodyguard of Hungarian
Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military service with a
course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death of his
father, he retired lrom the army and devoted himself to the
study of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the
family estates in Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary
war of 1848, Gbrgei offered his sword to the Hungarian govern¬
ment. Entering the Honvfid army with the rank of captain, he
was employed in the purchase of arms, and soon became major
and commandant of the national guards north of the Theiss.
Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from
crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the
wealthy Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his
hands, and Gbrgei caused him to be arraigned before a court-
martial on a charge of treason and immediately hanged. After
various successes over the Croatian forces, of which the most
remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000 prisoners fell into
his hands, Gorgei was appointed commander of the army of the
Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgriitz
across the Izbtha, he resolved to full hack, and in spite of the
remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated
upon Waitzen. Herr, irritated by what he considered undue
interference with his plans, he issued (January 5th, 1849) a pro¬
clamation throwing the blame for the recent want of success
upon the government, thus virtually revolting against their
authority. Gbrgei retired to the Hungarian Erzgebirge and
conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the
supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski,
but the latter fought without success the battle of Kapoltia,
at whioh action Gorgei's curps arrived too late to take an effective
part, and some time after this the command was again conferred
upon Gbrgei. The campaign in the spring of 1849 was brilliantly
conducted hy him, and in a series of engagements he defeated
Windischgriitz. In April he won the victories of Godollb Izaszeg
and Nagy Sarlb, relieved Komom, and again won a battle at
Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking
the offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps
have dictated terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was,
he contented himself with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital,
in which he desired to re-establish the diet, and after effecting
this capture he remained inuctive for some weeks. Meanwhile,
at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth had formally proposed the
. dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and Hungary hud been
proclaimed a republic. Gbrgei had refused the field-marshal’s
baton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in sympathy
with the new regime. However, he accepted the portfolio of
minister of war, while retaining the commaad of the troops in
the field. The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and
made common cause with the Austrians ; the allies were advanc¬
ing into Hungary on all Sides, and Gbrgei was defeated by
Haynau at Pereil (aoth-aist of June). Kossuth, perceiving
the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being unwilling
himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator, and was
succeeded by Gbrgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard
against the various columns of the enemy. Gbrgei, convinced
that he could not break through the enemy’s lines, surrendered,
with his army of 20,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the
Russian general Rudiger at Vilagos. Gbrgei was not court-
martialled, as were his generals, but kept in confinement at
Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical work,
until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary.
The surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared
while his generals and many of his officers and men were hanged
or shot, led, perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason
by public opinion of his countrymen. After his release he
played no further part in public life. Even in 1885 an attempt
which was made by a large number of his old comrades to re¬
habilitate him was not favourably received in Hungary. After .
some years’ work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrad,
where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also Hungary :
History.)
General Gbrgei wrote a justification of his operations ( Mein
Leben und Wirkung in Ungam jSjS-jSjq, Leipzig, 1852), an
anonymous paper under the title Was verdanken wir der Revolu¬
tion l (1875), and a reply to Kossuth’s charges (signed “ Joh.
DemAr ”) in Budapesii Sserrde , 1881, 25-26. Amongst those
who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Gbrgei (1S4S is
1849 bul, Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (Bin offenes
Wort in der Sache des Homed-Generals Arthur Gorgei, Klausenburg,
1867).
See also A.. G. Horn, Gorget , Oberkommandani d . ung. Arntee
(Leipzig, 1850); Kiuety, Gorget's Life and Work tn Hungary (London,
1853} ; Szinyei, in Magyar Irak (iii. 1378), Hentaller, Gfirgei as a
Statesman (Hungarian); Elem&r, Gorget in 1848-18w (Hungarian,
Budapest, 1886).
GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647), English colonial
pioneer in America and the founder of Maine, was bom in
Somersetshire, England, probably in 1566. From youth both
a soldier and a sailor, he was a prisoner in Spain at the age of
twenty-one, having been captured hy a ship of the Spanish
Armada. In 1589 he was in command of a small body of troops
fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing him¬
self at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596
he was commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort
at Plymouth and captain of St Nicholas Isle ; in 1597 he accom¬
panied Essex on the expedition to the Azores ; in 1599 assisted
him in the attempt to suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland,
and in 1600 was implicated in Essex's own attempt at rebellion
in London. In 1603, on the accession of James I., he was
suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored in the
same year and continued to serve as “ governor of the forts
and island of Plymouth ” until 1629, when, his garrison having
been without pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin,
and all his applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned.
About 1605 he began to be greatly interested in the New World ;
in 1606 he became a member of the Plymouth Company, and he
laboured zealously for the founding of the Popham colony at
the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the Kennebec) river in 1607.
For several years following the failure of that enterprise in 1608
he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading and exploring,
with colonization as the chief end in view. He was largely
instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the
Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps
the most influential member of that body. He was the recipient,
either solely or jointly, of several grants of territory from it,
for one of which he received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine
(see Mainz). In 1635 he sought to be appointed governor-general
of all New England, but the English Civil War—in which he
espoused the royal cause—prevented him from ever actually
holding that office. A short time before his death at Long
Ashton in 1647 he wrote his Brieje Narration 0/ the Originall
Undertakings of Ike Advancement of Plantations into the Parts oj
America. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the
feudal type of colony.
GORGET-
See J. P. Baxter fed.), Sir Ftriimmio Gorget and hit Prooinoe of
Main* (3 voU., Boston, 1890; in tin Prince Society Pablieatiam).
the first volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other
volumes contain a reprint of the Brief* Narration , (Sorges's letters,
and other documentary material.
GORGET ( 0 . Fr. gorgete, dim. of gorge, throat), the name
applied after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour.
It was generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and
attached either to the body armour or to the armet. It was
worn in the 16th and 17th centuries with the half-armour,
with the plain cuirass, and even occasionally without any
body armour at all. During these times it gradually became a
distinctive badge for officers, and as such it survived in several
armies—in the form of a small metal plate affixed to the front
of the collar of the uniform coat—until after the Napoleonic wars.
In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort is the
distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer’s
gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or
tabs worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches
of the midshipmen in the Royal Navy.
GORGIAS (e. 483-375 Greek sophist and rhetorician,
was a native of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his
fellow-citizens at the head of an embassy to ask Athenian
protection against the aggression of the Syracusans. He subse¬
quently settled in Athens, and supported himself by the practice
of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa in
Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that
he transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the
diffusion of the Attic dialect as the language of literary prose.
He was the author of a lost work On Nature or the Non-existent
(Hep* roc pi) on-os 1/ Ttpi <f> cows, fragments edited by M. C.
Valeton, 1876), the substance of which may lx* gathered from
the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also from the treatise
(ascribed to Theophrastus) De Melisso, Xenophane , Gorgia.
Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue Gorgias.
The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises ( The Encomium
of Helen and The Defence of Palamedes, edited with Antiphon by
F. Blass in the Tcubner series, 1881), which have come down
under his name, is disputed.
For his philosophical opinions sec Sophists mid Scepticism.
See also Gomperis, Greek Thinkers, Eng. trans. vol, i. bk. iii. chap,
vii. ; Jebb’s A till Orators, introd. to vol. i. (1893) ; F. Blass, Die
atttsche Beredsamkeit , 1 . (1887); and article Rhetoric.
GORGON, GORGONS (Gr. Topyui, Topyoves, the “terrible,”
or, according to some, the “ loud-roaring ”), a figure or figures
in Greek mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose
head is represented in the Iliad (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of
the aegis of Zeus. In the Odyssey (xi. 633) she is a monster of the
under-world. Hesiod increases the number of Gorgons to three—
Stheno (the mighty), Euryale (the far-springer) and Medusa
(the queen), and makes them the daughters of the sea-god
Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side of the
western ocean ; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod,
Theog. 274 ; Herodotus ii. 91; I’ausanias ii. 21). The Attic
tradition, reproduced in Euripides (Ion 1002), regarded the
Gorgon as a monster, produced by Gaea to aid her sons the
giants against the gods and slain by Athena (the passage is a
locus classicus on the aegis of Athena).
The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having
the form of young women ; their hair consists of snakes ; they
are round-faced, flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large
projecting teeth. Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen
claws and the tusks of boars. Medusa was the only one of the
three who was mortal; hence Perseus was able to kill her by-
cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted from her neck
sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The
head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked
upon it, was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield;
according to another account, Perseus buried it in the market¬
place of Argos. The hideously grotesque original type of the
Gotgoneion, as the Gorgon's head was called, was placed on the
walls of cities, and on shields and breastplates to terrify an enemy
(cf. the hideous faces on Chinese soldiers’ shields), and used
“GQRIIJLA 1 257
petwratty as an amulet, a protection against the evil eye. Henri's
is said to have obtained a lock of Medusa's hair (which possessed
the same powers as the bead) from Athena and .-given it to
Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for the town
of Tegea against attack (ApoUodoru! is. 7, 3). According to
Roseher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a
storm, which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (Golden Bough, L
378 ) gives examples of the superstition that cut hair caused
storms. According to the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful
maiden, whose hair had been changed into snakes by Athena,
the head was represented in works of art with a wonderfully
handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death. The
Rondanim Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this
conception. Various accounts of the Gorgons wire given by
later ancient writers. According to Died. Sic. (iii. 34. jj)
they were female warriors living near Lake Tritonis in Libya,
whore queen was Medusa; according to Alexander of Myndus,
quoted m Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible wild animals
whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (Nat. Hist. vi.
3 6 I3 1 ]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were
covered with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky
hair and girdle. Modern authorities have explained them as the
personification of the waves of the sea or of the barren, un¬
productive coast of Libya; or as the awful darkness of the
storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is scattered by the
sun-god I’erseus. More recent Is the explanation of anthro¬
pologists that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is
derived from the rituul mask common to primitive cults.
See Jane E. Hareison, Prolegomena to the Studv of Greek Religion
(' ‘’" 3 )» w - H. Roseher, Die Gorgonm und V erwandtes (1879):
J. Six, De(.orgonetiB&s),cm the types of the Gorgon's head ; articles
T y ?° 5 ?, her “*«• Furtwtagler in Roscher's l.exikon der Mythologies,
■j L ,‘ n Nuremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiqums
and by R. GddechetiH in Ersch and Gruber's Altgemeine Encyclopodie \
N. G. 1 ’olltes (O nepl rOr Vopyiewi pMw rapd ry 'KSAijeotei Xsu, 1878)
Rives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various superstitions
connected with them, from the modern Greek point of view, which
regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea.
GORGONZOLA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
of Milan, from which it is j i m. E.N.E, by steam tramway.
Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the centre of the district in which is
produced the well-known Gorgonzola cheese.
GORI, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
of Tiflis and 49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river
Kura ; altitude, 2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding
country is very picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, and •
a school for R ussian and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated
for its silk and cotton stuffs, it is now famous for com, reputed
the best in Georgia, and the wine is also esteemed. The climate
is excellent, delightfully cool in summer, owing to the refreshing
breezes from the mountains, though these are, however, at times
disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1123) by the Georgian
king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who fled then-
country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the
fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634-
1638, but destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the 18th century.
There is a church constructed in the 17 th century by Capuchin
missionaries from Rome. Five miles east of Gori is the remark¬
able rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe, which was a fortress in the
time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and an inhabited city
in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III, (980-1014).
GORILLA (or Pongo), the largest of the man-like apes, and
a native of West Africa from the Congo to fa mnr onp, whence
it extends eastwards across the continent to German East Africa.
Many naturalists regard the gorilla as best included in the same
genus as the chimpanzee, in which case it should be known a*
Anihropopithecus gorilla, but by others it is regarded as the
representative of a genus by itself, when its title will be GoriUu
saoagei, or G. gorilla. That there are local forms of gorilla is
quite certain : but whether any of these are entitled to rank as
distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long supposed
-that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of
Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the
xh. 9
258 GORINCHEM—GORING
opinion of some of those best qualified to judge, it it probable
that the creatures in question were really baboons, the first
real account of the gorilla appears to be the one given by an
English sailor, Andrew Battel, who spent some time in the wilds
of West Africa during and about the year 1390; his account
being presented in Purchas’s Pilgrimage, published in the year
1613. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with both
the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms
engeco and the latter pongo—names which ought apparently
to be adopted for these two species in place of those now in use.
Between Battel’s time and 1846 nothing appears to have been
heard of the gorilla or pongo, but in that year a missionary at
the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull of the huge ape;
and in 1847 a sketch of’that specimen, together with two others,
came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name Gorilla
imagei was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas
Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information
with regard to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed
the name Troglodytes gorilla in 1847. The first complete skeleton
of a gorilla sent to Europe was received at the museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons in 1851, and the first oomplete skin
appears to have reached the British Museum in 1858. Paul B.
du Chaillu’s account (1861) of his journeys in the Gabun
region popularized the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla.
Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and attain a
height of from 5j ft. to ft., or perhaps even more. Some of
the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere gorilla-like
chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article Primates.
Among them are the small cars, elongated head, the presence of
a deep groove alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb,
and the greal length of the arm, which reaches half-way down
the shin-bone (tibia) in the erect posture. In old males the eyes
are overhung by a beetling penthouse of bone, the hinder half
of the middle line of the skull bears a wall-like bony ridge for
the attachment of the powerful jaw-muscles, and the tusks, or
canines, are of monstrous size, recalling those of a carnivorous
animal. The general colour is blackish, with a more or less
marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders, and
sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in Proc.
Zool, Sor., 11)05, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths
of the forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood
of human settlements when they are attracted by some special
fruit or succulent plant; the favourite iieing the fruit of the
“ mejom,” a tall cane-like plant (perhaps a kind of Atnomum)
which grows abundantly on deserted clearings. At one isolated
village the natives, who were unarmed, reported that they not
unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which broke down the
stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to tear out
and cat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another village
Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the fresh
tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded
fruit rinds of the “ mejoms,” os well as the broken stalks of the
latter, which had been used for beds. On another occasion he
came across the bed of an old gorilla which had been used only
the night before, as was proved by a negro woman, who on the
previous evening had heard the animal breaking and treading
down the stalks to form its couch. According to native report,
the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient thicknoss
to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting posture,
with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first case
Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence
of three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account
does not by any means accord with one given by von Koppenfcis,
in which it is stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a
sitting posture at the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being
tnade of a bed), the female and young ones pass the night in a
nest in the tree several yards above the ground, made by bending
the boughs together and covering them with twigs and moss.
Mr Bates’s account, as being based on actual inspection of the
beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and
snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at
the slightest rustle, jind an attempt to surround the one heard
making his bed by the woman resulted in Mure. Most gorillas
killed by natives are believed by Mr Bates to have been en¬
countered suddenly in the daytime on the ground or in low trees
in the outlying clearings. Many natives, even if armed, refuse,
however, to molest an adult male gorilla, on account of its
ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr Winwood Reitde,
refused to credit du Chaillu’s account of his having killed gorillas,
and stated that the only instance he knew of one of these animals
being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr Walter
Rothschild’s museum at Tring) shot by the German trader
Paschen in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account
was published in 1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that
two European traders, apparently in the " ’eighties ” of the 19th
century, were in the habit of surrounding and capturing these
animals as occasion offered. 1 Fully adult gorillas have never
been seen alive in captivity—and perhaps never will be, as the
creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So long ago as the
year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only by its
skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal,
a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some
months in Wombwell’s travelling menagerie, where it was treated
as a pet. On its death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton,
of Walton Hall, by whom the skin was mounted in a grotesque
manner, and the skeleton given to the Leeds museum. Appar¬
ently, however, it was not till several years later that the skin
was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a gorilla; the
animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a chim¬
panzee. A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society
in October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals.
At the time of arrival it was supposed to be about three years old,
and stood ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather
older, was acquired in March 1896, having been brought to
Liverpool from the French Congo, It is described as having
been thoroughly healthy at the date of its arrival, and of an
amiable and tractable disposition. Neither survived long. Two
others were received in the Zoological Society’s menagerie in
1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the
following year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Kalkenstein’s
gorilla, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name
of pongo, and afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for
eighteen months. “ Pussi,” the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological
Gardens, holds a record for longevity, with over seven years
of menagerie life. Writing in 1903 Mr T. W. Hornaday stated
that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny infant, had ever
landed in the United States; and it lived only five days after
arrival. (R. I,.*)
GORINCHEM, or Oorcum, a fortified town of Holland in the
province of south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede
at the confluence of the I.inge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht.
It is connected by the Zedcrik and Merwede canals with Amster¬
dam, and steamers ply hence in every direction. Pop. (1900)
11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting old houses, and
overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the 17th
century. The principal buildings are the old church of St
Vincent, containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the
town hall, a prison, custom-house, barracks and a military
hospital. The charitable and benevolent institutions are
numerous, and there are also a library and several laamed
associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and besides
working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in
grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery
being noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town
on the left bank of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old
buildings, which are decorated with mosaics.
GORING, GEORGE GORING, Loan (1608-1657), English
Royalist soldier, son of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was bom
on the 14th of July 1608. He soon became famous at court
for his prodigality and dissolute manners. His father-dn-law,
Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post in the Dutch
1 In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer
shot a gorilla in the Barela country, east oi the Mongala affluent of
1 the Congo.
GORKi-i-OSRLITZ
army with the rank of coionel. He was permanently lamed
by a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England
early in 1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He
served in the Scottish war, and already had a considerable
reputation when he was concerned in the “ Army Plot 1 ’ Officers
of the army stationed at York proposed to petition the king and
parliament for the maintenance of the royal authority. A
second party was in favour of more violent measures, and
Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general,
proposed to march the army on London and overawe the parlia¬
ment during Strafford's trial. This proposition being rejected
by his fellow officers, he betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy
Blount, earl of Newport, who passed on the information in¬
directly to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was thereupon called
on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended him
for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his
comrades induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary
leaders, who sent him back to his Portsmouth command. Never¬
theless he declared for the king in August. He surrendered
Portsmouth to the parliament in September 1642 and went to
Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to England
in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of
Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Scacroft Moor near Leeds
in March 1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield
on the capture of the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected
an exchange. At Marston Moor he commanded the Royalist
left, and charged with great success, but, allowing his troopers
to disperse in search of plunder, was routed by Cromwell at the
close of the battle. In November 1644, on his father's elevation
to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The
parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the
creation of the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as
Lord Goring and the son as General Goring. In August he had
been despatched by Prince Rupert, who recognized his ability,
to join Charles in the south, and in spite of his dissolute and
insubordinate character he was appointed to supersede Henry,
Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse (see Great
Rebellion). He secured some successes in the west, and in
January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied
Farnham ; but want of money compelled him to retreat to
Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The excesses committed by his
troops seriously injured the Royalist cause, and his exactions
made his name hated throughout the west. He had himself
prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next
month he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol,
to send reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of
Taunton, he obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in
the month he was summoned with his troops to the relief of the
king at Oxford. Lord Goring had long been intriguing for an
independent command, and he now secured from the king what
was practically supreme authority in the west. It was alleged
by the earl of Newport that lie was willing to transfer his
allegiance once more to llie parliament. It is not likely that he
meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and
occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still
engaged in desultory operations against Taunton when the
main campaign of 1645 opened. For the part taken by Go ring’s
army in the operations of the Naseby campaign see Great
Rebellion. After the decisive defeat of the king, the army of
Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a disastrous
fight at Langport on the rath of July. He made no further
serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his
time in frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained
leave to quit his disorganized forces and retire to France on the
ground of health. His father’s services secured him the command
of some English regiments in die Spanish service. He died at
Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon gives him a very
unpieasing character, declaring that “ Goring . . . would,
without hesitation, hove broken any trust, or done any act of
treachery to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and
in truth wanted nothing but industry (for he had wit, and
courage, and understanding and ambition, uncontrolled by any
259
fear of God or man) to have been as eminent and successful in
the highest attempt of wickedness as any roan in the age he
lived in or before. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was
his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that men were
not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being
deceived but twice by him.”
See the life by C. H. Firth in the Dietionary of National Biography ;
Dugdale's Baronage, where there are some doubtful stories of his
fife in Spain; the Clarendon State Papers : Clarendon's History of the
Great Rebellion ; and S. R. Gardiner’s History of the Great Civil War.
GORKI, MAXIM (1868- ), the pen-name of the Russian
novelist Alexei Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-
Novgorod on the a6th of March 1868. His father was a dyer,
but he lost both his parents in childhood, and irchis ninth year
was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We find him afterwards in a
variety of callings, but devouring books of all sorts greedily,
whenever they fell into his hands. He tan away from the boot-
shop and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook
on board a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth
year he tried to enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake
himself again to his drudgery. He became a baker, then hawked
about kvas, and helped the barefooted tramps and labourers
at the docks. From these he drew some of his most striking
pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life generally
with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery
he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a
barrister at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of
his fortunes, as he found a sympathetic master who helped him.
He also became acquainted with the novelist Korolenko, who
assisted him in his literary efforts. His first story was Makar
Chudra, which was published in the journal Kashas. He con¬
tributed to many periodicals and finally attracted attention by
his tale called Chelhash, which appeared in Kusshoe Bogatsvo
(“ Russian wealth ”). This was followed by a series of tales
in which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the
bosniaki, or tramps. He has sometimes described other classes
of society, tradesmen and the educated classes, but not with
equal success. There are some vigorous pictures, however,
of the trading class in his Foma Gordeyev. But his favourite
type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society, and him he
describes from pergonal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies
with him. We get such a type completely in Konovalov. Gorki
is always preaching that we must have ideals—something better
than everyday life, and this view is brought out in his play
At the Lowest Depths, which had great success at Moscow, but,
was coldly received at St Petersburg.
For a good criticism of Gorki see Ideas and Realities in Russian
Literature, by Prince Kropotkin. Many ot his works have been
translated into English.
GORUTZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, on the left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden
on the railway to Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin,
Zittau and Halle. Pop. (1885) 55,702; (1905) 80,931. The
Neisse at this point is crossed by a railway bridge 1650 ft. long
and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Gorlitz is one of the hand¬
somest, and, owing to the extensive forests of 70/100 acres,
which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest
towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and
fine gardens, and although its old walls and towers have now
been demolished, many of its ancient buildings remain to form
a picturesque contrast with the signs of modern industry. From
the hill called Landskrone, about 1500 ft. high, an extensive
prospect is obtained of the surrounding country. The principal
buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St Paul,
dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous
organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about
the end of the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and
choir in pierced work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868,
with handsome choir stalls and a carved altar dating from 1383;
and the Roman Catholic church, founded in 1853, in the Roman
style of architecture, with beautiful glass windows and oil-paint¬
ings. The old town hall (Kathaus) contains a very valuable
library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps. There is
2 6o
GORRES
also • new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other
buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used
as a guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in
the Gothic style erected in i8ji ; the Ruhmeshalle with the
kaiser Friedrich museum, the house of the estates of the province
(Stiindehaus), two theatres and the barracks. Near the town
is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is a model of the
Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the rjth century.
In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to
Alexander von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob
Bdhme (1575-1624); a monument has been erected in the town
in commemoration of the war of 1870-71, and also one to the
emperor William 1. und a statue of Prince Frederick Charles.
In connexion with the natural history society there is a valuable
museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large library
and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of virtu.
Giirlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing
commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground
for the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides
cloth, which forms its staple article of commerce, it has manu¬
factories of various linen and woollen wares, tnuchines, railway
wagons, glass, sago, tobacco, leather, chemicals and tiles.
Giirlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at
the beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was
then known as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruc¬
tion by fire in 1151 it received the name of Zgorzelice. About
the end of the 12th century it was strongly fortified, and for a
short time it was the capital of a duchy of Gorlitz. It was
several times besieged and taken during the Thirty Years’ War,
and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years’ War. In the
battle which took place near it between the Austrians and
Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winter-
feldt, the general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the
town, with the greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the
possession of Prussia.
See Neumann, Geschichte von Gorhts (1850).
OttRRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON (1776-1848), German
writer, was born on the 25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His
father was a mun of moderate means, who sent his son to a Latin
college under the direction of the Roman Catholic clergy. The
sympathies of the young Gbrres were from the first strongly
with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and irreligion
of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his hatred
of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted
on the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to
one another. He then commenced a republican journal called Das
rote Hiatt, and afterwards Rubezahl, in which he stronglv con¬
demned the administration of the Rhenish provinces bv France.
After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope
that the Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an inde-
pendent republic. In 1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of
which Gorres was a member, to Paris to put their case before the
directory. The embassy reached Paris on the 20th of November
1799 •. two days before this Napoleon had assumed the supreme
direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was received
by him ; hut the only answer they obtained was “ that thev
might rely on perfect justice, and that the French government
would never lose sight of their wants." Gorres on his return
published a tract called Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris, in
which he reviewed the history of the French Revolution. During
the thirteen years of Napoleon’s dominion Gtirres lived a retired
life, devoting himself chiefly to art or science. In 1801 he
married Catherine de lasanlx, and was for some years teacher
at a secondary school in Coblenz ; in 1806 he moved to Heidel¬
berg, where he lectured at the university. As a leading member
of the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with
K. Brentann and L.von Amim the famous Zeitung fur Einsiedler
(subsequently re-named Trbst-Einsamkeit), and m 1807 he
published Dir teutsehen Valksbucher. He returned to Coblenz
in 1808, and again found beenpation as a teacher in a secondary
school, supported by civic funds. He now studied Persian, and
in two years published a Mythengeschichte dtr asiatisehm Welt,
which was followed ten yean later by Das HtUenhuch von Iran
a translation of part of the Shahnama, the epic of FIrdousi Ir
1813 he actively took up the cause of national inrietvm denrf
and in the following year founded Der rheiniseke Merkur Th«
intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its
hostility to Napoleon, pd its fiery eloquence secured for ii
almost instantly a position and influence unique in the history
of German newspapers. Napoleon himself called it la cinquiimt
puissance . The ideal it insisted on was a united Germany with
a representative government, but under an emperor after the
fashion of other days,—for Gorres now abandoned his early
advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon was at Elba
Gorres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the
people, the intense irony of which was bo well veiled that many
Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor
He inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815)
dec anng that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded
back from France.
Stein was glad enough to use the Merkur at the time of the
meeting of the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expres¬
sion to his hopes. But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Gbrres
to remember that he was not to arouse hostility against France
but only against Bonaparte. There was also in the Merkur an
antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression of the desire that
an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title, and also a
tendency to pronounced liberalism—all of which made it most
distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick
William III. Gorres disregarded warnings sent to him by the
censorship and continued the paper in all its fierceness. Accord¬
ingly it was suppressed early in 1816, at the instance of the
Prussian government; and soon after Gorres was dismissed from
his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his writings
were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent
political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed
Kotzebue’s assassinution, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad
were framed, and these were the subject’of Gorres’s celebrated
pamphlet Teutschland und dir Revolution (1820). In this work
he reviewed the circumstances which had led to the murder of
Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible horror at the deed
itself, he urged that it was impossible and undesirable to repress
the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures.
The success of the work was very marked, despite its ponderous
style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and
orders were issued for the arrest of Gorres and the seizure of his
papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzer¬
land. Two more political tracts, Europa und die Revolution
(1821) and In Sacken der Rheinprovinten uni in cigener Angele-
genheit (1822), also deserve mention.
In Gorres’s pamphlet Die heilige Allianz und die Viilker auj
dem Kongress zu Verona he asserted that the princes had met
together to crush the liberties of the people, and that the people
must look elsewhere for help. The “ elsewhere ” was to Rome ;
and from this time Gorres became a vehement Ultramontane
writer. He was summoned to Munich by King Ludwig of Bavaria
as Professor of History in the university, and there his writing
enjoyed very great popularity. His Christliche Mystik (1836-
1842) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together with an
exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most cele¬
brated ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion
was the deposition and imprisonment by the Prussian govern¬
ment of the archbishop Clement Wenceslaus, in consequence of
the refusal of that prelate to sanction in certain instances the
marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics. Gorres in his
Athanasius (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the church,
although the liberals of later date who have claimed Gorres as
one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute
supremacy of Rome. Athanasius went through several editions,
and originated a long and bitter controversy. In the Historisch-
pohtische Blitter , a Munich journal, Gorres and his son Guido
(1805-1852) continually upheld the claims of the church.
Gdrres received from the king the order of merit for his services.
He died on the 29th of January 1848.
GORSAS—GORTON 261
Gfirres's Gssammslie Schriften (only his political writings) appeared
in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of G e u m mslie
Briefe were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland,
Joseph von Gorres (1876. and ed. 1877) ; J. N. Sepp, udrrsi und seine
Zeitgenossen (1877), and by the same author, Gfirres, in the series
Geisteshelden (1896). A Gones-Gesellschaft was founded in 1876.
OORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH (1753-1793), French publicist
and politician, was bom at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 34th
of March 1753, the son of a shoemaker. He established himself
as a private tutor in Paris, and presently set up a school for the
army at Versailles, which was attended by commoners as well
as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short time in the
Bicetre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his pupils,
his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These
circumstances explain the violence of his unti-monarchical
sentiment. At the opening of the states-general he began to
publish the Counter it Versailles a Paris etde Paris a Versailles,
in which appeared on the 4th of October 1789 the account of the
banquet of the royal bodyguard. Gorsas is said to have himself
read it in public at the Palais Royal, and to have headed one of
the columns that marched on Versailles. He then changed the
name of his paper to the Counier its quatre-vingt-trois depart¬
ments, continuing his incendiary propaganda, which had no
small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June and
August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in
his paper that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national
conspiracy and that the people exercised a just vengeance on
the guilty. On the 10th of September 1792 he was elected to
the Convention for the department of Seine-et-Oise, and on the
10th of January 1793 was elected one of its secretaries.. He sat
at first with the Mountain, but having been long associated
with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists
becamegradually more pronounced; during the trial of LouisXVI.
he dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the
Mountain, and he voted for the king’s detention during the war
and subsequent banishment. A violent attack on Marat in
the Counier led to an armed raid on his printing establishment
on the gth of March 1793. The place was sacked, but Gorsas
escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts being reported to
the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas, and a
resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding repre¬
sentatives to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd
of June he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under
arrest with other members of his party. He escaped to Nor¬
mandy to join Buzot, and after the defeat of the Girondists at
Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in Brittany. He was imprudent
enough to return to Paris in the autumn, where he was arrested
on the 6th of October and guillotined the next day.
See the Moniteur, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793):
M. Toumeux, Bibl. de l'hist, de Paris, 10,291 seq. (1894).
GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON (1835- ), English statesman,
was bom at Preston in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock
Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes on succeeding to the
family, estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler from St
John’s College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a
fellowship. After beginning to read for the liar in London, his
father’s illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where
he married in i860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at
that time set up a king of their own in the Waikato district and
Gorst, who had made friends with the chief Tamihana (William
Thomson), acted as an intermediary between the Maoris and
the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of
schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil com¬
missioner in Upper Waikato. Tamihana’s influence secured his
safety in the Maori outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a
volume of recollections, under the title of New Zealand Revisited:
Recollections 0/ the Days of my Youth. He then returned to
England and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1865,
becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for Hastings
in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered
parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed
to secure re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the
Conservative defeat of that year he was entrusted by Disraeli
with the reorganization of the party machinery, aad itt five yMus
of hard work he paved the way for the Conservative success at
tite general election of 1874. At a bye-election in 1875 he re¬
entered parliament as member for Chatham, which he continued
to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-
Wolfl, Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the
“ Fourth Party," and he became solicitor-general in the ad¬
ministration of 1885-1886 and was knighted. On the formation
of the second Salisbury administration (1886) he became under¬
secretary for Indiu and in 1891 financial secretary to the
Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member
for Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of com¬
mittees in the House of Commons from 1888 to iSgr, and on the
formation of the third Salisbury administration in 1895 he
became vice-president of the committee of the Council on educa¬
tion (until 1902). Sir John Gorst adhered to the principles of
Tory democracy which he hud advocated in the days of the
fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active interest in the
housing of the poor, the education and care of their children,
and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in the
press. But he was always exceedingly “ independent ” in his
political action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain’s proposals
for tariff reform, and lost his seat at Cambridge at the general
election of 1906 to a tariff reformer. He then withdrew from
the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose League, of which he
had been one of the founders, on the ground that it no longer
represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he con¬
tested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election.
His elder son, Sir J. Eldon Gorst (b. 1861), was financial
adviser to the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when
he became assistant under-secretary of state for foreign affairs.
In 1907 he succeeded Lord Cromer as British agent and consul-
general in Egypt.
An account of Sir John Gorst's connexion with Lord Randolph
Churchill will be found in the Fourth Party (1906), by his younger
son, Harold E. Gorst.
GORTON, SAMUEL (c. 1600-1677), English sectary and
founder of the American sect of Gortoniles, was born about
1600 at Gorton, Lancashire. He was first apprenticed to a
clothier in London, but, fearing persecution for his religious
convictions, he sailed for Boston, Massachusetts, in 1636. Con¬
stantly involved in religious disputes, he fled in turn to Ply¬
mouth, and to (in 1637-1638) Aquidneck (Newport), where he
was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates.
In 1643 he bought land from the Narruganset Indians at
Shawomet—now Warwick—where he was joined by a number
of his followers; but he quarrelled with the Indians and the
authorities at Boston sent soldiers to arrest Gorton and six of his
companions. He served a term of imprisonment for heresy at
Charlestown, after which he was ejected from the colony.
In England in 1646 he published the curious tract “ Simpli¬
cities Defence against Seven Headed Policy ” (reprinted in
1835), giving an account of his grievances against the Massa¬
chusetts government. In 1648 he returned to New England
with a letter of protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining
his former companions at Shawomet, which he named Warwick,
in honour of the earl, he remained there till his death at the end
of 1677. Ho is chiefly remembered as the founder of a small
sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the end of the
3 8 th century. They had a great contempt for the regular clergy
and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true
believers partook of the perfection of God.
Among his quaint writings are: An Incorruptible Key composed
of the Cx. Psalms u/herewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures
(1647), and Salimarsh returned from the Dead, with its sequel, An
Antidote against the Common Plague of the World (1657). See L. G.
Jones, Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties (Providence,
1896).
OORTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentan
division of Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb
of Manchester. Pop. (1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufactur¬
ing district, having cotton mills and iron, engineering and
chemical works.
GORTYN A—G&RZ AND GRADISCA
262
OORTYNA, or Gortvk, an important ancient city on the
southern, side of the island of Crete. It stood on the banks
of the small river Leth&eus (Mitropolipotamo), about three home
distant from the sea, with which it communicated by means of
its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had temples of
Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the
famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars ;
and not far from this was another spring, overhung by an ever¬
green plane tree which in popular belief marked the scene of
the amours of Zeus and Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus,
the largest and most powerful city of Crete. The two cities
combined to subdue the rest of the island ; but when they had
gained their object thev quarrelled with each other, and the
history of both towns is from this time little more than a record
of their feuds. Neither piays a conspituous part in the history
of Greece. Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis
of the island. Extensive ruins may still be seen at the modem
village of Hagii Deka, and here was discovered the great inscrip¬
tion containing chapters of its ancient laws. Though partly
ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very interesting monument
of early Christian r.rchil ccturc, dating from about the 4th century.
See also Crete, and for a full account of the laws set Greek
Law.
G 0 RTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, Baron von Schmtz
(1(168-1719), Holstein statesman, was educated at Jena. He
entered the Holstein-Gottorp service, and ufter the death of
the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles XII.'s sister, became very
influential during the minority of her son Duke Charles Frederick.
His earlier policy aimed at strengthening Holstein-Gottorp
at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during Charles
Xll.’s stay at Altranstiidt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the
king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later,
when the Swedish commander, Magnus Stcnbock, crossed the
Kibe, Gortz rendered him as much assistance as was compatible
with not openly breaking with Denmark, even going so far
as to surrender the fortress of Tunning to the Swedes. Gortz
next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against Sweden
by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Suxony for the purpose
of isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies
against her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained
relations lietween Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered,
however, on the refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his
German domains by ceding Stettin to Prussia. Another simul¬
taneous plan of procuring the Swedish crown for Duke Charles
Frederick also came to nought. Gortz first suggested the
marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna Anne
of Russia, and negotiations were hegun in St Petersburg with
that object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at
Stralsund, Gortz was the first to visit him, and emerged from
his presence chief minister or “ grand-vizier ” as the Swedes
preferred to call the bold and crafty satrap, whose absolute
devotion to the Swedish king took no account of the intense
wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Gortz, himself a man of
uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the
heroic element in Charles’s nature and was determined, if
possible, to save him from his difficulties. He owed his extra¬
ordinary influence to the fact that he was the only one of Charles’s |
advisers who believed, or pretended to believe, that Sweden
was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a sufficient
reserve of power to give support to an energetic diplomacy—
Charles’s own opinion, in fact. Gortz's position, however,
was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein
minister at Charles’s court, in reality he was everything in Sweden
except a Swedish subject—finance minister, plenipotentiary
to foreign powers, factotum, and responsible to the king alone,
though he had not a line of instructions. But he was just the
man for u hero in extremities, and his whole course of procedure
was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief- financial expedient
was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by issuing copper
tokens redeemable in better- times; but it was no fault of his
that diaries XU., during fliii absence, flung upon the market
too enormous an amount of this copper money for Gbrtz to deal
with. By the end of 1718 it seemed as if Gortz's system could
not go on much longer, and the hatred of the Swedes towards
him was so intense and universal that they blamed him for
Charles Xll.’s tyranny as well as for his own. GSrtz hoped,
however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden’s
numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means
of fresh combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great
power. It must be admitted that, in pursuance of his “ system,”
Gortz displayed a genius for diplomacy which would have done
honour to a Mettemich or a Talleyrand. He desired peace with
Russia first of all, and at the congress of Aland even obtained
relatively favourable terms, only to have them rejected by his
obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously, Gortz was negoti¬
ating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in England; but
all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of cards on
the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish
nation instantly fell upon Gortz. After a trial before a special
commission which was a parody of justice—the accused was
not permitted to have any legal assistance or the use of writing
materials—he was condemned to decapitation and promptly
executed. Perhaps Gortz deserved his fate for “ unnecessarily
making himself the tool of an unheard-of despotism,” but his
death was certainly a judicial murder, and some historians even
regard him as a political martyr.
Sec R. N. Bain, Charlts XU. {London, 1895), and Scandinavia,
chap. ' 2 (Cambridge, 1905) ; B. von Beskow, Frcherrc Georg
Heinrich von Giirlt (Stockholm, 1868). (R. N. B.)
G 0 RZ (Ital. Gorizia; Slovene, Gorica), the capital of the
Austrian crownland of Gbrz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W.
of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians,
the remainder mostly Slovenes and Germans, It is picturesquely
situated on the left, bank of the lsonzo in a fertile valley, 35 m.
N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an archbishop and
possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th century
and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the
17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates
the town, is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the
counts of Gore, now partly used as barracks. Owing to the
mildness of its climate Gore has become a favourite winter-
resort, and has received the name of the Nice of Austria. Its
mean annual temperature is 55 0 F.; while the mean winter
temperature is 38- 7° F. It is adorned with several pretty gardens
with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N.
of the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza,
in whose chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France (d. 1836),
the last Bourbon king, of the duke of Angouldme (d. 1844),
his son, and of the duke of Chambord (d. 1883). Seven miles
to the north of Gore is the Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much-
frequented plaee on which stands a pilgrimage church. The
industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar refining,
brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of rosoglio.
There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables,
early fruit and wine. Gbrz is mentioned for the first time at
the beginning of the nth century, and received its charter as
a town in 1307. During the middle ages the greater part of
its population was German.
G 0 RZ AND GRADISCA, a county and crownland of Austria,
bounded E. by Camiola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory
and the Adriatic, W. by Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has
an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line, though extending for
25 m., does not present any harbour of importance. It is fringed
by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most part
of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries
Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only
one accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides,
except towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian
lowland, it is surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths
of its area is occupied by mountains and hills. From the Julian
Alps, which traverse the province in the north, the country
descends in successive terraces towards the sea, and may roughly
be divided into the upper highlands, the lower highlands, the
hilly district and the lowlands. The principal peaks in the
< GOSCHBN,
Julian Alps are the Monte Conin (8469 ft.), the Manhart(8784 ft.),
the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Km (7367 ft.), the Matajur(ss86 ft.),
and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or
Terglou (9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil
Pass (3811 ft.), through which passes the principal rood from
Carinthia to the'Coastland. The southern part of the province
belongs to the Karst region, and here are situated the famous
cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where the river Reka
begins its subterranean course. The principal river of the
province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues
a strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches
the Adriatic. At Gorz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea,
and it is navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the
name of the Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria,
the Wippach and the Torre with its tributary the Judrio,
which forms for a short distance the boundary between Austria
and Italy. Of special interest not only in itself but for the
frequent allusions to it in classical literature is the Timavus
or Timuvo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short
course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears,
according to the well-known description of Virgil (Am. i. 344)
to have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths
and with much noise and commotion, but at present it usually
issues from only three mouths and flows quiet and still. It
is strange enough, however, to see the river coming out full
formed from the rock, and capable at its very source of bearing
vessels on its bosom. According to a probable hypothesis it
is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which is
lost near Sankt Kanzian.
Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupa¬
tion of the population, and the vine is here planted not only
in regular vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through
the ordinary fields and carried up the hills in terraces locally
called rottchi. The rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the
lowlands, constitutes another great source of revenue, and
furnishes the material for the only extensive industry of the
country: The manufacture of silk is carried on at G 5 rz, and in
and around the village of Haidensehaft. G6rz and Gradisca
had in moo a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to
203 inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about
two-thirds were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only
alxmt 2200 Germans. Almost the whole of the population
(qq‘6 %) belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. The local
diet, of which the archbishop of Gorz is a member ex-officio,
is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 3 deputies
to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the
province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous munici¬
pality, Gorz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places
are Cormons (5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699),
Gradisca (3843) and Aquileia (2319).
Gdrz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the
10th century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor
Otto III. on John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the nth century
it became the seat of the Eppenstein family, who frequently
bore the title of counts of Gorizia ; and in the beginning of the
12th century the countship passed from them to the I.umgau
family which continued to exist till the year 1500, and acquired
possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria, On the
death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to
the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united
with it in 1754. The province was occupied by the French in
1809, but reverted again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district
of the administrative province of Trieste until 1861, when it
became a separate crownland under its actual name.
GOSCHBN, GEORGB JOACHIM GOSCHBN, 1st Viscount
(1831-1907), British statesman, son of William Henry Gdschen,
a London merchant of German extraction, was bom in London
on the 10th of August 1831. He was educated at Rugby under
Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he took a first-
class in classics. He entered his father’s firm of Friihling &
Gdschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became
a director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life
VISCOUNT *63
took place in 1863, when he was returned without oppoiMoi
as member for the city of London in the Liberal interest,
and this was followed by his re-election, at the head of the poll,
in the general election of 1865. In November of the some year
he was appointed vice-president of the Board of Trade and
paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he wo* made chancellor
of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When
Mr Gladsteme became prime minister in December 1868, Mr
Goschen joined the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board,
and continued to hold that office until March r87i, when he
succeeded Mr Childers as first lord of the admiralty. In 1874
he was elected lord rector of the university of Aberdeen. Being
sent to Cairo in 1870 as delegate for the British holders of
Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the conversion of
the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the
Khedive.
In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question pre¬
vented him from voting uniformly with his party, and he in¬
formed his constituents in the city that he would not stand
again at the forthcoming general election. In >880 he was
elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that constituency
until the general election of 1885, when he was returned for the
Easterrf Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension
of the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone’s govern¬
ment in 1880 ; declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted
that of special ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in
settling the Montenegrin and Greek frontier questions in 1880
and 1881. He was made an ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882,
and when Sir Henry Brand wus raised to the peerage in 1884,
the speakership of the House of Commons was offered to him,
but declined. During the parliament of 188o-1885 he frequently
found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as
regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign
policy ; and When Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home
Rule for Ireland, Mr Goschen followed Lord Harrington (after¬
wards duke of Devonshire) and became one of the most active of
the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and eloquent opposition to
Mr Gladstone’s Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him into greater
public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his seat for
Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the resigna¬
tion of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen,
though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury’s invitation
to join his ministry, and became chum ellor of the exchequer.
Being defeated at Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven
votes, he was elected for St George’s, Hanover Square, on the
9th of February. His chancellorship of the exchequer during
the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable by his
successful conversion of the National Debt in 188X (see Nation At
Debt). With that financial operation,, under which the new
2} % Consols became known as “ Goscliens," his name will
long be connected. Aberdeen University again conferred upon
him the honour of the lord rectorship in 1888, and he received
a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh in 1890.
In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again
took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House
of Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating
power. From 1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the
admiralty, and in that office he earned the highest reputation
for his businesslike grasp of detail and his statesmanlike outlook
on the naval policy of the country. He retired in iyoo, and was
raised to the peerage by the title of Viscount Goschen of Ilawk-
hurst, Kent. Though retired from active politics he continued
to take a great interest in public affairs ; and when Mr ( hamber*
lain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen
was one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist
side. He died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in
the title by his son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Con¬
servative M.P. for East Grmstead from 1895 to 1900, and
married a daughter of the 1st earl of Cranbrook.
In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest
interest, his best known, but by no means his only, contribution
to popular culture being his'participation in the University
264
G0&-MAWK—©OSLAR *
Movement; and hi* first efforts in parliament wore
devoted to advocating the abolition of religious test# and the
admisaion of Dissenters to the universities. His published
works indicate how ably he combined the wise study of econo¬
mics with a practical instinct for business-like progress, without
neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to
his well-known work on The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges,
he published several financial and political pamphlets and
addresses on educational and social subjects, among them being
that on Cultivation of the Imagination, Liverpool, 1877, and that
on Intellectual Interest, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote The Life
and Times of Georg Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of
Leipzig (1903). (H. Ch )
G 08 -HAWK, i.e. goose-hawk, the A slur palumbarius of
ornithologists, and the largest of the short-winged hawks used
in fulconry. Its English name, however, has possibly been
transferred to this species from one of the long-winged hawks
or true falcons, since there is no tradition of the gos-hawk, now
so called, having ever been used in Europe to take geese or other
large and powerful birds. The genus Astur may be readily
distinguished from Falco by the smooth edges of its beak,
its short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail),
and its long legs and toes—though these last are stout aSd com¬
paratively shorter than in the sparrow-hawks ( Accipiter ). In
plumage the gos-hawk has a general resemblance to the pere¬
grine falcon, and it undergoes a corresponding change as it
advances from youth to maturity—the young being longitudin¬
ally streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely barred.
The irides, however, arc always vellow, or in old birds orange,
while those of the falcons arc dark brown. The sexes differ
greatly in size. There an be little doubt that the gos-hawk,
nowadays very rare in Britain, wus once common in England,
and even towards the end of the 18th century Thornton obtained
a nestling in Scotland, while Irish gos-hawks were of old highly
celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird, its disappearance
may be safely connected with the disappearance of the ancient
forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry
and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity.
In many parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It
ranges eastward to Chinn and is much valued in India. In
North America it is represented by a very' nearly allied species,
A. atricapillus. chiefly distinguished by the closer barring of
the breast. Three or four examples corresponding with this
form liave been obtained in Britain. A good many other species
of Astur (some of them passing into Accipiter) are found in
various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be
mentioned is the A. novae-hallandiae of Australia, which is
remarkable for its dimorphism—one form possessing the normal
dark-coloured plumage of the genus and the other being perfectly
white, with crimson irides. Some wrilers hold these two forms
to be distinct species and call the dark-coloured one A. cinereus
or A. raii. (A. N.)
GOSHEN, a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between
Jacob’s immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation
is a difficult problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic,
or at least non-Egyptian origin, as in Palestine we meet with a
district (Josh. x. 41) and a city (ib, xv. 51) of the same name.
The Scptuagint reads Ttoffi Wpa/lias in Gen. xlv. 10, and
xlvi. 34, elsewhert simply IVqt. In xlvi. 38 “ Goshen . . .
the land of Goshen ” are translated respectively “ Heroopolis
... the land of Rameses.” This represents a late Jewish
identification. Ptolemy defines “ Arabia " as an Egyptian nome
on the eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa,
corresponding to the Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem.
It is doubtful whether Phacussa be situated at the mounds of
F&kus, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh, which suits Strabo's
description of its locality rather better. The extent of Goshen,
according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10), included
Tunis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It
is indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of
good pasture, on the froiftier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible
vegetables and in fish (Numbers xi. 5). (R. A. S. M.)
GOSHEN, a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S-
of Chicago, at an altitude of about 800 ft. Pop. (1890)
6033 ; (J900) 7810, of whom 46a were foreign-bom. Goshen
is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected
by electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city
has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under
Mennonite control), chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart,
Ind., in 1895, and removed to Goshen and opened under its
present name in 1903. The college includes a collegiate depart¬
ment, an academy, a B : ble school, a normal school, a summer
school and correspondence courses, and schools of business,
of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students,
73 of whom were in the Academy. Goschen is situated in
a good farming region and is an important lumber market
There is a good water-power. Among the city’s manufactures
are wagons and carriages, furniture, wooden-ware, veneer¬
ing, sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber goods,
flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The
municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting
system. Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered
as a city in 1868.
G 08 LAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the
Oker, at the north foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim
and 31 m. S.W. from Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817.
It is surrounded by walls and is of antique appearance. Among
the noteworthy buildings are the “ Zwinger,” a tower with
walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque
style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and
containing the town archives and a library in which are some
of Luther’s manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing
many interesting antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the
hall of the tailors’ gild and now an inn) with the statues of
eight of the German emperors ; and the Kaiserhaus, the oldest
secular building in Germany, built by the emperor Henry III.
before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This was
restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government,
and was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German
history. Other buildings of interest are:—the small chapel
which is all that remains since 1820 of the old and famous
cathedral of St Simon and St J ude founded by Henry III. about
1040, containing among other relics of the cathedral an old
altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which formerly
stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church
of the former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk,
of the rath.century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings
of considerable merit; and the house of the bakers’ gild now
an hotel, the birthplace of Marshal Saxe. There are four
Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue,
several schools, a natural science museum, containing a collection
of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of antiquities and a
number of small foundations. The town has equestrian statues
of the emperor Frederick 1 . and of the German emperor William
I. The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the
sulphur, copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood.
The town lias also been long noted for its beer, and possesses
some small manufactures and a considerable trade in fruit.
Goslor is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler
about 920, and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral
treasures in the neighbourhood were discovered it increased
rapidly in prosperity. It was often the meeting-place of German
diets, twenty-three of which are said to liave been held here,
and was frequently the residence of the emperors. About 1350
it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of the 14th
century the famous Goslor statutes, a code of laws, which was
adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was
unsuccessfully besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years’ War,
but was taken by the Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by
fire. Further conflagrations in 1728 and 1780 gave a severe
I blow to its prosperity. It was a free town till 1802, when it
GOSLICKI—GOSPEL 365
came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was joined to
Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with
Hanover, re-united to Prussia.
See T. Erdmann, Die edit Kaiserslait Goslar uni ihre Umgebung
in Geschichte, Sage uni Dili (Goslar, 189a) ; Crusins, Geschtekte
tier vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar (1841-1843) ; A.
Wolfsticg, Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar (Berlin, 1885) ; T. Asche,
Dir Kaiserp/als teu Goslar (1802); Neuburg, Goslars Herghau bts
1553 (Hanover, 1892); and the Urhundenbuch der Stadt Goslar,
edited by G, Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the Goslarische Slatuten
sec the edition published by Gosohen (Berlin, 1840).
GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (>1533-1607), Polish hislwp,
better known under his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius
Goslicius, was born about 1533. After having studied at Cracow
and Padua, he entered the church, and was successively appointed
bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen. Goslicki was an active man
of business, was held in high estimation by his contemporaries
and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It was chiefly
through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to the
pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establish¬
ing their schools at Cracow. lie was also a strenuous advocate
of religious toleration in Poland. He died on the 31st of October
1607.
His principal work is Dc optimo srnalort &i„ (Venice, 15O8).
There are two English translations published respectively under
the titles A lommonwealth of good counsailr, &c. (1607), and The
Accomplished Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth (1733).
GOBLIN, or G auzlinus (d. c. 886), bishop of Paris and defender
of the city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some
authorities, the son of Rorioon II., count of Maine, according
to others the natural son of the emperor Louis I. In" 848 he
became a monk, and entered a monaster)’ at Reims, later he
became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates of his
time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the
Northmen, hv whom he and his brother Louis were taken
prisoners (858), and he was released only after paying a heavy
ransom (Prudentii Trecensis episcopt Annates, ann. 858). From
855 to 867 he held intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly,
the office of chancellor to Charles the Bald and his successors.
In 883 or 884 he was elected bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the
dangers to which the city was to be exposed from the attacks
of the Northmen, he planned and directed the strengthening
of the defences, though he also relied for security on the merits
of the relics of St Germain and St Genevit've. When the attack
finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him
and to Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain
1 ’Auxrrrois. The city was attacked on the 26th of November,
and the struggle for the possession of the bridge (now the Pont-
au-Change) lasted for two days; but Goslin repaired the destruc¬
tion of the wooden tower overnight, and the Normans were
obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by storm. The
siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor Charles
the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries
of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or
killed by a pestilence which raged in the city,
Sec Amaurv Duval, L'Pntque Goslin ou le sit'ge de Paris par les
Normands, chronique du IX" sitcle (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed. ib.
1835).
GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607), English navigator.
Nothing is known of his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602,
in command of the “ Concord,” chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh
und others, he crossed the Atlantic ; coasted from what is now
Maine to Martha's Vineyard, landing at and naming Cape Cod
and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving the name
Martha’s Vineyard to the island now called No Man’s Land ;
and returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other
commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard's
Bay. In London he actively promoted the colonization of
the’ regions he had’visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir
Ferdinando Gorges and other influential persons, contributed
toward securing the grants of the charters to the London and
Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he was associated
with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels
by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia.
As a member of the council he took an active share in the affairs
of the colony , abl v seconding the efforts of John Smith to intro¬
duce order, industry and system among the motley array of
adventurers and idle *' gentlemen ” of wliich the little band was
composed. He died from swamp fever on the sand of August 1607.
See The Works of John Smith (Arber’s Edition, London, 1.884);
and I. M. Brmtou, Hue/ and True Relation 0/ ike North Part 0/
Virginia (reprinted In B. E Stevens, Lond on , 1901), an account of
Gosnold’s voyage of 1602.
G08PATRIC (fl. 10(17). earl of Northumberland, belonged to
a family which had connexions with the royal houses both of
Wessex and Scotland. Before the Conquest he accompanied
Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and at that time
was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the
earldom of Northumh rlaml from William the Conqueror; but,
repenting of his submission, (led with other Englishmen to the
court of Scotland (10OS). lie joined the Danish army of in¬
vasion in the next year; hut was afterwards able, from his
possession of Bamburgh rustle, to make terms with the con¬
queror, who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace concluded
in that year with Scotland left him at William’s mercy. He
lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm
seems to have provided for him.
See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877),
and the English Hist. Revtew, vol. six. (London, 1904).
GOSPEL (O. Eng. gods pel, t.e. good news, a translation of Lat.
bona annuntiatio, or evangrliuni, Gr. umyyihmr ; cf. Goth.
in sptllon, “ to announce good news,” Ulfilas’ translation of
the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and speUon to announce),
primarily the “ glad tidings " announced to the world by Jesus
Christ. The word thus came to he applied to the whole body of
doctrine taught by Christ and his disciples, and so to the Christian
revelation generally (see Christianity); by analogy the term
“gospel” is also used in other connexions as equivalent to
“ authoritative teaching.” In a narrower sense each of the
records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved in the writings
of the four “ evangelists ” is described as a Gospel. The many
more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted
by the Christian Church as canonical are known as “ apocryphal
gospels ” (see Apocryphal Literatuki:). The present article
is concerned solely with general considerations affecting the
four canonical Gospels ; see for details of each, the articles
under Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.
The Four Gospels .—The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the
Gospel that He was the Christ. Those to whom this message
was first delivered in Jerusalem and 1 ‘alestine had seen and.
heard Jesus, or had heard much about Hint. They did not
require to be told who He was. But mors and mote as the work
of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this
knowledge, it became necessary to include in the (aispel delivered
some account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those
who hud followed Him during His life on earth, and all who
joined themselves to them, must have fell the need of dwelling
on His precepts, so that these must have been often repeated,
and also in all probability from an early time grouped together
according to their subjects, and so taught. For some time,
probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts ot the life
of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would
be in accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers
of the Gospel. Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expecta¬
tion of the speedy return of Christ that they did not fed called
to make provision for the instruction of subsequent generations.
The Epistles of the New Testament contain no indentions of
the existence, of any written record of the life and teaching
of Christ. Tradition indicates a.d. 60-70 as the period when
written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to be
made (see Mark, Gospel or, and Matthew, Gospel 01).
This may be accepted as highly probable. We caimot but
suppose that at a time when the number of the original band
of disciples of Jesus who survived must have been becoming
noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in life, the
importance of writing down that which bad been orally delivered
concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also
xn. 9 a
GOSPEL
266
gather from Luke's preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing
was undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence
of this feeling, and that various records had already in con¬
sequence been made. .
But do our Gospels, or any of therh, in the form m which
we actually have them, belong to the number of those earliest
records ? Or, if not, what are the relations in which they
severally stand to them ? These are questions which in modern
criticism have been greatly debated. W ith a view to obtaining
answers to them, it is necessary to consider the reception of the
Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and compare
the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied
in these two ways must be given in the present article, so far
as it is common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them,
and in the articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial
to each.
1. The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church.— The
question of the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which
they were regarded during the period extending from the latter
years of the 1st century to the beginning of the last quarter
of the 2nd is a difficult one. There is a lack of explicit references
to the Gospels ; and many of the quotations which may be
taken from them are not exact. At the same time these facts
can lie more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various
circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that
the habits of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered
orally should have continued to exert influence even after the
tradition had been committed to writing. Although documents
might be known and used, they would not he regarded as the
authorities for that which was independently remembered, and
would not, therefore, necessarily he mentioned. Consequently,
it is not strange that citations of sayings of Christ - and these
are the only express citations in writings of the Suhapostolir
Age—should be made without the source whence they were
derived being named, and (with a single exception) without
any clear indication that the source was a document. The
exception is in the little treatise commonly called the Epistle
of Barnabas, probably composed about A.li. 130, where (c. iv.
14) the words " many are called hut few chosen ” are intro¬
duced by the formula “ as it is written.”
For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources
used we have to rely upon the amount of correspondence with
our Gospels in the quotations made, and in respect to other
parallelisms of statement and of expression, in these early
Christian writers. The correspondence is in the main full and
true as regards spirit and substance, but it is rarely complete
in form. The existence of some differences of language may,
however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various
forms of the same saying occurring in different documents,
or remembered from oral tradition and through catechetical
instruction, would sometimes lie purposely combined. Or,
again, the memory might lie confused by this variety, und the
verification of quotations, especially of brief ones, was difficult,
not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of books,
but also because ancient books were not provided with ready
means of reference to particular passages. On the whole there
is clearly a presumption that where we have striking expressions
which are known to us besides only in one of our Gospel-records,
that particular record has tieen the source of it. And where
there are several such coincidences the ground for the supposition
that the writing in question hies been used may become very
strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less clear in the
several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the first
two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our
first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third.
After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect,
documents were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history;
but there is still some uncertainty as to the documents upon
which reliance was placed, and the precise estimation in which
1 For the only two that ’eaq be held to lie such in the first half
of the 2nd century, and the doubts whether thev refer to our present
GoepeU, see Mask, Gospel or, and Matthew, Gospel op.
they were severally held. This is in part at least due to the
circumstance that nearly all the writings which have remained
of the Christian literature belonging to the period circa ajd,
130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and that for the most
part they give only summaries of the teaching of Christ and of
the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be under¬
stood by, and names that would not carry weight with, others
than Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most im¬
portant of the writings now in question are two by Justin
Martyr (circa A.n. 145-160), viz. his Apology and his Dialogue
with Trypho. In the former of these works he shows plainly
his intention of adapting his language and reasoning to Gentile,
and in the latter to Jewish, readers. In both his name for the
Gospel-records is “ Memoirs of the Apostles.” After a great
deal of controversy there has come to be very wide agreement
that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs.
In the case of the second and third there are indications, though
slight ones, that he held the view of their composition and
authorship which was common from the last quarter of the
century onwards (sec Mark, Gospel or, and Luke, Gospel
op), hut he has made the largest use of our first Gospel. It is
also generally allowed that he was acquainted with the fourth
Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain reserve.
Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show
that he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a
good deal of difference of opinion still as to whether Justin
reckoned other sources for the Gospel-history besides our
Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs. In this connexion,
however, as well as on other grounds, it Is a significant tact that
within twenty years or so after the death of Justin, which prob¬
ably occurred circa a.d. 160, Tatian, who had been a hearer of
Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history
which received the name Diatcssaron (“ through four ”), in
the main a compilation from our four Gospels. 1
Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had
attained a position of unique authority throughout the greater
part of the Church, not different from that which they have
held since, as is evident from the treatise of lrcnaeus Against
Heresies{r. a.d. 180; see esp. iii. i. x f. and x., xi.) and from other
evidence only afew years later. The struggle against Gnosticism,
which had been going on during the middle part of the century,
had compelled the Church both to define her creed and to draw
a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those
writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others.
Tiie effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally
entertained of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time
in the formal statements now made it is plainly implied that the
belief expressed is no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to
suppose that agreement on this subject between different
portions of the Church could have manifested itself at this time
m the spontaneous manner that it does, except as the consequence
of traditional feelings and convictions, which went hack to the
early part of the century, and which could hardly have arisen
without good foundation, with respect to the special value of
these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although
ull thut came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship
cannot he considered proved.
2. The Internal Criticism 0/ the Gospels .—In the middle of the
19th century an able school of critics, known as the Tiibingen
school, sought to show from indications in the several Gospels
that they were composed well on in the and century in the
interests of various strongly marked parties into which the Church
was supposed to have been divided by differences in regard to
the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity. These theories
are now discredited. It may on the contrary be confidently
asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the local
colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they
1 The character of Tatian’s Diatessarcm has been much disputed
in the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the
subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account
of these may be seen most conveniently in The Diatessarcm of Tatian ,
by S. Hemphill; see under Tatian.)
GOSPORT 267
show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the
circumstances of the and century ; and that the character even
of the Fourth Gospel is not such as to justify its being placed,
at furthest, much after the beginning of that century.
We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid
results have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in
consequence of the large amount of similarity between them
in contents, arrangement, and even in words and the forms of
sentences and paragraphs, been called Synoptic Gospels. It
has long been seen that, to account for this similarity, relations
of interdependence between them, or of common derivation,
must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of
these relations is known as the Synoptic Problem. Reference
has already been made to the fart that during the greuter part
of the Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now
some have held that the form of this oral teaching was to a great
extent a fixed one, and that it was the common source of our
first three Gospels. This oral theory was for a long time the
favourite one in England ; it was never widely held in Germany,
and in recent years the majority of English students of the
Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not satisfactorily
explain the phenomena. Not only arc the resemblances too
close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus
accounted for, but even many of the differences between parallel
contexts arc rather such as would arise through the revision
of a document than through the freedom of oral delivery.
It is now and has for many years been widely held that a
rlocument which is most nearly represented by the Gospel of
Mark, or which (as some would say) was virtually identical
with it, has been used in the composition of our first and third
Gospels. This source has supplied the Synoptic Outline, and in
the main also the narratives common to all three. Questions
connected with the history of this document are treated in the
article on Mark, Gospel of.
There is also a considerable amount of matter common to
Matthew and Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced
into the Synoptic Outline very differently in those two Gospels,
which clearly suggests that it existed in a separate form, and
was independently combined by the first and third evangelists
with their other document. This common matter has also a
character of its own ; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse.
The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several
passages so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces
at least to have been derived immediately or ultimately from
the same Greek document. In other cases there is more diver¬
gence, but in some of them this is accounted for by the
consideration that in Matthew passages from the source now
in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other
chief common source before mentioned. There are, however,
instances in which no such explanation will serve, and it is
possible that our first and third evangelists may have used
two documents which were not in all respects identical, but which
correspond 'd very closely on the whole. The ultimate source
of the subject matter in question, or of the most distinctive
and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic one,
and in some parts different translations may have been used.
This second source used in the composition of Matthew and
Luke has frequently been called “ The Logia ” in order to signify
that it was a collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus.
This name has been suggested by Schleiermacher’s interpretation
of Papias’ fragment on Matthew (see Matthew, Gospel of).
Hut some have maintained that the source in question also
contained a good many narratives, and in order to avoid any
premature assumption as to its contents and character several
recent .critics have named it “ Q.” It may, however, fairly
lie cal/d “ the Logian document,” as a convenient way of
indicating the character of the greater part of the matter which
our first and third evangelists have taken from it, and this
designation is used in the articles on the Gospels of Luke
and Matthew. The reconstruction of this document has been
attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its contents
can, it seems, best be learned from Luke.
3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing
of the results of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels.
Their effect is to lead us, especially when engaged in historical
inquiries, to look beyond our Gospels to their sources, instead
of treating the testimony of the Gospels severally as independent
and ultimate. Nevertheless it will still appear that each Gospel
has its distinct value, both historically and in regard to the
moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the fruits of
much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely
employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each,
will still prove serviceable.
Authorities. — 1. German Hooks: Introductions to the New
Testament —H. J, Holtrmann (3rd ul., 1892), B. Wetga (Eng. trans.,
1887), Th. Zahn (anil rd.. 19011), A. Jiilicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng.
trans., 1904); H. v. Sodcn, I nhnstlichc Literaturgesckichte, veil. i.
(1905 ; Eng. trans., 1900). Hooks on the Synoptic Gospels, especi¬
ally the Synoptic Problem : H. J. Holtzirrann, Die synoptischen
Evangehen (1863); Winzsinkci, L titer sue hungen tiller die evangetiseke
Gcschichte (1864) : B. Weiss, Das Marcus-Evemgehutn und seine
synoptischen Patalleltn (187.'); Das Matthdus-Evangehum und seme
Lucas-Parallelen (1876); H. 11 . Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu (1886);
A. Resell, Agrapha (1889), Ac. ; P. Wernle, Dir svnophseke Erage
(1899) ; W. Soltau, Vnsert Evaugehrn, tkre Quellen und ikr Quelten-
wert (1901); H. J. Hnltzmanu, Llaml-Commenlar sum N.T., vol. i.
(1889); 1 , Welliiauscn, Das L.vangetitm Marti, Das Evangelium
Matthdi, Das Evangeltum Lucas (1904), Etnleitung in die drei ersteu
Evangehen (1903) ; A. Harnack, Spruche und Reden Jesu, dte
sweite Quelle its Matthaus und Lukas 11907).
2. French Books : A, Loisy, Les Evangiles svnoptiques (1907-1908).
3. English Books: G. Salmon, IntioUiution to the New testament
(1st ed., 1885; 9th cd.. 11x14): W. Sunday, Inspiration (Lect. vi.,
3rd ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, An Introduction to the Study of the
Gospels (1st ed., 1851 ; 8th ed., 1805) ; A. Wright, The Composition
of the Lour Gospels (18110) ; J. K. Carpentri, The hirst Three Gospels,
their Origin and Relations (1890); A. J. Jollev, The Synoptic Problem
(•893): J, C. Hawkins, Horae synoptuat (1899); W. Alexander,
Leading Ideas 0/ the Gospels (new ed., lSoz); K. A. Abbott, Clue
(1900) : f. A. Robinson, The Study of the Gospels (1902) ; F. C.
Burkitt, fht Gospel History and its Transmission (1906) ; G. Salmon,
The Human Element in the Gospels (1907) ; V. H, Stunton, The
Gospels as Htslorual Documents: It. I., The Eat tv Use of the Gospels
(1903) ; It. II., The Synoptic Gospels (1908)
4. Synopses. —W. G. Rushbrooke, Synoptnon, An Exposition of
the Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels (1880) ; A. Wright, The
Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek (and ed., 1903).
See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article B1111.E, section
New Testament. (V. H. S.)
GOSPORT, a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division
ol Hampshire, England, facing Portsmouth acmss Portsmouth
harbour, 81 in. S.W. from London by the London & South-
Western railway. Pop. of urban district of Gosport and Alver-
stoke (1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge connect it
with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of fortifica¬
tions, consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000 yds.
to the east, a series of forts connected* by strong lines with
occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Ports¬
mouth harbour. The principal buildings are the town hull and
market hall, and the church of Holy Trinity, erected in the time of
William III. To the south at llaslar there is a mugnificent
naval hospital, capable of containing 2000 patients, and adjoin¬
ing it a gunboat slipway und large barracks. To the north is
the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with brewery, cooperage,
powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and store¬
houses for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy.
Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was
originally included in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the
bishop and monks of Winchester under whom villeins farmed the
land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up Alverstoke with
Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to hold them
until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical commis¬
sioners. After the confiscation of the bishop’s lands in 1641,
however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to
George Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration.
In the 16th century Gosport was “ a little village of fishermen.”
It was called a borough in 1461, when there are also traces of
burgage tenure. From 1462 one bailiff was elected annually
in the borough court, and government by a bailiff continued
until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth borough
268 GOSS, SIR J.-
under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was annulled
in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election of
bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is
known,although by the 16th century the inhabitants held common
property in the shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of
Gosport increased during the 16th and 17th centuries owing to
its position at the mouth of Portsmouth liarbour, and its con¬
venience as a victualling station. For this reason also the town
was particularly prosperous during the American and Peninsular
Wars. About 1540 fortifications were built there for the defence
of the harbour, and in the 17th century it was a garrison town
under a lord-lieutenant.
GOSS, 8IR JOHN (1800-1880), Knglish composer, was born
at Fareham, Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He
was elected a chorister of ihc Chapel Royal in 1811, and in i8ifi,
on the breaking of his voice, became a pupil of Attwood. A
few early compositions, some for the theatre, exist, and some
glees were published Ixfore 1825. He was appointed organist
of St Luke's, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became organist of
St Paul’s in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until
1872, when he resigned and was knighted, llis position in the
London musical world of the time was an influential one, and he
did much by his teaching and criticism to encourage the study and
appreciation of good music. In 1876 he was given the degree
of Mus.I). at Cambridge. Though his few orchestral works
have very small importance, his church music includes some
fine compositions, such as the anthems “ O taste and see,'’
“ O Saviour of the world ” and others. He was the last of the
great English school of church composers who devoted themselves
almost exclusively to church music ; und in the history of the glee
his is an honoured name, if only on account of his finest work
in that form, the five-part glee, Ossian’s “ Hymn to the sun,”
He di' d ut Brixton, London, on the 10th of May 1880.
GOSSAMER, a fine, thread-like and filmy substance spun
by small spiders, which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse
bushes, and floating in the air in dear weather ; especially in the
autumn. By transference anything light, unsubstantial or
flimsy is known as “ gossamer.” A thin gauzy material used
for trimming and millinery, resembling the “ chiffon ” of to-day,
was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian
period it was u term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very
light weight.
The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms
in English, and is apparently taken from pise, goose and
snmrrr, summer. The Germans have Mddehensommer, maidens’
summer, and Altweibersommer, old women's summer, as well
as Sommerjddni, summer-threads, as equivalent to the Knglish
gossamer, the connexion apparently being that gossamer is
seen most frequently in the warm days of lute autumn (St
Martin’s summer) when geese are also in season. Another
suggestion is that the word is a corruption of gaze a Marie
(gauze of Mary) through the legend that gossamer was origin¬
ally the threads whirh fell away from the Virgin's shroud on her
assumption.
GOME, EDMUND (1840- ), Knglish poet and critic, was
bom in London on the 2tst of September 1840, son of the zoolo¬
gist P. II. Gosse. In 1867 he became an assistant in the depart¬
ment of printed hooks in the British Museum, where he remained
until he became in 1875 translator to the Board of Trade. In
1004 he was appointed librarian to the House of Lords. In
1884-1890 he was Clark lecturer in English literature at Trinity
College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much
grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide
and appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable
work in bringing foreign literature home to English readers.
Northern Studies (1879), a collection of essays on the literature
of Holland and Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged
visit to those countries, and was followed by later work in the
same direction. He translated Ibsen's Hedda Gablrr (1891),
and, with W. Archer, The Master-Builder (1893), and in 1907
he wrote a life of Ibsen for the “ Literary Lives ” series. He
also edited the English translation of the works of Bjomson.
-GOSSE P. H.
His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901,
when he was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf
of the first class. Mr Gosse’s published volumes of verse include
On Viol and Flute (1873), King Erik (1876), New Poems (1879),
Firdausi in Exile (1885), In Russet and Silver (1894), Collected
Poems (1896). Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island (1901),
an “ ironic phantasy,” the scene of which is laid in the 20th
century, though the personages are Greek gods, is written in
prose, with some blank verse. His Seventeenth Century Studies
(1883), Lije of William Congreve (1888), The Jacobean Poets
(1894), Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of St Paul's
(1899), Jeremy Taylor (1904, “ English Men of Letters ”), and
Life of Sir Thomas Browne (1905) form a very considerable
body of critical work on the English i7th-centuiy writers. He
also wrote a life of Thomas Gray, whose works he edited (4 vols.,
1884); A History of Eighteenth Century Literature (1889); a
History of Modern English Literature (1897), and vols. iii. and iv.
of an Illustrated Record of English Literature (1903-1904) under¬
taken in connexion with Dr Richard Garnett. Mr Gosse was
always a sympathetic student of the younger school of French
and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being
collected as French Profiles (1905). Critical Kit-Kats (1896)
contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences
of Lord dc Table) and others. He edited Heinemann's series
of “ Literature of the World ’’ and the same publisher's “ Inter¬
national Library.” To the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica he contributed numerous articles, and his services
as chief literary adviser in the preparation of the 10th and nth
editions incidentally testify to the high position held by him
in the contemporary world of letters. In 1905 he was entertained
in Paris by the leading litterateurs as a representative of English
literary culture. In 1907 Mr Gosse published anonymously
Father and Son, un intimate study of his own early family life.
He married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and
two daughters.
GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810-1888), English naturalist,
was born at Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father,
Thomas Gosse (1765-1844) being a miniature painter. In hrs
youth the family settled at Poole, where Gosse’s turn for natural
history was noticed and encouraged by his aunt, Mrs Bell, the
mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell (1792-1880). He had,
however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827,
he found himself clerk in a whaler’s office at Curboncar, in
Newfoundland, where he beguiled the tedium of his life by
observations, chiefly with the microscope. After a brief and
unsuccessful interlude of fanning in Canada, during which he
wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of Newfoundland,
he travelled in the United States, was received and noticed
by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time
in Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His Canadian
Naturalist (1840), written on the voyage home, was followed
in 1843 by his Introduction to Zoology. His first widely popular
book was The Ocean (1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile
been teaching in London, was sent by the British Museum to
collect specimens of natural history in Jamaica. He spent
nearly two years on that island, and after his return published
his Birds of Jamaica (1847) and his Naturalist's Sojourn in
Jamaica (1851). He also wrote about this time several zoological
works for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to
impair his health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was
attracted by the forms of marine life so abundant on that shore,
and in 1853 published A Naturalist's Rambles on the Devonshire
Coast, accompanied by a description of the marine aquarium
invented by him, by means of which he succeeded in preserving
zoophytes and other marine animals of the humbler grades
alive and in good condition away from the sea. This arrange¬
ment was more fully set forth and illustrated in his Aquarium
(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by A Manual of Marine Zoology,
in two volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings
after the author’s drawings. A volume on the marine fauna
of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In June of the same year he was
elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most careful observer, but who
GOSSEC—GOTA 269
lacked the philosophical spirit, was now tempted to essay work
of a more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two books, Life
and Omphalos, embodying his speculations on the appearance
of life on the earth, which he considered to have been instan¬
taneous, at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met
with no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the
field of observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate.
Taking up his residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he
produced from 1858 to i860 his standard work on sea-anemones,
the Actinologia Britannica. The Romance of Natural History
and other popular works followed. In 1865 he abandoned
authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to Hie cultivation of
orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his
attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by
Dr C. T. Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the
23rd of August 1888.
His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse.
GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1734-1829), French musical
composer, son of a small farmer, was born at the village of
Vcrgnies, in Belgian Hainaut, and showing early a taste for
music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He went to Paris in
1751 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor
of a private band kept by La Popeliniire, a wealthy amateur,
and gradually determined to do something to revive the study
of instrumental music in Ffance. He had his own first symphony
performed in t754, and as conductor to the Prince de Condi's
orchestra he produced several operas and other compositions
of his own. He imposed his influence upon French music with
remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs, in 1770,
organized the ficole de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band
of the Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed
(with Mehul and Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de
Musique when this institution was created in 1795. He was an
original member of the Institute and a chevalier of the legion
of honour. Outside France he was but little known, and his
own numerous compositions, sacred and secular, were thrown
into the shade by those of men of greater genius ; but he has a
place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully
stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at
Passy on the 16th of February 1829.
See the Lives by P. Htdouin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878).
GOSSIP (from the O.E. godsibb, i.e. God, and sib, akin, standing
in relation to), originally a god-parent, i.e. one who by taking a
sponsor’s vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship
to the child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light
personal or social conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of
idle tale-bearing. “ Gossip ” was early used with the sense of
a friend or acquaintance, either of the parent of the child
baptized or of the other god-parents, and thus came to be used,
with little reference to the position of sponsor, for women friends
of the mother .present at a birth; the transition of meaning
to an idle chatterer or talker for talking’s sake is easy. The
application to the idle talk of such persons does not appear to
be an early one.
GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA (1773 -1858), German
divine and philanthropist, was bom at Hausen near Augsburg
on the 14th of December 1773, and educated at the university
of Dillingcn. Here like Martin Boos and others he came under
the spell of the F,vangelical movement promoted by Johann
Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After taking
priest’s orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811)
and Munich (1811-1817), hut his evangelical tendencies brought
about his dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman
Catholic for the Protestant communion. As minister of the
Bethlehem church in Berlin (1829-1846) he was conspicuous
not only for practical and effective preaching, but for the founding
of schools, asylums and missionary agencies. He died on the
20th of March 1858.
Lwes by Bethinann-HoUweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton
(Berlin, 1878).
GOSSON, STEPHEN (1554-1624), F.nglish satirist, was
baptized at St George’s, Canterbury, on the 17th of April 1554.
He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 157a, and on leaving
the university in 1576 he went to London. In *598 Francis
Meres in his Palladis Tamia mentions him with Sidney, Spenser,
Abraham Ktaunce and others among the “ best for pastoral),”
but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been an
actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks
of Catilines Conspiracies as a “ Pig of mine own Sowe.” To
this play and some others, on account of their moral intention,
he extends indulgence in the general condemnation of stage
plays contained in his Schoole of Abuse, containing a pleasant
invective against Poets, 1'ipers, Plaiers, Jesters and such like
Caterpillars of the Commonwealth (1579). The euphuistic style
of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of learning were
in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply insincerity.
Gosson justified his attack bv considerations, of the disorder
which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was intro¬
ducing into the social life of London. It was not only by
extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized.
Spenser, in his Teares of the Muses (1591), laments the same
evils, although only in general terms. The tract was dedicated
to Sir Philip Sidney, who seems not unnaturally to have
resented being connected with a pamphlet which opened with
a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser, writing
to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the
author " was for hys labor scorned.” He dedicated, however,
a second tract, The Ephemerides of Phialn . . . and A Short
Apologte of the Schoole of Abuse, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579.
Gosson’s abuse of poets seems to have had a large share in
inducing Sidney to write his Apologie for Poetrie, which probably
dates from 1581. After the publication of the Schoole of Abuse
Gosson retired into the country, where he acted as tutor to the
sons of a gentleman (Plays Confuted. “To the Reader,” 1582).
Anthony k Wood places this earlier and assigns the termination
of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the stage,
which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The
publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most
formidable of which was Thomas Lodge’s Defence of Playes
(1580). The players themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson’s
own plays. Gosson replied to his various opponents In 1582
by his Playes Confuted in Five Actions, dedicated to Sir Francis
Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was made
lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was pre¬
sented by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, F.ssex,
which he exchanged In 1600 for St Botolph’s, Uishopsgate. He
died on the 13th of February 1624. Pleasant Quippes for Vpstari
New-fangled Gentlewomen (1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also
ascribed to Gosson.
The Schoole of Abuse, and Apologie were edited (1868) by Prof. E.
Arber in his English Reprints. Two poems of Gosson's are included.
GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND (1822-1901), French actor,
was born at Lignerolles on the 1st of October 1822, and entered
the Conservatoire in 1841, winning the second prize for comedy
that year and the first in 1842. After a year of military service
he made his d<but at the Comddie Fran^aise on the 17th of July
1844, as Alexis in Les Heritiers and Mascarelles in Les Pricieuses
ridicules. He was immediately admitted pensionnatre, and be¬
came socielaire in 1850. By special permission of the emperor
in 1866 he played at the Odion in Hmile Augier’s Contagion.
His golden jubilee at the Theatre Franpais was celebrated in
1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got
was a fine representative of the grand style of French acting,
and was much admired in England as well as in Paris. He
wrote the libretto of the opera Francois Villon (1857) and also
of L'Esclave (1874). In 1881 he was decorated with the cross
of the Legion of Honour.
O0TA, a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener.
The name, however, is more familiar in its application to the
canal which affords communication between Gothenburg and
Stockholm. The river flows out of the southern extremity
of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat, which it enters
by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the eastern forming
the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the port of
GOTARZES—GOTHA
270
Gothenburg. The Got* river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable
for large vessels, a series of lodes surmounting the famous falls
of Trollhiittan (?.».)■ Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg
and Hunnebeig (royal shooting preserves) Lake Vener is reached
at Venersborg. Several important ports lie on the north, east
•and south shores (see Vbnkr). From Sjdtorp, midway on the
eastern shore, the western Giita canal leads S.E. to Xarlsborg.
Its course necessitates over twenty locks t0 rawe ^ ro1 ^ *" e
Vener level (144 ft.) to ita extreme height of 300 ft., and lower
it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and
Botten to Lake Vetter (q.v. ; 289 ft.), which the route crosses to
Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point,
and a descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren,
after which the canal, carried still at a considerable elevation,
overlooks a rich and beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake
Roxen with its ruined castle of Stjernarp is next traversed. At
Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake Gian to the north,
giving access to the important manufacturing centre of Norrko-
ping. Passing Uke Asplangen, the canal follows a cut through
steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town
of Soderkiiping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem.
Vessels plying to Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island-
fringe (skiirgdrd), and then follow the Siidertelge canal into
Lake Miilar. The whole distance from Gothenburg to Stockholm
is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about 2) days. The length
of artificial work on the Giita canal proper is 54 m., and there
are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse
weather conditions; that of the western canal is without, any
interest save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea
of a canal dates from 1516, but the construction was organized
by Baron von Flatten and engineered by Thomas Telford in
1810-1832. The falls of Trollliiittan had already been locked
successfully in 1800.
G 0 TARZH 8 , or Gotekzks, king of Parthia (c. a.d. 42-51).
In an inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun 1 he is
called IWclpfys lVIirofyitis, i.e. “ son of Gew,” and seems
to be designated as “ satrap of satrap." This inscription
therefore probably dates from the reign of Artabanus II. (a.d.
10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have belonged. From
a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription /Juan-
Afmv /AnriAfiiir Aptrai*o£ cos' SfsnAuiyffl'iis A/nafdaiw VioTtpfrii
(Wroth, Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia, p. 165 ; Numism.
Chron., 1900, p. 95 ; the earlier readings of this inscription are
wrong), which must be translated “ king of kings Arsakes,
named son of Artabanos, Gotarzes,” it apjiears that he was
adopted by Artabanus. When the troublesome reign of Arta-
liantis II. ended in a.d. 39 or 40, he was succeeded by Vardanes,
probably his son ; but against him in 41 rose Gotarzes (the dates
are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself detested by his
cruelty- • among many other murders he even slew his brother
Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. Ann. xi, 8)-~and Vardanes
regained the throne in 42 ; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and
gathered an army from the Duhan nomads. The war lietween
the two kings was at last ended by a treaty, as both were afraid
of the conspiracies of their nobles. Gotarzes returned to
Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was assassinated in 45, Gotarzes
was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac. Ann. xi. 9 ff .;
Joseph. Antiq. xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called Kotardes).
He now tukes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, “ king of
kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (Epiphanes),
the friend of the Greeks ( Philhellen ),” without mentioning his
proper name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury
induced the hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius
and fetch from Rome an Arsacid prince Meherdates (i.e. Mithra-
dates), who lived there as hostage. He crossed the Euphrates
in 49, but was beaten and taken prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut
off his ears (Tac. Ann. xii. 10 ff.). Soon after Gotarzes died,
according to Tacitus, of an illness ; Josephus says that he was
murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51.
1 Rawfinson, Journ. ltor.tfiog.Soc. ix. 114; Flandin and Coste,
La Pine ancunnt, i. tab. iq; Dlttenberger, Onentis Grata 1 user.
4 .T-
An earlier " Arsakes with the name Gotarzes," mentioned on
some astronomical tablets from Babylon. (Strassmaier in Ziitschr.
/iir Assytiologie, vi. 216; Mahler in Wiener Zeitschr. /Ur Kunde des
Morgenlands, xv. 63 If.), appears to have reigned for some time in
Babylonia about 87 b.c. (Ed. M.)
GOTHA, a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the
residence of the dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant
situation on the Leine canal, 6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian
forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on the railway to Bebra-Cassel.
Pop. (1905) 36,906. It consists of an old inner town and encircling
suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of Friedenstein, lying
on the Schlossbetg at an elevation of 1100 ft. With the exception
of those in the older portion of the town, the streets are hand¬
some and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades
between the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town's
attractiveness. To the south of the castle there is an extensive
and finely adorned park. To the north-west of the town the
Galbcrg—on which there is a public pleasure garden—and
to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of over 1300 ft.
and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein, begun
by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Cobuig-Gotha, in 1643 and
completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of Grim-
menstein. It is a huge square building flanked with two wings,
having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains
the ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000
volumes, among which are several rare editions and about
6900 manuscripts. The picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings,
the natural history museum, the Chinese museum, and the
cabinet of art, which includes a collection of Egyptian, Etruscan,
Roman and German antiquities, are now included in the new
museum, completed in 1S78, which stands on a terrace to the
south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are
the church of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty
tower, founded in the 12th century, twice burnt down, and
rebuilt in its present form in 1652 ; the church of the Augustinian
convent, with an altar-piece by the painter Simon Jacobs;
the theatre ; the fire insurance bank and the life insurance bank ;
the ducal jxilace, in the Italian villa style, with a winter garden
and picture gallery ; the buildings of the ducal legislature;
the hospital, the old town-hall, dating from the nth century ;
tiie old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a
girls’ school ; the ducal stable ; and the Friedrichsthal palace,
now used as public offices. The educational establishments
include a gymnasium (founded in 1534, one of the most famous
in Germany), two training schools for teachers, conservatoires
of music and several scientific institutions. Gotha is remarkable
for its insurance societies and for the support it has given to
cremation. The crematorium was long regarded as a model
for such establishments.
Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia,
its manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great
reputation, porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical
and surgical instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps
and toys. There are also a number of nurseries and market
gardens. The book trade is represented by about a dozen firms,
including that of the great geographical house of Justus Perthes,
founded in 1785.
Gotha (in old chronicles called Gotegewe and later Gotaha)
existed as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord
Gothard abbot of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was
known as a town as early as 1200, about which time it came
into the possession of the landgraves of Thuringia. On the
extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession of the
electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of dukes.
After the battle of Miihibcrg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein
was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In
1567 the town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the
elector Augustus of Saxony. After the death of John Frederick’s
sons, it came into the possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the
founder of the line of the dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction
of this family it was united in 1825 along with the dukedom to
Coburg.
GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF—GOTHENBURG 371
See Gotka tend um Umgebung (Gotha, i8ji) ; Kflhne, Beitrdge
tut GesckUkto dtr Entunckrlung dtr soetaian Zustdnda dm Stadt
uni dts Htrtofturns Gotha (Gotha, 1862) ; Humbert, Las Villes
dr la Thuringe (Paris, 1869), and Beck, Geschichte iet Stadt Gotha
(Gotha, 1870).
GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF, the early name given to the people
of the village of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed
simplicity. But if tradition is to be believed the Gothamites
were not so very simple. The story is that King John intended
to live in the neighbourhood, but that the villagers, foreseeing
ruin as the cost of supporting the court, feigned imbecility when
the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the latter went they
saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on this
report, determined to have his hunting lodge elsewhere, and the
“ wise men ” boasted, “ we ween there are more fools pass
through Gotham than remain in it." The “ foies of Gotham ”
are mentioned as early as the 15th century in the Tmtmeley
Mysteries ; and a Collection of their “ jests ” was published in
the 16th century under the title Merrie Tales of the Mad Men
of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Phisicke Dortour. The
“ A.B.” was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde
(1490 ?-i 549), famous among other things for his wit, but he
probably had nothing to do with the compilation. As typical
of the Gothamite folly is usually quoted the story of the villagers
joining hands round a thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it
would sing all the year. The localising of fools is common to
most countries, and there are many other reputed “ imbecile ”
centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there arc thfc people
of Coggeshall, Essex, the “ carles of Austwick." Yorkshire,
“ the gowks of Gordon,” Berwickshire, and for many centuries
the charge of folly has been made against “ silly ” Suffolk and
Norfolk (Descriftio Norfolriensium about 12th century, printed
in Wright’s Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems). In Germany
there are the Sehildburgers, in Holland the people of Kampen.
Among the ancient Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools ;
among the Thracians, Ahdcra; among the ancient Jews,
Nazareth.
See W. A. Houston, Book of Noodles (London, 1888); R. H.
Cunningham, Amusing h’rose Chap-hooks (1889).
GOTHENBURG (Swed. Gbteborg), a city and seaport of
Sweden, on the river Gota, 5 m. above its mouth in the (Kattegat,
285 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Gota canal-
route. Pop. (1900) 130,619. It is the chief town of the district
(lan) of Goteborg och Ilohus, and the scat of a bishop. It lies
on the east or left bank of the river, which is here lined with
quays on both sides, those on the west belonging to the large
island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the ,Gota. On
this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen
and Lundby.
The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with
extensive and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain
enclosed by low hills. The inner city, including the business
quarter, is contained almost entirely hetween the river and the
Rosenlunds canal, continued in the Vallgraf, the moat of the old
fortifications; and is crossed by the Storahamn, Ostrahamn
and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by the
handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Sodra Hamngatan.
The first of these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn,
where the sea-going passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum
to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg. The museum, in the old East
India Company’s house, has fine collections in natural history,
entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and ethnography,
a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and in¬
dustrial art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and
contains the town-hall (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are
statues by B. E. Fogclbcrg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin,
and of Oscar I. by J. P. Molin. Among several churches in
this quarter of the. city is the cathedral (Gustavii Domhyrka),
a cruciform church founded in 1633 and rebuilt after fires in
1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house and residence
of the governor of the lan. On the north side, closely adjacent,
are the Lilia Bommenshamn, where the Gfita canal steamers
lie, and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs
Bang&rd. Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky
eminence, Lilia Otterhalleberg. The inner city is girdled on
the south and east by the Kungspark, which contains Molin’s
famous group of statuary, the Belt-bucklers (RdUespinnare),
and by the beautiful gardens of the Horticultural Society
(T.rddfdrdsforeningen). These grounds are traversed by the
broad Nya Alii, a favourite promenade, and beyond them lies
the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street,
Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the
last are the university and the New theatre. At the west end
of Vasa Street is the city library, the most important in .the
country except the royal library at Stockholm and the university
libraries at Upsala and Lund. The suburbs are extensive. To
the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget, with numerous
factories. Beyond these he the fine Slottskog Park, planted with
oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding views
of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the
workmen’s quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen.
All arc connected with the city by electric tramways. Six
railways leave the city from four stations. The principal lines,
from the Statens and Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhattan,
and into Norway (Christiania); N.K. between Lakes Vener
and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun and the north ; E. to Bor&s
and beyond, and S. by the c oast to Helsingborg, &c. From
the Vestgota stution a narrow-gauge line runs N.E. to Skara
and the southern shores of Vener, and from Sard station near
Slottskog Park a line serves Saro, a seaside watering-place on
an island 20 m. S. of Gothenburg.
The city has numerous important educational establishments.
The university (Hugskola) was a private foundation (>891),
but is governed by a board, the members of which are nominated
by the state, the town council, Koval Society of Science and
Literature, directors of the museum, and the staffs of the various
local colleges. There are several hens’ schools, a college for
girls, a scientific college, a commerc ial college (1826), a school
of navigation, and Chalmers’ Polytechnics! College, founded
by William Chalmers (1748-1811), a native of Gothenburg of
English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this
institution, and the remainder to the Salilgrenska hospital.
A people’s library was founded by members of the family of
Dickson, several of whom have taken a prominent part in
philanthropical works in the city. 'J'he connexion of the family
with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert Dickson, a
native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which
he was joined in 1807 by his brother James.
In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg
ranks as second to Stockholm in the kingdom ; but it is actually
the principal centre of export trade and port of register; and
as a manufacturing town it is slightly inferior to Malmci. Its
principal industrial establishments are mec hanical works (both
in the city and at Lundby), saw-mills, dealing with the timber
which is brought down the Gota, flour-mills, margarine factories,
breweries and distilleries, tobacco works, cotton mills, dyeing
and bleaching works (at l^vanten in the vicinity), furniture
factories, paper and leather works, and shipbuilding yards.
The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247 of 120,488 tons.
There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vesse ls drawing
20 ft., and slips for the accommodation of large vessels. Gothen¬
burg is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants
for America.
The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and
returns nine members to the second chamber of the Riksdag
(parliament).
Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was
from the first designed to be fortified, a town of the same name
founded on Hisingen in 1603 having been destroyed by the ] fanes
during the Calroar war. From 1621, when it was first chartered,
it steadily increased, though it suffered greatly in the Danish
wars of the last half of the 27 th and the beginning of the tHth
centuries, and from several extensive conflagrations (the lust
in 1813), which have destroyed important records of its history.
The great development of its herring fishery in the latter part
272
GOTHIC—GOTHS
of the 18th century gave a new impulse to the city’s trade, which
wai kept up by the influence of the “ Continental System,
under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial mer¬
chandise of England. After the fall of Napoleon it begwi to
decline, bift after its closer connexion with the interior of the
country by the Giita canal (opened 1832) and Western railway
it rapidly advanced both in population and trade. Since the
demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has been defended
only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of
the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) anc * two °* Sweden s greatest
sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogclberg (1786-1854) and Johann
Peter Molin (1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothen¬
burg was for a time the residence of the Bourbon family. Ihe
name of this city is associated with the municipal licensing
system known as the Gothenburg System (see Liquor Laws).
See W, Berg, Stmlwgar till GOteborgs historui (Gothenburg, 1893);
Lager berg, Gdtebnrg 1 Hire och nyare lid (Gothenburg, 1902) ;
Frdding, Del jorna Gbleborg (Stockholm, 1903).
GOTHIC, the term generally applied to medieval architecture,
and more especially to that in which the pointed arch appears.
The style was at one time supposed to have originated with the
warlike people known as the Goths, some of whom (the East
(hiths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the eastern portion of Europe,
and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in the Asturias of
Spain ; but as no buildings or remains of any description have
ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent
construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading ;
since, however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult
to change it. The term when first employed was one of reproach,
as Evelyn (1702) when speaking of the faultless building (i.e.
classic) says, “ they were demolished by the Goths or Vandals,
who introduced their own licentious style now called modern
or Gothic.” The employment of the pointed arch in Syria,
Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the Mahom-
medans for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries
liefore it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable
to adhere to the old term Gothic in preference to Pointed
Architecture. (Sec Architecture.)
gOthite, or Goetiiite, a mineral composed of an iron
hydrate, Fe 2 0 ,,.H,/), crystallizing in the orthorhomhic system
and isomorphous with diaspora and manganite (q.v .). It was
first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was named after the poet
Goethe. Crystals arc prismatic, acicular or scaly in habit;
they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brnchypinacoid
(M in the figure). Keniform and stalactitic
masses with a radiated fibrous structure also
occur. The colour varies from yellowish
or reddish to blackish-brown, and by trans¬
mitted light it is often blood-red; the streak
is brownish-yellow ; hardness, 5 ; specific
gravity, 4-3. The best crystals are the
brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal
pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel
iron mines at l-ostwithiel, and the Botallack
mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety
occurring as thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known
as Rubinglimmer or pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. iruppos, flame-
coloured, and crfSijpos, iron): a scalv-fibrous variety from the
same locality is called lepidocrocite (from Aciris, scale, and iqiokis,
libra). Summetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram
in Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals
arranged in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow
colour.
Gothite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite
and hematite, and when found in sufficient quantity is mined
with these as an ore of iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure
in other minerals. Acicular crystals, resembling rutile in ap¬
pearance , sometimes penetrate crystals of pale-coloured amethyst,
for instance, at Wolf’s Island in Lake Onega in Russia: this
form of the mineral has-Jong been known as onegitc, and the
crystal* enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the
name of “ Cupid's darts ” (flrckes d'amour). The metallic glitter
of avanturine or sun-stone (q.v.) is due to the enclosed scale*
of gothite and certain other minerals. (L. J. S.)
GOTHS ( Gotoncs , later Goihis), a Teutonic people who in the
1st century of the Christian era appear to have inhabited the
middle part of the basin of the Vistula. They were
probably the easternmost of the Teutonic peoples. JjjJjJjL
According to their own traditions as recorded by
Jordanes, they had come originally from the island Scandza,
i.e. Skane or Sweden, under the leadership of a king named
Berig, and landed first in a region called Gothiscandza. Thence
they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi (the Holmryge of
Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood of
Rtigenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them
and the neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer
they migrated into Scythia and settled in a district which they
called Chum. The rest of their early history, as it is given by
Jordanes following Cassiodorus, is due to an erroneous identifica¬
tion of the Goths with the Getae, an ancient Thracian people.
The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden
has been much discussed by modem authors. The legend was
not peculiar to the Goths, similar traditions being current among
the Langobardi, the Burgundians, and apparently several
other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with truth
that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from
the Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of
these traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly,
however, many of the royal families may have contained an
element of Scandinavian blood, a hypothesis, which would well
uecord with the social conditions of the migration period, as
illustrated, t.g., in I’blsunga Saga and in Hervarar Saga ok
HeiSreks Konungs. In the case of the Goths a connexion with
Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from archaeological
evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the coasts
about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however,
there was any migration at all, one would rather have expected
it to have taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin
of the Goths can hardly be separated from that of the Vandals,
whom according to Procopius they resembled in language and
in all olher respects. Moreover the Gepidae, another Teutonic
people, who are said to have formerly inhabited the delta of
the Vistula, also appear to have been closely connected with
the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the
migration from Scandza.
Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement
of the early traveller Pvtheas, the first notices we have of the
Goths go back to the first years of the Christian era, at which
time they seem to have been subject to the Marcomannic king
Maroboduus. They do riot enter into Roman history, however,
until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which time they
appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla.
During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced
considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the
lower Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor
Gordianus is called “ victor Gothorum ” by Capitolinas, though
we have no record of the ground for the claim,and further conflicts
are recorded with his successors, one of whom, Decius, was slain
by the Goths in Moesia. According to Jordanes the kings of
the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrugotha and after¬
wards Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the Anglo-
Saxon poem Widsith. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay
tribute to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of
the Black Sea, and during the next twenty years they frequently
ravaged the maritime regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian
is said to have won a victory over them, but the province of
Dacia had to be given up. In the time of Constantine the Great
Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the Goths, a.d. 321.
Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with their
king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear
of subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi,
Austrogothi (Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not
clear whether these were all distinct.
Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories
GOTHS
far to the south and east, it must not be assumed that they had
evacuated their old lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records
several traditions of their conflicts with other Teutonic tribes,
in particular a victory won by Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of
the Gepidae, and another by Geberic over Visimar, king of the
Vandals, about the end of Constantine’s reign, in consequence
of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to settle
in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of
the Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, Iormunrekr), whose
deeds are recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations.
According to Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii,
the Vcnedi, and a number of other tribes who seem to have been
settled in the southern part of Russia. From Anglo-Saxon
sources it seems probable that his supremacy reached westwards
as far as Holstein. He was of a cruel disposition, and is said to
have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla)
in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed.
Still more famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who
according to Northern tradition was his wife and was cruelly
put to death on a false charge of unfaithfulness. An attempt
to avenge her death was made by her brothers Ammius (HamSir)
and Sarus (Sorli) by whom Hermanaric was severely wounded.
To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits
are recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom
we may mention Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others,
who in Widsith are represented as defending their country against
the Huns in the forest of the Vistula. Hermanaric committed
suicide in his distress at an invasion of the Huns about a.d. 370,
and the portion of the nation called Ostrogoths then canje under
Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained permission to
cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the nation
became Christian about this time (see below). The exactions
of the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which
ended in the total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople
in the year 378. (R G. M. B.)
From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths
parts asunder, to be joined together again only incidentally
Ltt r an d for a season. The great mass of the East Goths
btetery, stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the
overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present
play any important part in the affairs of the Empire. The great
mass of the West Goths crossed the Danube into the Roman
provinces, and there plaved a most important part in various
characters of alliance and enmity. The great migration was in
376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful settlers under
their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have tried
to maintain his party for a while north of the Danulie in defiance
of the Huns ; but he had presently to follow the example of the
great mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern
were meanwhile thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths
suffered from the Roman officials, which led first to disputes
and then to open war. In 378 the Goths won the great battle of
Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the Great, the successor
of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the mass of the
Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as joedrrati. Many
of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox
Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen
party among the Goths than to the larger part of them who had
embraced Arian Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Con¬
stantinople in 381; he was received with high honours, and had
a solemn funeral when he died. His saying is worth recording,
as an example of the effect which Roman civilization had on
the Teutonic mind. " The emperor,” he said, “ was a god upon
earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his
own head.”
The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between
the West Goths and the Empire. Dissensions arose between
them and the ministers of Arcadius ; the Goths threw off their
allegiance, and chose Alaric as their king. This was a restoration
alike of national unity and of national independence. The
royal title had not been borne by their leaders in the Roman
service. Aiaric’s position is quite different from that of several
*73
Goths in the Roman sendee, who appear as simple rebels. He
wss of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or Bold-men,
a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. Hit whole
career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands,
first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths
are under him an independent people under a national king;
their independence is in no way interfered with if the Gothic
king, in a moment of peace, accepts the office and titles Of a
Roman general. But under Alaric the Goths make no lasting
settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and warfare between
the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up this whole
time, cessions .of territory are offered to the Goths, provinces
are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root anywhere ;
no Western land as yet becomes Gothia . Aiaric’s designs of
settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the
Adriatic, in lllyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of
his career his eyes seem fixed on Africa.
Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the
second Gothic invasion of that country. In this campaign the
religious position of the Goths is strongly marked. The Arian
appeared os an enemy alike to the pagan majority and the
Catholic minority ; but he came surrounded by monks, and his
chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples (vide G. F.
Hertzberg, Geschichte Griechenlands, iii. 391). His Italian cam¬
paigns fall into two great divisions, that of 4oa-3, when he
was driven back by Stilicho,and that of 408-10, after Stilicho’s
death. In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409,
410). The second time it suited a momentary policy to set
up a puppet emperor of his own, and even to accept a military
commission from him. The third time he sacked the city,
the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken by an
army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military
details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history
of the Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric's reign marks
in the history of that nation. It stands between two periods
of settlement within the Empire and of service under the Empire.
Under Alaric there is no settlement, and service is quite secondary
and precarious; after his death in 410 the two begin again in
new shapes.
Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian
invasion of Italy, which, according to one view, again brings
the East and West Goths together. The great mass of the East
Goths, as has been already said, became one of the many nations
which were under vassalage to the Huns; but their relation
was one merely of vassalage. They remained a distinct people
under kings of their own, kings of the house of the Amali and of
the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48). They had to follow the
lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars
of their own ; and it has been held that among these separate
East Gothic enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in
405 by Radagaisus (whom R. Pallmann 1 writes Ratiger, and
takes him for the chief of the heathen part of the East Goths).
One chronicler. Prosper, makes this invasion preceded by another
in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus appear as partners.
The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence of Goths
in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that bis
invasion was a national Gothic enterprise.
Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric,
another era opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the
end lead to the establishment of a settled Gothic monarchy
in the West. The position of Ataulphus is well marked by the
speech put into his mouth by Orosius. He had at one time
dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning Romania
into Gothia, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus;
but he had learned that the world could be governed only by
the laws of Rome and he hod determined to use the Gothic arms
for the support of the Roman power. And in the confused and
contradictory accounts of his actions (for the story in Jordanes
cannot be reconciled with the accounts in Olympiodorus and
the chroniclers), we can see something of this principle at work
throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by barbarian
1 Geschichte dev Vdlherti/atiderung (Gotha, 1863-1864).
274
GOTHS
mv&den and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was
to inn bark the lost lands for Rome. And, amid many stuffings
of allegiance, Ataulphu* seems never to have wholly given up
the position of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia,
the daughter of the' great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of
the union between Goth and Roman, and, had their son Theo¬
dosius lived, a dynasty might have arisen uniting both claims.
But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at Barcelona in 415,
by his murder at the hands of another faction of the Goths.
The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a
more settled state of tilings was established. The Empire re¬
ceived again, as the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis
in Spain, and Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul.
The “ second Aquitaine," with the sea-coast from the mouth
of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire, became the West
Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths was
now strictly Gaulish ; their lasting Spanish dominion does not
yet begin.
The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (419-451) shows
a shifting state of relations between the Roman and Gothic
powers; but, alter defeats and surceases both ways, the older
relation of alliance against common enemies was again estab¬
lished. At last Goth and Roman had to join together against
the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the Hun.
But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms 0/
their subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for
Attila against Christendom at Chalons, just as the Servians came
to fight for Bajazet against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric
fell in the battle (451). After this momentary meeting, the
history of the East and West Goths again separates for a while.
The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at the expense of
the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi. Under
Euric (46^-485) the West Gothic power again became largely
a Spanish power. 'The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all
Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhone, with all Spain,
except the north-west comer, which was still held by the Suevi.
Provence alone remained to the Empire. The West Gothic
kings largely adopted Roman manners and culture ; but, as
they still kept to their original Arinn creed, their rule never
became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They
stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggres¬
sive Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion
of the Frank Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long
after, the seat of an heretical power, against which the forces
of northern Gaul marched as on u crusade. In 507 the West
Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the F'rankish arms at Campus
Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as a great power
north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a fragment of
Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing
to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest
man in Gothic history.
When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of
Attila, the East Goths recovered their full independence. They
now entered into relations with the Empire, and were settled
on lands in Pannonia. During the greater part of the latter
half of the 5th century, the East Goths play in south-eastern
Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played
in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every
conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern
Roman power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them,
they pass from the East to the West. They are still ruled by
kings of the house of the Amali, and from that house there now
steps forward a great figure, famous alike in history and in
romance, in the person of Theodoric, son of Theodemir. Bom
about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople as a
hostage, where he was carefully educuted. The early part of
his life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars
within the Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another
Theodoric, son of Triarius, and sum&med Strabo. This older
but lesser Theodoric seem# to have been the chief, not the king,
of that branch of the East Goths which had settled within the
Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the Great, as he is some¬
times distinguished, is sometimes the friend, sometimes the
enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed with
various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but
in all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It
was in both characters together that he set out in 488, by com¬
mission from the emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer.
By 495 Ravenna was taken ; Odoacer was killed by Theodoric’s
own hand; and the East Gothic power was fully established
over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the north of Italy.
In this war the history of the East and West Goths begins again
to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that Theo¬
doric was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches
of the nation were soon brought much more closely together,
when, through the overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of
Toulouse, the power of Theodoric was practically extended
over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the whole of Spain.
A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II., and, as that
prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic king
stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and pre¬
served for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish
dominion. Toulouse passed away to the Frank ; but the Goth
kept Nnrbonne and its district, the land of Septimania—the
land which, as the last part of Gaul held by the Goths, kept
the name of Gothia for many ages. While Theodoric lived,
the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own
dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protect¬
orate over the Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have
practically exercised it, except in the case of the FYanks.
The East Gothic dominion was now again as great m extent
and far more splendid than it could have been in the time of
Ermanarir. But it was now of a wholly different character.
The dominion of Theodoric was not a barbarian but a civilized
power. His twofold position ran through everything. He was
at once national king of the Goths, and successor, though without
any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West. The
two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived
side by side on the soil of Italy ; each was ruled according to its
own law, by the prinee who was, in his two separate characters,
the common sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric’s
rule is drawn for us in the state papers drawn up in his name
and in the names of his successors by his Roman minister Cassio-
dorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on the ground in
northern Italy ; in the south they formed little more than
garrisons. In Theodoric's theory the Goth was the armed pro¬
tector of the peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of
government, while the Roman consul had the honour. All the
forms of the Roman administration went on, and the Roman
polity and Roman culture had great influence on the Goths
themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations
in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic
freedom was necessarily lost. Such a system as that which
Theodoric established needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It
broke in pieces after his death.
On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths
were again separated. The few instances in which they are
found acting together after this time are as scattered and
incidental as they were before. Amalaric succeeded to the
West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania. Provence
was added to the dominion of the new East Gothic king Athalaric,
the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha.
The weakness of the East Gothic position in Italy now showed
itself. The long wars of Justinian’s reign (535-555) recovered
Italy for the Empire, and the Gothic name died out on Italian
soil. The chance of forming a national state in Italy by the
union of Roman and Teutonic elements, such as those which
arose in Gaul, in Spain, and in parts of Italy under Lombard
rule, was thus lost. The East Gothic kingdom was destroyed
before Goths and Italians had at all mingled together. The war
of course made the distinction stronger; under the kings who
were chosen for the purposes of the war national Gothic feeling
had revived. The Goths were now again, if not a wandering
people, yet an armed host, no longer the protectors but the
GOTHS
enemies of die Roman people of Italy. The East Gothic dominion
and the East Gothic name wholly passed away. The nation
had followed Theodoric. It is only once or twice after his
expedition that we hear of Goths, or even of Gothic leaders,
in the eastern provinces. From the soil of Italy the nation
passed away almost without a trace, while the next Teutonic
conquerors stamped their name on the two ends of the land,
one of which keeps it to this day.
The West Gothic kingdom lasted much longer, and came
much nearer to establishing itself as a national power in the
lands which it took in. But the difference of race and faith
between the Arian Goths and the Catholic Romans of Gaul and
Spain influenced the history of the West Gothic kingdom for
a long time. The Arian Goths ruled over Catholic subjects,
and were surrounded by Catholic neighbours. The Franks
were Catholics from their first conversion; the Suevi became
Catholics much earlier than the Goths. The African conquests
of Belisarius gave the Goths of Spain, instead of the Arian
Vandals, another Catholic neighbour in the form of the restored
Roman power. The Catholics everywhere preferred either
Roman, Suevian or Frankish rule to that of the heretical Goths;
even the unconquerable mountaineers of Cantabria seem for
a while to have received a Frankish governor. In some other
mountain districts the Roman inhabitants long maintained
their independence, and in 534 a large part of the south of Spain,
including the great cities of Cadiz, Cordova, Seville and New
Carthage, was, with the good will of its Roman inhabitants,
reunited to the Empire, which kept some points on the coast
as late as 624. That is to say, the same work which the Empire
was carrying on in Italy against the F,ast Goths was at the same
moment curried on in Spain against the West Goths. But in
Italy the whole land was for a while won back, and the Gothic
power passed away for ever. In Spain the Gothic power outlived
the Roman power, but it outlived it only by itself becoming
in some measure Roman. The greatest period of the Gothic
power as such was in the reign of Leovigild (568-586). He
reunited the Gaulish and Spanish parts of the kingdom which
had been parted for a moment; he united the Suevian dominion
to his own : he overcame some of the independent districts,
and won back part of the recovered Roman province in southern
Spain. He further established the power of the crown over the
Gothic nobles, who were beginning to grow into territorial lords.
The next reign, that of his son Recared (586-601), was marked
by a change which took awav the great hindrance which liad
thus far stood in the wav of any national union between
Goths and Romans. The king and the greater part of the
Gothic people embraced the Catholic faith. A vast degree of
influence now fell into the hands of the Catholic bishops ; the
two nations began to unite ; the Goths were gradually romanized
and the Gothic language began to go out of use. In short, the
Romance nation and the Romance speech of Spain began to
be formed. The Goths supplied the Teutonic infusion into the
Roman mass. The kingdom, however, still remained a Gothic
kingdom. “ Gothic,” not “ Roman ” or “ Spanish,” is its
formal title ; only a single late instance of the use of the formula
“ regnum Hispaniae ” is known. In the first half of the 7th
century that name became for the first time geographically
applicable by the conquest of the still Roman coast of southern
Spain. The Empire was then engaged in the great struggle
with the Avars and Persians, and, now that the Gothic kings
were Catholic, the great objection to their rule on the part of
the Roman inhabitants was taken away. The Gothic nobility
still remained a distinct class, and held, along with the Catholic
prelacy, the right of choosing the king. Union with the Catholic
Church was accompanied bv the introduction of the ecclesi¬
astical ceremony of anointing, a change decidedly favourable to
elective rule. The growth of those later ideas which tended
again to favour the hereditary doctrine had not time to grow
up in Spain before the Mahommedan conquest (711). The West
Gothic crown therefore remained elective till the end. The
modern Spanish nation is the growth of the long struggle with
the Mussulmans ; but it has a direct connexion with the West
*73
Gothic kingdom. We see at once that the Goths hold altogether
a different place in Spanish memory from that which they, hold
in Italian memory. In Italy the Goth was but a momentary
invader and ruler ; the Teutonic element in Italy comes from
other sources. In Spain the Goth supplies an important element
in the modem nation. And that element has been neither
forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of
northern Spain, the land of Asturia, kept for a while the name
of Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul and in Crim.
The name of the people who plaved so great a part in all southern
Europe, and who actually ruled over so large a part of it has
now wholly passed away ; but it is in Spain that its historical
impress is to be looked for.
Of Gothic literature in the Gothic lunguage we have the Bible
of Ulfilas, and some other religious writings and fragments
(see Gothic Language below). 01 Gothic legislation in Latin
we have the edict of Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F.
Bluhme in the Monumenta Gertnaniae historica ; and the books
of Variae of Cassiodorus may pass as a collection of the state
papers of Theodoric and his immediate successors. Among the
West Goths written laws had already Iveen put forth by Euric.
The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a Breviarium of Roman
law for his Roman subjects; but the greut collection of West
Gothic laws dates from the later days of the monarchy, being
put forth by King Recceswinth about 654. This code gave
occasion to some well-known comments by Montesquieu and
Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny (Gesckickte its
romischen Rechts , ii. 65) and various other writers. They are
printed in the Monumenta Germaniac, leges , tome i. (1902).
Of special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already
so often quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop
of Seville, a special source of the history of the West Gothic
kings down to Svinthalu (621-631). But all the Latin and
Greek writers contemporary with the daysof Gothic predominance
make their constant contributions. Not for special facts, but
for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive than Salvian
of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work De Gubernatione Dei
is full of passages contrasting the vices of the Romans with the
virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In all such
pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways,
but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues
which the Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are
their chastity, their piety according to their own creed, their
tolerance towards the Catholics under their rule, and their
general good treatment of their Roman subjects. He even
ventures to hope that such good people may be saved, notwith¬
standing their heresy. All this must have had some ground¬
work of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful
if the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from
the doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian. (E. A. F.)
There is now an extensive literature on the Gotlis, and among the
principal works may he mentioned : T. Hodgkin, Italy ana her
Invaders (Oxford, 1880-1899); J. Aschbach, Gesckickte der West-
goten (Frankfort, 1827) ; F. Dahn Die Kdnigc der Germanen (1861-
1899) ; E. von Wietershcim, Gesckickte der V Slkerwanierung (1880-
1881) ; R. Pallmann, Die Gesckickte der Vdikerwanderung (Gotha,
1863-1864); B. Kanpaport, Die Ein/dlte der Goten in das rdmisekt
Retch (Leipzig, 1899), and K. Zeuss, Die Deutscken uni die Nachbar-
sidmme (Munich, 1837). Other works which may be consulted are;
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by J. B.
Bury (1896-1900) ; H. H. Milman, History 0/ Latin Christianity
(1867); J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire (1889) ;
1 \ Villari, Lz Invastoni barbariche in Italia (Milan, 1901) ; and F.
Martroye, L'Occident A t'tpoque bysantine: Goths et Vandides (Paris,
1903). There is a popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the
“ Story of the Nations " series (London, 1888). For the laws see the
Leges in Band I. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica, leges (1902).
A. Helfferich, Entstehung und Gesckickte des Westgotenrechts (Berlin,
1858) ; F. Bluhme, Zur Tsxthriiik des Westgotenrechts (1872) ; F.
Dahn, Lex Visigothorum. Wesigotische Studien (Wurxburg, 1874) ;
C. Rinando, Leggi dei Visigots, studio (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer,
“ Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetrgebung " in the Neues Archie
der Gesetlscka/t fUr dltere deutseke GeschtcUskunde. See also the article
on Theodoric.
Gothic Language. —Our knowledge of the Gothic language
is derived almost entirely from the fragments of a translation
276
GOTLAND
of the Bible which ii believed to have been made by the Arian
bishop Wulfik or Uliilas (d. 383) for the Goths who dwelt on
the lower Danube. The MSS. which have come down to us
and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in Italy
(489-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete,
together with more or less considerable fragments of the four
Gospels and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains
of the Old Testament arc three short fragments of Ezra and
Nehemiah. There is also an incomplete commentary ( skeireins)
on St John’s Gospel, a fragment of a calendar, and two charters
(from Naples arid Arezzo, the latter now lost) which contain
some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written in a special
character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila. It
is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which
indeed most of the letters arc obviously derived, and several
orthographical peculiarities, e.g. the use of ai for e and ei for 1
reflect the Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters,
however, have been taken over from the Runic and Latin
alphabets. Apart from the texts mentioned above, the only
remains of the Gothic language are the proper names and
occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings,
together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a
Salzburg MS. of the 10th century, and two short inscriptions
on a torque and a spear-bead, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia)
and Kovel (Volhynia) respectively. The language itself, as
might be expected from the date of Wulfila’s translation, is
of a much more archaic type than that of any other Teutonic
writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest Northern
inscriptions. This may be seen, e.g. in the better preservation
of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual
and the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite
erroneous, however, to regard the Gothic fragments as represent¬
ing a type of language common to all Teutonic nations in the
4th century. Indeed the distinctive characteristics of the
language are very marked, and there is good reason for believing
that it differed considerably from the various northern and
western languages, whereas the differences among the latter
at this time were probably comparatively slight (see Teutonic
Languages). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that
the language of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius
(Vand. i. 2) states distinctly that the Gothic language was
spoken not only by the Ostrogoths and Visigoths hut also by the
Vandals and the Gcpidae; and in the former case there is sufficient
evidence, chiefly from proper names, to prove that his statement
is not far from the truth. With regard to the Gepidac we have
less information ; but since the Goths, according to Jordanes
(cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of
their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages
were at least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (1 ’and. i
3 ; Goth. i. 1, iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as
Gothic nations. The fact that the two former were sprung
from the north-east of Germany renders it probable that they
had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though non-Teutonic
in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the
migration period. Some modern writers have included in the
same class the Burgundians, a nation which hud apparentlv
come from the basin of the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal
on the whole hardly justifies the supposition that their language
retained a close affinity with Gothic.
In the 4th and 5th centuries the Gothic language—using
the term in its widest sense -must have spread over the greater
part of Europe together with the north coast of Africa. Ii
disappeared, however, with surprising rapidity. There is no
evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after the fall of the
Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is doubtful
whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic
conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat
longer in view of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned
above. Possibly the information there given was derived from
southern Hungary or Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae
were to be found shortly before the Magyar invasion (88c;).
According to Walafridus Strabo (dr Rrh. Rates. cap. 7) also
Gothic was still used in his time (the 9th century) in tom
churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth th
language seems to have survived only among tire Goths (Got
Tctraxitae) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last tin*
by Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constant!
nople about the middle of the 16th century. He collected 1
number of words and phrases in use among them which shot
clearly that their language, though not unaffected by Iraniai
influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic.
See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, Vlfilas (Altenburz an<
Leipzig, 1X36-1846); E. Bernhardt, Vulfila Oder die gotische Bibe
(Halle, 1875). !• or other works on the Gothic language see J. Wright
A Primer of the Gothic Language (Oxford, 1892), p. 143 f. To thi
references there given should be added : C C. Uhlenbeck, Etymo
logisches Warterbuch d. got. Sprache( Amsterdam, 2nd ed. 1901); F. Kluge
" Geschichte d. got. Sprache " in H. Paul's Grundriss d. germ. Philo
logic (2nd ed., vol. 1., Strassburg, 1897); W. Streitberg, Gotische.
Elementarbuch (Heidelberg, 1897); Th. von Grienbcrger, Bcitragc su:
Geschichte d. deutschcn Sprache u. Literatur , xxi. 183 ft. ■ L F ft
Wimmer Die Runenschnft (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ft.; G.’ Stephens
Handbook to the Runic Monuments (London, 1884), p. 203 ; F. Wrede
Uber die Sprache der Wandalen (Strassburg, 1886). For furthei
references see K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen, p. 432 f. (where earlier refer-
ences to the Crimean Goths are also given); F. Kluge, op. cit. p. 51 ■
fi.; and O. Bremer, i b. vol. iii., p. 822. (H. lit. C.) "
GOTLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden
lying between 57 0 and 58*' N., and having a length from S.S.W
to N.N.E. of 75 m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an ares
of 1142 sq. m. The nearest point on the mainland is 50 m.
from the westernmost point of the island. With the island
F 4 ro, off the northern extremity, the Karlsoe, off the west coast,
and Gfitska Sando, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the admini¬
strative district (Ian) of Gotland. The island is a level plateau
of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average
height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering,
free-standing columns of limestone (raukar). A few low isolated
hills rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although
in parts dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors
have been largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive
sand-dunes in the north. As usual in a limestone formation,
some of the streams have their courses partly below the surface,
and caverns are not infrequent. Less than half the total area
is under forest, the extent of which was formerly much greater.
Barley, rve, wheat and oats are grown, especially the first, which
is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The sugar-beet
is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works
on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government
sheep farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging
principally to an old native breed, yellow and horned. Some
lime-burning, cement-making and sea-fishing are carried on.
The capital of the island is Visby, on the west coast. There are
over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby N.E. to Tingstade
and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to Klintchamn,
a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn on
the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no srenic
attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly
every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no
villages remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one
of the richest commercial centres of the Baltic from the nth to
the 14th century, and its prosperity was shared by the whole
island. It retains ten churches liesides the cathedral. The
massive towers of the village churches are often detached, and
doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches of Roma,
Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othcn and Liirbo
may tie specially noted. Some contain fine stuined glass, as at
Duihem near Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect
distinguished from that of any part of the Swedish mainland.
Pop. of lim (1900) 52,781.
Gotland was subject to Sweden before 8qo, and in 1030 was
christianized hv St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from
his exile at Kiev. He dedicated the first church in the island to
St Peter at Visby. At that time Visby had long been one of
the most important trading towns in the Baltic, and the chief
distributing centre of the oriental commerce which came to
Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the
GOTO ISLANDS—GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG 277
Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century,
it became the chief depot for the produce of the eastern Baltic
countries, including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony
(nth century or earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although
Visby was an independent member of the Hanseatic League,
the influence of Liibeck was paramount in the city, and half
its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed,
Bjorkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German
(Hanseatic) foundation, dating principally from the middle
of the isth century. However that may be, the importance of
Visby in the sea trade of the North is conclusively attested by
the famous code of maritime law which bears its name. This
Waterrechi dal de Koaplude en de Schippers gemakt hebben to
Visby (“ sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made
at Visby ”) was a compilation based upon the Liibeck code,
the Oleron code and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed
m Low German in 1505, but in all probability had its origin about
1240, or not much later (see Sea Laws). By the middle of the
14th century the reputation of the wealth of the city was so
great that, according to an old ballad, “ the Gotlanders weighed
out gold with stone weights and played with the choicest jewels.
The swine ate out of silver troughs, and the women spun with
distaffs of gold.” This fabled wealth was too strong a temptation
for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In 1361 he
invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the
city walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the
islanders who fell) and plundered the city. From this blow
it never recovered, its decay being, however, materially helped
by the fact that for the greater part of the next 150 years it was
the stronghold of successive freebooters or sea-rovers—first,
of the Hanseatic privateers called Vitalienbrodre or Viktualien-
bruder, who made it their stronghold during the last eight
years of the 14th century ; then of the Teutonic Knights, whose
Grand Master drove out the “ Victuals Brothers,” and kept the
island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too
Erik XIII. (the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark
by his own subjects, established himself in 1437, and for a
dozen years waged piracy upon Danes and Swedes alike. After
him came Olaf und Ivar Thott, two Danish lords, who down to
the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates’ stronghold
of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Sdren Norrby, the last
supporter of Christian I, of Denmark, when his master's cause
was lost, waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships
and others from the same convenient base. But this led to an
expedition by the men of Liibeck, who partly destroyed Visby
in 1525. By the peace of Stettin (1570) Gotland was confirmed
to the Danish crown, to which it had been given by Queen
Margaret. But at the peace of Bromsebro in 1645 it was at length
restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for
the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the
Danes, and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force.
The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a
spirit of independence, and their relations with Sweden were
curious. The island at one period paid an annual tribute of
60 marks of silver to Sweden, but it was clearly recognized that
it was paid by the desire of the Gotlanders, and not enforced
by Sweden. The pope recognized their independence, and it
was by their own free will that they came under the spiritual
charge of the bishop of Linkoping. Their local government was
republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the
written Gotland Law, which dates not later than the middle of
the 13th century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the
measures adopted by this body, and there was no Swedish
judge or other official in the island. Visby had a system of
government and rights independent of, and in some measure
opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems clear that
there were at one time two separate corporations, for the native
Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that
these were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native
Gotlanders were not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole—even
intermarriage was illegal—but Germans, on account of their
co mmer cial pre-eminence in the island, were excepted.
See C. H. Bergman, Gotlmds gtagrafi oek bistort* (Stockholm,
1898) and GoUdndska shildringar oek mum** (Visby, 1903) ; A, T.
SnSbohm, Gotiands land ock folk (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Motet,
Bidrag till en Gotldndsk bihliografi (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hilde¬
brand, Visby oek d*ss Miunesmdrktn (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.);
A. BjOrkander, Till Visby Studs Aetdsta Historia (1898), where most
of. the literature dealing with the subject is mentioned ; but some of
the author's arguments require criticism. For local government and
rights see K. Hegel, Stddter und Gilden im MittolaUer (book iii. ch.
Hi., Leipzig, 1891).
GOTO ISLANDS (Goto Retto, Gorro], a group of islands
belonging to Japan, lying west of Kiushiu, in 33 0 N., 129 0 E.
The southern of the two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures
17 m.by 13J ;■ the northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 33 m.by
7 j. These islands lie almost in the direct route of stoamers plying
lietween Nagasaki and Shanghai, and are distant seme 50 m. from
Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped hills command the old castle-
town of Fukae. The islands arc highly cultivated; deer and
other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the mountain
streams. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians.
COTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1746-1797), German poet
and dramatist, was bom on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha.
After the completion of his university career at Gottingen, he
was appointed second director of the Archive of his native town,
and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat of the imperial law
courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha legation. In
1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen, and
here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous Gottinger
Musenalmanach. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where
he belonged to Goethe's circle of acquaintances. Four years
later he took up his permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on
the 18th of March 1797. Gutter was the chief representative of
French taste in the German literary life of his time. His own
poetry is elegant and polished, and in great measure free from the
trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of the earlier generation of
imitators of French literature; but he was lacking iq the imagin¬
ative depth that rharacterizes the German poetic temperament.
His plays, of which Merope (1774), an adaptation in admirable
blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and Mtdta
(1775), a melodrame, are best known, were mostly based on
French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting
the formlessness and irregularity of the Stum und Drang drama.
Cotter's collected Gedkbte appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788 ;
a third volume. (1802) contains his Literarischer Nachlass. See B.
Litzmann, Schrfidtr und Cotter (1887), and R. SclilOsser, F. W.
Cotter, sein Leben und seine Werkt (1894).
GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, one of the chief German
poets of the middle ages. The dates of his birth and death
are alike unknown, but he was the contemporary of Hartmann
von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenhach and Walther von der
Vogelweide, and his epic Tristan was 4 written about the year
1210. In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as
he is entitled Meister, never Herr, by his contemporaries ; his
poem—the only work that can with any certainty be attributed
to him—bears witness to a learned education. The story of
Tristan had been evolved from its shadowy Celtic origins by the
French trouveres of the early 12th century, and had already
found its way into Germany before the dose of that century,
in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It
was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version
is based not on that of Chretien de Troyes, but on that of a
trouvere Thomas, who seems to have been more popular with
contemporaries. A comparison of the German epic with the
French original is, however, impossible, as Chretien’s Tristan
is entirely lost, and of Thomas’s only a few fragments have come
down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage which Tristan,
a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal
(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring bock Isolde as the king’s
bride. On the return voyage Tristan and’ Isolde drink by
mistake a love potion, which binds them irrevocably to each other.
The epic resolves itself into a series of love intrigues in which
the two iovera ingeniously outwit the trusting king. They are
ultimately discovered, and Tristan flees to Normandy where
he marries another Isolde—“ Isolde with the white hands
GOTTINGEN—GOTTLING
278
without being able to forget the blond Iiolde of Ireland. At this
point Gottfried’s narrative breaks off and to learn the close
of the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time,
Ulrich von TEirheim and Heinrich von Freiberg—the latter
much the superior—who have supplied the conclusion. After
further love adventures Tristan is fatally wounded by a poisoned
spear in Normandy; the “ blond Isolde,” as the only person
who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall. The
ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board,
a Dlack one if not. Tristan’s wife, however, deceives him,
announcing that the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives,
she finds her lover dead. Marke at last learns the truth concern¬
ing the love potion, and has the two lovers buried side by side
in Kumewal.
It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried’s independence
of his French source ; but it seems clear that he followed closely
the narrative of events he found in Thomas. He has, however,
introduced into the story an astounding fineness of psychological
motive, which, to judge from a general comparison of the
Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather than French;
he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has, above
all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval
literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing
und seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never
for a moment disiigurcd by frivolous hints or innuendo; the
tragedy is unrolled with an earnestness that admits of no touch
of humour, and also, it may be added, with a freedom from
moralizing which was easier to attain in the 13th than in luter
centuries. The mastery of style is no less conspicuous. Gottfried
had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von Aue, but he
was a more originu! and during artificer of rhymes and rhythms
than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words,
and indulged in antitheses und allegorical conceits to an extent
that proved fatal to his imitators. As far us beauty of expression
is concerned, Gottfried’s Tristan is the masterpiece of the German
court epic.
Gottfried's I nslau Has been frequently edited : by H. F. Massman
(Leipzig, 1H43); by K. Reclistein (2 volt.., 3rd oil.', Leipzig, j8go-
tXijil ; by W. GoltHer (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1K80) ; by K. Marolcl
H906). 'translations into modern German have been made by H.
Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844) : by K. Sunroek (Leipzig, 1855) ; and,'best
of all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated
Lnglish translation by Jessie L, Weston (London, i8yt|). The
continuation of Ulrich von Turhoim will be found in Massman’s
edition ; that by Heinrich von Freiberg lias been separately edited
by R. Heehstein (Leipzig, 1X77). See also It. Heinze], " Gottfrieds
von Strnssburg Tristan und seme Quelle " in the Znt. fiir dent. Alt.
xiv. (i860), pp. eye tl. ; W. Golther, Die Sage von Tristan unit
Isolde (Munich, 1887) ; I*’. Piquet, l.'Or turned it de Gottfried Ju
Slrashourg dans son podme de Tristan et Isolde (Lille, 11705). K.
1 millennium (1 j.v.) lias written an epic of Tristan und Isolde (1840),
R. Wagner (17.11.) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Heehstein, 'Instan
und Isolde m der deutsihen /'rfilling der Xruled (Leipzig, 1877).
GOTTINGEN, u town of Germunv, in the Prussian province
of Hanover, pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainbcrg
(1200 ft.), in the broad and fertile valley of the l.cine, 67 m. S.
from Hanover, on the railway to (asset. Pop. (1875) 17,057,
(1905)34.030. It is traversed bv the Leine canal, which separates
the Alstudt from the Neustudt and from Musrh, and is surrounded
by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees and form an
agreeable promenade. The streets in the older purt of the town
are for the most part crooked and narrow, hut the newer portions
ure spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant
churches of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a
high tower (290 ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th
century and restored in 1880, and the numerous university
buildings, Gottingen possesses few structures of any pufilic
importance. There are several thriving industries, including,
besides the various branches of the publishing trade, the manu¬
facture of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and other
scientific instruments.
The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by
George 11 . in 1734 und opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading
position, and in 1823 its'students numbered 1547. Political
disturbances, in which both professors and students were im¬
plicated, lowered the attendance to 860 in 1834. The expulsion
in 1837 of the famous seven professors —Die Goitinger Sieben —
viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800-1876);
the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahbnann (1785-1860);
the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875);
the historian, Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the
physicist, Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891); and the philo¬
logists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785-1863),
and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),—for protesting against
the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the
liberal constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of
the university. The events of 1848, on the other hand, told
somewhat in its favour; and, since the annexation of Hanover in
1866, it has been carefully fostered by the Prussian government.
In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and its students 1529.
The main university building lies on the Wilhelmsplatz. and,
adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols. and 5300 MSS.,
the richest collection of modem literature in Germany. There
is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological,
ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remark¬
able being Blumcnbach's famous collection of skulls in the
anatomical institute. There are also a celebrated observatory,
long under the direction of Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884),
a botanical garden, an agricultural institute and various hospitals,
all connected with the university. Of the scientific societies
the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences (Kimigliche
Sozietdt der W issenschajten) founded by Albrecht von Haller,
which is divided into three classes, the physical, the mathematical
and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80 members
and publishes the well-known Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen.
There ore monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F.
Gauss and W. E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Biirgcr.
The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs
in documents of about 950 a.d. The place received municipal
rights from the German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from
1286 to 1463 it was the seat of the princely house of Brunswick-
Gdttingen. During the J4th century it held a high place among
the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it joined the
Reformation movement, and in the following century it suffered
considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly
in 1636, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the
Saxons in 1632. After a century of decay, it was anew brought
into importance by the establishment of its university ; and a
marked increase in its industrial and commercial prosperity
has again taken place in recent years. Towards the end of the
18th century Gottingen was the centre of a society of young
poets of the Sturm und Drang period of German literature, known
as the GiiUinger Dicltterbund or Hainbund (see Germany :
Literature).
See I-reusilorfl, Gottingen m Vergemgcnheit und Gcgenwart (Gottin¬
gen, 1S87); the Vrkundfnbuih der Stadl Gottingen, edited by G,
Schmidt, A. llasselUati and G. Kastner; linger, Gottingen und die
Georgia Augusta (1861) ; and Gottinger Pro/cssoiett (Gotha, 1872);
and O, Mejer, Kulturgeschuhttiche Btlder aits Gotti nger (1880).
G&TTL1NG, CARL WILHELM (1793-1869), German classical
scholar, was bom at Jena on the iqth of January 1793.
He studied at the universities of Jena and Berlin, took part
in the war against France in 1814., and finally settled down
in 1822 us professor at the university of his native town, where
he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of January
1869. In his early years Giittling devoted himself to German
literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: Vher das
Geschiditluhe im Nibelungenliede (1814) and Nibelungen und
Gibelinen (1817). The greater part of his life, however, was
devoted to the study of classical literature, especially the elucida¬
tion of Greek authors. The contents of his Gesammelte Abhand-
lungrn aus dem klassischen AUertum (1851-1863) and Opuscula
Aeademica (published in 1869 after his death) sufficiently indicate
the varied nature of his studies. He edited the Teyn; (gram¬
matical manual) of Theodosius of Alexandria (1822), Aristotle’s
Polities (1824), and Economics (1830) and Hesiod (1831 ; 3rd ed.
by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made of his AUgrmrine
Lehre vum Accent der griechischrn Sprache (1835), enlarged from a
GOTTSCHALK—GOTTSCHED 279
smaller work, which was translated into English <1831) as the
Elements of Greek Accentuation ; and of his Correspondence with
Goethe (published 1880). ’
See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G.
Lothholz (Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preioce to the Opuscula
Acad emica ), and C. Bursian in Atlgemeinc deutsche Biographic, ix.
GOTTSCHALK [Godescalus, Gottescale], (<-. 808-867 ?),
German theologian, was bom near Mainz, and was devoted
(oblatus) from infancy by his parents,—his father was a Saxon,
Count Bern,—to the monastic life. He was trained at the
monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus Maurus, and
became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferriircs. In
June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been
unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his
liberty, withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and
then to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons.
There he studied St Augustine, with the result that he became an
enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of absolute predestination, in
one point going beyond his master—Gottschalk believing in a
predestination to condemnation as well as in a predestination to
salvation, while Augustine had contented himself with the
doctrine of preterition as complementary to the doctrine of elec¬
tion. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained priest,
without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, chorepiscopus of
Reims. Before 840, deserting his monaster,-, he went to Italy,
preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered
into relations with Nutting, bishop of Verona, and F.berhard,
count of Friuli. Driven from Italy through the influence of
Hrabanus Maurus, now archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two
violent letters to Netting and Eberhard, he travelled through
Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but continued preaching and
writing. In October 848 he presented to the synod at Mainz a
profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas expressed by
Hralmnus Maurus in his letter to Netting. He was convicted,
however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never
again enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over
to Hinemar, archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his
monastery at Orbais. The next year at a provincial council at
Quicrzy, presided over by Charles the Bald, he attempted to
justify his ideas, but was again condemned us a heretic and
disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the priesthood,
whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut up in
the monaster)- of Hautvillicrs. There Hinemar tried again to
induce him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend
his doctrine, writing to his friends and to the most eminent theo¬
logians of France und Germany. A great controversy resulted.
Prudcntius, bishop of Troyes, Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of
Corbie, Loup of Ferric-res and Floras of Lyons wrote in his
favour. Hinemar wrote Dr praedestinatione and De una non
trina dritate against his views, but gained little aid from
Johannes Scotus F.rigena, whom hr had called in as an authority.
The question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of
Valence (855) and of SavonniCres (859). Finally the pope
Nicolas 1 . took up the case, and summoned Hinemar to the
council of Metz (863). Hinemar either could not or would not
appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend himself
before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when
Hinemar learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him
the sacraments or burial in consecrated ground unless he would
recant. This Gottschalk refused to do. He died on the 30th of
October between 866 and 870.
Gottschalk wus a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a
violent temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in
his ideas as in his conduct. He was less an innovator than a
reactionary. Of his many works we have only the two pro¬
fessions of faith (cf, Migne, Patrologia Latina, exxi. c. 347 et seq.),
and some poems, edited by L. Trauhe in Monumenta Germaniae
historica: Po'etae Latini aevi Carolini (t. iii. 707-738). Some
fragments of his theological treatises have been preserved in the
writings of Hinemar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of Ferriires.
From the 17th century, when the Jansen is ts exalted Gottschalk,
much ha* been written” on him. Mention may lie made of two
recent studies, F. Pica vet, " Lea Discussions sur la liberty au temps
do Gottschalk, de Rahan Maur, d*Hincmsx, et de J«ul Scot," fai
Comptes rendus de Vat ad. dec sciences morales et paliHtuet (Paris,
1896); and A. Frrystedt, " Studien xu Gottschalk* Lebea und
Lehre," in Zeitschri/t fur Ktrchengcschichle (1897), vol. xviii.
GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of
letters, was bom at Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, *h e
son of a Prussian artillery officer. He received his early educa¬
tion at the gymnasia in Mainz and Coburg, and subsequently at
R&stenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he entered the university
of Kdnigsberg as a student of law, but, in consequence of his
pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The academic
authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolejant
towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Bering
eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies., Dujing
Uiis period of unrest he issued I.iedcr dcr GrgruWart^i&dl) Jgid^
Zensurfluchtlinge (1843)- the poetical fruits of his polit&al
enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, toolf .J/hejgAj/p
of doctor juris in Kiinigsberg, and endeavoured to obtafulheretne
tenia legrndi. His political views again stood in the way, and
forsaking the legal career, GnUst liall now devoted himself entirely
to literature. He met with immediate success, and beginning as
dramaturge in Kdnigsberg with Dcr Ithndr ton Alcala (1846) and
Lord Byron in llalien (1847) proceeded to Hamburg where he
occupied a similar position. In 1852 he married Marie, baroness
von Seherr-Thuss, und for the next tew t ears lived in Silesia.
In 1S62 he took over the editorship of a Posen newspaper, but in
1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall wus raised, in 1877, by the
king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix “ von,”
having lieen previously made a GcheimerHofrat by the grand duke
of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the Brockhaus’sche
Blatter fur litterarische Vnlerhultung und the monthly periodical
Unsere Zeit. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.
Gottschall’s prolific literary productions cover the fields of
poetry, novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes
of lyric poetry arc Sebastopol (1856), Janus (1873), Bunte Blitlen
(1891). Among his epics. Carlo Zeno ( 1854), Maja (1864), dealing
with an episode in the Indian Mutiny, and Merlins Watide-
rungen (1887). The comedy Pilt und Fox (1854), first produced
on the stage in Breslau, was never surpassed by the other lighter
pieces of the author, among which may be mentioned Die Welt
des Schwindels and Der Spion von Rheinsberg. The tragedies,
Mazeppu, Catharine Howard, Amy Kobsart and Der Gbtte von
Veiledig, were very successful; and the historical novels, 1 m
Banne des schwarzcn Adlers (1875 ; 4th ed., 1884), Die Erbschajt
dcs Blutes (t88i), Die Tochtcr Rube adds (1889), and Verkunmerte
Exislenzen (1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a -
critic and historian of literature Gottschall has also done excellent
work. His Die deutsche Nationallitcratur des ji). Jahrhunderts
(1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), und Poetik (1858; 6th ed., 1903)
command the respect of all students of literature.
Gottschall’s collected JJramatische Werke appeared in 12 veils, in
1880 (2nd oil., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many
volume* of collected essay* and criticisms. See his autobiography,
A us meincr Jugend (1898).
GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German
author and critic, was bom on the 2nd of February 1700, at
Judithenkirrh near Kdnigsberg, the son of u Lutheran clergyman.
He studied philosophy and history at the university of his native
town, but immediately on taking the degree of Magister in 1723,
fled to 1-eipzig in order to evade impressment in the Prussian
military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B.
Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of “ Philander von
der Linde," was a well-known poet and also president of the
Deulsehiibende poctische Gesellschaft in Leipzig. Of this society
Gottsched was elected “ Senior ” in 1726, and in the next year
reorganized it under the title of the Deutsche Gesellschaft. In
1730 he was appointed extraordinary’ professor of poetry, and,
in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics in the
university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of December 1766.
Gottsched ’b chief work was his Versuch einer kritischen
Dichtkunst fiir die Deutscken (1730), the first systematic treatise
in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau.
His Ausjuhrliche Redekunst (1728) and his Gryndlegung tutor
a8o G 0 TZ—GOUDIMEL
deutsehen Spraehkunsl (1748) were of importance for the develop¬
ment of German style and the purification of the language.
Hi wrote several plays, of which Der sterhende Cato (1732), an
adaptation of Addison’s tragedy and a French play on the same
theme, was long popular on the stage. In his Deutsche Schau-
biihne (6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations
from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical
repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, Notiger
Vorrai sur Geschichte der deuischen dramatischen Dichtkunst
(1757-1765), is still valuable. He was also the editor of several
journals devoted to literary criticism. As a critic, Gottsched
« ted on German literature being subordinated to the laws
renfti classicism ; he enunciated rules by which the play-
wr%ht rfiust be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery
*frcgn the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded
a Sjcalthy corrective to the extravagance and want of taste
Smctf wAv? rampant in the German literature of the time,
Gottscheawent too far. In 1740 he came into conflict with the
Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (</.v.) and joluinn Jakob
Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison
and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic
imagination should not Ire hampered by artificial rules; they
pointed to the great English poets, and especially to Milton.
Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English
writers, clung the more tenaciously to his principle that poetry
must be the product of rules, and, in the fierce controversy
which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zurich, he was
inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and
before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic
folly.
His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, nee Kulmus (1713-1762),
in some respects her husband’s intellectual superior, was an
author of some reputation. She wrote several popular comedies,
of which Das Testament is the best, and translated the Spectator
(<) vols., I73b-i743), Hope’s Rape of the Loch (1744) and other
English and French works. After her death her husband edited
her Samtliche kleinere Gedichle with a memoir (1763).
See T. W. Denzel, Gottsched und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1848) ; J.
Cruder, Gottsched, Bodmer , und Breiltnger (with selections from their
writings) (Stuttgart, 1884): ]•’. Servacs, Die Poetih Gottsiheds und
der Sckweiset (Strassburg, 1887): 1 C. Wolff, Gottsrheds Stetlung im
deutnlien Bildungslehen (z vols., Kiel, 1895-18147), and G. Waniek,
Gottnhed und die dents:he Literatur seiner Zeit (Leipzig, 1897). On
Frau Gottsched, see 1 *. Schlenthcr, Frau Gottsched und die bUrgerliche
KomOdie (Berlin, 1886).
GttTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was
born at Worms on the qth of July 1721. He studied theology
at Halle (1739 1742), where he became intimate with the poets
J ohann W. L. Gleim and J ohann Peter Hz, acted for some years
as military' chaplain, and afterwards filled various other ecclesi¬
astical nlliccs. He died at Wintcrburg on the 4th of November
1781; The writings of Got/, consist of a number of short lyrics
and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of
Anucreon. His original compositions are light, lively and
sparkling, and are animated rather by French wit than bv
German depth of sentiment. The best known of his poems is
Du Madchcninsel, an elegy which met with the warm approval
of Frederick the Great.
Gotz's i ’ermixchte Gedichte were published with biography bv
K. W. Ramler (Mannheim, 1785 , new ed., 1807), and a collection <lf
his poems, dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by
C. Schuddekopf in -the Deutsche l iteratnrdenhmaie des id. und nj.
Jahrhunderts (1893). See also Bne/r von und an ]. N. Guts, edited
by G. Schuddekopf (1893).
GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. guazso
(probably in origin connected with “ wash ”), meaning literally
a “ ford,” but used also for a method of painting m opaque
water-colour. The colours are mixed with or painted in a
vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true water-colours
the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface of the
paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through
a translucent wash in “gouache,” these are obtained by white
or other light colour. “ Gouache ’’ is frequently used in miniature
painting.
GOUDA (or Twt Gouwx), a town of Holland, in the province
of South Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence
with the Ysel, and a junction station 12 £ m. by rail N.E. of Rotter¬
dam. Pop. (1900) 22,303. Tramways connect it with BodegTaven
(Si m. N.) on the old Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on
the Ysel ; and there is a regular steamboat service in various
directions, Amsterdam being reached by the canalized Gouwe,
Aar, Drecht and Amstel. Tho town of Gouda is laid out in a
fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by
numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine
trees have replaced the old fortifications. The Grootc Markt
is the largest market-square in Holland. Among the numerous
churches belonging to various denominations, the first place must
be given to the Groote Kerk of St John, It was founded in 1485,
but rebuilt after a fire in 1552, and is remarkable for its dimensions
(345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad), for a large and celebrated organ,
and a splendid series of over forty stained-glass windows presented
by cities and princes and executed by various well-known artists,
including the brothers Dirk (d. c. 1 577) and Wouter (d. c. 1590)
Craheth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see Explanation
of the Famous and Renowned Glass Work, &c., Gouda, 1876,
reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy
buildings arc the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt
in 1690, and the weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem
(1608-1669) and adorned with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers
(d. c. 1690). The museum of antiquities (1874) contains an
exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and some pictures and portraits
by Wouter Craheth the younger, Corn. Ketel (a native of Gouda,
1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other buildings
are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for women
and a music hall.
In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly
derived from brewing and cloth-w caving ; but at a later date
the making of clay tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and,
although this industry has somewhat declined, the churchwarden
pipes of Gouda are still well known and largely manufactured.
In winter-time it is considered a feat to skate hither from
Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return with
it in one’s mouth without its being broken. The mud from the
Ysel furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries;
there are also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a
yam factory, an oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit
and shipping trade is considerable, and as one of the principal
markets of South Holland, the round, white Gouda cheeses are
known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N. by W. of Gouda
on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the little
old-world fawn of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous
theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater
contains a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating
the capture of the town by the Spaniards in 1575 and the
subsequent sack and massacre.
GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, musical composer of the 16th century,
was born about 1510. The French and the Belgians claim him
as their countryman. In all probability he was born at Besan?on,
for in his edition of the songs of Arcadell, as well as in the mass
of 1554, he calls himself “ natif de Besanqon " and “ Claudius
Godimellus Vescontinus.” This discountenances the theory of
Ambros that he was burn at Vaison near Avignon. As to his
early education wc know little or nothing, but the excellent
Latin in which some of his letters were written proves that,
in addition to his musical knowledge, he also acquired a good
classical training. It is supposed that he was in Rome in 1540
at the head of a music-school, and that besides many other
celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his pupils. About
the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for Paris,
where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in
1555, a musical setting of Horace’s Odes. Infinitely more
important is another collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the
celebrated French version of the Psalms by Marot and Beza
published in 1565. It is written in four parts, the melody being
assigned to the tenor. The invention of the melodies was long
ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely been proved
GOUFFIIiU-GQUGH, VISCOUNT a»i
to have originated in popular tunes found la the collections of
this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the French
Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German
Lutherans, a German imitation of the French versions of the
Psalms in the same metres having been published at an early
date. Although'the French version of the Psalms was at first
used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there is little doubt
that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel Brenet’s
Biographie ( Annales franc-cuntoises, Besan<;on, 1896, P. Jacquin)
it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565, Goudi¬
mel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather
to the daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years
later he fell a victim to religious fanaticism during the St
Bartholomew massacres at Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of
August 1572, his death, it is stated, being due to “ les ennemis
de la gloire de Dieu et quelques m'chants envieux de 1'honneur
qu’il avait acquis.” Masses and motets belonging to his Roman
period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives
of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus
the work entitled Missae Ires a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo
musico auctore, nunc primum in lucem ediiae, contains one mass
by the learned editor himself, the other two being by Claudius
Sermisy and Jean Maillard respectively. Another collection,
La Fleur des chansons dcs deux plus excellens musiciens de nostre
temps, consists of part songs by Goudimel and Orlando di Lasso.
Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's Domine quid
muUiplicati sunt.
GOUFFIER, the name of a great French family, which owned
the estate of Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. _ Guil-
i.aume Gouffier, chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate
enemy of Jacques Cneur, obtaining his condemnation and after¬
wards receiving his property {1491). He had a great number
of children, several of whom played a part in history. Artus,
seigneur de Boisy (<-.1475-1520) was entrusted with the education
of the young count of Angouleme (Francis 1.), and on the acces¬
sion of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand
master of the royal household, playing an important part in the
government; to him was given the task of negotiating the
treaty of Noyon in 1516; and shortly before his death the king
raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy to the rank of a duchy,
that of Roannais, in his favour. Adrien Gouffier (d. 1523)
was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France.
Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral
of France (see Bonnivet). Claude Gouffier, son of Artus,
was created comte de Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy
(•564).
There were many branches of this family, the chief of them
being the dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of
CreSvecoeur and of Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux,
and of Espagny. The name of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th
century by a branch of the house of Choiseul. (M. P.*)
GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 1360-1444), sumamed de Charpaigne,
French chancellor, was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon
of Bourges, in 1402 he became treasurer to John, duke of Bern,
and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was arrested by John the
Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean de Montaigu
(1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then banished.
Attadiing himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he
became his chancellor, the king's ambassador in Brittany, and a
member of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415,
he was transferred from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-
Ferrand. In May 1418, when the Burgundians re-entered Paris,
he only escaped death at theiT hands by taking refuge in the
Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall into the hands of
his enemy, the duke dc la Trimoille, who imprisoned him in
the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was
appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422.
He endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party
to the selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but
had to resign his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres ;
first from March 25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La
Tremoiiie had supplanted Richmond. After the fall of La
Trimoiile in 2433 he returned to court, and exercised a powerful
influence over affairs of state almost till his death, which took
place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-D6me) on the 15th or
26th of November 1444.
See Hiver's account in tlw Memoires de la SaeiiU des AntimuHret
du Centre, p. 267 (1869) ; and the Sonet lie Biographic (On Crate, voL
xxi.
GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. gouge, derived from the Late
Lat. guita or guibia, in Ducange gulbium, an implement ad
hortum excolendum, and also instrumentum ferreum m usu
fabrorum : according to the .Yew English Dictionary the word
is probably of Celtic origin, gvlj, a beak, appearing in Welsh,
and gilb, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool of the chisel type with
a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or channel in wood,
stone, &c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in surgery
for operations involving the excision of portions of hone.
“ Gouge " is also used as the name of a bookbinder’s tool, lor
impressing a curved line on the leather, and for the line so im¬
pressed. in mining, a “ gouge " is the layer of soft rock or earth
sometimes found in each side of a vein of coal or ore, which the
miner can scoop out with his pick, and thus attack the vein more
easily from the side. The verb “ to gouge ” is used in the sense
of scooping or forcing out.
GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH, Viscount (1779-1869), British
field-marshal, a descendant of Francis Gough who was made
bishop of Limerick in 1626, was born at Woodstown, Limerick,
on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained a commission
in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th Highlanders
at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape
Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanliu Bay in 1796. His
next service was in the West Indies, where, with the 87th
(Royal Irish Fusiliers), he shared in the attack on Porto Rico,
the capture of Surinam, and the brigand war in St Lucia. In
1809 he was called to take part in the Peninsular War, and,
joining the army under Wellington, commanded his regiment as
major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was
taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded,
and had his horse shot under him. For his conduct on this
occasion he was afterwards promoted lieutenant-colonel, his
commission, on the recommendation of Wellington, being
antedated from the day of the duke’s despatch. He was thus
the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services
performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next
engaged at the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured
a French eagle. At the defence of Tarifa the post of danger
was assigned to him, and he compelled the enemy to raise the
siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again distinguished himself,
his regiment captured the baton of Marshal Jourdan. He was
again severely wounded at Nivelle, and Vfas soon after created a
knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the
war he returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from
active service. He next took command of a regiment stationed
in the south of Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties
of a magistrate during a period of agitation. Gough was pro¬
moted major-general in 1830. Seven years later he was sent to
India to take command of the Mysore division of the army.
But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties which led
to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic general
on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed commander-
in-chief of the British forces in China. Tins post he held during
all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements
and numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he
at length enabled the English plenipotentiary, Sir H. Pottmger,
to dictate peace on his own terms. After the conclusion of the
treaty of Nanking in August 1842 the British forces were with¬
drawn ; and before the close of the year Gough, who had been
made a G.C.B. in the previous year for his services in the capture
of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843 he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the British farces in India,
and in December he took the command in person against the
Mahrattas, and defeated them at Maharajpur, capturing more
than fifty guns. In 1845 occurred the rupture with the Sikhs,
382 GOUGH, J. R—GOUJON, JEAN
who crossed the Sutlej in large numbers, end Sir Hugh Gough
conducted the operations against them, being well supported
by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to
serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of
Mudki and Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of
Sohroon, and shortly afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at
Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh Gough were rewarded by
his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron
Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and
again Lord Gough took the field ; but the result of the battle
of Chillianwalla being equivocal, he was superseded tty the
home authorities in favour of Sir Charles Napier; before the
news of the supersession arrived Lord Gough had finally crushed
the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February 1849). His tactics
during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered contro¬
versy (see Sikh Wars). Lord Gough now returned to England,
was raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the
thanks of both Houses of Parliament. A pension of £3000 per
annum was granted to him by parliament, and an equal pension
by the East India Company. He did not again see active service.
In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the Koval Horse Guards,
and two years Is ter he was sent to the Crimea to invest Marshal
Prissier and other officers with the insignia of the Bath. Honours
were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was made
a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who
did not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor,
was named a G.C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field
marshal. He was twice married, and left children by both his
wives. He died on the 2nd of Murch 1869.
Sec R. S. Knit, Lord Cough (11103); and Sir W. Lee Warner, Lord
Dathousie (1904).
GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW (1817-1886), American
temperance orator, was bom at Sandgate, Kent, England, on
the 22nd of August 1817. He was educated by his mother,
a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was sent to the United
States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years with family
friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a
book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in
1833 his mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 be fell
in with dissolute companions, and became a confirmed drunkard.
He lost his position, and for several years supported Itimaelf
as a ballad singer and story-teller in the cheap theatres and
concert-halls of New York and other eastern cities. Even this
means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in Worcester,
Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance
pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined
to devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform.
Gifted with remarkable powers of pathos and of description,
he was successful from the start, and was soon known and sought
after throughout the entire country, his appeals, which were
directly personal and emotional, lieing attended with extra¬
ordinary responses. He continued his work until the end of his
life, made several tours of England, where his American success
was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy
on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he
S ussed away two days later, on the 18th of February 1886.
e published an Autobiography (1846); Orations (1854); Tem¬
perance Addresses ( 1870); Temperance Lectures (1870); anti Sun¬
light and Shadow, or Gleanings from My Life Work (1880).
GOUGHt RICHARD (1735-1809), English antiquary, was bom
in London on the aist of October 1735. His father was a wealthy
M.P. and director of the East India Company. Gough was a
precocious child, and at twelve had translated from the French
a history of the Bible, which his mother printed for private
circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbe Fleury’s work on
the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an elaborate work
entitled Adas Renovatus, or Geography modernised. In 1752
he entered Corpus Cbristi College, Cambridge, where he began
his work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving
Cambridge in 1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions
in various parts oi Great? Britain. In 1773 he began an edition
in English of Camden's Britannia, which appeared in 1789.
Meantime be published, in 1786, the first volume of bis splendid
work, the Sepulchral Monuments of Gnat Britain, applied la
illustrate the histtrry of families, manners, habits, and arts at the
different periods from the Norman Conquest to the Seventeenth
Century. This volume, which contained the first four centuries,
was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th
century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared
in 1799. Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries
of London in 1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director.
He was elected F.R.S. in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 20th
of February 1809. His books and manuscripts relating to
Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his collections in the
department of British topography, and a large number of his
drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were
bequeathed to the university of Oxford.
Among the minor works of Gough are An Account of the Bedford
Missal (in MS.); A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of
Denmark (1777); History of Fleshy in Essex (1803); An Account of
the Coins of the Seleuciiae, Kings of Syria (1804); and “ Historv of the
Society of Antiquaries of London,' 1 prefixed to their Archaeologia.
GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE (1697-1767), French abbe and
litterateur, was bom in Paris on the 19th of October 1697,
He studied at the College,of the Jesuits, and at the College
Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong Jansenist. In
1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 1719 entered the
order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon
of St Jacques l’Hopital. On account of his extreme Jansenist
opinions he suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits,
and several of his works were suppressed at their instigation.
In his latter years his health began to fail, and he lost his
eyesight. Poverty compelled him to sell his library, a sacrifice
which hastened his death, which took place at Paris on the
1st of February 1767.
He is the author of Supplement au dictionnaire de Morin (1735),
and a Nouveau Suppliment to a subsequent edition of the work ;
he collaborated in Bibiiothique franpatse, ou histoire littiraire de
la Trance (18 voLs., Paris, 1740-1759); and in the Ties des saints
(7 vols., 1730) ; he also wrote Mtmoires historiques et liUerams sur
le college royal de France (1758) ; Histoire des Inquisitions (Paris,
1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet's Dictionnaire, of
which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abbe Fabre
in his continuation of Fleury's Histoire ecclisiastique.
See Mtmoires hist, el Mt. de I'abbi Goujet (1767).
GOUJON, JEAN (c. 1520-c. 1566), French sculptor of the
16th century. Although some evidence has been offered in
favour of the date 1520 ( Archives de Tart franpais, iii. 350),
the time and place of his birth are still uncertain. The
first mention of his name occurs in the accounts of the church
of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1540, and in the following
year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town, where
he added to the tomb of Cardinal d’Amboise a statue of his
nephew Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved
portions of the tomb of Louis de Brezd, executed some time after
1545. On leaving Kouen, Goujon was employed by Pierre
Lescot, the celebrated architect of the Louvre, on the restorations
of St-Germain l’Auxerrois; the building accounts—some of
which for the years 1542-1544 were discovered by M. de Laborde
on a piece of parchment binding—specify as his work, not only
the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de
Picti, now lost. In 1547 appeared Martin’s French translation
of Vitruvius, the illustrations of which were due, the translator
tells us in his “ Dedication to the King,” to Goujon, “ naguires
architecte de Monseigneur le Constable, et maintenant un des
votres.” We leam from this statement not only that Goujon
had been taken into the royal service on the accession of Henry
II., but also that he had been previously employed under Bullant
on the chateau of Ecouen. Between 1547 and 1549 he was
employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot
for the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the
16th of June 1549. Lescot’s edifice was reconstructed at the
end of the 18th century by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine
des Innocents, this being a considerable variation of the original
design. At the Louvre, Goujon, under the direction of Lescot,
executed the carvings of the south-west angle of the court, the
GOUJON, J. Nf.—GOULBURN, H. 183
rebels of the Ember Henri II., and the Tribune des Cariatides,
for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of September 1550.
Between 1548 and 1554 rose the chiteau d’Anet, in the embel¬
lishment of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme
in the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building
accounts of Anef have disappeared, but Goujon executed a
vast number of other works of equal importance, destroyed or
lost in the great Revolution. In 1553 his name appears again
in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so every succeeding
year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the course of
this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal employ¬
ment all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies.
Goujon has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently
possible that he was one of the victims of this attack. We should
therefore probably ascribe the work attributed to him in the
Hotel Camavalet (in situ), together with much else executed
in various parts of Paris—but now dispersed or destroyed—
to a period intervening between the date of his dismissal from
the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken
place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The
researches of M. Tomaso Sandonnini (see Gazette des Beaux Arts,
2* p6riode, vol. xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition,
long entertained, that Goujon died during the St Bartholomew
massacre in 1572.
List of authentic works oj Jean Goujon : Two marble columns
supporting the organ of thu church of St Maclou (Rouen) on
right and left of porch on entering; left-hand gate of the church
of St Maclou ; bas-reliefs for decoration of screen of St Germain
l’Auxcrrois (now in Louvre); “ Victory ” over chimney-piece
of Salle des Gardes at fxouen ; altar at Chantilly ; illustrations
for Jean Martin's translation of Vitruvius; bas-reliefs and
sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents; bas-reliefs
adorning entrance of Hotel Camavalet, also series of satyrs’
heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard ; fountain of Diana
from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at
Anet; portico of Anet (now in courtyard of Ecnlc des Beaux
Arts); bust of Diane de Poiftiers (now at Versailles); Tribune
of Caryatides in the Louvre; decoration of “ Escalier Henri
II.,” Louvre; ceils de bceuf and decoration of Henri II. facade,
Louvre; groups for pediments of facade now placed over
entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre.
See A. A. Pottier, (Kuvres de Goujon (1844); Reginald Lister,
Jean Goujon (London, 1903).
GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE (1766-1795),
French publicist and statesman, was born at Bourg on the
13th of April 1766, the son of a jiostmaster. The boy went
early to sea, and saw fighting when he was twelve years old ;
in 1790 he settled at Mcudon, and began to make good his lack
of education. As procureur-gdndral-syndic of the department
of Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1792 he had to supply the inhabitants
with food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and
tact. In the Convention, which he entered on the death of
Herault de Sichelles, he took his seat on the benches of the
Mountain. He conducted a mission to the armies of the Rhine
and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and was a con¬
sistent advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless,
he was a determined opponent of the counter-revolution, which
he denounced in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain
after his recall to Paris, following on the revolution of the 9th
Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was one of those who protested
against the readmission of Louvet and other survivors of the
Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795 i <tod, when
the populace invaded the legislature on the 1st Prairial (May
20, 179;) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance
with their desires, he proposed the immediate establishment
of a special commission which should assure the execution of
the proposed changes and assume the functions of the various
committees. The failure of the insurrection involved the fall
of those deputies who supported the demands of the populace.
Before the dose of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi,
Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others wore put under
arrest by their colleagues, and on their way to the chateau
of Taureau in Brittany had a narrow escape from a mah at
Avranches. They were brought back to Pari* for trial baton
a military commission on the 17th of June, and, though no proof
of their complicity in organizing the insurrection oouid be found—
they were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte,
strangers to one another—they were condemned. v In accordance
with a pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the stair¬
case leading from the court-room with a knife which Goujon
had successfully concealed. Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy
succeeded, but the other three merely inflicted wounds which
did not prevent their being taken immediately to the guillotine.
With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a party.
Sec J. Claretie, Let Demurs Montaj'nards, hietoire de t\nsurrectiou
de Prairial an 111 d'apris les document * (1867); IJdfence du repel'
sentantdu people Goujon ( 1 ‘iiru, no date), with .fee letters arid a hymn
written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For Other documents
see Maurice Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-495).
GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYR1CK (1818-1897),- English
churchman, son of Mr Serjeant Goulbum, M.P., recorder of
1-cicester, and nephew of the Right Hon. Henry Goulburn,
chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of Sir Robert Peel
and the duke of Wellington, was bom in London on the nth of
February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at Balliol College,
Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in
1841 and 1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively.
For some years he held the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was
chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of the diocese. In
1849 he succeeded Tait as headmaster of Rugby, but in 1857
he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel, Maryle-
bone. in 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul’s, and in
1859 vicar of St John’s, Paddington. In 1866 he was made
dean of Norwich, and in that office exercised a long and marked
influence on church life. A strong Conservative and a churchman
of traditional orthodoxy, he was a keen antagonist of “ higher
criticism ’’ and of all forms of rationalism. His Thoughts on
Personal Religion (1862) and The Pursuit of Holiness were
well received ; and he wrote the Life (1892) of his friend Dean
Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in
agreement. He resigned the deanery m 1889, and died at
Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of May 1897.
Soe Life by B. Compton (1899).
GOULBURN, HENRY (1784-1856), English statesman, was
bom in London on the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1808 he became member of
parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was appointed under¬
secretary for home affairs and two and a half years later he was
made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still retaining
office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in
1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position whiph he held until April
1827. Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman,
his period of office was on the whole a successful one, and in
1823 he managed to pass the Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In
January 1828 he was made chancellor of the exchequer under
the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked Roman
Catholic emancipation, which be voted against in 1828. In the
domain of finance Goulbum’s chief achievements were to reduce
the rate of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow
any one to sell beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a com¬
plete change of policy with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving
office with Wellington in November 1830, Goulbum was borne
secretary under Sir Robert Feel for four months in 1835, and
when this statesman returned to office in September 1841 he
became chancellor of the exchequer for the second time. Although
Peel himself did some of the chancellor’s work, Goulbum was
responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the
national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended
in the repeal of the com laws. With his colleagues he left office
in June 1846. After representing Horsham in the House of
Commons for over four years Goulbum was successively member
for St Germans, for West Looe, and for the city of Armagh. In
May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge University, and he
retained this seat until his death on the zath of January 1856
284 GOULBURN—GOULD, JAY
»t Betchworth House, DorJcmg. Goulburn was one of Peel's
firmest supporters sad most intimate friends. His eldest son,
Henry (1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler
at Cambridge in 1835.
See S. Walpole, History of England {1878-1886).
GOULBURN, a city of Argyle county, New South Wales,
Australia, 134 m. S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway.
Pop. (1901) 10,618. It lies in a productive agricultural district,
at an altitude of 3129 ft., and is a place of great importance,
being the chief depot of the inland trade of the southern part
of the state. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals.
Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer, and tanning
are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and
Goulburn became a city in 1864.
GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (1805-1866), American
conchologist, was bom at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the
33rd of April 1805, graduated at Harvard College in 1825, and
took his degree of doctor of medicine in 1830. Thrown from
boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry, per¬
severance and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue
his studies, E,taWishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself
to.the practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional
rank and social position. He became president of the Massachu¬
setts Medical Society, and was employed in editing the vital
statistics of the state. As a conchologist his reputation is world¬
wide, and he was one of the pioneers of the science in America.
His writings fill many pages of the publications of the Boston
Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p. 197 for a list) and
other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the Principles
of Zoology (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the Terrestrial and Air-
breathing Mollusks (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he
translated Lamarck’s Genera of Shells. The two most important
monuments to his scientific work, however, are Mollusca and
Shells (vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition
(1838-1842) under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1833), published by
the government, and the Report on the Invertebrata published by
order of the legislature of Massachusetts in 1841. A second
edition of the latter work was authorized in 1865, and published
in 1870 after the author’s death, which took place at Boston
on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a corresponding
member of all the prominent American scientific societies, and
of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society.
GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1834-1896). American
astronomer, a son of Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859),
principal of the Boston Latin school, was bom at Boston, Massa¬
chusetts, on the 27th of September 1824. Having graduated
at Harvard College in 1844, he studied mathematics and as¬
tronomy under C. F. Gauss at Gottingen, and returned to
America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the
longitude department of the United States coast survey; he
developed and organized the service, was one of the first to
determine longitudes by telegraphic means, and employed the
Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish longitude-relations between
Europe and America. The Astronomical Journal was founded
by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in 1861,
was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he ucted as
director of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York ;
and published in 1859 a discussion of the places and proper
motions of circumpolar stars to be used as standards by the
United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862 actuary to
the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an
important volume of Military and Anthropological Statistics.
He fitted up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.;
hut undertook in 1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic,
to organize a national observatory at Cordoba ; began to observe
there with four assistants in 1870, and completed in 1874 his
Uranometria Argentina (published 187Q) for which he received
in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.
This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884), arid
a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations
of 33.448 stars. Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd's
photographs of the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a
pioneer in the use of the camera as an instrument of precision;
and he secured at Cordoba 1400 negatives of southern star-
clusters, the reduction of which occupied the closing years of
his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge, where
he died on the z6th of November 1896.
See Astronomical Journal, No. 389 ; Observatory, xx. 70 (same
notice abridged); Science (Dec. 16, 1896, S. C. Chandler) ; Astro-
physical Journal, v. 50 ; Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, lvii.
zi8.
GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS (1844- ), English
caricaturist and politician, was bora in Barnstaple on the 2nd
of December 1844. Although in early youth he showed great
love of drawing, he began life in a bank and then joined the
London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched the
members and illustrated important events in the financial
world ; many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography
and published for private circulation. In 1879 he began the
regular illustration of the Christmas numbers of Truth, and in
1887 he became a contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette, trans¬
ferring his allegiance to the Westminster Gazette on its foundation
and subsequently acting as assistant editor. Among his inde¬
pendent publications are Who killed Cock Robin 1 (1897), Tales
told in the Zoo (1900), two volumes of Froissart’s Modern
Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould (1902 and 1903),
and Picture Politics—-a periodical reprint of his Westminster
Gazette cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of
political warfare in the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently
grafting his ideas on to subjects taken freely from Uncle Remus,
Alice in Wonderland, and the works of Dickens and Shakespeare,
Sir F. C. Gould used these literary vehicles with extraordinary
dexterity and point, but with a satire that was not unkind and
with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and cynicism
were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906.
GOULD, JAY (1836-1892), American financier, was bora in
Roxbury, Delaware county. New York, on the 27th of May 1836.
He was brought up on his father's farm, studied at Hobart
Academy, and though he left school in his sixteenth year, devoted
himself assiduously thereafter to private study, chiefly of mathe¬
matics and surveying, at the same time keeping books for a
blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his
father in the hardware business; in 1852-1856 he worked as a
surveyor in preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware
counties in New York, of Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio,
and of Oakland county in Michigan, and of a projected
railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An ardent
anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote A History oj
Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing
a Sketch of the Early Settlements in the County, and A History
oj the Late Anti-Rent Difficulties in Delaware (Roxbury, 1856).
He then engaged in the lumber and tanning business in western
New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. In
1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her father,
Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer
& Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very
bad condition, and skilfully reorganized ; in the same way he
bought and reorganized the Rutland & Washington railway,
from which he ultimately realized a large profit. In 1859 he
removed to New York City, where he became a broker in railway
stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president of the Erie railway, of
which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, Jr. (?.».), had gained
control in July of that year. The management of the road under
his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of fraudulent
stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English Ixind-
holders, and Gould was forced out of the company in March
1872 and compelled to restore securities valued at about
$7,500,000. It was during his control of the Erie that he and
Fisk entered into a league with the Tweed Ring, they admitted
Tweed to the directorate of the Erie, and Tweed in turn arranged
favourable legislation for them at Albany. With Tweed, Gould
was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould was the
chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000
boil. W’ith Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring
GOUNOD 4*5
attempt to "corner’’ the market,his hope being that,with the
advance in price of gold, wheat would advance to such a price
that western farmers would sell, and there would be a consequent
great movement of breadstuffs from West to East, which would
result in increased freight business for the Erie road. His
speculations in gold, during which he attempted through President
Grant’s brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the president
and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the panic
of “Black Friday,” on the *4th of September 1869, when the
price of gold fell from 162 to 135.
Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in
1883 he withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the
stock of the Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolida¬
tions, reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines,
the “ Gould System ” of railways in the south-western states.
In 1880 he was in virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about
one-ninth of the railway mileage of the United States at that
time. Besides, he obtained a controlling interest in the Western
Union Telegraph Company, and after 1881 in the elevated
railways in New York City, and was intimately connected with
many of the largest railway financial operations in the United
States for the twenty years following 1868. He died of consump¬
tion and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his
fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of
this he left to his own family.
His eldest son, Geo hoe Jav Gould (h. 1864), was prominent
also as an owner and manager of railways, and became president
of the Little Rock & Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis,
Iron Mountain & Southern railway (1893), the International
& Great Northern railway (1893), the Missouri Pacific railway
(1893), the Texas & Pacific railway (1893), and the Manhattan
Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and
director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was
under his control that the Wabash system became transconti¬
nental and secured an Atlantic port at Baltimore ; and it was
he who brought about a friendly alliance between the Gould
and the Rockefeller interests.
The eldest daughter, Hei.f.n Miller Gould (b. 1868), became
widely known as a philanthropist, and particularly for her
generous gifts to American army hospitals in the war with Spain
m 1898 and for her many contributions to New York University,
to which she gave $250,000 for a library in 1895 and $100,000
for a Hall of Fame in 1900.
GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1818-1893), French com¬
poser, was bom in Paris on the 17th of June 1818, the son of
F. L. Gounod, a talented painter. He entered the Paris Con¬
servatoire in 1836, studied under Rcicha, Halcvv and Lesueur,
and won the “ Grand Prix de Rome ” in 1839. While residing
in the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study
of sacred music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach.
In 1843 he went to Vienna, where a “ requiem ” of his composi¬
tion was performed. On his return to Paris he tried in vain to
find a publisher for some songs he had written in Rome. Having
become organist to the chapel of the “ Missions EtrangAres,”
he turned his thoughts and mind to religious music. At that
time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy
orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane
matters when, through the intervention of Madame Viardot,
the celebrated singer, he received a commission to compose an
opera on a text by Emile Augier for the Academic Nationale
de Musique. Sapho, the work in question, was produced in
1851, and if its success was not very great, it at least sufficed to
bring the composer’s name to the fore. Some critics appeared
to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the
style of dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer,
who was also a musical critic, attributed to Gounod the wish
to revive the system of musical declamation invented by Gluck.
The fact was that Sapho differed in some respects from the
operatic works of the period, and was to a certain extent in
advance of die times. When it was revived at the Paris OpAra
in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to the
original score, not altogether to its advantage, and Sapho once
more failed to attract the public. Gounod’s second dramatic
attempt was again in connexion with a classical subject, and
consisted in some choruses written for Ulysse, a tragedy by
Ponsard, played at the Theatre Franfais in 185a, when the
orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The composer’s next
opera. La Ntmne sanglanle, given at the Paris Optra in 1854,
was a failure.
Goethe’s Faust had fur years exercised a strong fascination
over Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic
account, The performance ut a Paris theatre of a drama on
the same subject delayed the production of his opera for a time,
In the meanwhile he wrote in a few months the music for an
operatic version of MoliAre's comedy, 1a Medecin fnalpi lut,
which was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1858c Berlioz well
described this charming little work when he wrote ol it, “ Every¬
thing is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this ‘ opera comique ’; there is
nothing superfluous and nothing wanting.” The first perform¬
ance of Faust took place at the Theatre Lyrique on the 19th
of March 1859. Goethe's masterpiece had already been utilised
for operatic purposes by various composers, the most celebrated
of whom was Spohr. The subject had also inspired Schumann,
Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a lew, and the enormous
success of Gounod's opera did not deter Boito from writing his
Mefistofele. Faust is without doubt the most popular French
opera of the second half of the 19th century. Its success has been
universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in
the land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type
of modern French opera. At the time of its production in Paris
it was scarcely appreciated according to its merits. Its style
was too novel, and its luscious harmonies did not altogether
suit the palates of those dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini
as the incarnation of music. Times have indeed changed, and
French composers have followed the load opened by Gounod,
and have further developed the form ol the lyrical drama,
adopting the theories of Wagner in a munnci suitable to their
national temperament. Although in its original version Faust
contained spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces
according to custom, yet it differed greatly from the operas of
the past. Gounod had not studied the works ol German masters
such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in vuin, and although
his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot lie denied that
much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic sentimentality
which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music
such as his had previously been produced by any French com¬
poser. Auber was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions
with absolute insouciance, teeming with melodious ideas, but
lacking depth. Berlioz, a musical Titan, wrestled against fate
with a superhuman energy, and, Jove-like, subjugated his
hearers with his thunderbolts. It was, ^however, reserved for
Gounod to introduce la note tendre, to sing the tender passion
in accents soft and languorous. The musical language em¬
ployed in Faust was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be
adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms
thereby becoming hackneyed. Gounod’s opera was given in
London in 1863, when its Buccess, at first doubtful, became
enormous, and it was heard concurrently at Covent Garden
and Her Majesty’s theatres. Since then it has never lost its
popularity.
Although the success of Faust in, Paris was at first not so
great as might have been expected, yet it gradually increased
and set the seal on Gounod’s fame. The fortunate composer
now experienced no difficulty in finding an outlet for his works,
and the succeeding decade is a specially- important one in his
career. The opera from his pen which came after Faust was
Philimon et Baucis, a setting of the mythological tale in which
the composer followed the traditions of the OpAra Comique,
employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the in¬
dividuality of his own style. This work was produced at the
ThA&tre Lyrique in i860. It has repeatedly been heard in
London. La Heine de Saha, a four-act opera, produced at the
Grand OpAra on the 28th of February 186a, was altogether
a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet
GOURD
286
with success, although the score contains tome of Gounod’s
choicest inspirations, notably the well-known air, “ Lend me
your aid.” La Heine de Saba was adapted for the English stage
under the name of Irene. The non-success of this work proved
a great disappointment to Gounod, who, however, set to work
again, and this time with better results, MireiUe, the fruit of his
labours, being given for the first time at the Th&tre Lyrique
on the iQth of March 1864. Founded upon the Mireio of the
Provencal poet Mistral, MireiUe contains much charming and
characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against
its success, and although several revivals have taken place and
various modifications and alterations have been made in the score,
yet MireiUe has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain
portions of this opera have, however, been popularized in the
concert-room. La Cnlombe, a little opera in two acts without pre¬
tension, deserves mention here. It was originally heard at Baden
in i860, and subsequently at the Opera Oomique. A suavely
melodious entr'acte from this little work has survived and been
repeatedly performed.
Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his Faust,
Gounod now sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and
turned his attention to Romeo and Juliet. Here, indeed, was a
subject particularly well calculated to appeal to a composer
who haa so eminently qualified himself to he considered the
musician of the tender passion. The operatic version of the
Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the Theatre Lyrique on
the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as being the
composer’s second best opera. Some people have even placed
it on the same level as Faust, but this verdict has not found
general acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed
his opinion of the relative value of the two operas enigmatically
by saying, “ Faust is the oldest, but I was younger; Romeo
is the youngest, but I was older.” The luscious strains wedded
to the love scenes, if at times somewhat cloying, are generally
in accord with the situations, often irresistibly fascinating,
while always absolutely individual. The success of Romeo
in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually this work
was transferred to the Grand Op6ra, after having for some time
formed part of the repertoire of the Op6ra Comique. In London
it was not until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de
Reszke that this opera obtained any real hold upon the English
public.
After having so successfully sought for inspiration from
Molitire, Goethe and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another
famous dramatist, and selected Pierre Corneille’s Polyeucte
as the subject of his next opera. Some years were, however,
to elapse before this work was given to the public. The Franco-
German War had broken out, and Gounod was compelled to
take refuge in London, where he composed the “ biblical elegy ”
Gallia for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During
his stay in Izindon Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a
numheir of songs to English words, many of which have attained
an enduring popularity, such as “ Maid of Athens,” “ There
is a green hill far away,” “Oh that we two were maying,”
“ The fountain mingles with the river.” His sojourn in London
was not altogether pleasant, us he was embroiled in lawsuits
with publishers. On Gounod’s return to Paris he hurriedly
set to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny's Cinq-Mars,
which was given at the Op#ra Comique on the 5th of April 1877
(and in London in 1000), without obtaining much success.
Polyeucte, his much-cherished work, appeared at the Grand
Op6ra the following year on the 7th of October, and did not meet
with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more fortunate with
Le Trihut dr Zamora, his last opera, which, given on the same
stage in r88i, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his
later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt
to keep up with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned
methods.
The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to
assert itself in another, field*—that of sacred music. His friend
CamWe Saint-Safns, in a volume entitled Portraits et Souvenirs,
writes:
Gounod did not cease all his life to write lor the chundi, to
accumulate rouses asd motetts ; but it was at the commencement
of his career, in the Mesu de Sainte Cicile , and at the end, in the
oratorios The Redemption and Mors et vita, that he rose highest.
Saint-Saens, indeed, has formulated the opinion that the three
above-mentioned works will survive all the master’s opens.
Among the many masses composed by Gounod at the outset
of his career, the best is the Messe de Sainte Cicile, written in
1855, He also wrote the Messe du Sucre Cater (1876) and the
Messe a la memoirs de Jeanne d'Arc (1887). This last work
offers certain peculiarities, being written for solos, chorus,
organ, eight trumpets, three trombones, and harps. In style
it has a certain affinity with Palestrina. The Redemption, which
seems to have acquired a permanent footing in Great Britain,
was produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1882. It was
styled a sacred trilogy, and was dedicated to Queen Victoria.
The score is prefixed by a commentary written by the composer,
in which the scope of the oratorio is explained. It cannot be
said that Gounod has altogether risen to the magnitude of his
task. The music of The Redemption bears the unmistakable
imprint uf the composer’s hand, and contains many beautiful
thoughts, but the work in its entirety is not exempt from
monotony. Mors et vita, a sacred trilogy dedicated to Pope
Leo XIIL, was also produced for the first time in Birmingham
at the Festival of 1885. This work is divided into three parts,
“ Mors,” “ Judicium,” “ Vita.” 'Hie first consists of a Requiem,
the second depicts the Judgment, the third Eternal Life.
Although quite equal, if not superior to The Redemption, Mors
et vita has not obtained similar success.
Gounod was a great worker, an indefatigable writer, and it
would occupy too much space to attempt even an incomplete
catalogue of his compositions,. Besides the works already
mentioned may be named two symphonies which were played
during the ’fifties, but have long since fallen into neglect.
Symphonic music was not Gounod’s forte, and the French master
evidently recognized the fact, for he made no further attempts
in this style. The incidental music he wrote to the dramas Les
Deux Reines and Jeanne d'Arc must not be forgotten. He also
attempted to set Moli&e’s comedy, Georges Dandin, to music,
keeping to the original prose. This work has never been brought
out. Gounod composed a large number of songs, many of which
are very beautiful. One of the vocal pieces that have contri¬
buted most to his popularity is the celebrated Meditation on
the First Prelude of Bach, more widely known as the Ave Maria.
The idea of fitting a melody to the Prelude of Bach was original,
and it must be admitted that in this case the experiment was
successful.
Gounod died at St Cloud on the 18th of October 1893. His
influence on French music was immense, though during the
last years of the igth century it was rather counterbalanced
by that of Wagner. Whatever may be the verdict of posterity,
it is unlikely that the quality of individuality will be denied
to Gounod. To be the composer of Faust is alone a sufficient
title to lasting fame. (A. He.)
GOURD, a name given to various plants of the order Cucur-
bitaceae, especially those belonging to the genus Cucurbita,
monoecious trailing herbs of annual duration, with long succulent
stems furnished with tendrils, and large, rough, pulmately-lohed
leaves; the flowers arc generally large and of a bright yellow
or orange colour, the barren ones with the stamens united;
the fertile are followed by the large succulent fruit that gives
the gourds their chief economic value. Many varieties of
Cucurbita are under cultivation in tropical and temperate
climates, especially in southern Asia; but it is extremely
difficult to refer them to definite specific groups, on account of
the facility with which they hybridize ; while it is very doubtful
whether any of the original forms now exist in the wild state.
Charles Naudin, who made a careful and interesting series of
observations upon this genus, came to the conclusion that all
varieties known in European gardens might be referred to six
original species ; probably three, or at most four, have furnished
the edible kinds in ordinary cultivation. Adopting the specific
GOURGAUD
aiy.
names usually given to the more familiar forms, the most im¬
portant of die gourds, from an economic point of view,« perhaps
C. maxima, the Poiiron Jaunt of the French, the red and yellow
gourd of British gardeners (fig. 6), the spheroidal fruit of which
n remarkable for its enormous size: the colour of the somewhat
rough rind varies from white to bright yellow, while in some kinds
it remains green; the fleshy interior is of a deep yellow or
orange tint. This valuable gourd is grown extensively in southern
Asia and Europe. In Turkey and Asia MinoT it yields, at some
periods of the year, an important article of diet to the people ;
immense quantities are sold in the markets of Constantinople,
where in the winter the heaps of one variety with a white rind
are described as resembling mounds of snowballs. The yellow
kind attains occasionally a weight of upwards of *40 lb. It
grows well in Central Europe and the United States, while in
the south of England it will produce its gigantic fruit in perfection
in hot summers. The yellow flesh of this gourd and its numerous
varieties yields a considerable amount of nutriment, and is the
more valuable as the fruit can be kept, even in warm climates, for
a long time. In France and in the East it is much used in soups
and ragouts, while simply boiled it forms a substitute for other
table vegetables; the taste has been compared to that of a young
carrot. In some countries the larger kinds are employed as
cattle food. The seeds yield by expression a large quantity
of a bland oil, which is used for the same purposes as that of
the poppy and olive. The “ mammoth ” gourds of English and
American gardeners (known in America as squashes) Iwlnng
to this species. The pumpkin (summer squash of America)
is Cucurbita Pepo. Some of the varieties of C. maxvna and
Pepo contain a considerable quantity of sugar, amounting in
the sweetest kinds to 4 or 5 %, and in the hot plains of Hungary
efforts have been made to make use of them as a commercial
source of sugar. The young shoots of both these large gourds
may be given to cattle, and admit of being eaten as a green
vegetable when boiled. The vegetable marrow is a variety
(avifera) of C. Ptpo. Many smaller gourds are cultivated in
India and other hot climates, and some have been introduced
into English gardens, rather for the beauty of their fruit and
foliage than for their escu
I * I « » ♦ t t •
lent qualities. Among these
is C’. Pepo var. aurantia,
the orange gourd, bearing a
spheroidal fruit, like a large
orange in form and colour;
in Britain it is generally
too bitter to be palatable,
though applied to culinary
purposes in Turkey and the
Levant. C. Pepo var. pyri-
formis and var. verrucosa,
the warted gourds, are
likewise occasionally eaten,
especially in the immature
state; and C. moschata
(musk melon) is very exten¬
sively cultivated throughout
India by the natives, the
yellow flesh being cooked
and eaten.
The bottle-gourds are
placed in a separate genus,
Lagenaria, chiefly differing
from Cucurbita in the an¬
thers being free instead of
adherent. The bottle-gourd
properly so-called, L. vul¬
garis, is a climbing plant with downy, heart-shaped leaves and
beautiful white flowers: the remarkable fruit (figs. 1 -5) first begins
to grow in the form of an elongated cylinder, but gradually widens
towards the extremity, until, when ripe, it resembles a flask
with a narrow neck and large rounded bulb; it sometimes
attains a length of 7 ft. When ripe, the pulp is removed from
Photographed from specimens in the British
Museum.
Group of Gourds.
1-5. Various forms of bottle gourd,
Lagenaria vulgaris.
0. Giant gourd, Cucurbita maxima.
the neck, and the interior cleared by leaving water standby
in it; the woody rind that remains is used as a bottle; or the
lower part is cot off and cleared out, forming a basin-like vessel
applied to the same domestic purposes as the calabash (Cres-
centia) of the West Indies; the smaller varieties, divided length¬
wise, form spoons. The ripe fruit is apt to be bitter and cathartic,
but while immature it is eaten by the Arabs and Turks. When
about the size of a small cucumber, it is stuffed with rice and
minced meat, flavoured with pepper, onions, &c,, and then boiled,
forming a favourite dish with Eastern epicures. The elongated
snake-gourds of India and China ( Trichosanthcs ) are used in
curries and stews.
All the true gourds have a tendency to secrete the cathartic
principle colocynthin, and in many varieties of Cucurbita and the
allied genera it is often elaborated to such an extent as to
render them unwholesome, or even poisonous. The seeds of
several species therefore possess some anthelmintic properties ;
those of the common pumpkin are frequently administered
in America as a vermifuge.
The cultivation of gourds began far beyond the dawn of history,
and the esculent species have become so modified by culture
that the original plants from which they have descended can
no longer be traced. The abundance of varieties in India would
seem to indicate that part of Asia as the birthplace of the present
edible forms ; but some appear to have been cultivated in all
the hotter regions of that continent, and in North Africa, from
the earliest ages, while the Romans were familiar with at least
certain kinds of Cucurbita, and with the bottle-gourd. Cucurbita
Pepo, the source of many of the American forms, is probably
a native of that continent.
Most of the annual gourds may be grown successfully In Britain.
They are usually raised in hotbeds or under frames, and planted Out
in rich soil in the early summer as soon as the nights become warm.
The more ornamental kinds may be trained over trellis-work, a
favourite mode of displaying them in the East; but the situation
must be sheltered and sunny. Even Lagenaria will sometimes pro¬
duce fine fruit when so treated in the southern counties.
For an account of these cultivations in England see paper by Mr
J. W. Odell, " Gourds and Cucurbits," in Journ. Royal Hort. Soc.
xxix. 450 (1904).
GOURGAUD, CASPAR, Baron (1783-185*), French soldier,
was bom at Versailles on the 14th of September 1783; his father
was a musician of the royal chapel. At school he showed talent
in mathematical studies and accordingly entered the artillery.
In 1802 he became junior lieutenant, and thereafter served
with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being wounded at
Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808,'
but returned to service in (entral Europe and took part in nearly
all the battles of the Donubian campaign of 1809. In t8n
he was chosen to inspect and report pn the fortifications of
Danzig. Thereafter he became one of the ordnance officers
attached to the emperor, whom he followed closely through
the Russian campaign of 1812 ; be wa* one of the first to enter
the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder
which might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon.
For his services in this campaign he received the title of baron,
and became first ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813
in Saxony he further evinced his courage and prowess, especially
at Leipzig and Hanau ; but it was in the first battle of 1B14,
near to Brienne, that he rendered the most signal service by
killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who were riding
furiously towards Napoleon’s tent. Wounded at the battle of
Montmirail, he yet recovered in time to shore in several of the
conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself. especially at
Laon and Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of
Louis XVIII. in the summer of 1814, he yet embraced the cause
of Napoleon during the Hundred Days (1815), was named general
and aide-de-camp by the emperor, and fought at Waterloo.
After the second abdication of the emperor (June send, 1815)
Gourgaud retired with turn and a few other companions to
Rochefort. It was to him that Napoleon entrusted the letter
of appeal to the prince regent for an asylum in England. Gour¬
gaud set off in H.M.S. “ Sianey,” but was not allowed to lend
28*
GOURKO—GOURVILLE
in He determined to share Napoleon's exile and
lailedwith him on H.M.S. “ Northumberiand ” to St Helen*.
The ihip's secretary, John R, Glover, has left »n entwtainiw
account of tome of Gotirgaud’s gasconnades at tame. nu
extreme sensitiveness and vanity soon brought him into collision
with Las Cases and Montholon at Longwood. The former he
styles in his journal a “ Jesuit ” and a scribbler who went thither
in order to become famous. With Montholon, his senior in rank,
the friction became so acute that he challenged him to a duel,
for which he suffered a sharp rebuke from Napoleon. Tiring
of the life at Longwood and the many slights which he Buffered
from Napoleon, he desired to depart, but before he could sail
he spent two months with Colonel Basil Jackson, whose account
of him throws much light on his character, as also on the " policy”
adopted by the exiles at Longwood. In England he was gained
over by members of the Opposition and thereafter made common
cause with O’Meara and other detractors of Sir Hudson Lowe,
for whose character he had expressed high esteem to Basil Jack-
son, He soon published his Campagne de /JV.7, in the preparation
of which he had had some help from Napoleon ; but Gourgaud s
Journal de Ste-Helene was not destined to be published till
the year 1899, Entering the arena of letters, he wrote, or colla¬
borated in, two well-known critiques. The first was a censure of
Count P. de Sugar's work on the campaign of 1812, with the
result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him.
He also sharply criticized Sir Walter Scott's Life of Napoleon.
He returned to active service in the army in 1830 ; and in 1840
proceeded with others to St Helena to bring back the remains
of Napoleon to France. He became a deputy to the Legislative
Assembly in 1840 ; he died in 1852.
Gourgaud's works are La Campagne de /A/> (London and Paris,
1818) ; Napolhn et la Grande Armie en Russie; examen critique de
de France sous Napollon (Paris, 1822-1823), and with Belliard and
others in the work entitled liournenne et scs erreurs (2 vols., Paris,
1830); lint his most important work is the Journal inidit de Ste-
Helfne (2 vois., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably naif and lifelike
record oi the life at Longwood. See, too, Notes arid Reminiscences 0/
a Staff Officer, by Basil Jackson (London, 1904), and the bibliography
to the article I -owe. Sir Hudson. (J. Hl. K.)
GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH, Count (1828-1901).
Russian general, was born, of Lithuanian extraction, on the
15th of November 1828. He was educated in the imperial
corps of pages, entered the hussars of the imperial bodyguard
as sub-lieutenant in 1846, became captain in 1857, adjutant
to the emperor in i860, colonel in 1861, commander of the 4th
Hussar regiment of Mariupol in 1866, and major-general of the
emperor's suite in 1867. He subsequently commanded the
grenadier regiment, and in 1873 the 1st brigade, and division,
of the cavalry of the guard. Although he took part in the
Crimean War, being stationed at Belbek, his claim to distinction
is due to his services in the Turkish war of 1877. He led the van
of the Russian invasion, took Trnovo on the 7th July, crossed
the Balkans by the Hain Bogaz pass, debouching near Hainkioi,
and, notwithstanding considerable resistance, captured Uflani,
Maglish and Kazanlyk ; on the 18th of July he attacked Shipka,
which was evacuated by the Turks on the following day. Thus
within sixteen days of crossing the Danube Gourko had secured
three Balkan passes and created a panic at Constantinople.
He then made a series of successful reconnaissances of the
Tunja valley, cut the railway in two places, occupied Stara
Zagora (Turkish, Eski Zagra) and Nova Zagora (Yeni Zagra),
checked the advance ol Suleiman’s army, and returned again
over the Balkans. In October he was appointed commander of
the allied cavalry, and attacked the Plevna line of communication
to Orkhanie with a large mixed force, captured Gorni-Dubnik,
Telische and Vratza, and, in the middle of November, Orkhanie
itself. Plevna was isolated, and after its fall in December
Gourko led the way amidst snow and ice over the Balkans to
the fertile valley bevond, totally defeated Suleiman, and occupied
Sophia, Philippopolis and Adrianople, the armistice at the
end of January 1878 stopping further operations fsee Russo-
Tukkisx Waks). Gourko was made a count, and decorated
with the and class of St George and other orders. In 1879-1880
he was governor of St Petersburg,and from 1883 to 1894 governor-
general of Poland. He died on the 29th of January 1901.
GOURMET, a French term for one who takes a refined and
critical, or even merely theoretical pleasure in good cooking
and the delights of the table. Hie word has not the disparaging
sense attached to the Fr. gourmand, to whom the practical
pleasure of good eating is the chief end. The O.Fr. groumtt
or gromet meant a servant, or shop-boy, especially one employed
in a wine-seller's shop, hence an expert taster of wines, from
which the modern usage has developed. The etymology of
gourmet is obscure; it may be ultimately connected with the
English “ groom ” (q.v.). The origin of gourmand is unknown.
In English, in the form “ grummet,” the word was early applied
to a cabin or stop’s boy. Ships of the Cinque Ports were obliged
to carry one “ grummet ” ; thus in a charter of 1229 (quoted
in the New English Dictionary) it is laid down servitia inde
debiia Domino Regi, xxi. naves, et in qualibet nave xxi. homines,
cum uno gartione qui dicitur gromet.
GOUROCK, a police burgh and watering-place of Renfrew¬
shire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde,
3i m. W. by N. of Greenock by the Caledonian railway. Pop.
(1901) 5261. It is partly situated on a fine bay affording good
anchorage, for which it is largely resorted to by the numerous
yacht clubs of the Clyde. The extension of the railway from
Greenock (in 1889) to the commodious pier, with a tunnel ij in.
long, the longest in Scotland, affords great facilities for travel
to the ports of the Firth, the sea lochs on the southern Highland
coast and the Crinan Canal. The eminence called Barrhill
(480 ft. high) divides the town into two parts, the eastern known
as Kempoch, the western as Ashton. Near Kempoch point is
a monolith of mica-schist, 6 ft. high, called “ Granny Kempoch,”
which the superstitious of other days regarded as possessing
influence over the winds, and which was the scene, in 1662, of
certain rites that led to the celebrants being burned as witches.
Gamble Institute (named after the founder) contains halls,
recreation rooms, a public library and baths. It is said that
Gourock was the first place on the Clyde where herrings were
cured. There is tramway communication with Greenock and
Ashton. About 3 m. S.W. there stands on the shore the familiar
beacon of the Cloch. Gourock became a burgh of barony in 1694.
GOURVILLS. JEAN HERAULD (1625-1703), French adven¬
turer, was bom at La Rochefoucauld. At the age of eighteen
he entered the house of I-a Rochefoucauld as a servant, and in
1646 became secretary to Francois de la Rochefoucauld, author
of the Maximes. Resourceful and quick-witted, he rendered
services to his master during the Fronde, in his intrigues with
the parliament, the court or the princes. In these negotiations
he made the acquaintance of Cond£, whom he wished to help
to escape from the chateau of Vincennes ; of Mazarin, for whom
he negotiated the reconciliation with the princes; and of Nicolas
Fouquet. After the Fronde he engaged in financial affairs,
thanks to Fouquet. In 1658 he farmed the taille in Guienne.
He bought depreciated rentes and had them raised to their
nominal value by the treasury; he extorted gifts from the
financiers for his protection, being Fouquet’s confidant in many
operations of which he shared the profits. In three years he
accumulated an enormous fortune, still further increased by his
unfailing good fortune at cards, playing even with the king.
He was involved in the trial of Fouquet, and in April 1663 was
condemned to death for peculation and embezzlement of public
funds ; but escaping, was executed in effigy. He sent a valet
une night to take the effigy down from the gallows in the court
of the Palais de Justice, and then fled the country. He re¬
mained five years abroad, being excepted in 1665 from the
amnesty accorded by Louis XIV. to the condemned financiers.
Having returned secretly to France, he entered the service of
Conde, who, unable to meet his creditors, had need of a clever
manager to put his affairs in order. In this way he was able to
reappear at court, to assist at the campaigns of the war with
Holland, and to offer himself for all the delicate negotiations
GOUT
fnr _hi« muter or the king. He received diplomatic missions in
Germany, in Holland, and especially in Spain, though it was
only in 1694 that he was freed from the conde mn atio n pro¬
nounced against him by the chamber of justice. From 1696
he fell ill and withdrew to his estate, where he dictated to his
secretary, in four months and a half, his Mimotres, an important
source for the history of his time. In spite of several errors,
introduced purposely, they give a clear idea of the life and morals
of a financier of the age of Kouquet, and throw light on certain
points of the diplomatic history. They were first published in
17*4-
There is a modern edition, with notes, an introduction and ap¬
pendix, by Lecestre (Paris, 1894-1895, a vols.).
GOUT, the name rather vaguely given, in medicine, to a
constitutional disorder which manifests itself by inflammation
of the joints, with sometimes deposition of urates of soda, and
also by morbid changes in various important organs. The
term gout, which was first used about the end of the 1.4th
century, is derived through the Fr. goutte from the Lat. gutta,
a drop, in allusion to the old pathological doctrine of the dropping
of a morbid material from the blood within the joints. The
disease was known and descritied by the ancient Greek physicians
under various terms, which, however, appear to have been
applied by them alike to rheumatism and gout. The general
term arthritis (ipttpov, a joint) was employed when many joints
were the seat of inflammation; while in those instances where
the disease was limited to one part the terms used bore reference
to such locality ; hence podagra (iroSdypa, from vovs, the foot,
and aypa, a seizure), chiragra the hand), gonagra (yaw,
the knee), &c.
Hippocrates in his Aphorisms speaks of gout as occurring
most commonly in spring and autumn, and mentions the fact
that women are less liable to it than men. He also gives directions
as to treatment. Celsus gives a similar account of the disease.
Galen regarded gout as an unnatural accumulation of humours
in a part, and the chalk-stones as the concretions of these, and
he attributed the disease to over-indulgence and luxury. Gout
is alluded to in the works of Ovid and Pliny, und Seneca, in his
95th epistle, mentions the prevalence of gout among the Roman
ladies of his day as one of the results of their high living and
debauchery. Lucian, in his Tragopodagra, gives an amusing
account of the remedies employed for the cure of gout.
In all times this disease has engaged a large share of the atten¬
tion of physicians, from its wide prevalence and from the amount
of suffering which it entails. Sydenham, the famous English
physician of the 17th century, wrote an important treatise on
the subject, and his description of the gouty paroxysm, all the
more vivid from his having himself been afflicted with the disease
for thirty-four years, is still quoted by writers as the most
graphic and exhaustive account of the symptomatology of gout.
Subsequently Cullen, recognizing gout as capable of manifesting
itself in various ways, divided the disease into regular gout,
which affects the joints only, and irregular gout, where the gouty
disposition exhibits itself in other forms; and the latter variety
he subdivided into atonic gout, where the most prominent
symptoms are throughout referable to the stomach and ali¬
mentary canal; retrocedent gout, where the inflammatory attack
suddenly disappears from an affected joint and serious disturb¬
ance takes place in some internal organ, generally the stomach
or heart; and misplaced gout, where from the first the disease
does not appear externally, but reveals itself by an inflammatory
attack of some internal part. Dr Garrod, one of the most
eminent authorities on gout, adopted a division somewhat
similar to, though simpler than that of Cullen, namely, regular
gout, which affects the joints alone, and is either acute or chronic,
and irregular gout, affecting non-articular tissues, or disturbing
th. functions of various organs.
It is often stated that the attack of gout comes on without
any previous warning; but, while this is true in many instances,
the reverse is probably as frequently the case, and the pre¬
monitory symptoms, especially in those who have previously
suffered from the disease, may be sufficiently precise to indicate
the impending seizure. Among the more common of. these
may be mentioned marked disorders of the digestive organs,
with a feeble and capricious appetite, flatulence and pain after
eating, and uneasiness in the right side in the region of the liver.
A remarkable tendency to gnashing of the teeth is sometimes
observed. This symptom was first noticed by Dr Graves,
who connected it with irritation in the urinary organs, which
also is present as one of the premonitory indications Of the
gouty attack. Various forms of nervous disturbance also present
themselves in the form of general discomfort, extreme irritability
of temper, and various perverted sensations, such as that «f
numbness and .coldness in the limbs. These symptoms may
persist for many days and then undergo amelioration immediately
before the impending paroxysm. On the night M the attack
the patient retires to rest apparently well, but about two or three
o'clock in the morning awakes with a painful feeling in the foot,
most commonly in the ball of the great toe, but it may be in
the instep or heel, or in the thumb. With the pain there often
occurs a distinct shivering followed by feverishness. The pain
soon becomes of the most agonizing character : in the words
of Sydenham, “ now it is a violent stretching and tearing of the
ligaments, now it is a gnawing pain, and now a pressure and
tightening; so exquisite and lively meanwhile is the part
affected that it cannot bear the weight of the bedclothes, nor
the jar of a person walking in the room.”
When the affected part is examined it is found to be swollen
and of a deep red hue. The superjacent skin is tense and glisten¬
ing, and the surrounding veins are more or less distended. After
a few hours there is a remission of the pain, slight perspiration
takes place, and the patient may fall asleep. The pain may
continue moderate during the day but returns as night advances,
and the patient goes through a similar experience of suffering
to that of the previous night, followed with a like abatement
towards morning. These nocturnal exacerbations occur with
greater or less severity during the continuance of the attack,
which generally lasts for a week or ten days. As the symptoms
decline the swelling and tenderness of the affected joint abate,
but the skin over it pits on pressure for a time, and with this
there is often associated slight desquamation of the cuticle.
During the attacks there is much constitutional disturbance.
The patient is restless and extremely irritable, and suffers from
cramp in the limbs and from dyspepsia, thirst and constipation.
The urine is scanty and high-coloured, with a copious deposit,
consisting chiefly of urates. During the continuance of the
symptoms the inflammation may leave the one foot and affect
the other, or both may suffer at the same time. After the attack
is over the patient feels quite well and fancies himself better
than he had been for a long time before ; hence the once popular
notion that a fit of the gout was capable of removing ail other
ailments. Any such idea, however, is sadly belied in the ex¬
perience of most sufferers from this disease. It is rare that the
first is the only attack of gout, and another is apt to occur within
a year, although by care and treatment it may be warded off.
The disease, however, undoubtedly tends to take a firmer hold
on the constitution and to return. In the earlier recurrences
the same joints as were formerly the seat of the gouty inflam¬
mation suffer again, but in course of time others become im¬
plicated, until in advanced cases scarcely any articulation
escapes, and the disease thus becomes chronic. It u to be noticed
that when gout assumes this form the frequently recurring attacks
are usually attended with less pain than the earlier ones, but
their disastrous effects are evidenced alike by the disturbance
of various important organs, especially' the stomach, liver,
kidneys and heart, and by the remarkable changes which take
place in the joints from the formation of the so-called chalk-
stones or tophi. These deposits, which are highly characteriitir
of gout, appear at first to take place in the form of a semifluid
material, consisting for the most part of urate of soda, which
gradually becomes more dense, and ultimately quite band.
When any quantity of this is deposited in the structures of a
joint the effect is to produce stiffening, and, as deposits appear
to take place to a greater or less amount in connexion With every
XII. to
GOUT
2 90
attack, permanent thickening and deformity of the parti is apt
to 4 k the consequence. The extent of this depends, of course,
oa the amount of the deposits, which, however, would seem
to be in no necessary relation to the severity of the attack, being
in some cases even of chronic gout so slight as to be barely
appreciable externally, but on the other hand occasionally
causing great enlargement of the joints, and fixing them in a j
hexed or extended position which renders them entirely useless.
Dr Garrod describes the appearance of a hand in an extreme
case of this kind, and likens its shape to a bundle of French
carrots with their heads forward, the nails corresponding to the
stalks. Any of the joints may lie thus affected, but most
commonly those of the hands and feet. The deposits take place
in other structures besides those of joints, such as along the course
of tendons, underneath the skin and periosteum, in the sclerotic
ooat of the eye, a ml especially on the cartilages of the external
ear. When largely deposited in joints an abscess sometimes
forms, the skin gives way, and the concretion is exposed. Sir
Thomas Watson quotes a case of this kind where the patient
when playing at cords was accustomed to chalk the score of the
game upon the table with his gouty knuckles.
The recognition of what is termed irregular gout is lesB easy
than that form above described, where the disease gives abundant
external evidence of its presence ; but that other parts than
joints suffer from gouty attacks is beyond question. The diag¬
nosis may often be made in cases where in an attack of ordinary-
gout the disease suddenly leaves the affected joints and some
new series of symptoms arises. It has been often observed when
cold has been applied to an inflamed joint that the pain and
inflammation in the part ceased, but that some sudden and
alarming seizure referable to the stomach, brain, heart or lungs
supervened. Such attacks, which correspond to what is termed
by Cullen retrocedent gout, often terminate favourably, more
especially if the disease again returns to the joints. Further,
the gouty nature of some long-continued internal or cutaneous
disorder may be rendered apparent by its disappearance on the
outbreak of the paroxysm in the joints. Gout, when of long
standing, is often found associated with degenerative changes in
the heart and large arteries, the liver, and especially the kidneys,
which are apt to assume the contracted granular condition
characteristic of one of the forms of Bright’s disease. A variety
of urinary calculus—the uric acid—formed by concretions of
this substance in the kidneys is a not unfrequent occurrence
in connexion with gout; hence the well-known association of
this disease and gravel.
The pathology of gout is discussed in the article on Metabolic
Diseases. Many points, however, still remain unexplained.
As remarked by Trousseau, “ the production in excess of uric
acid and urates is a pathological phenomenon inherent like all
others in the disease ; and like all the others it is dominated
by a specific cause, which we know only by its effects, and which
•we term the gouty diathesis.” This subject of diathesis (habit,
or organic predisposition of individuals), which is regarded as an
essential element in the pathology of gout, naturally suggests
the question as to whether, besides being inherited, such a
peculiarity may also be acquired, and this leads to a considera¬
tion of the causes which arc recognized as influential in favouring
the occurrence of this disease.
It is beyond dispute that gout is in a marked degree hereditary,
fully more than half the number of cases being, according to
Sir C. Scudamore and Dr Garrod, of this character. But it is
no less certain that there are habits and modes of life the observ¬
ance of which may induce the disease even where no hereditary
tendencies can be traced, and the avoidance of which may, on
the other hand, go far towards weakening or neutralizing the
influence of inherited liability. Gout is said to affect the sedentary
more readily than the active. If, however, inadequate exercise
be combined with a luxurious manner of thing, with habitual
oear-indulgence in animal food and rich dishes, and especially
in aloohohc beverages,Ahaa undoubtedly the chief factors in the
p ro d u c tion of the disease are present.
Mud) baa been written upon the relative influence of various
| forms of alcoholic drinks in promoting die development of gout
It is generally stated that fermented are more injurious man
distilled liquors, and that, in particular, the stronger wines,
such as port, sherry and madeira, are much more potent in their
gout-producing action than the lighter class of wises, such as
hock, moselle, &c., while malt liquors are fully as hurtful as strong
wines. It seems quite as probable, however, that over-indulgence
in any form of alcohol, when associated with the other conditions
already adverted to, will have very much the same effect in
developing gout. The comparative absent* of gout in countries
where spirituous liquors are chiefly used, such as Scotland, is
cited as showing their relatively slight effect in encouraging
that disease ; but it is to be noticed that in such countries there
is on the whole a less marked tendency to excess in the other
pleasures of the table, which in no degree less than alcohol are
chargeable with inducing the gouty habit. Gout is not a common
disease among the poor and labouring classes, and when it does
occur may often be connected even in them with errors in living.
It is not very rare to meet gout in butlers, coachmen, &c., who
are apt to live luxuriously while leading comparatively easy lives.
Gout, it must ever be borne in mind, may also affect persons who
observe the strictest temperance in living, and whose only excesses
are in the direction of over-work, either physical or intellectual.
Mam- of the great names in history in all rimes have had their
existence embittered by this malady, and have died from its
effects. The influence of hereditary tendency may often be
traced in -such instances, and is doubtless called into activity
by the depressing consequences of over-work. It may, notwith¬
standing, be affirmed as generally true that those who lead regular
lives, and are moderate in the use of animal food and alcoholic
drinks, or still better abstain from the latter altogether, are
less likely to lie the victims of gout even where an undoubted
inherited tendency exists.
Gout is more common in mature age than in the earlier years
of life, the greatest number of cases in one decennial period being
between the ages of thirty and forty, next between twenty and
thirty, and thirdly between forty and fifty. It may occasionally
affect very young persons ; such cases are generally regarded as
hereditary,but, so far as diet is concerned,it has to be remembered
that their home life has probably been a predisposing cause.
After middle life gout rarely appears for the first time. Women
are much less the subjects of gout than men, apparently from
their less exposure to the influences (excepting, of course, that
of heredity) which tend to develop the disease, and doubtless
also from the differing circumstances of their physical constitu¬
tion. It most frequently appears in females after the cessation
of the meases. Persons exposed to the influence of lead poisoning,
such as plumbers, painters, &c., are apt to suffer from gout;
and it would seem that impregnation of the system with this
metal markedly interferes with the uric acid excreting function
of the kidneys.
Attacks of gout are readily excited in those predisposed to
the disease. Exposure to cold, disorders of digestion, fatigue,
and irritation or injuries of particular joints will often precipitate
the gouty paroxysm.
With respect to the treatment of gout the greatest variety
of opinion has prevailed and practice been pursued, from the
numerous quaint nostrums detailed by Lucian to the “expectant”
or do-nothing system recommended by Sydenham. But gout,
although, as has been shown, a malady of a most severe and
intractable character, may nevertheless be successfully dealt
with by appropriate medicinal and hygienic measures. The
general plan of treatment can be here only briefly indicated.
During the acute attack the affected part should be kept at
perfect rest, and have applied to it warm opiate fomentations
or poultices, or, what answers quite as well, be enveloped in
cotton wool covered in with oil silk* The diet of the patient
should be light, without animal food or stimulants. The adminis¬
tration of some simple laxative will be of service, as well as the
free use of alkaline diuretics, such as the bicarbonate or acetate
of potash. The medicinal agent most relied on for the relief
of pain is colchicum, which manifestly exercises a powerful
GOUTHlfcRE
action on the disease. This drug (CoUhiatm autumnale), which
is believed to correspond to the hermodactyl of the ancients,
has proved of such efficacy in modifying the attacks that, as
observed by Dr Garrod, “ we may safely asset that colchicum
possesses as specific a control over the gouty inflammation as
cinchona barks or their alkaloids over intermittent fever.”
It is usually administered in the form of the wine in doses of
10 to 30 drops every four or six hours, or in pill as the acetous
exp-act (gr. f-ge. i.). The effect of colchicum in subduing the
pain of gout is generally so prompt and marked that it is un¬
necessary to have recourse to opiates; but its action requires
to be carefully watched by the physician from its well-known
nauseating and depressing consequences, which, should thev
appear, render the suspension of the drug necessary. Otherwise
the remedy may be continued in gradually diminishing doses
for some days after the disappearance of the gouty inflammation.
Should gout give evidence of its presence in an irregular form
by attacking internal organs, besides the medicinal treatment
above mentioned, the use of frictions and musturd applications
to the joints is indicated with the view of exciting its appearance
there. When gout has become chronic, colchicum. although of
less service than in acute gout, is vet valuable, particularly
when the inflammatory attacks recur. More benefit, however,
appears to be derived from potassium iodide, gttaiacum, the
alkalis potash and lithia, and from the administration of aspirin
and sodium salicylate. Salicylate of menthol is an effective
local application, painted on and covered with a gutta-percha
bandage. Lithia was strongly recommended by Dr Garrod from
its solvent action upon the urates. It is usually administered
in the form of the carbonate (gr. v., freelv diluted).
The treatment and regimen to be employed in the intervals
of the gouty attacks are of the highest importance. These
bear reference for the most part to the habits and mode of life
of the patient. Restriction must be laid upon the amount and
quality of the food, and equally, or still more, upon the alcoholic
stimulants. “ The instances," says Sir Thomas Watson, “ are
not few of men of good sense, and masters of themselves, who,
being warned bv one visitation of the gout, have thenceforward
resolutely altstuine;! from rich living and from wine and strong
drinks of all kinds, and who have been rewarded for their prudence
and self-denial by complete immunity from any return of the
disease, or upon whom, at any rate, its future assaults have been
few and feeble.” The same eminent authority adds: “ I am
sure it is worth any young man’s while, who has had the gout,
to become a teetotaller.” By those more advanced in life
who, from long continued habit, arc unable entirely to relinquish
the use of stimulants, the strictest possible temperance must
be observed. Regular but moderate exercise in the form of
walking or riding, in the case of those who lead sedentary lives,
is of great advantage, and all over-work, cither physical or mental,
should be avoided. Fatigues la bite, et reposes la tite is the maxim
of an experienced French doctor (Dr Debout d'Estries of Con-
trexiville). Unfortunately the complete carrying out of such
directions, even by those who feel their importance, is too often
rendered difficult or impossible by circumstances of occupation
and otherwise, and at most only an approximation can be made.
Certain mineral waters and laths (such as those of Vichy,
Royat, Contrexivilie, &c.) are of undoubted value in cases of
gout and arthritis. The particular place must in each case be
determined by the physician, and special caution must be
observed in recommending this plan of treatment in persons
whose gout is complicated by organic disease of any kind.
Dr Alexander Haig’s " uric acid free diet" has found many ad¬
herents. His view as regards the pathology is that in goaty persons
the blood is tew alkaline than in normal, and therefore less able to
hold in solution uric acid or its salts, which are retained in the joints.
Assuming gout to be a poisoning by animal food (meat, fish, eggs),
and by tea, coffee, cocoa and other vegetable alkaloid-containing sub¬
stances, he recommends an average daily diet excluding these, and
con taining 34 ox. of breadstuhs (toast, bread, biscuits and puddings)
together with 34 os. of fruit and vegetables (excluding peas, beans,
lentils, mushrooms and asparagus); 8 os. of the breadstuffs may be
replaced by 31 oz. of milk or 3 or. of cheese, butter and oil being taken
as required, so that it is not strictly a vegetarian diet.
39X
Precisely the opposite view as to diet has recently bean put forward
by Professor A. Robin of the Hnpitol Beauson, who says serious
mistakes are made in ordering patients to abstain from red meats
and take light food, fish, eggs, Ac. The common object in view is the
diminished output of uric and. This output is chiefly obtained from
food rich in nucleins and in collagenous matters, t.e. young whits
®o*ts, eggs, Ac. Consequently the goaty subject ought to restrict
himself to the consumption ol red meat, beef and mutton, and leave
out of his dietary all white me.it and internal orgaQB. He should
take little hydrocarbons and sugars, and be moderate in fats.
Vegetarian diet lie regards us a mistake, likewise milk diet, as they
tend to weaken the patient. I o prevent the formation of uric acid
Robin prescribes quinic acid combined with formine or urotropine.
GOUTHIfcRE, PIERRE (1740 iKob), French metal worker,
was bom at Troyes and went to 1’uris at an early age as the
pupil of Martin Tour. During his brilliant carecSt he executed
a vast quantity of metal work of the utmost variety, the best of
which was unsurpassed by any of his rivals in that great art
period. It was long believed that he received many commissions
for furniture from the court of I-ouis XVI. , and especially from
Marie Antoinette, but recent searches suggest that his work for
the queen was confined to bronzes. Gouthfere can, however, well
bear this loss, nor will his reputation suffer should those critics
ultimately be justified who believe that monv of the furniture
mounts attributed to him were from the hand of Thomire. But
if he did not work for the court he unquestionably produced
many of the most splendid belongings ot the due d’Aumont,
the duchesse de Mar arm and Mme du Barry. Indeed the
custom of the beautiful mistress of Louis XV. brought about
the financial ruin of the great artist, who accomplished more
than any other man for the fame of her chateau of Louveciennes.
W hen the collection of the due d’Aumonl was sold by auction
in Paris in 1782 so many objects mounted l»v Louth fere were
tKiught for Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette that it is not
difficult to perceive the basis of the belief that 1 hey were actually
made for the court. The due’s sale catalogue is, however, in
existence, with the names of the purchasers and the prices
realized. The auction was almost an apotheosis of Gouthfere.
The precious lacquer cabinets, the chandeliers and candelabra,
the tables ami cabinets in marquetry, the columns and vases
in porphyry, jasper and choice marbles, the porcelains of China
and Japan were nearly all mounted in bronze by him. More
than fifty of these pieces horc Gouthiire’s signature. The due
d’Aumont’s cabinet represented the high-water mark of the
chaser's art, and the great prices which were paid for Gouthfere’s
work at this sale are the most conclusive criterion ol the value
set upon his achievement in his own day. Thus Marie Antoinette
paid 12,000 livres for a red jasper bowl or brule~parfwns mounted
by him, which was then already famous. Curiously enough
it commanded only one-tenth of that price,at the Fournier sale
in 1851; but in 1865, when the marquis of Hertford bought
it at the prince de Beauvais’s sale, it fetched 31,900 francs. It
is now in the Wallace Collection, which contains the finest and
most representative gathering of Gouthfere’s undoubted work.
The mounts of gilt bronze, cast and elaborately chased, show
satyrs’ heads, from which hang festoons of vine leaves, while
within the feet a serpent is coiled to spring. A smaller cup is one
of the treasures of the Louvre. There too is a bronze clock,
signed by “ Gouthfere, eisileur et doreur du Roy « Pont" dated
1771, with a river god, a water nymph symbolizing Hie Rh6ne
and its tributary the Durance, and a female figure typifying the
city of Avignon. Not ail of Gouthfere’s work is ot the highest
quality, and much of what he executed was from the designs
of others. At his best his delicacy, refinement and finish are
exceedingly delightful—in his great moments he ranks with
the highest alike as artist and as craftsman. The tone of soft
dead gold which is found on some of his mounts he is believed
to have invented, but indeed the gilding of ail his superlative
work possesses a remarkable quality. This charm of tone is
admirably seen in tire bronzes and candelabra which he executed
for the chmuteypiece of Marie Antoinette’s Doudoir at Fontaine¬
bleau. He continued to embellish Louveciennes for Madame
du Barry until the Revolution, and then Hie guillotine came for
her and absolute ruin for him. When her property was seized
GOUVION SAINT+CYR—GOVERNMENT
292
the owed him 756,000 livres, of which he never received a sol,
despite repeated application* to the administrators. “ Riduit
& soUiritcr une plate a Vhospice, il mourut dans la misere. So
it wa* stated in a lawsuit brought by his sons against du Barry’s
heirs. . . , „ .
GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT, Marquis de (1764-1830),
French marshal, was bom at Toul on the 13th of April 1764.
At the age of eighteen he went to Rome with the view of pro¬
secuting the study of painting, but although he continued his
artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784 he never definitely
adopted the profession of a painter. In 1792 he was chosen
a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of
General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course
of two years he had become a general of division. In 1796 he
commanded the centre division of Moreau’s army in the campaign
of the Rhine, and by coolness and sagacity greatly aided him
in the celebrated retreat from Bavaria to the Rhine. Tn 1708
he succeeded Massena in the command of the army of Italy.
In the following year he commanded the left wing of Jourdan's
army in Germany; but when Jourdan was succeeded by Masscna,
he joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished
himself in fan of the great difficulties that followed the defeat
of Novi. When Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command
of the army of the Rhine, Gou vion St-C'yr was named his principal
lieutenant, and on the 9th of May gained a victory over General
Kray at Biherach. He was not, however, on good terms with
his commander and retired to France after the first operations
of the campaign. In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command
the army intended for the invasion of Portugal, and was named
grand officer of the Legion of Honour. When a treaty of peace
was shortly afterwards concluded with Portugal, he succeeded
Lunen Bonaparte as ambassador at Madrid. In 1803 he was
appointed to the command of an urmy corps in Italy, in 1805
he served with distinction under Massena, and in 1806 was
engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. He took part in
the Prussian and Polish campaigns of 1807, and in 1808, in which
year he was made a count, he commanded an army corps in
Catalonia ; but, not wishing to comply with certain orders
he received from Paris (for which see Oman, Peninsular War,
vol. iii.), he resigned his command and remained in disgrace
till 1811. He was still a general of division, having been excluded
from the first list of marshals owing to his action in refusing
to influence the troops in favour of the establishment of the
Empire. On the opening of the Russian campaign he received
command of an army corps, and on the 18th of August 1812
obtained a victory over the Russians at Polotsk, in recognition
of which he was created a marshal of France. He received a
severe wound in one of the actions during the general retreat.
St-Cyr distinguished himself nl the battle of Dresden (August
26 3;, 1813), and in the defence of that place against the Allies
after the battle of Leipzig, cupitulating only on the 11th of
November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. On
the restoration ol the Bourbons he was created a peer of France,
and in July 1815 was appointed war minister, but resigned his
office m the November following. In June 1817 he was appointed
minister uf marine, and in September following again resumed
the duties of war minister, which he continued to discharge
till November i8iq. During this time he effected many reforms,
paiticulariy in respect of measures tending to make the army
a national rather than a dynastic force. He exerted himseif
also to safeguard the rights of the old soldiers of the Empire,
organized the general staff and revised the rode of military iaw
and the pension regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817.
He died at Hyires (Var) on the 17th of March 1830. Gouvion
St-Cyr would doubtless have obtained better opportunities of
acquiring distinction had he shown himself more blindly devoted
to the interests of Napoleon, but Napoleon paid him the high
compliment of referring to his “ military genius," and entrusted
him with independent commands in secondary theatres of war.
It is doubtful, however, if he possessed energy commensurate
with his skill, and in Napoleon's modem conception of war,
as three parts moral to one technical, there was more need for
the services of a bold leader of troops whose “ doctrine ”—to
use the modem phrase—predisposed him to self-sacrificing and
vigorous action, than for a savant in the art of war of the type of
St-Cyr. Contemporary opinion, as reflected by Marbot, did
justice to his “ commanding talents," but remarked the indolence
which was the outward sign of the vague complexity of a mind
that had passed beyond the simplicity of mediocrity without
attaining the simplicity of genius.
He was the author of the following works, all of the highest
value : Journal des operations de I’armie de Catalogue en /SoS el
1S09 (Paris, 1821) ; Mimotres sur les campagnes des armies de Rkin
el de Rhm-et-Moselle de 7797 A 7797 (Paris, 1829) ; and Mlmoires
pour servir A I'histoire militaire sous le Directoire, le Consulat, et
l Umpire (1831).
See Gay de Vernon's Vie de Gouvion Sainl-Cyr (1857).
GOVAN, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland.
It lies on the south bank of the Clyde in actual contact with
Glasgow, and in a parish of the same name which includes a large
part of the city on both sides of the river. Pop. (1891) 61,589 ;
(1901) 76,532. Govan remained little more than a village till
i860, when the growth of shipbuilding and allied trades gave
its development an enormous impetus. Among its public build¬
ings are the municipal chambers, combination fever hospital,
Samaritan hospital and reception houses for the poor. Elder
Park (40 acres) presented to the burgh in 1885 contains a statue
of John Elder (1824-1869), the pioneer shipbuilder, the husband
of the donor. A statue of Sir William Pearce (1833-1888),
another well-known Govan shipbuilder, once M.F. for the burgh,
stands at Govan Cross. The Govan lunacy board opened in
1896 an asylum near Paisley. Govan is supplied with Glasgow
gas and water, and its tramways are leased by the Glasgow
corporation; but it has an electric light installation of its own,
and performs all other municipal functions quite independently
of the city, annexation to which it has always strenuously
resisted. Prince's Dock lies within its bounds and the ship¬
building yards have turned out many famous ironclad? and
liners. Besides shipbuilding its other industries are match¬
making. silk-weaving, hair-working, copper-working, tube¬
making, weaving, and the manufacture of locomotives and
electrical apparatus. The town forms the greater part of the
Govan division of Lanarkshire, which returns one member to
parliament.
GOVERNMENT (O. Fr. government, mod. gouvernemenl,
0. Fr. governer, mod. gouvemer, from Lat. g ubernare, to steer a
ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. Kvfiepvav), in its widest sense, the
ruling power in a political society. In every society of men there
is a determinate body (whether consisting of one individual
or a few or many individuals) whose commands the rest of the
community are hound to obey. This sovereign body is what in
more popular phrase is termed the government of the country,
and the varieties which may exist in its constitution are known
as forms of government. For the opposite theory of a community
with “ no government," see Anarchism.
How did government come into existence ? Various answers
to this question have at times been given, which may be dis¬
tinguished broadly into three classes. The first class would
comprehend the legendary accounts which nations have given
in primitive times of their own forms of government. These
are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver. The
government of Sparta was the invention of Lycurgus. Solon,
Moses, Numa and Alfred in like manner shaped the government
of their respective nations. There was no curiosity about the
institutions of other nations—about the origin of governments
in general; and each nation wus perfectly ready to accept the
traditional mpoOirou of any other.
The second may be called the logical or metaphysical account
of the origin of government. It contained no overt reference
to any particular form of government, whatever its covert
references may have been. It answered the question, how
government in general came into existence; and it answered
it by a logical analysis of the elements of society. The phenome¬
non to be accounted for being government and laws, it abstracted
government and laws, and contemplated mankind as existing
GOVERNMENT
2^3
without them- The characteristic feature of this kind of specula¬
tion is that it reflects how contemporary men would behave
if all government were removed, and infers that men must have
behaved so before government came into existence. Society
without government resolves itself into a number of individuals
each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days before
g overnment, each man followed his own aims. It is easy to sec
ow this kind of reasoning should lead to very different views
of the nature of the supposed original state. With Hobbes,
it is a state of war, and government is the result of an agreement
among men to keep the peace. With Locke, it is a state of
liberty and equality,—it is not a state of war; it is governed
by its own law,—the law of nature, which is the same thing
as the law of reason. The state of nature is brought to an end
by the voluntary 'agreement of individuals to surrender their
natural lilierty and submit themselves to one supreme govern¬
ment. In the words of Locke, “ Men being by nature all free,
equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate
and subjected to the political power of unother without his own
consent. The only way whereby any one divests himself of his
natural liberty, and puts on the bonds of civil society, is by agree¬
ing with other men to join and unite into a community ” (On
Civil Government, c. viii.). Locke boldly defends his theory
as founded on historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his
demonstration of the baselessness of Sir K. Filmer’s speculations
with the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the
foundation of his own. But in general the various forms of the
hypothesis eliminate the question of time altogether. The
original contract from which government sprang is likewise the
subsisting contract on which civil society continues to be based.
The historical weakness of the theory was probably always
recognized. Its logical inadequacy was conclusively demon¬
strated by John Austin. But it still clings to speculations on
the principles of government.
The “ social compact ” (see Rousseau) is the most famous
of the metaphysical explanations of government. It has had
the largest history, the widest influence and the most complete
development. To the same class belong the various forms of
the theory that governments exist by divine appointment.
Of all that has been written about the divine right of kings, a
great deal must Ire set down to the mere flatteries of courtiers
and ecclesiastics. But there remains a genuine belief that men
are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been
appointed by God. Like the social compact, the theory of
divine appointment avoided the question of historical fact..
The application of the historical method to the phenomena
of society has changed the aspect of the question and robbed it
of its political interest. The student of the history of society has
no formula to express the law by which government is born. All
that he can do is to trace governmental forms through various
stages of social development. The more complex and the larger
the society, the more distinct is the separation between the
governing part and the rest, and the more elaborate is the
subdivision of functions in the government. The primitive
type of ruler is king, judge, priest and general. At the same
time, his way of life differs little from that of his followers and
subjects. The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing
greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times.
Increase of bulk brings wjth it a more complex social organization.
War tends to develop the strength of the governmental organiza¬
tion ; peace relaxes it. All societies of men exhibit the germs
of government; but there would appear to be races of men so
low that they cannot lie said to live together in society at all.
Modern investigations have illustrated very fully the importance
of the family (q.v.) in primitive societies, and the belief in a
common descent has much to do with the social cohesion of a
tribe. The government of a tribe resembles the government of a
household; the head of the family is the ruler. But we cannot
affirm that political government has its origin in family govern¬
ment, or that there may not have been states of society in
which government of some sort existed while the family did
not.
I. Forms ok Government
Three Standard Forms ,—Political writers from the time of
Aristotle have been singularly unanimous in their classification
of the forms of government. There are three ways in which
states may be governed. They may be governed by one man,
or by a number of men, small in proportion to the whole number
of men in the state, or by a number large in proportion to the
whole number of men in the state. The government may be
a monarchy, an aristocracy or a democracy. The same terms
are used by John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very
nearly the same sense. The determining quality in governments
in both writers, and it may safely lie said in all intermediate
writers, is the numerical relation between the constituent
members of the government and the population of the state.
There were, of course, enormous differences between the state-
systems present to the mind of the Greek philosopher and the
English jurist. Aristotle was thinking of the small independent
states of Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modem Europe.
The unit of government in the one case was a city, in the other
a nation. This difference is of itself enough to invalidate all
generalization founded on the common terminology. But on
one point there is a complete parallel between the politics of
Aristotle and the politics of Austin. The Greek cities were to
the rest of the world very much what European nations and
European colonies are to rite rest of the world now. They were
the only communities in which the governed visibly took some
share in the work of government. Outside the European system,
as outside the Greek system, we have onlv the stereotyped
uniformity of despotism, whether savage or civilized. The
question of forms of government, therefore, belongs character¬
istically to the European races. The virtues and defects of
monarchy, aristocracy and democracy arc the virtues and
defects manifested by the historical governments of Europe.
The generality of the language used by political writers must
not blind us to the fact that they are thinking only of a compara¬
tively small portion of mankind.
Greek Politics .—Aristotle divides governments according to
two principles. In all states the governing power seeks either
its own advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and
the government is bad or good accordingly. In all states the
governing power is one man, or a few men or many men. Hence
six varieties of government, three of which are hud and three
good. Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved form,
thus
The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the
depraved form (Tyranny).
The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to
the depraved form (Oligarchy). ,
The good government of many (Commonwealth) corresponds
to the depraved form (Democracy).
The fault of the depraved forms is that the governors act
unjustly where their own interests are concerned. The worst
of the depraved forms is tyranny, the next oligarchy and the
least bad democracy. 1 Each of the three leading types exhibits
a number of varieties. Thus in monarchy we have the heroic,
the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the Lacedemonian
(hereditary generalship, <rr/MTr;yi'a), and absolute monarchy.
So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding varieties.
The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly
agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for
political affairs, and allow the law to rule. The best oligarchy
is that in which a considerable number, of small proprietors
have the power; here, too, the laws prevail. The wont
democracy consists of a larger citizen class having leisure for
politics; and the wont oligarchy is that of a small number of
very rich and influential men. In both the sphere of law is
reduced to a minimum. A good government is one in which
as much as possible is left to the laws, and os little as possible
to the will of the governor.
1 Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that
any one of the depraved forms is better than any other.
GOVERNMENT
The Politics of Aristotle, from which these principles are
taken, presents a striking picture of the variety and activity
of political life in the free communities of Greece. The king and
council of heroic times had disappeared, and self-government
m some form or other was the general rule. It is to be noticed,
however, that the governments of Greece were essentially
unstable. The political philosophers could lay down the law
of development by which one form of government gives birth
to another. Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to
the consideration of the causes of revolutions, lhe dread of
tyranny was kept alive by the facility with which an over¬
powerful and unscrupulous citizen could seize the whole machinery
of government. Communities oscillated between some form of
oligarchy and some form of democracy. The security of each
was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of the opposing
factions. Hence, although political life exhibits that exuberant
variety of form and expression which characterizes all the in¬
tellectual products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent
progress. Then tiiere was no approximation to a national
government, even of the federal type. The varying confederacies
and hegemonies are the nearest approach to anything of the kind.
What kind of national government would ultimately have arisen
if Greece had not been crushed it is needless to conjecture ;
the true interest of Greek politics lies in the fact that the free
citizens were, in the strictest sense of the word, self-governed.
Each citizi n took his turn at the common business of the state.
He spoke his own views in the agora, and from time to time
in his own person acted as magistrate or judge. Citizenship
in Athens was a liberal education, such as it never ran be made
under any representative system.
7 he Cnwrmmenl of Home. - During the whole period of freedom
the government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal
self-government. Each citizen had a right to vote laws in his
own person in the rnmitia of the centuries or the tribes. The
administrative powers of government were, however, in the hands
of a bureaucratic assembly, recruited from the holders of high
public office. The senate represented capacity and experience
rather than rank and wealth. Without some such instrument
the city government of Rome could never have made the ronquesl
of the world. The gradual extension of the citizenship to other
Italians (hanged the character of Roman government. The
distant citizens could not come to the voting hooths ; the device
of representation was not discovered ; and the comitia fell into
the power of the town voters. In the last stage of the Roman
republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of
a world-wide empire. We can imagine what would be the effect
of leaving to the people of London or Paris the supreme control
of the Hritish empire or of Fmnre,—irresistible temptation,
inevitable corruption. The rabble of the capital learn to live
on the rest of the empire. 1 The favour of the effeminate masters
of the world is purchased by panem et nrcenses. That < apable
officers and victorious annies should long be content to serve
such masters was impossible. A conspiracy of generals placed
itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of them made
himself sole master. Under Caesar, Augustus and Tiberius,
the Roman people became habituuted to a new form of govern¬
ment, which is best described by the name of Cacsarism. The
outward forms of republican government remained, but one
man united in his own person all the leading offices, and used
them to give a seeminglv legal title to what was essentially
military despotism. There is no more interesting constitutional
study than the chapters in which Tacitus traces the growth
of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating intellect
of Tilierius. The new Roman empire was as full of fictions as
the English constitution of the present day. The master of the
world iiosed as the humble servant of a menial senate. Depre-
1 None of the free states of trreece ever made extensive or per¬
manent continents ; but the ti Unite sometimes paid by one state to
another (as by tlir Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source
of corruption. Comjiarwthe remarks of Hume (Essays. part i 3, That
Potttica wav U rtducti to a Seitme), " free governments are the most
ruinous and oppressive for their provinces. 1 '
eating the outward symbols of sovereignty, he was satisfied with
the modest powers of a consul or a tnbunus plebis. The reign
of Tiberius, little capable as he was by personal character of
captivating the favour of the multitude, did more for imperialam
than was done by his more famous predecessors. Henceforward
free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the
military despotism of Rome. Caesarism remained true to the
character imposed upon it by its origin. The Caesar was an
elective not an hereditary king. The real foundation of his
power was the army, and the army in course of time openly
assumed the right of nominating the sovereign. The character¬
istic weakness of the Roman empire was the uncertainty of the
succession. The nomination of a Caesar in the lifetime of the
emperor was an ineffective remedy. Rival emperors were
elected by different armies ; and nothing less than the force
of arms could decide the question between them.
Modern Gmieruments. — Feudalism .—The Roman empire be¬
queathed to modern Europe the theory of universal dominion.
The nationalities which grew up after its fall arranged themselves
on the basis of territorial sovereignty. Leaving out of account
the free municipalities of the middle ages, the problem of govern¬
ment had now to be solved, not for small urban communities,
but for large territorial nations. The medieval form of govern¬
ment was feudal. One common type pervaded all the relations
of life. The relation of king and lord was like the relation between
lord and vassal (see Feudalism). The bond between them
was the tenure of land. In England there had been, before
the Norman Conquest, an approximation to a feudal system.
In the earlier English constitution, the most striking features
were the power of the witan, and the common property of the
nation in a large portion of the soil. The steady development
of the power of the king kept puce with the aggregation of the
English tribes under one king, 'lhe conception that the land
belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception
that everything belonged primarily to the king.- 1 ’lhe Norman
Conquest imposed on England the already highly developed
feudalism of France, ahd out of this feudalism the free govern¬
ments of modem Europe have grown. One or two of the leading
steps in this process may be indicated here. The first, and
perhaps the most important, was the device of representation.
For an at count of its origin, and for instances of its use in England
before its application to politics, we must be content to refer
to Stubbs’s Constitutional History, vol. ii. The problem of com¬
bining a large area of sovereignty with some degree of self-
government, which had proved fatal to ancient commonwealths,
was henceforward solved. From that time some form of repre¬
sentation has been deemed essential to every constitution
professing, however remotely, to be tree.
The connexion between representation and the feudal system
of estates must be shortly noticed. The feudal theory gave the
king a limited right to military service and to certain aids, both
of which were utterly inadequate to meet the expenses of the
government, especially in time of war. The king therefore
had to get contributions from his people, and he consulted
them in their respective orders. The three estates were simply
the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed
out that, in the occasional treaties between a necessitous king
and the order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of
inehoate estates or sub-estates of the realm. The right of repre¬
sentation was thus in its origin a right to consent to taxation.
The pure theory of feudalism had from the beginning been
broken by William the Conqueror causing all free-holders to
take an oath of direct allegiance to himself. The institution of
parliaments, and the association of the king’s smaller
tenants in cefite with other commoners, still further removed the
1 Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to
have become the universal successor of the people. Some of the
peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only
on tins view, e.g. the curious distinction between wrecks come to
land and wrecks still ou water. The common right to wreckage was
no doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every
ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right
held of the crown by a vassal.
GOVERNMENT
government from the purely feudal type in which the mesne lord
stands between the inferior vassal and the king.
Parliamentary Government.—The English System. —The right
of the commons to share the power of the king and lords in
legislation, the exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes,
the disappearance of the clergy as a separate order, were all
important steps in the movement towards popular government
The extinction of the old feudal nobility in the dynastic wars of
the 15th century simplified the question by leaving the crown
face to face with parliament. The immediate result was no
doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably
never stood higher than it did in the reigns of Henry VIII. and
Elizabeth; but even these powerful monarchs were studious
in their regard for parliamentary conventionalities. After a
long period of speculative controversy and civil war, the settle¬
ment of 1688 established limited monarchy os the government
of England. Since that time the external form of government
has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes,
the constitution of William 111 . might be taken for the same
system as that which still exists. The silent changes have,
however, been enormous. The most striking of these, and that
which has produced the most salient features of the English
system, is the growth of cabinet government. Intimately con¬
nected with this is the rise of the two great historical parties of
English politics. The normal state of government in England
is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for
the time, the stronger of the two. Before the Resolution the
king's ministers had begun to act as a united body ; but even
after the Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating,
and each individual minister was bound to the others only by
the tie of common service to the king. Under the Hanoverian
sovereigns the ministry became consolidated, the position of
the cabinet became definite, and its dependence on parliament,
and more particularly on the House of Commons, was established.
Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the other,
and they assumed complete responsibility tor every act done
in the name of the crown. The simplicity of English politics
has divided parliament into the representatives of two parties,
and the party in opposition hus lieen steadied by the conscious¬
ness that it, too, has constitutional functions of high importance,
because at any moment it may be called to provide a ministry.
Criticism is sobered by being made responsible. Along with
this movement went the withdrawal of the personal action of
the sovereign in politics. No king has attempted to veto a
bill since the Scottish Militia Bill was vetoed by Queen Anne.
No ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834.
Whatever the power of the sovereign may Ire, it is unquestionably
limited to his personal influence over his ministers. And it
must be remembered that since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers
have become, in practice, responsible ultimately, not to parlia¬
ment, but to the House of Commons. Apart, therefore, from
democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we find that the
House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the centre
of the government. Since the area of the constitution has been
enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions
of the government any longer apply. The earlier constitutional
writers, such as Blackstone and J. L. Delolme, regard it as a
wonderful compound of the three standard forms,—monarchy,
aristocracy and democracy. Each has its place, and each acts
as a check upon the others. Hume, discussing the question
“ Whether the British government inclines more to absolute
monarchy or to a republic,” decides in favour of the fotmer
alternative. “ The tide has run long and with some rapidity
to the side of popular government, and is just beginning to
turn toward monarchy.” And he gives it as his own opinion
that absolute monarchy would be the easiest death, the true
euthanasia of the 'British constitution. These views of the
English government in the 18th century may be contrasted
with Bagehot’s sketch of the modern government as a working
instrument. 1
1 See Ragehot's BngHsk Constitution-, or, tor a more reoent
analysis, Sidney Low's Governance of England.
49 $
■ Leading Features 0/ Parliamentary Government.—Tht parlia¬
mentary government developed by England out of feudal
materials has been deliberately accepted as the type of constitu¬
tional government all over tire world. Its leading features we
popular representation more or less extensive, a bicameral
legislature, and a cabinet or consolidated ministry. In connexion
with all of these, numberless questions of the highest practical
importance have arisen, the bare enumeration of which would
surpass the limits of our space. We shall confine ourselves to
a few very general considerations.
The Two Chambers. —First, as to the double chamber. This,
which is perhaps more accidental than any other portion of
the British system, has been the most widely imitated. In most
European countries, in the British colonies, in. the United
States Congress, and in the separate stutes of the Union, 4 there
are two houses of legislature. This result has been brought
about partly by natural imitation of the accepted type of free
government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber
will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first. But the
elements of the British original cannot be reproduced to order
under different conditions. There have, indeed, been a few
attempts to imitate the special character of hereditary nobility
attaching to the British House of Lords. In some countries,
where the feudal tradition is still strong (e.g. Prussia, Austria,
Hungary), the hereditary element in the upper chambers has
survived as truly representative of actual social and economic
relations. But where these social conditions do not obtain
(e.g. in France after the Revolution! the attempt to establish
an hereditary peerage on tire British model has always failed.
For the peculiar solidarity Iretween the British nobility and the
general mass of the people, the outcome of special conditions
and tendencies, is a result beyond the power of constitution-
makers to attain. The British system too, after its own way,
has for a long period worked without any serious collision
between the Houses,—the standing and obvious danger of the
bicameral system. The actual ministers of the day must possess
the confidence of the House of Commons; they need not- in fact
they often do not—possess the confidence of the House of Lords.
It is only in legislation that the Lower House really shares its
powers with the Upper ; and (apart from any such change in
the constitution as was suggested in 1907 by Sir H. Campbell-
Bannerman) the constitution possesses, in the unlimited power
of nominating peers, a well-understood last resource should
the House of lairds persist in refusing important measures
demanded by the representatives of the people. In the United
Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies
with the people (the electorate), and the House of Lords
recognizes the principle tluit it must accept a measure when the
popular will has been clearly expressed* In all but measures
of first-class importance, however, the House of Lords is a reel
second chamber, and in these there is little danger of a collision
between the Houses. There is the widest possible difference
lietween the British and any other second chamber. In the
United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal
representation of states) is the more important ol the two
Houses, and the only one whose control of the executive can be
compared to that exercised l>y the British House of Commons.
The real strength of popular government in England lies in
the ultimate supremacy of the House of Commons. That
supremacy had been acquired, perhaps to its full extent, before
the extension of the suffrage made the constituencies denuxxatic.
Foreign imitators, it may be observed, have been more ready,to
accept a wide basis of representation than to confer real power
on the representative body. In all the monarchical countries
of Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be,
the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won.
Where the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or'no
reason for guarding it against abuse. The independence of the
executive in the United States brings that country,:from one
1 For aa account of the double chamber system in the state legis¬
latures see United Statu: ConctiMcon and Government, and also
S. G. Fisher, The Evolution a/ the Conetitntian (Philadelphia, 4897).
296
GOVERNMENT
point of view, more near to the state system of the continent
of Europe than to that of the United Kingdom. The people
make a more complete surrender of power to the government
(State or Federal) than is done in England.
Cabinet Government.—The peculiar functions of the English
cabinet are not easily matched in any foreign system. They are
a mystery even to most educated Englishmen. The cabinet
(q.v.) is much more than a body consisting of chiefs of depart¬
ments. It is the inner council of the empire, the arbiter of
national policy, foreign or domestic, the sovereign in commission.
Tlie whole power of the House of Commons is concentrated in
its hands. At the same time, it has no place whatever in the
legal constitution. Its numbers and its constitution are not
fixed even by any rule of practice. It keeps no record of its
proceedings. The relations of an individual minister to the
cabinet, and of the cabinet to its head and creator, the premier,
are things known only to the initiated. With the doubtful
exception of France, no other system of government presents
us with anything like its equivalent. In the United States,
as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers
surrounding the chief of the state.
Change of Power in the English System. —One of the most
difficult problems of government is how to provide for the
devolution of political power, and perhaps no other question
is so generally and justly applied as the test of a working con¬
stitution. If the transmission works smoothly, the constitution,
whatever may be its other defects, may ut least be pronounced
stable. It would be tedious to enumerate all the contrivances
which this problem has- suggested to political societies. Here,
as usual, oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the scale.
When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law
of succession fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled
to succeed, assassination becomes almost a neressary measure
of precaution. The prince whom chance or intrigue has pro¬
moted to the throne of a father or an uncle must make himself
safe from his relatives and competitors. Hence the scenes
which shock the European conscience when “ Amurath an
Amurath succeeds." The strong monarchical governments
of Europe have been saved from this evil by an indisputable
law of succession, which marks out from his infancy the next
successor to the throne. The king names his ministers, and the
law names the king. In popular or constitutional governments
far more elaborate precautions are required. It is one of the real
merits of the English constitution that it has solved this problem
—in a roundabout way perhaps, after its fashion- but with per¬
fect success. The ostensible seat of power is the throne, and
down to a time not long distant the demise of the crown suspended
all the other powers of the state. In point of fact, however, the
real change of power occurs on a change of ministry. The con¬
stitutional practice of the 19th century settled, beyond the
reach of controversy, the occasions on which a ministry is bound
to retire. It must resign or dissolve when it is defeated 1 in the
House of Commons, and if after a dissolution it is beaten again,
it must resign without alternative. It may resign if it thinks its
majority in the House of Commons not sufficiently large. The
dormant functions of the crown now come into existence. It
receives back political power from the old ministry in order to
transmit it to the new. When the new ministry is to lie formed,
and how it is to be formed, is also clearly settled by established
practice. The outgoing premier names his successor by recom¬
mending the king to consult him ; and that successor must be
the recognized leader of his successful rivals. All this is a
matter of custom, not of law : and it is doubtful if any two
authorities could agree in describing the custom in language
of precision. In theory the monarch may send for any one
he.pleases, and charge him with the formation of a government;
but the ability to form a government restricts this liberty to
the recognized head of a party, subject to there being such an
individual. It is certain that the intervention of the crown
* A government " defeat '* may, of course, not really represent a
hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government
has Obtained a reversal of the vote and has not resigned.
facilitates the transfer of power from one party to another, by
giving it the appearance of a mere change of servants. The
real disturbance is that caused by the appeal to the electors.
A general election is always a struggle between the great political
parties for the possession of the powers of government. It
may be noted that modem practice goes far to establish the rule
that a ministry beaten at the hustings should resign at once
without waiting for a formal defeat in the House of Commons.
The English custom makes the ministry dependent on the will
of the House of Commons; and, on the other hand, the House
of Commons itself is dependent on the will of the ministry. In
the last result both depend on the will of the constituencies,
as expressed at the general election. There is no fixity in either
direction in the tenure of a ministry. It may be challenged at
any moment, and it lasts until it is challenged and beaten. And
that there should be a ministry and a House of Commons in
harmony with each other but out of harmony with the people is
rendered all but impossible by the law and the practice as to
the duration of parliaments.
Change of Power in the United Stales .—The United States
offers a very different solution of the problem. The American
president is at once king and prime minister; and there is no
titular superior to act as a conduit-pipe between him and his
successor. His crown is rigidly fixed ; he can be removed only
by the difficult method of impeachment. No hostile vote
on matters of legislation can affget his position. But the end of
his term is known from the first day of his government; and
almost before he begins to reign the political forces of the country
are shaping out a new struggle for the succession. Further, a
change of government in America means a considerable change
in the administrative staff (see Civil Service). The com¬
motion caused by a presidential election in the United States
is thus infinitely greater and more prolonged than that caused
by a general election in England. A change of power in England
affects comparatively few personal interests, and absorbs the
attention of the country for a comparatively short space of time.
In the United States it is long foreseen and elaborately prepared
for, and when it comes it involves the personal fortunes of large
numbers of citizens. And yet the British constitution is more
democratic than the American, in the sense that the popular
will can more speedily be brought to bear upon the government.
Change of Power in Prance .—The established practice of
England and America may be compared with the constitutional¬
ism of France. Here the problem presents different conditions.
The head of the state is neither a premier of the English, nor
a president of the American type. He is served by a prime
minister and a cabinet, who, like an English ministry, hold office
on the condition of parliamentary confidence; but he holds
office himself on the same terms, and is, in fact, a minister like
the others. So far as the transmission of power from cabinet
to cabinet is concerned, he discharges the functions of an English
king. But the transmission of power between himself and his
successor is protected by no constitutional devices whatever,
and experience would seem to show that no such devices are
really necessary. Other European countries professing con¬
stitutional government appear to follow the English practice.
The Swiss republic is so peculiarly situated that it is hardly fair to
compare it with any other. But it is interesting to note that,
while the rulers of the states are elected annually, the same
persons are generally re-elected.
The Relation between Government and Laws .—It might be
supposed that, if any general proposition could be established
about government, it would be one establishing some constant
relation between the form of a government and the character
of the laws which it enforces. The technical language of the
English school of jurists is certainly of a kind to encourage such
a supposition. The entire body of law in force in a country
at any moment is regarded as existing solely by the fiat of the
governing power. There is no maxim more entirely in the spirit
of this jurisprudence than the following:—“ The real legislator
is not he by whom the law was first ordained, but he by whose
will it continues to be law.” The whole of the vast repertory
GOVERNMENT
of rules which make up the law of England—the rules of practice
in the courts, the local customs of a county or a manor, the
principles formulated by the sagacity of generations of judges,
equally with the statutes for the year, are conceived of by the
school of Austin.as created by the will of the sovereign and the
two Houses of Parliament, or so much of them as would now
satisfy the definition of sovereignty. It would be out of place
to examine here the difficulties which embarrass this definition,
but the statement we have made carries on its face a demonstra¬
tion of its own falsity in fact. There is probably no government
in the world of which it could be said that it might change at
will the substantive laws of the country and still remain a
government. However well it may suit the purposes of analytical
jurisprudence to define a law as a command set by sovereign to
subject, we must not forget that this is only a definition, and that
the assumption it rests upon is, to the student of society, any¬
thing but a universal fact. From his point of view the cause of
a particular law is not one but many, and of the many the deliber¬
ate will of a legislator may not be one. Sir Henry Maine has
illustrated this point by the case of the great tax-gathering
empires of the east, in which the absolute master of millions
of men never dreams of making anything in the nature of a law
at all. This view is no doubt as strange to the English statesman
as to the English jurist. The most conspicuous work of govern¬
ment in his view is that of parliamentary legislation. For a
large portion of the sear the attention of the whole people is
bent on the operations of r body of men who are constantly
engaged in making new laws. It is natural, therefore, to think
of law as a factitious thing, made and unmade by the people
who happen for the time being to constitute parliament. It is
forgotten how small a proportion the laws actually devised by
parliament are of the law actually prevailing in the land. No
European country has undergone so mans changes in the form
of government as France. It is surprising how little effect these
political revolutions have had on the body of French law.
The change from empire to republic is not marked by greater
legislative effects than the change from a Conservative to a
Liberal ministry in England would be.
These reflections should muke us cautious in accepting any
general proposition about forms of government and the spirit
of their laws. We must rememlwr, also, that the classification
of governments according to the numerical proportion between
governors and governed supplies but a small liasis for generaliza¬
tion. What parallel can be drawn between a small town, in which
half the population are slaves, and every freeman has a direct
voice in the government, and a great modem state, in which
there is not a single slave, while freemen exercise their sovereign
powers at long intervals, and through the action of delegates
and representatives ? Propositions as vague as those of Montes¬
quieu may indeed be asserted with more or less plausibility.
But to take any leading head of positive law, and to say that
monarchies treat it in one way, aristocracies and democracies
in another, is a different matter.
II. Sphere of Government
The action of the state, or sovereign power, or government
in a civilized-community shapes itself into the threefold functions
of legislation, judicature and administration. The two first
are perfectly well-defined, and the last includes all the kinds
of state action not included in the other two. It is with reference
to legislation and administration that the line of permissible
state-action requires to be drawn. There is no doubt about the
province of the judicature, and that function of government
may therefore be dismissed with a very few observations.
The complete separation of the three functions marks a
high point of social organization. In simple societies the same
officers discharge all tire duties which we divide between the
legislator, the administrator and the judge. The acts them¬
selves are not consciously recognized as being of different kinds.
The evolution of aB the parts of a highly complex government
from one original is illustrated in a striking way by the history
of English institutions. All the conspicuous parts of the modem
89 ?
government, however little they may resemble each other now,
can be followed back without a break to their common ongin.
Parliament, tile cabinet, the privy council, the courts of law,
all carry us back to the same nidus in the council of the feudal
kiiw.
Judicature .—The business of judicature, requiring as it does
tiie possession of a high degree of technical skill and knowledge,
is generally entrusted by the sovereign body or people to a
separate and independent class of functionaries. In England
the appellate jurisdiction of the House of Lords still maintains
In theory the connexion between the supreme legislative and the
supreme judicial functions. In some states of the American Union
certain judicial functions of the up]>er house were fora time main¬
tained after the example of the English constitution as it existed
when the states were founded. In England there is also still
a considerable amount of judicial work in which the people takes
its share. The inferior magistracies, except in populous places,
are in the hands of private persons. And by the jury system
the ascertainment of fact has been committed in very large
measure to persons selected indiscriminately from the
of the people, subject to a small property qualification. But
the higher functions of the judicature are exercised by persons
whom the law has jealously fenced off from external interference
and control. The independence of the bench distinguishes the
English system from even- other. It was established Tn principle
as a barrier against monarchical power, and hence has become
one of the traditional ensigns of popular government In many
of the American states the spirit of democrarv has demanded
the subjection of the judiciary to popular control. The judges
are elected directly by the people, and hold office for a short
term, instead of being appointed, as in England, by the respons¬
ible executive, and removable only by a vote of the two Houses.
At the same time the constitution of the United States has
assigned to the supreme court of the Union a perfectly unique
position. The supreme court is the guardian of the constitution
(as are the state courts of the constitution of the states; see
United States), It has to judge whether a measure passed
by the legislative powers is not void by reason of being uncon¬
stitutional, and it may therefore have to veto the deliberate
resolutions of both Houses of Congress and the president. It
is admitted that this singular experiment in government has been
completely justified by its success.
Limits of State Interference in Legislation and Administration .—
The question of the limits of state action does not arise with
reference to the judiciary. The enforcement of the laws is a -
duty which the sovereign power must of absolute necessity
take upon itself. But to what conduct of the citizen* the laws
shall extend is the most perplexing of all political questions.
The correlative question with regard t*> the executive would
lie what works of public convenience should the state undertake
through its own servants. The whole question of the sphere
of government may be stated in these two questions: What
should the state do for its citizens ? and How far should the
state interfere with the action of its citizens ? These questions
are the direct outcome of modem popular government; they
are equally unknown to the small democracies of ancient times
and to despotic governments at all times. Accordingly ancient
political philosophy, rich as it is in all kinds of suggestions,
has very little to say that has any bearing on the sphere of
government. The conception that the power of the state can
be and ought to be limited belongs to the times of “ government
by discussion,” to use Bagehot's expression,—to the time when
the sovereign number is divided by class interests, and when
the action of the majority has to be carried out in the face of
strong minorities, capable of making themselves heard. Aristotle
does indeed dwell on one aspect of the question. He would
limit tiie action of the government in the sense of leaving as httie
as possible to the personal will of the governor*, whether one
or many. His maxim is that the law should reign. But that the
sphere of law itself should be restricted, otherwise than by
genera] principles of morality, is a consideration wholly foreign
to ancient philosophy. The state it conceived as acting like
xh. 10 a
2 9 8 GOVERNOR-
a jut man, and justice m the state is the same thing as justice
inthe.iadividual. The Greek institutions which the philosophers
are unanimous in commending are precisely those which the most
state-ridden nations of modern times would agree in repudiating.
The exhaustive discussion of all political measures, which for
over two centuries has been a fixed habit of English public life,
has of itself established the principle that there are assignable
limits to the action of the state. Not that the limits ever have
been assigned in terms, but popular sentiment has more or
less vaguely fenced off departments of conduct as sacred from
the interference of the law. Phrases like “ the liberty of the
subject,” the “ sanctity of private property,” “ an Englishman’s
house is his castle,” “ the rights of conscience,” are the common¬
places of political discussion, and tell the state, “ Thus far shalt
thou go and no further.”
The two contrasting policies are those of laissez-faire (let
alone) and Protection, or individualism and state-socialism,
the one a policy of non-interference with the free play of social
forces, the other of their regulation for the benefit of the com¬
munity. The laissez-faire theory was prominently upheld by
John Stuart Mill, whose essay on Liberty, together with the
concluding chapters of his treatise on Political Economy, gives
a tolerably complete view of the principles of government.
There is a general presumption against the interference of govern¬
ment, which is only to be overcome by very strong evidence
of necessity. Governmental action is generally less effective
than voluntary action. The necessary duties of government
are so burdensome, that to increase them destroys its cfiiciency.
Its powers are already so great that individual freedom is
constantly in danger. As a general rule, nothing which can be
done by the voluntary agency of individuals should be left to
the state. Each man is the best judge of his own interests.
But, on the other hand, when the thing itself is admitted to
be usefnl or necessary, and it cannot be effected by voluntary
agency, or when it is of such a nature that the consumer cannot
be considered cupahle of judging of the quality supplied, then
Mill would allow the state to interpose. Thus the education
of children, and even of adults, would fairly come within the
province of the stale. Mill even goes so far us to admit that,
where a restriction of the hours of labour, or the establishment
of a periodical holiday, is proved to be beneficial to labourers
as a class, but cannot be carried out voluntarily on account of
the refusal of individuals to co-o|ierate, government may justifi¬
ably compel them to co-operate. Still further, Mill would desire
to see some control exercised by the government over the opera¬
tions of those voluntary associations which, consisting of large
numbers of shareholders, necessarily leave their affairs in the
hands of one or a few persons. In short, Mill's general rule
against state action admits of many important exceptions,
founded on no principle less vague than that of public expediency.
The essay on Liberty is mainly concerned with freedom of
individual character,and its arguments applv to control exercised,
not only by the state, but by society in the form of public opinion.
The leading principle is that of Humboldt. “ the absolute and
essential importance of human development in its riehest
diversity.” Humboldt broadly excluded education, religion
and morals from the action, direct and indirect, of the state.
Mill, as we have seen, conceives education to he within the pro¬
vince of the state, but he would confine its action to compelling
parents to educate their children.
The most thoroughgoing opponent of state action, however,
is Herbert Spencer. In his Social Statics, published in 1850,
he holds it to be the essential duty of government to protect —
to maintain men’s rights to life, to personal liberty and to
property ; and the theory that the government ought to under¬
take other offices besides that of protector he regards as an
untenable theory. Each man has a right to the fullest exercise
of all his faculties, compatible with the same right in others.
This is the fundamental law of equal freedom, which it is the
duty and the onlv duty of the state to enforce. If the state
goes beyond this duty, it becomes, not a protector, but an
aggressor. Thus all state regulations of commerce, all religious
—GOWER, J.
establishments, all government relief of the poor, all state
systems of education and of sanitary superintendence, even
tile state currency and the post-office, stud condemned, not
only as ineffective for their respective purposes, but as involving
violations of man's natural liberty.
The tendency of modern legislation is more a question of
political practice than of political theory. In some cases state
interference has been abolished or greatly limited. These cases
are mainly two—in matters of opinion (especially religious
opinion), and in matters of contract.
The mere enumeration of the individual instances would occupy a
formidable amount of space. The reader is referred to such articles
as England, Church or ; Establishment ; Marriage ; Oath ;
Roman Catholic Church, & c., and Company ; Contract ;
Partnership, &c. In other cases the state has interfered for the
protection and assistance of definite classes of persons. For example,
the education and protection of children (see Children, Law Re¬
lating to ; Education ; Technical Education) ; the regulation
of factory labour and dangerous employment (see Labour Legisla¬
tion) ; improved conditions of health (see Adulteration ; Hous¬
ing ; Public Health, Law of, Ac.); coercion for moral purposes
(see Bet and Betting ; Criminal Law; Gaming and Wagering ;
Liquor Laws ; Lotteries, &c.). Under numerous other headings
in this work the evolution of existing forms of government is dis¬
cussed ; see also the bibliographical note to the article Constitution
and Constitutional Law.
GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, 0. Fr.
governor, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in
general, one who governs or exercises authority’; specifically,
an official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &c.
In British colonies or dependencies the representative of the
crown is termed a governor. Colonial governors are classed
as governors-general, governors and lieutenant-governors,
according to the status of the colony or group of colonies over
which they preside. Their powers vary according to the position
which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority
of the crown. In the United States (q.v.) the official at the
head of every state government is called a governor.
GOW, NIEL (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parent¬
age, famous as a violinist and player of reels, but more so for
the part he played in preserving the old melodies of Scotland.
His compositions, and those of his four sons, Nathaniel, the
most famous (1763-1831), William (1751-1791), Andrew (1760-
1803), and John (1764-1826), formed the “ Gow Collection,”
comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his sons, a,
valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most im¬
portant of Niel’s sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as
the author of the well-known “ Caller Herrin,” taken from the
fishwives’ cry, a tune to which words were afterwards written
by Lady Nairne. Nathaniel’s son, Niel Gow junior (1795-1823),
was the author of the famous songs “ Flora Macdonald's Lament ”
and “ Cam’ ye bv Athol.”
GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced
age in 1408, so that he may be presumed to have been bom
about 1330. He tielonged to a good Kentish family, but the
suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the poet is to he identified
with a John Gower who was at one time possessed of the manor
of Kentwcll is open to serious objections. There is no evidence
that he ever lived as a country gentleman, but he was undoubtedly
possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner
of the manors of Feltwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk.
In a document of 1382 he is called an “ l'squier de Kent,” and
he was certainly not in holy orders. That he was acquainted
with Chaucer we know, first because Chaucer in leaving England
for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and another to represent
him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer addressed his
Trailus and Criseide to Gower and Strode (whom he addresses
as " moral Gower ” and “ philosophical Strode ") for criticism
and correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition
of Gower’s Confessio amantis, “ And gret wel Chaucer whan ye
mete,” &c. There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion,
based partly on the subsequent omission of these lines and
partly on the humorous reference of Chaucer to Gower’s Confessio
' amantis in the introduction to the Mm of Law's Tale, that the
friendship was broken by a quarrel. From his Latin poem
GOWER
Vox clamantis we know that he was deeply and painfully
interested in the peasants’ rising of 1381; and by the alterations
which the author made in successive revisions of this work
we can trace a gradually increasing sense of disappointment in
the youthful king, whom he at first acquits of all responsibility
for the state of the kingdom on account of his tender age. That
he became personally known to the king we learn from his
own statement in the first edition of the Confessio a mantis,
where he says that he met the king upon the river, was invited
to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which followed
received the suggestion which led him to write his principal
English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the
later revisions of the Confessio amantis, that he was a great
admirer of the king’s brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster,
afterwards Henry IV., whom he came eventually to regard as a
possible saviour of society from the misgovernmentof Richard II.
We have a record that in 1303 he received a collar from his
favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that the
effigy upon Gower’s tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the
swan badge which was used hv Henry.
The first edition of the Confessio amantis is dated 1300, and
this contains, at least in some copies, a secondary dedication
to the then earl of Derby. The later form, in which Henry
became the sole object of the dedication, is of the year 1303.
Gower’s political opinions are still more strongly expressed in
the Cronica tripartita.
In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the
special licence granted by the bishop of Winchester for the
celebration of this marriage in John Gower's private oratory
we gather that he. was then living in lodgings assigned to him
within the priory of St Mary Ovorv, and perhaps also that he
was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is probable
that this was not his first marriage, for there arc indications
in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when
that was written. His will is dated the 15th of August 1408,
and his death took place very soon after this. He had l>een
blind for some years I adore his death. A magnificent tomb
with a recumbent efiigy was erected over his grave in the chapel
of St John the Baptist within the church ol the priory, now
St Saviour's, Southwark, and this is still to lie seen, though not
quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on the
tomb, as well as from other indications, it appears that he was a
considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely
to the rebuilding of the church.
The effigy on Gower's tomb rests its head upon a pile of three
folio volumes entitled Speculum medilanhs, Vox clamanlts
and Confessio amantis. These are his three principal works.
The first of these was long supposed to have perished, but a copy
of it was discovered in the year 1895 under the title Mirour
del'omme. It is a French poem of about 30,000 lines in twelve-
line stanzas, and under the form of an allegory of the human soul
describes the seven deadly sins and their opposing virtues, and
then the various estates of man and the vices incident to each,
concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin Mary, and
with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God
and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part,
but shows considerable command over the language and a great
facility in metrical expression.
Gower’s next work was the Vox clamantis in Latin elegiac
verse, in which the author takes occasion from the peasants’
insurrection of 1381 to deal again with the faults of the various
classes of society. In the earlier portion the insurrection itself
is described in a rather vivid manner, though under the form
of an allegory : the remainder contains much the same material
as we have already seen in that part of the French poem where
the classes of society are described. Gower’s Latin verse is
very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book
he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam,
Peter de Riga and others.
Gower’s chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests
upon his English work, the Confessio amantis, in which lie
displays in his native language a real gift as a story-teller. He
299
is himself the lover of hie poem, in spite of his advancing yean,
and he makes his confession to Genius, the priest of Venus,
under the usual headings supplied by the eeven deadly sins.
These with their several branches are successively described,
and the nature of them illustrated by tales, which are directed
to the illustration both of the general nature of the sin, and of the
particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he receives
at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of
Venus, for which his age renders him unfit. The idea is ingenious,
and there is often much quaintness of fancy in the application
of moral ideas to the relations of the lover and his mistress.
The tales are drawn from very various sources and are often
extremely well told. The metre is the short couplet, and it is
extremely smooth and regular. The great fault of-the Confessio
amantis is the extent af its digressions, especially in the fifth
and seventh books.
Gower also wrote in 1397 a short series of French ballades
on the virtue of the married state (Traitii pour essampler Us
amantis maries), and after the accession of Henry IV. he produced
the Cronica tripartita, a partisan account in Latin leonine
hexameters of the events of the last twelve years of the reign
of Richard II. About the same time he addressed an English
poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (In Praise of Peace),
and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades (Cinkanle
Balades), which deal with the conventional topics of love, but
are often graceful and even poetical in expression. Several
occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his
life.
On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had consider¬
able literary powers; and though not a man of genius, and by
no means to be compared witli Chaucer, yet he did good service
in helping to establish the stundard literary language, which at
the end of the 14th century took the place of the Middle English
dialects. The Confessio umantrs was long regarded as a classic
of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were often mentioned
side by side as the fathers of English poetry.
A complete edition of Gower's workB in four volumes, edited by
G. C. Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume con¬
taining the French works, the second and third the English, and the
fourth the I-atin, with a biography. Before this the Confessio
amantis had been published in the following editions: Caxton (1,183);
Berthelette (1532 and 1534): Chalmers, British Posts (1810); Rein¬
hold Pauli (1857); H. Morley (’889, incomplete). The two series
of French ballades and the Praise of Peace were printed for the
Koxburghe Club in 1818, and the Vox clamantis and Cronica
tripartita were edited by H. O. Coxe for the Roxburghe Club in
1830. The Cronica tripartita, the Praise of Peace and some of the ,
minor Latin poems were printed in Wright's Political Poems (Rolls
series, 14). The Praise of Peace appeared in the early folio editions
of Chaucer, and lias been edited also by Dr Skeat in his Chaucerian
and other Pieces. Reference may be made to Todd's Illustrations of
the Lives and Writings of Cower and Chanter ; the article (by Sir
H. Nicolas) in the Retrospective Review for 1828 ; Observations on the
Language of Chaucer and Cower, by F. J, Child ; H. Motley's English
Writers, iv.; Ten Brink's History of Early English Literature, ii.; and
Courthojie's History of English Poetry, i. (G. C. M.)
GOWER, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan,
lying between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between
Breconshire and the sea, its length from the Breconshire border
to Worm's Head being 28 m., and its breadth about 8 m. It
corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower (in Welsh Cwyr)
which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other commotes
stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the
principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the
country to the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by
its continued inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural
deaneries, West and East Gower, being in the archdeaconry
of Carmarthen. What is meant by Gower in modem popular
usage, however, is only the peninsular part or “ English Gower "
(that is the Welsh Bro-wyr, as distinct from Gteyr proper),
roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying
mainly to the south ofa line drawn from Swansea to Loughor.
The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their
immense deposits of animal remains, hut their traces of man are
far scantier, those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave
GOWER
l^in g ^ znost important. In the Roman period the river Tawe,
or fh» great morass between it and the Neath, probably formed
the boundary between the Silures and the Goidelic population
to the west. Tlie latter, reinforced perhaps from Ireland,
continued to be the dominant race in Gower till their conquest
or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of Cunedda
wlio introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries
later Scandinavian rovers raided the waists, leaving traces of
their more or less temporary occupation in such place-names
as Burry Holms, Worms Head and Swansea, and probably
also in some cliff earthworks. About the year 1100 the conquest
of Gower was undertaken by Henry de Newburgh, first earl of
Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de Londres and others.
His followers, who wen mostly Englishmen from the marches
and Somersetshire witli perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled
for the most part on (he southern side of the peninsula, leaving
the Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically
undisturbed. These invaders were probably reinforced a little
later by a small detachment of the larger colony of Flemings
which settled in south Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which
in some cases developed into castles, were built for the protection
of the various manors into which the district was parcelled out,
the castles of Swansea and Loughor being ascribed to the carl
of Warwick and that of OystermoutU to Maurice de Londres.
These, were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during
the 12th and 13th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in
ut3, by his son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting
in concert with Llewelyn the Great in 1 = 15, ami by the last
Prince Llewelyn in 1257. With the Norman conquest the feudal
system was introduced, and the manors were held in cafnle
of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard ol the castle of Swansea,
the ai/<u/ baroiuac.
About 1189 tlie lordship passed from the Warwick family
to the crown and was granted in 1203 by King John to William
de Iiraose, ill whose family it remained for over 120 years except
for three short intervals when it was held for a second time by
King John (1211-1:15), by Llewelyn the Great (1216-1223),
and the Dc.pensers (r. 1323-13261. Ill 120S the Welsh and
English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of
their treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from
King John, who also visiwl the town of Swansea in 1210 and
in 1215 granted its merchants liberal privileges. In 1283
a number of de Braose’s tenants—unquestionably Welshmen -
left Gower for the royal lordship of Carmarthen, declaring that
they would live under the king rather than under a lord marcher.
In the following year the king visited de Braose at Oystermouth
Castle, w hicli seems to have been made the lord’s chief residence,
after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn, latter
on the king’s officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen
repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavour¬
ing to reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with
semi-regal jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent of
the new county. De Iiraose resisted the claim and organized the
English part of his lordship on the lines of a county palatine,
with its own rmnitatus and chancery held in Swansea Castle,
the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by himself. The
inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown against
their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king,
who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into
their alleged grievances, but in the following year the de Braose
of the time, probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both
to the burgesses of Swansea and to the English and Welsh
inhabitants of his “ county ” of English Gower. He was the
last lord seignior to live within tlie seigniory, which passed from
him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray. Other troubles befell
the de Braose barons and their successors in title, for their right
to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps, representa¬
tives of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation
carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beauchamps
lieing actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was
given in their favour, till its reversal in 1396. It then reverted
to die Mowbrtys and was held by them until the 4th duke of
Norfolk exchanged it in Z4S9, for lands in England, with William
Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The latter's granddaughter brought
it to her husband Charles Somerset, who in 1506 was granted
her father’s subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow, Raglan and
Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present
lord, the duke of Beaufort.
Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by
its inclusion in 1535 in tlie county of Glamorgan as then re¬
organized ; its chancery, which from about the beginning of
the 14th century had been located at Oystermouth Castle, came
to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535 and 1543 purported
to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords marchers as
conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded as
private rights, have survived into modem tiroes. For instance,
the seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till
1858, when it was abolished by act of parliament, the appoint¬
ment of coroner for Gower is still vested in him, all writs ore
executed by the lord's officers instead of by the officers of the
sheriff for the county, and the lord’s rights to the foreshore,
treasure trove, felon’s goods and wrecks are undiminished.
The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south
and south-west of its central ndge of Cefn y Bryn. It was Uiis
part that was declared by Professor Freeman to be “ more Teu¬
tonic than Kent itself." The seaside fringe lying between this
area and the town of Swansea, as well as tlie extreme north-west
of the peninsula, also became anglicized at a comparatively
early date, though the place-names und the names of tlie in¬
habitants are still mainly Welsh. The present line of demarca¬
tion between the two languages is one drawn from Swansea
in a W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It
has remained practically the same for several centuries, and is
likely to continue so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern
outcrop of tlie coal measures, the industrial population to
the north being Welsh-speaking, the agriculturists to the south
being English. In 1901 the Gower rural district (which includes
the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of Llanrhidian, with about
three-sevenths of the total population) had 64'S % of the popula¬
tion above three years of age that spoke English only, ys %
that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as com¬
pared with 17 % speaking English only, 17-7 speaking Welsh only
and the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7 %
speaking English only, 55-2 speaking Welsh only and the rest
bilinguals in the Ponturdawe rural district, the last two districts
constituting Welsh Gower.
More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed
common land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is
apparently capuble of cultivation. Besides the demesne munors
of the lord seignior, six in number, there are some twelve mesne
manors and fees belonging to the Penrice estate, and nearly
twenty more belonging to various other owners. The tenure is
customary freehold, though in some cases described as copyhold,
and in tlie ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is by
borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller
in size titan in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales,
and agriculture is still in a backward state.
In tlie Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of
Goire as the islund home of the dead, a view which probably
sprang up among the Celts ol Cornwall, to whom the peninsula
would appear as an island. It is also surmised by Sir John Rhys
thut Malory’s Brandegore (»'.«. Bran of Gower) represents the
Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, Arthurian legend, 160,
329 et seq.). On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula,
is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur’s Stone.
The unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty
by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower
was a favourite burial-place in early British times.
See Rev. J. D. Davies, A History of West Gower (4 volt., 1877-
1894); Col. W. Ll-Morgan, An AnUouanan Survey of Eos'. Gower
(1899); an article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled
" Anglia Trans-Walliana •’ in the Saturday Review for May 20,
1876; "The Signory of Gower" by G. T. Clark in Archaeolotia
Camhrensis for 1893-1894 ; The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey, ed. by
Baker and Gmat-Francis (1861-1870). (D. Ix. T.)
GOWN—GOWRIE, EARL OF
GOWN, properly the term far a loose outer garment formerly
worn by either sex but now generally for that worn by women.
While “ dress ” is the usual English word, except in such com¬
binations as “ tea-gown,” “ dressing-gown ” and the like, where
the original loose flowing nature of the “ gown ” is referred to,
“ gown ” is the common American word. “ Gown ” comes from
the 0 . hr. gaunt or gtmne. The word appears in various Romanic
languages, cf. Ital. gonna. The medieval Lat. gunna is used of
a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually
adopted, but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from
the English. Outside the ordinary use of the word, “ gown ”
is the name for the distinctive robes worn by holders of particular
offices or by members of particular professions or of universities,
&c. (see Robes).
GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN, 3RD Earl of ( c . 1577-1600),
Scottish conspirator, was the second son of William, 4th Lord
Ruthven and 1st earl of Cowrie (cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea,
daughter of Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord Mcthven. The Ruthven
family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had owned extensive
estates in the time of William the Lion ; the Ruthven peerage
dated from the year 148S. The 1st earl of Cowrie (? 1541-j 584),
and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (c. 1^20-1^66), had
both been concerned in the murder of Rizzio in 1566; and
both took an active part on the side of the Kirk in the constant
intrigues and factions among the Scottish nobility of the period.
The former had been the custodian of Mary, queen of Scots,
during her imprisonment in Loch Levon, where, according to
the queen, lie had pestered her with amorous attentions ; he
had also been the chief uctor in the plot known as the “• raid of
RuLhven ’ when King James VI. was treacherously seized
while a guest at the castle of Ruthven in 1582, and kept under
restraint for several months while the earl remained at the head
of the government. Though pardoned for this conspiracy fie
continued to plot against the king in conjunction with the earls
of Mar and Angus, and he was executed for high treason on
the 2nd of May 1584 ; his friends complaining that the confession
on which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise
of pardon from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of
Gowric, only survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates,
which had been forfeited, having been restored to him in 1586.
When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom
while still a child, he inherited along with his vast estates family
traditions of treason and intrigue. There was also a popular
belief, though without foundation, that there was Tudor blood
in his veins; and Burnet afterwards asserted that Gowrie
stood next in succession to the crown of England after King
James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him, the
young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming
preachers, who procured his election in 1592 as provost of
Perth, a post that was almost hereditary in the Ruthven family.
He received an excellent education at the grammar school of
Perth and the university of Edinburgh, where he was in the
summer of 1593, about the time when his mother, and his sister
the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing himself sword
in hand into the king’s bedchamber in Holyrnod Palace. A
few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in
offering to serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile
to the Scottish king ; and it is probable that he had also relations
with the rebellious Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already
deeply engaged in treasonable conspiracy when, in August
1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor, William Rhynd, to
study at the university of Padua. On his way home m 1599
he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer
Theodore Beza ; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the
English ambassador, who reported him to Cecil as devoted to
Elizabeth’s service, and a nobleman “ of whom there may be
exceeding use made.” In Paris he may also at this time have
had further communication with the exiled Bothwell; in London
he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her
ministers.
These circumstances owe their importance to the light they
throw on the obscurity of the celebrated “ Gowrie conspiracy,”
30 !
which resulted in the slaughter of the earl and his brother by
attendants of King James at Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks
after Gowrie’s return to Scotland in May 1600. This jj,
event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history. Ouwm
The mystery is caused by the improliabilities inherent m
any of the alternative hypotheses suggested to account *&***•
for the unquestionable facts of the occurrence ; the discrepancies
in the evidence produced at the time ; the apparent lack of
forethought or plan on the part of the chief actors, whichever
hypothesis he adopted, as well us the thoughtless folly of their
actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive, whoever
the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery
that have been suggested are three in number: first, that
Gowrie and his brother had concocted n plot to murder, or
more probably to kidnap King James, and that they lured him
to Gowrie House for this purpose ; secondly, that James paid
a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the intention) which he
carried out, of slaughtering the two Rothvens; and thirdly,
that the tragedy was the outcome of on unpremeditated brawl
following high words between the king mid the earl, or his
brother. To understand the relative probabilities of these
hypotheses regard must lie had to the condition of Scotland in
the year 1600 (see Scotland: Hisiorv). Here it can only be
recalled that plots to rapture the person of the sovereign for the
purpose of coercing his actions were of frequent occurrence,
more than one of which had been successful, and in several of
which the Ruthven family had themselves taken nn active
part: that the relations between England and Scotland were
at this time more than usually strained, and that the young
earl of Gowrie was reckoned in London among the adherents
of Elizabeth; that the Kirk party, being at \nrinnce with
James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of their
cause, and had recently sent an agent to Barts to recall him
to Scotland as their leader; that. Gowrie was believed to be
James’s rival for the succession to the English crown. Moreover,
as regurds the question of motive it is to lie obsened, on the
one hand, that the Ruthvens believed Gowrie’s father to have
lieen treacherously done to death, and his widow insulted by
the king’s favourite minister; while, on the other, James was
indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of Cowrie’s estate,
and popular gossip credited either Gowric or his brother, Alex¬
ander Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although
the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance
connected with the tragedy itself, has been exliaustivelv examined
by historians of the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted .
that the mystery has been entirely dispelled ; but, while it is
improbable that complete certainty will ever be arrived at as
to whether the guilt lay with James or with the Ruthven brothers,
the most modern research in the light of materials inaccessible
or overlooked till the 20th century, points pretty clearly to the
conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and
his brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution,
it follows that King James was innocent of the blood of the
Ruthvens ; and it raises the presumption that his own account
of the occurrence was, in spite of the glaring improbabilities
which it involved, substantially true.
The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in
outline, as follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose
early to hunt in the neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about
14 m. from Perth. Just as he was setting forth in company
with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir Thomas Erskine
and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known
as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of
Gowrie, who had ridden from Perth that morning to inform
the king that he had met on the previous day a man in posses¬
sion of a pitcher full of foreign gold coins, whom he had secretly
locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven urged the king
to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to take
possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave
credit to the story, suspecting that the possessor of tha coins
was one of the numerous Catholic agents at that time moving
about Scotland in disguise. Without giving a positive reply to
GOWRIE
302
Alexander Ruthven, James started to hunt; but later in the
morning he called Ruthven to him and said he would ride to
Perth when the bunting was over. Ruthven then despatched a
servant, Henderson, by whom he had teen accompanied from
Perth in the early morning, to tell Cowrie that the king was com¬
ing to Cowrie House. This messenger gave the information to
Gowrie about ten o’clock in the morning. Meanwhile Alexander
Ruthven was urging the king to lose no time, requesting him
to keep the matter secret from his courtiers, and to bring to
Gowrie House as small a retinue as possible. James, with a
train of some fifteen persons, arrived at Gowrie House about
one o’clock, Alexander Ruthven having spurred forward for
a mile or so to announce the king’s approach. But not withstand¬
ing Henderson’s warning some three hours earlier, Gowrie had
made no preparations for the king's entertainment, thus giving
the impression of having teen taken Ivy surprise. After a
meagre repast, for which he was kept waiting an hour, James,
forbidding his retainers to follow him, went with Alexander
Ruthven up the main staircase and passed through two chambers
and two door., both of which Ruthven locked behind them,
into a turret-room at the angle of the house, with windows
looking on the courtyard and the street. Here James expected
to find the mysterious prisoner with the foreign gold. He found
instead an armed man, who, as appeared later, was none other
than Cowrie's servant, Henderson. Alexander Ruthven immedi¬
ately put on his hat, and drawing Henderson’s dagger, presented
it to the king’s breast with threats of instant death if James
opened a window or called for help. An allusion by Ruthven
to the execution of his father, the ist earl of Gowrie, drew
from James a reproof of Ruthven’s ingratitude for various
benefits conferred on his family. Ruthven then uncovered his
head, declaring that James's life should be safe if he remained
quiet ; then, committing the king to the custody of Henderson,
he left the turret—ostensibly to consult Gowrie—and locked the
door behind him. While Ruthven was absent the king questioned
Henderson, who professed ignorance of any plot and of the
purpose for which lie hud been placed in the turret ; he also
at James's request opened one of the windows, and was about
to open the other when Ruthven returned. Whether or not
Alexander had seen his brother is uncertain. But Gowrie had
meantime spread the report telow that the king had taken horse
and had ridden away ; and the royal retinue were seeking
their horses to follow him. Alexander, on re-entering the turret,
attempted to bind James’s hands ; a struggle ensued, in the
course of which the king was seen at the window by some of his
followers below in the street, who also heard him cry “ treason ”
and call for help to the earl of Mar. Cowrie affected not to hear
these cries, but kept asking what was the matter. Lennox,
Mur and most of the other lords and gentlemen ran up the main
Tllt staircase to the king’s help, but were stopped by the
tlauthtar locked door, which they spent some time in trying
tlthm to batter down. John Ramsay (afterwards earl of
Rutbmi. HnldemcsM'), noticing a small dark stairway leading
directly to the inner chamber adjoining the turret, ran up it
and found the king struggling at grips with Ruthven. Drawing
his dagger, Ramsay wounded Ruthven, who was then pushed
down the stairway by the king. Sir Thomas Erskine, sum¬
moned by Ramsay, now followed up the small stairs with Dr
Hugh Herries, and these two coming upon the wounded Ruthven
despatched him with their swords. Gowrie, entering the court¬
yard with his stabler Thomas Cranstoun and seeing his brother’s
body, rushed up the staircase after Erskine and Herries, followed
by Cranstoun and others of his retainers ; and in the mete-
Gowrie was killed. Some commotion was caused in the town by
the noise of these proceedings ; but it quickly subsided, though
the king did not deem it safe to return to Falkland for some
hours.
The tragedy caused intense excitement throughout Scotland,
and the investigation of the circumstances was followed with
much interest in England also, where all the details were reported
to Elisabeth's ministers. The preachers of the Kirk, whose
influence in Scotland was too extensive for the king to neglect,
were only with the greatest difficulty persuaded to accept
James’s account of the occurrence, although he voluntarily
submitted himself to cross-examination by one of their number.
Their belief, and that of their partisans, influenced no doubt
by political hostility to James, was that the king had invented
the story of a conspiracy by Gowrie to cover his own design
to extirpate the Ruthven family. James gave some colour to
this belief, which has not been entirely abandoned, by the relent¬
less severity' with which he pursued the two younger, and
unquestionably innocent, brothers of the earl. Great efforts
were made by the government to prove the complicity of others
in the plot. One noted and dissolute conspirator, Sir Robert
Logan of Restalrig, was posthumously convicted of having been
privy to the Gowrie conspiracy on the evidence of certain letters
produced by a notary, George Sprot, who swore they had been
written by Logan to Gowrie and others. These letters, which
are still in existence, were in fact forged by Sprot in imitation
of Logan’s handwriting; but the researches of Andrew Lang
have shown cause for suspecting that the most im¬
portant of them was either copied by Sprot from a
genuine original by Logan, or that it embodied the
substance of such a letter. If this be correct, it would
appear that the conveyance of the king to Fast Castle, Logan’s
impregnable fortress on the coast of Berwickshire, was part
of the plot; and it supplies, at all events, an additional
piece of evidence to prove the genuineness of the Gowrie
conspiracy.
Gowrie’s two younger brothers, William and Patrick Ruthven,
fled to England ; and after the accession of James to the English
throne William escaped abroad, but Patrick was taken and
imprisoned for nineteen years in the Tower of London. Released
in 1622, Patrick Ruthven resided first at Cambridge and after-
wgids in Somersetshire, being granted a small pension by the
crown. He married Elizabeth Woodford, widow of the ist
Lord Gerrard, by whom he had two sons and a daughter, Mary ;
the latter entered the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, and
married the famous painter van Dyck, who painted several
portraits of her. Patrick died in poverty in a cell in the King’s
Bench in 1652, being buried as “ Lord Ruthven.” His son,
Patrick, presented a petition to Oliver Cromwell in 1656, in
which, after reciting that the parliament of Scotland in T641
had restored his father to the barony of Ruthven, he prayed
that his “ extreme poverty ” might be relieved by the bounty
of the Protector.
See Andrew Lang, James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery (London,
1902), and the authorities there cited; Robert Pitcairn, Criminal
2 rials in Scotland (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1833); David Moysie, Memoirs
0/ the Affairs 0/ Siotland , iS77~cOo_j (Edinburgh, 1830); Louis A.
BarbA The Tragedy of Gowrie House (I.ondon, 1887) ; Andrew
Bisset, Essays on Historiial Truth (tendon, 1871) ; David Caldei-
wood, History of the Kirk of Scotland (8 vois , Edinburgh, 1842
1840); I’. F. Tytler, History of Scotland (9 vols., Edinburgh, 1848-
1843) ; John Hill Burton, History of Scotland (7 vols., Edinburgh,
1807-1870). W. A. Craigic has edited as Skotlands Rimur some
Icelandic ballads relating to the Gowrie conspiracy. He has also
printed the Danish translation of the official account of the con¬
spiracy, which was published at Copenhagen in 1601. (R. J. M.)
GOWRIE, a belt of fertile alluvial laud (Scatter, “ carse ”)
of Perthshire, Scotland. Occupying the northern shore of the
Firth of Tay, it has a generally north-easterly trend and extends
from the eastern boundaries of Perth city to the confines of
Dundee. It measures 15 m. in length, its breadth from the river
towards the base of the Sidlaw Hills varying from 2 to 4 m.
Probably it is a raised teach, submerged until a comparatively
recent period. Although it contained much bog land and stagnant
water as late as the 18th century, it has since been drained and
cultivated, and is now one of the most productive tracts in
Perthshire. The district is noteworthy for the number of its
castles and mansions, almost wholly residential, among which
may be mentioned Kinfauns Castle, Inchyra House, Pitfour
Castle, Errol Park, Megginch Castle, dating from 1575 ; Fingask
Castle, Kinnaird Castle, erected in the 1 jth century and occupied
by James VI. in 1617 ; Rossie Priory, the seat of Lord Kinnaird ;
and Huntly Castle, built by the 3rd earl of Kinghome.
GOYA—GOYAZ
GOT A, & river town and port of Gorrientes, Argentine Republic,
the commercial centre of the south-western departments of the
province and chief town of a department of the same name,
on a riaeho or side channel of the Parani about 5 m. from the
main channel and about no m. S. of the city of Corrientes.
Pop. (1905, est.) 7000. The town is built on low ground which
is subject to inundations in very wet weather, but its streets
are broad and the general appearance of its edifices is good.
Among its public buildings is a handsome parish church and a
national normal school. The productions of the neighbourhood
are chiefly pastoral, and its exports include cattle, hides, wool and
oranges. Goya had an export of crudely-made cheese long before
the modern cheese factories of the Argentine Republic came into
existence. The place dates from 1807, and had its origin, it is
said, in the trade established there by a ship captain and his
wife Gregoria or Goya, who supplied passing vessels with beef.
GOYANNA, or Goiana, a city of Brazil in the N.E. angle of
the state of Pernambuco, about 65 m. N. of the city of Pernam¬
buco. Pop. (1890) 15,436. It is built on a fertile plain between
the rivers Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim near their junction
to form the Goyanna river, and is 15 m. from the coast. It is
surrounded by, and is the commercial centre for, one of the
richest agricultural districts of the state, which produces sugar,
rum, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cattle, hides and castor oil. The
Goyanna river is navigable for small vessels nearly up to the
city, but its entrance is partly obstructed and difficult. Goyanna
is one of the oldest towns of the state, and was occupied by the
Dutch from 1636 to 1654. It has several old-style churches,
an orphans’ asylum, hospital and some small industries,
GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO (1746-1828), Spanish
painter, was bom in 1746 at Fuendetodos, a small Aragonese
village near Saragossa. At an early age he commenced his
artistic career under the direction of Jos6 Luzan Martinez, who
fiad studied painting at Naples under Mastroleo. It is dear that
the accuracy in drawing Luzan is said to have acquired by
diligent study of the' liest Italian masters did not much influence
his erratic pupil. Goya, a true son of his province, was bold,
capricious, headstrong and obstinate. He took a prominent
part on more tliun one occasion in those rival religious processions
at Saragossa which often ended in unseemly frays; and his
friends were led in consequence to despatch him in his nineteenth
year to Madrid, where, prior to his departure for Rome, his mode
of life appears to have been anything but that of a quiet orderly
citizen. Being a good musician, and gifted with a voice, he
sallied forth nightly, serenading the caged beauties of the capital,
with whom he seems to have lx-en a very general favourite.
Lacking the necessary royal patronage, and probably scandaliz¬
ing hv his mode of life the sedate court, officials, he did not receive
—perhaps did not seek- the usual honorarium accorded to those
students who visited Rome for the purpose of study. Finding
it convenient to retire for a time from Madrid, he decided to
visit Rome at his own cost; and being without resources he joined
a “ quadrilla ” of bull-fighters, passing from town to town until
he reached the shores of the Mediterranean. We next hear of
him reaching Rome, broken in health and financially bankrupt.
In 1772 he was awarded the second prize in a competition
initiated by the academy of Parma, styling himself “ pupil to
Bayeu, painter to the king of Spain.” Compelled to quit Rome
somewhat suddenly, he appears again in Madrid in 1775, the
husband of Bayeu’s daughter, and father of a son. About this
time he appears to have visited his parents at Fuendetodos,
no doubt noting much which later on he utilized in his genre
works. On returning to Madrid he commenced painting canvases
for the tapestry factory of Santa Barbara, in which the king
took much interest. Between 1776 and 1780 he appears to have
supplied thirty examples, receiving about £1200 for them.
Soon after the revolution of 1868, an official waa appointed to
take an inventory of all works of art belonging to toe nation,
and in one of toe cellars of the Madrid palace were discovered
forty-three of these works of Goya on rolls forgotten and neglected
(see Los Tapices de Goya ; for Crusado ViUaamil, Madrid, 1870).
His originality and talent were soon recognized by Mengs,
30 $
the king's punter, And royal favour naturally followed. His
career now becomes intimately connected trim the court life
of his time. He was commissioned by toe king to design a
series of frescoes for toe church of St Anthony of Florida, Madrid,
and he also produced works for Saragossa, Valencia and Toledo.
Ecclesiastical art was not his forte, and although he cannot
be said to have failed in any of his work, his fame was not
enhanced by his religious subjects.
In portraiture, without doubt, Goya excelled : his portraits
are evidently life-like and unexaggerated, and he disdained
flattery. He worked rapidly, and during his long stay at Madrid
painted, amongst many others, the portraits of four sovereigns
of Spain—Charles III. and IV., Ferdinand VII. and “King
Joseph.” The duke of Wellington also sat to him ; but on his
making some remark which raised the artist’s choler, Goya
seized a plaster cast and hurled it at the head of the duke. There
are extant two pencil sketches of Wellington, one in toe British
Museum, the other in a private collection. One of his best
portraits is that of the lovely Andalusian duchess of Alva.
He now became the spoiled child of fortune, and acquired, at
any rate externally, much of the polish of court manners. He
still worked industriously upon his own lines, and, while there
is a stiffness almost ungainly in the pose of some of his portraits,
the stem individuality is always preserved.
Including the designs for tapestry, Goya’s genre works are
numerous and varied, both in style and feeling, from his Watteau-
like “ A 1 Fresco Breakfast,” “ Romeria de San Isidro,” to toe
“ Curate feeding toe Devil’s Lamp,” the “ Meson del Gallo ”
and the painfully realistic massacre of the "Dos de Mayo”
(1808). Goya’s versatility is proverbial; in his hands the
pencil, brush and graver are equally powerful. Some of his
crayon sketches of scenes in the bull ring are full of force and
character, slight but full of meaning. He was in lus thirty-second
year when he commenced his etchings from Velasquez, whose
influence may, however, be traced in his work at an earlier date.
A careful examination of some of toe drawings mude for these
etchings indicates a steadiness of purpose not usually discovered
in Goya’s craft as draughtsman. He is much more widely known
by his etchings than his oils; the latter necessarily must be
sought in public and private collections, principally in Spain,
while toe former are known and prized in every capital of Europe.
The etched collections by which Goya is best known include
“ Los Caprichos,” which have a satirical meaning known only to
the few; they are bold, weird and full of force. “ Los I'roverbios”
arc also supposed to have some hidden intention. “ Los
Desastres de la Guerra ” may fairly claim to depict Spain during
the French invasion. In the bull-fight series Goya is evidently
at home; he was a skilled master of toe barbarous art, and no
doubt every sketch is true to nature, aqd from life.
Goya retired from Madrid, desiring probably during his latter
years to escape the trying climate of that capital. He died at
Bordeaux on toe 16th of April 1828, and a monument has been
erected there over his remains. From the deaths of Velasquez
and Murillo to the advent of Fortuny, Goya’s name is toe only
important one found in the history of Spanish art.
See also the lives by Paul Lcfort (1877), and Yriarte (1867).
goyAz, an inland state of Brazil, bounded by Matto Grosso
and Para on the W., Maranh&o, Bahia and Minas Geraes on the
E., and Minas Geraes and Matto Grosso on the S. Pop. (1890)
227,57a; (1900) 255,284, including many half-civilized Indiuns
and many half-breeds. Area, 288,549 sq. m. The outline of
toe state is that of a roughly-shaped wedge with the thin edge
extending northward between and up-to the junction of the
river# Araguaya and Upper Tocantins, and its length is nearly
15 0 of latitude. The state lies wholly within the great Brazilian
plateau region, but its surface is much broken towards the N.
by the deeply eroded valleys of the Araguaya and Upper
Tocantins rivers and their tributaries. The general Slope of
the plateau is toward toe N., and toe drainage of toe state is
chiefly through the above-named rivers—the principal tributaries
of the Araguaya being the Grande and Vermelho, and of toe
Upper Tocantins, the Manoel Alves Grande, Somno, Paranan
GO YEN—►-GQZLAN
3°4
and v«ranW»n a considerable part of southern Goy Az, however,
slope* southward and the drainage is through numerous small
streams flowing into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the
BanuiA. The general elevation of the plateau is estimated to
be abont 2700 ft, and the highest elevation was reported in
1892 to be the Serra dos Pyrenees (5250 ft.). Crossing the
state N.N.E. to S.S. W. there is a well-defined chain of mountains,
of which the Pyreneos, Santa Rite and Santa Martha ranges
form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great.
The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby
arboreal growth called caatingas, but the streams are generally
bordered with forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards
the N. the forest becomes denser and of the character of the
Amazon Valley. The climate of the plateau is usually described
as temperate, bul it is essentially sub-tropical. The valley regions
are tropical, and malarial fevers are common. The cultivation
of the soil is limited to local needs, except in the production of
tobacco, which Is exported to neighbouring states. The open
campus afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported.
Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more
than two centuries, but the output has never been large and no
very rich mines have been discovered. Diamonds have been
found, but only to a very limited extent. There is a considerable
export of quart/, crystal, commercially known as “ Brazilian
pebbles,” used in optical work. Although the northern and
southern extremities of Goyaz lie within two great river systems—
the Tocantins and Parana-the upper courses of which are
navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only
outlet for tin- slate has been by means of mule trains to the
railway termini of Suo Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the
extension of railways from both of those states, one entering
Goyaz by way of Catalan, near the southern boundary, and the
other at some point further N.
The capital of the state is Goy4z, or Villa-Boa de Goyaz, a
mining town on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya
rising on the northern slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop.
(1890) 6807. Gold was discovered here in 1682 by Bartholomeu
Bueno, the first European explorer of this region, and the
settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which is
still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a lsirren,
rocky mountain vullcy, 1000 ft. above sea-level, in which the
heat is most oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly
cold. Goyaz is the see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and
possesses a small cathedral and some churches.
GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656), Dutch
painter, was 1 mm at Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned
painting under several masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married
in 1618 and settled ut the Hague about 1631. He was one of
the first to emancipate himself from tile traditions of minute
imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and Savery.
Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those
painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with
considerable skill. He hail much influence on Dutch art. He
funned Solomon Ruysdael and l’ieter Potter, forced attention
from Rembrandt, and bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter
de Molyn, Coelenbier, Saftleven, van der Kabel and even
Berghem. His life at the Hague for twenty-five years was very
prosperous, and he rose, in 1640 to lie president of his gild. A
friend of van Dyck und Bartholomew van der Heist, he sat
to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter Margaret
married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder
Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the
Hague. He died at the Hogue in 1656, possessed of land and
houses to the amount of 15,000 florins. <
Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school
to the other. He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh ;
he then passed through the workshops of de Man, Klok and
de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive step and Joined Esaias
van der Velde at Haarlem ; amongst his earlier pictures, some
of 1621 (Berlin Museiup) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show
the influence of Faunas very perceptibly. The landscape is
minute. Details of branching and foliage are given, and the
figures are important in relation to the distances. After 1625
these peculiarities gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in
landscapes of cool tints varying from grey green to pearl or brown
and yellow dun is the principal object which van Goyen holds
in view, and he succeeds admirably in light skies with drifting
misty cloud, and downs with cottages and scanty shrubbery
or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of foliage he now works
in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of sepia or
Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or lucidity.
Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate light
and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most
pleasing views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with
shipping near the banks, he sometimes has the strength if not
the colour of Albert Cuyp. The defect of his work is chiefly
want of solidity. But even this had its charm for van Goyen’s
contemporaries, and some time elapsed before Cuyp, who
imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to
the foliage of foreground trees.
Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collec¬
tions, but his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly
at the Louvre, and in Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and
Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works were exhibited together
at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once or twice,
van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland
and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views
of Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts.
But he was also fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did
not neglect Amheim or Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is
a view of the Hague, executed in 1651 for the municipality, and
now in the town collection of that city. Most ot his panels
represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the Maese. But
he sometimes sketched the downs of Scbeveningen, or the sea
at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict
the calm inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more
than a curling breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often
painted winter scenes, with ice and skaters and sledges, in the
style familiar to Isaac van Ostade. There are numerous varieties
of these subjects in the master’s works from 1631 to 1653. One
historical picture has been assigned to van Goyen—the “Em¬
barkation of Charles 11 .” in the Bute collection. But this canvas
was executed after van Goyen’s death. When he tried this
form of art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he
produced little in partnership with his contemporaries, and wc
can only except the “ Watering-place " in the gallery' of Vienna,
where the landscape is enlivened with horses and cattle by
Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen, who was his son-in-law,
only painted figures for one of bis pictures, and it is probable
that this piece was completed after van Goyen's death. More
than 350 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible.
Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist
without the full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter
whose hand it is easier to trace without the help of these
adjuncts. An etcher, hut a poor one, van Goyen has only
bequeathed to us two very rare plates.
GOZLAN, LRON (1806-1866), French novelist and play-
writer, was born on the ist of Septemlier 1806, at Marseilles.
When he was still a boy, his father, who had made a large
fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series of misfortunes, and
LAon, liefore completing his education, bud to go to sea in order
to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined to
run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Mery,
who was then making liimself famous by his political satires,
introduced him to several newspapers, and Gozlun's brilliant
articles in the Figaro did much harm to the already tottering
government of Charles X. His first novel was Les Memotres
1I'm apothicaire (1828), and this was followed by numberless
otlcrs, among which may be mentioned Washington Levert
et Stcrate Leblanc (1838), Le Notaire dr Chantilly (1836), Aristide
Froissart (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of bis
productions), Les Nutis du Fere Ladtaist (1846), Le Tapis vert
(1855), La FoUe du lops (1857), Les Amotions de Polydore Maras -
quin (1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are—
GQZO^GOlZmi
La Piute tt le beau temps (i86 1), and Vtu Temptte ions m
tone d’eau (1850), two curtain-raisers which have kept the
stage ; Le Lion empaille (1848), La Queue du chief* d'Alcibiade
(1*49), Louise dt Nmleuil (1854), Le Gdieau des reines (1855),
Les Poitiers de la cemlesse (185a); and he adapted several of
his own novels to the stage. Goelan also wrote a romantic
and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions
of his country entitled Les Chateaux de France (2 vols., 1844),
originally published (1836) as Les Tourelles, which has some
archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac ( Balzac
ches lui, 1863). He was made a member of the Legion of
Honour in 1846, and in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan
died on the 14th of September 1866, in Paris.
See also P. Audcbrand, Lion Gaston (1887).
GOZO (Gozzo), an island of the Maltese group in the Medi¬
terranean Sea, second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3} m.
from the nearest point of Malta, is of oval form, 8J m. in length
and 4| m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m.
Its chief town, Victoria, formerly called Kabato (pop. in 1901,
5057) stands near the middle of the island on one of a cluster
of steep conical hills, 3I m. from the port in Migiarro Bay,
on the south-east shore, below Fort fhambray. The character
of the island is similar to that of Malta. The estimated popula¬
tion in 1907 was 21,911.
GOZZL CARLO, Count (1722-1806), Italian dramatist,
was descended from an old Venetian family, and was bom at
Venice in March T722. Compelled by the embarrassed condition
of his father's affairs to procure the means of self-support, he,
at the age of sixteen, joined the army in Dalmatia; but three
years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he soon made
a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the Granel-
leschi society, to which the publication of several satirical
pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally
devoted to conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims,
and was especially zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature
pure and untainted by foreign influences. The displacement
of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of Pietro Chiari (1700-
1788)and Goldoni, founded on French models, threatened defeat
to all their efforts ; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the rescue by
publishing a satirical poem, Tartana degli influssi per l' anno
bisestile, and in 1761 by his comedy, Fiaha dell’ amorc delle tre
melarancie, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets,
founded on a fain' tale. For its representation he obtained
the services of the Sacclii company of players, who, on account
of the popularity of the comedies of Chiari and Goldoni—which
afforded no scope for the display of their peculiar talents—had
been left without employment; and as their satirical powers
were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play met with
extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the
audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical
element, which he had merely used as a convenient medium
for his satirical purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic
pieces based on fairy tales, which for a period obtained great
popularity, but after the breaking up of the Sacehi company
were completely disregarded. They have, however, obtained
liigh praise from Goethe, Schlcgcl, Madame de Stael and Sis-
tnondi; and one of them, Re Turandote, was translated by
Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production
of tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced ;
but as this innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had
recourse to the Spanish drama, from which he obtained models
for various pieces, which, however, met with only equivocal
success. lie died on the 4th of April x8o6.
His collected works were published under his own superintend¬
ence, at Venice, in 1702, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works,
translated into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in
1795. See Goal's work, Mtmorie inutili della vita di Carlo Gout
(3 vols., Venice, 1797), translated ante French by Paul de Musset
(1848), and into English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, Vbtr
Guzzis dramatische Poesit (Venice, 1803) ; Gherardini, Vita di Gasp.
Gozzi (1821); " Charles Gozzi,” by Paul de Musset, in the Revue
des deux monies far r jth November 1844 ; Magrini, Carlo Goszi
e la fidbe : uni etoriei, biografiei, t eritici (Cremona, >876), and the
same author’s book on Goeri's life and times (Benevento, 1883).
$ 0 $
OOZW, QAMARO, Count (1713-1786), tdtet brother el
Carlo Gua, was bora on the 4th of Deoember X713. In 11739
he manned the poetess Luise Bergalli, and ataunaerttbk tS*
management of the theatre of Sant’ Angelo, Venice, he supplying
the performers with dramas chiefly translated from the French.
The speculation proved unfortunate, but meantime he'‘had
attained a high reputation for his contributions to the Gettilkt
Veneta, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest
critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a
considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in
1774 he was appointed to reorganize the university system at
Padua. He died at Padua on the 26th of December 1786.
His principal writings are Osservatore Vrnrto periodica (1761), on
the model of the English Spectator , uud di-tinguishefl by its high
moral tone and its light and pleasant s.itm-: Letters /amigliari
(1755)1* collection of short racy pieces in pmsc ami verse, on subjects
of general interest ; Sermoni, jioems in blank c crv> after tin- manner
of Horace; It Mondo morale (1760), a personification of human
passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of L.uciun ; and Giudino
deglianiuht poet* sopra la moderna tensura rii Jtonte (1755), adeience
of the great poet against the attacks of Bettuulli He also trans¬
lated various works from the French and English, including Mar-
mantel’s Tales and Pope’s Essay on Criticism Ihs collected works
were published at Venice, 1794-1798, m 12 volumes, and several
editions have appeared since.
GOZZOLL BENOZZO, Italian painter, was born in Florence
in 1424, or perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career
assisted Fra Angelico, whom he followed lo Koine and worked
with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed in Santa Maria in
Aracoeli a fresco of “ St Anthony and Two Angels." In 1449
he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria.
In S. Fortunato, near Montefalco, he puinted a " Madonna and
Child with Saints and Angels,” and three oilier works. One of
these, the altar-piece representing “ St Thomas receiving the
Girdle of the Virgin,” is now in the Luterun Museum, and
shows the affinity of Gozzoli’s early style to Angelico’s. He
next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco, Montefalco,
filling the choir with a triple course of subjects irom the life
of the saint, with various accessories, including beads of Dante,
Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452. and
is still marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there
with a more distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church,
in the chapel of St Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the V irgin
and Saints, the Crucifixion and other subjects. He remained
at Montefalco (with un interval at Viterbo) probably till 1456,
employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he went to Perugia,
and painted in a church a “ Virgin and Saints,” now in the local
academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the head¬
quarters of art. By the end of • 1459 he had nearly finished
his important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Ritrardi, the
“ Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem," and, in the tribune of
this chapel, a composition of “ Angels in a Paradise,” His
picture in the National Gallery, London, a “ Virgin and Child
with Saints,” 1461, belongs also to the period of his Florentine
sojourn. Another small picture in the same gallery, the “ Rape
of Helen,” is of dubious authenticity. In 1464 Gozzoli left
Florence for S. Gimignano, where he executed some extensive
works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St
Sebastian protecting the City from the Plague of this same
year, 1464 ; over the entire choir of the church, a triple course
of scenes from the legends of St Augustine, from the time of
his entering the school of Tegaste on to his burial, seventeen
chief subjects, with some accessories; in the Pieve di S.
Gimignano, the “ Martyrdom of Sebastian,” and other subjects,
and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his
style combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original
elements, and he received co-operation from Giusto d'Anirea.
He stayed in this city till 1467, and then began, in the Caznpo
Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast series of mural paintings
with which his name is specially identified. There are twenty*
four subjects from the Old Testament, from the “ Invention of
Wine by Noah ”tsthe“ VisitoftheQueenof Sheba to Solomon. ’ ’
He contracted to paint three subjects per year lor about ten
ducats each— a sum which may be regarded *1 equivalent to
GO YEN—►-GQZLAN
3°4
and v«ranW»n a considerable part of southern Goy Az, however,
slope* southward and the drainage is through numerous small
streams flowing into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the
BanuiA. The general elevation of the plateau is estimated to
be abont 2700 ft, and the highest elevation was reported in
1892 to be the Serra dos Pyrenees (5250 ft.). Crossing the
state N.N.E. to S.S. W. there is a well-defined chain of mountains,
of which the Pyreneos, Santa Rite and Santa Martha ranges
form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great.
The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby
arboreal growth called caatingas, but the streams are generally
bordered with forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards
the N. the forest becomes denser and of the character of the
Amazon Valley. The climate of the plateau is usually described
as temperate, bul it is essentially sub-tropical. The valley regions
are tropical, and malarial fevers are common. The cultivation
of the soil is limited to local needs, except in the production of
tobacco, which Is exported to neighbouring states. The open
campus afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported.
Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more
than two centuries, but the output has never been large and no
very rich mines have been discovered. Diamonds have been
found, but only to a very limited extent. There is a considerable
export of quart/, crystal, commercially known as “ Brazilian
pebbles,” used in optical work. Although the northern and
southern extremities of Goyaz lie within two great river systems—
the Tocantins and Parana-the upper courses of which are
navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only
outlet for tin- slate has been by means of mule trains to the
railway termini of Suo Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the
extension of railways from both of those states, one entering
Goyaz by way of Catalan, near the southern boundary, and the
other at some point further N.
The capital of the state is Goy4z, or Villa-Boa de Goyaz, a
mining town on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya
rising on the northern slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop.
(1890) 6807. Gold was discovered here in 1682 by Bartholomeu
Bueno, the first European explorer of this region, and the
settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which is
still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a lsirren,
rocky mountain vullcy, 1000 ft. above sea-level, in which the
heat is most oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly
cold. Goyaz is the see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and
possesses a small cathedral and some churches.
GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656), Dutch
painter, was 1 mm at Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned
painting under several masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married
in 1618 and settled ut the Hague about 1631. He was one of
the first to emancipate himself from tile traditions of minute
imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and Savery.
Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those
painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with
considerable skill. He hail much influence on Dutch art. He
funned Solomon Ruysdael and l’ieter Potter, forced attention
from Rembrandt, and bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter
de Molyn, Coelenbier, Saftleven, van der Kabel and even
Berghem. His life at the Hague for twenty-five years was very
prosperous, and he rose, in 1640 to lie president of his gild. A
friend of van Dyck und Bartholomew van der Heist, he sat
to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter Margaret
married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder
Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the
Hague. He died at the Hogue in 1656, possessed of land and
houses to the amount of 15,000 florins. <
Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school
to the other. He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh ;
he then passed through the workshops of de Man, Klok and
de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive step and Joined Esaias
van der Velde at Haarlem ; amongst his earlier pictures, some
of 1621 (Berlin Museiup) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show
the influence of Faunas very perceptibly. The landscape is
minute. Details of branching and foliage are given, and the
figures are important in relation to the distances. After 1625
these peculiarities gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in
landscapes of cool tints varying from grey green to pearl or brown
and yellow dun is the principal object which van Goyen holds
in view, and he succeeds admirably in light skies with drifting
misty cloud, and downs with cottages and scanty shrubbery
or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of foliage he now works
in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of sepia or
Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or lucidity.
Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate light
and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most
pleasing views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with
shipping near the banks, he sometimes has the strength if not
the colour of Albert Cuyp. The defect of his work is chiefly
want of solidity. But even this had its charm for van Goyen’s
contemporaries, and some time elapsed before Cuyp, who
imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to
the foliage of foreground trees.
Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collec¬
tions, but his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly
at the Louvre, and in Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and
Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works were exhibited together
at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once or twice,
van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland
and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views
of Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts.
But he was also fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did
not neglect Amheim or Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is
a view of the Hague, executed in 1651 for the municipality, and
now in the town collection of that city. Most ot his panels
represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the Maese. But
he sometimes sketched the downs of Scbeveningen, or the sea
at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict
the calm inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more
than a curling breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often
painted winter scenes, with ice and skaters and sledges, in the
style familiar to Isaac van Ostade. There are numerous varieties
of these subjects in the master’s works from 1631 to 1653. One
historical picture has been assigned to van Goyen—the “Em¬
barkation of Charles 11 .” in the Bute collection. But this canvas
was executed after van Goyen’s death. When he tried this
form of art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he
produced little in partnership with his contemporaries, and wc
can only except the “ Watering-place " in the gallery' of Vienna,
where the landscape is enlivened with horses and cattle by
Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen, who was his son-in-law,
only painted figures for one of bis pictures, and it is probable
that this piece was completed after van Goyen's death. More
than 350 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible.
Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist
without the full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter
whose hand it is easier to trace without the help of these
adjuncts. An etcher, hut a poor one, van Goyen has only
bequeathed to us two very rare plates.
GOZLAN, LRON (1806-1866), French novelist and play-
writer, was born on the ist of Septemlier 1806, at Marseilles.
When he was still a boy, his father, who had made a large
fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series of misfortunes, and
LAon, liefore completing his education, bud to go to sea in order
to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined to
run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Mery,
who was then making liimself famous by his political satires,
introduced him to several newspapers, and Gozlun's brilliant
articles in the Figaro did much harm to the already tottering
government of Charles X. His first novel was Les Memotres
1I'm apothicaire (1828), and this was followed by numberless
otlcrs, among which may be mentioned Washington Levert
et Stcrate Leblanc (1838), Le Notaire dr Chantilly (1836), Aristide
Froissart (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of bis
productions), Les Nutis du Fere Ladtaist (1846), Le Tapis vert
(1855), La FoUe du lops (1857), Les Amotions de Polydore Maras -
quin (1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are—
GRACCHUS
Deity of tin Son and of On Holy Ghost. His work*, which show him
to have been learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in
critical acumen, include a Spicilegium SS. Patrum et henrsticarum
(1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries
of the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of
the second, A second edition of this work was published in 1714.
He brought out an edition of Justin Martyr's Apologia prima (1700),
of Irenaeus, Adversus owner hastens (1702), of the Septuagmt,
and of Bishop Bull’s Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septua-
gint was based on the Codex Alexandrians ; it appeared in 4 volumes
(1707-1720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George
Wigan.
GRACCHUS, in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family
of the Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives
were the famous tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius
Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and (<) below, usually called simply
“ the Gracchi.”
1. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, consul in 238 b.c.,
carriedon successfuloperationsagninsttheLigurian mountaineers,
and, at the conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war,
was in command of the fleet which at the invitation of the
insurgents took possession of the island of Sardinia.
2. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, probably the son of
(1) distinguished himself during the second Punic war. Consul
in 215, he defeated the Capuans who had entered into an alliance
with Hannibal, and in 214 gained a signal success over Hanno
near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the vnlnnes (slave-volunteers),
to whom he had promised freedom in the event of victory. In
213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried on the war
in Lucania ; in the following year, while advancing northward
to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed
into the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a I.ucanian of rank,
who had formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected
with Gracchus himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell
fighting bravely ; his body was sent to Hannibal, who accorded
him a splendid hurial.
3. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus ( c. 210-151 b.c.),
father of the tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter
of the elder Scipio Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius
Sempronius Gracchus who was tribune in 189. Although a
determined political opponent of the two Sripios (Asiaticus
and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on their behalf
when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the king
of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission
sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumcnes
II. of Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule
aedileship (182) he celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale
that the burdens imposed upon the Italian and extra-Italian
communities led to the official interference of the senate. In
181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain, and, after gaining
signal successes in the field, applied himself to the pacification
of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic
attitude won the respect and affection of the inhabitants ; the
land had rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177,
he was occupied in putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought
back so many prisoners that Sardi venales (Sardinians for sale)
became a proverbial expression for a drug in the market. In
169 Gracchus was censor, and both he and his colleague (C.
Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves determined opponents
of the capitalists. They deeply offended the equestrian order
by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts under
the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently
enforced the limitation of the freedmen to the four city tribes,
which completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In
165 and it»i he went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes,
with whom he established friendly relations. Amongst the
places visited by him was Rhodes, where he delivered a speech
in Greek, which he afterwards published. In 163 he was again
consul.
4. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (163-133 b.c.), son of
(3), was the elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother
were brought up by their mother Cornelia, assisted by the
rhetorician Diophanes of Mytilene and the Stoic Blossius of
Cumae. In 147 he served under his brother-in-law the younger
307
Scipio in Africa during the last Punic war, and was the first
to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When quaestor
in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostiliui Mancinus to
Spain. During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved
from annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom
albne the Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the
memory of his father. The senate refused to ratify the agree¬
ment ; Mancinus was handed over to the enemy as a sign that
it was annulled, and only personal popularity saved Tiberius
himself from punishment. In 133 he was tribune, and cham¬
pioned the impoverished farmer class and the lower orders.
His proposals (see Agrarian Laws) met with violent opposition,
and were not carried until he had. illegally and unconstitutionally,
secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune. M. Octavius, who
had been persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate
put every obstacle in the way of the three commissioners ap¬
pointed to carry out the provisions of ihc law, and Tiberius, in
view of the bitter enmity he had aroused, saw that it was necessary
to strengthen his hold on the popular favour. The legacy to
the Roman people of the kingdom und treasures of Attafus III.
of Pergamum gave him an opportunity, lie proposed that the
money realized by the sale of the treasures should be divided,
for the purchase of implements and stock, amongst those to
whom assignments of land had been made tinder the new law.
He is also said to have brought forward measures for shortening
the period of military service, for extending the right of appeal
from the indices to the people, for alxtlishing the exclusive
privilege of the senators to act as jurymen, and even for admit¬
ting the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen his position
further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election us tribune for the
following year. The senate declared that it was illegal to hold
this office for two consecutive years ; but Tilwrius treated this
objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of Ihe people,
he appeared in mourning, and appealed for protection for his
wife and children, and whenever he left his house he was accom¬
panied by a bodyguard of 3000 men, chiefly consisting of the
city rabble. 'Ihe meeting of the tribes for the election of tribunes
broke up in disorder on two successive days, without any result
being attained, although on both occasions the first divisions
voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate that
he was aiming at supreme power, that he had tourhed his head
with his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An uppeal
to the consul P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death
at once having failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola
was acting treacherously towards the state, and called upon
those who agreed with him to take up arms and follow him.
During the riot that followed, Tiberius attempted to escape,
but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol and was beaten to death
with the end of a bench. At night his»hody, with those of 300
others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy Wildly
assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up u
commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius,
many of whom were banished and others put to death. Even
the moderate Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica
was justified in his action ; and it was reported that Scipio,
when he heard at Numantia of his brother-in-law’s death,
repeated the line of Homer—” So perish all who do the like
again.”
See Livy, F.pil. 38: Appian, Pell. civ. i. 9-17 ; Plutarch, Tiberius
Gracchus ; Veit. Pat, ii. 2, 3.
5. Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (133-121 b.c.), younger
brother of (4), was a man of greater abilities, bolder and more
passionate, although possessed of considerable powers of self-
control, and a vigorous and impressive orator. When twenty
years of age he was appointed one of the commissioners to
cany out the distribution of land under the provisions of his
brother’s agrarian law. At the time of Tiberius’s death, Gaius
was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, trat
probably returned to Rome in the following year (132). In
131 he supported the bill of C. Pgpirius Carbo, the object of
which was to make it legal for a tribune to offer himself as candi¬
date for the office in two consecutive years, and thus to amove
io8 GRACE, W. G.
one of the chief obstacles that had hampered Tiberius. The bill
vu then rejected, but appears to have subsequently passed in
a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected without any
disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal,
and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For
the next few years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion
pointed him out as the man to avenge his brother’s death and
carry out his plans, and the aristocratic party, warned by the
example of Tiberius, were anxious to keep him away from Rome.
In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius Orestes as
quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made
himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the
command of Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to
remain there in his capacity of quaestor. But he returned to
Rome without the permission of the senate, and, when called
to account by the censors, defended himself so successfully
that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The disappointed
aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of being
implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways unsuccess¬
fully endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then
decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became
a candidate for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined
opposition of the aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123,
although only fourth on the list. The legislative proposals 1
brought forward by him had for their object:—the punish¬
ment of his brother’s enemies; the relief of distress and the
attachment to himself of the city populace; the diminution
of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the equites ;
the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and
provincials.
A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in
a matter a fleeting his file or political status unless the people had
previously given its assent. J’his was specially aimed at Pupilius
Lumas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the
adherents of Tiberius Another law enacted that any magistrate
who had been deprived of oliice by decree of the people should lie
incapacitated from holding oliice again. This was directed against
M. Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate
through Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was with¬
drawn at the earnest request of Cornelia.
He revived his brother's agrarian law, which, although it
hud not tieen repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his Lex
ErumetUarm every citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain
amount of corn at about half the usual price; as the distribution
only applied to those living in the capital, the natural result was
that the poorer country citizens Hocked into Komi- and swelled the
numtier ot Gaius's supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to
serve in the army before the commencement of his eighteenth year,
and his military outfit was to be supplied by the state, instead of
lieing deducted from his pay. Gaius also proposed the establishment
of colonies in Italy lat rarentuin and Capua), and sent out to the
site of Carthage boon colonists to found the new city of Junonia,
the inhabitants of wliich were to possess the rights of Roman
citizens : this was the first attempt at over-sea colonization. A new
system of roads was constructed which afforded easier access to
Rome. Having thus gained over the city proletariat, in order
to secure a majority in the comttia by its atd, Gaius did away with
the system of voting in the comitia ceutunata, whereby the five
proper! v classes in each tribe gave their votes one after another,
and introduced promiscuous voting in an order fixed by lot.
The judices in tho standing commissions for the trial of par¬
ticular ofteucos (the most important of which was that duahng
with the trial of provincial magistrates for extortion, dr repetundis)
were in future to lie chosen trom the equites (17.1c), not as hitherto
lrom the senate. The taxes of the new province of Vsia were to be
let out by the censors to Roman publicani (who belonged to the
equestrian order), who paid down a lump sum for the right of
collecting them It is obvious that this afforded the equites ex¬
tensive opportunities for money-making and extortion, wliile the
alteration in the appointment of the judices gave them the same
practical immunity and perpetuated the old abuses, with the differ¬
ence that it was no longer senators, but equites, who could look
forward with confidence to being leniently dealt with by men
belonging to their own order; Gaius also expected that this moneyed
aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate against Tiberius,
would now support him against it. It was enacted that the pro-
vinees to be assigned to tbs consuls, should he determined before,
1 Three measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological
order, nor can it be dended which lielong to his first, which to his
second tribuneship. See W. Wardc Fowler in Eng. Hist Review
»#°S. PI>- *0* *qq.< 417 sqq.
instead of after their election; and the consuls themselves had to
settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of them
would take . 8
These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity,
and during the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered
the absolute ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second
time for the year 122. To this period is probably to be assigned
his proposal that the franchise should be given to all the Latin
communities and that the status of the Latins should be con¬
ferred upon the Italian ullies. In 125 M. Fulvius Flaccus bad
brought forward a similar measure, but he was got out of the way
by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This proposal,
more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally opposed
by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius’s popularity
amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the
prospect of an increase in the number of Roman citizens. The
senate put up M. Livius Drusus to outbid him, and his absence
from Rome while superintending the organization of the newly-
founded colony, Jununia-Carthago, was taken advantage of by
his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he found his
popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship
for the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected
consul. The latter at once decided to propose the abandonment
of the new colony, which was to occupy the site cursed by
Scipio, while its foundation had been attended by unmistakable
manifestations of the wrath of the gods. On the day when the
matter was to be put to the vote, a lirtor named Antyllius, who
had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to death.
This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was
declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with
dictatorial powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their
position in the temple of Diana on the Aventinc, offered little
resistance to the attack ordered by Opimius. Gaius managed
to escape across the Tiber, where his dead body was found on
the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side of that
of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself.
The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple
of Concord erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath
the inscription recording the occasion on which the temple hud
been built some one during the night wrote the words : “ The
work of Discord makes the temple of Concord.”
Bibuoorai'HV.— See Livy, Epit. 00; Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 21 ;
Plutarch, Gains Gracchus; Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3,
xi. 10. For an account of the two tribunes see Mommsen, Hist,
of Rome (Frig, trans.l, bk. iv., chx. 2 and 3 ; C. Neumann, Geschuhte
Roms wdkrcnd ties Verfalles tier Repullik (jH8i) ; A. H. |. Greenidge,
History 0/ Rome (1904) ; E. Meyer, Untersuchungim sur l.eschuhte
tier Gracchen (1894) ; G. E. Underhill, Plutarch's Lives of the Gracchi
(1892): W. Wardc Fowler in English Historical Review (1905),
pp. 209 and 417 ; Long, Decline of the Roman Republic , chs. 10-13,
17-19, containing a careful examination of the ancient authorities ;
G. F, Hertzberg in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemcine Encyclopedic ;
C. W. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the later Republic (1902) ;
T. Lau, Du Gracchcn und ihre Zeit (1854). The exhaustive mono-
graph by C. W. Nitzsch, Die Gracchen tend ihre ndchsten Vorgdnger
(1847), also contains an account of the other members of the family,
with full references to ancient authorities in the notes. (J. H. F.)
GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848- ), English cricketer,
was born at Downend, Gloucestershire, on the iKth of July
1848. He found himself in an atmosphere charged with cricket,
his father (Henry Mills Grace) and his unde (Alfred Pocoek)
being as enthusiastic over the game as his elder brothers, Henry,
Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace the family
name first became famous. A younger brother, George Frederick,
also added to the cricket reputation of the family. “ W. G.”
witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years
old, the occasion being a game between W. Clarke’s All-England
Eleven and twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was
endowed by nature with a splendid physique as well as with
powers of self-restraint and determination. At the acme of his
career he stood full 6 ft. 2 in., being powerfully proportioned,
loose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker, and very moderate
* It is suggested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed
to add a certain number of equites to the senate, thereby increasing
it to 900, bat toe plan was never carried out.
GRACE
in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the year round,
shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the
cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds.
over so hurdles being his best distance ; and it may be quoted
as proof of his stamina that on the goth of July 1866 he scored
424 not out for England v. Surrey, and two days later won a
race in the National and Olympian Association meeting at the
Crystal Palace. The title of “ champion ” was well earned by
one who for thirty-six years (1865-1900 inclusive) was actively
engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was
invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the
Players, and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to
play for the mother country. As late as 1899 he played in the
first of the five international contests ; in 1900 he played against
the players at the Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-three he
scored nearly 1300 runs in first-class cricket, made 100 runs and
over on three different occasions and could claim an average
of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs were achieved
when only the very best cricket grounds received serious atten¬
tion ; when, us some consider, Itowling was maintained at a higher
standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two
brothers, E. M. and G. F., assisted by some fine amateurs, made
Gloucestershire in one season a first-class county ; and it wns
he who first enabled the amateurs of England to meet the paid
players on equal terms and to beat them. There was liardlv a
“ record " connected with the game which did not stand to his
credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England, in his
earlier days generally talcing long-leg and cover-point, in later
times generally standing point. lie was, at his l)est, a fine
thrower, fast runner and safe “ catch.” As a bowler he was
long in the first flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times
adopting a slower and more tricky style, frequently very effective.
By profession he was a medical man. In later years he became
secretary and manager of the London County Cricket Club,
lie was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day, and one of his sons
played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was the
recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to
£1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a
cheque at Lord's ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd
of July 2879; the second, collected by the M.C.C., the county
of Gloucestershire, the Daily Telegraph and the Sportsman,
amounted to about £10,000, and was presented to him in 1896.
He visited Australia in 1873-1874 (captain), and in 1891-1892
with Lord Sheffield's Eleven (captain) ; the United States and
Canada in 1872, with R. A. Fitzgerald’s team.
l>r CIrate played his first great match in 18(13, when, being only
fifteen years of age, lie scored 32 against the All-England Eleven
and the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinlcy; but the scores
which first made his name prominent were made in 181,4, viz.
170 and 36 not out for the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen
of Sussex. It was in 1805 that he first took an active part in first-
class cricket, being then 6 ft. in height, and 11 stone in weight,
and playing twice for tiie Gentlemen e. the Players, but his selection
was mainly due to his bowling powers, the best exposition of which
was his aggregate of 13 wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of
the South a. the Players of the South. His highest score was 400
not out, made in July 187b against twenty-two of Grimsby; but
on three occasions he was twice dismissed without scoring in matches
against odds, a fate that never beiell him in important cricket.
In first-class matches his highest score was 344, made for the M.C.C.
v. Kent at Canterbury, in August 187(1 1 two day 8 later he made
177 for Gloucestershire it. Notts, and two days after this 318 not
out for Gloucestershire v. Yorksiiire, the two last-named opposing
counties being possessed of exceptionally strong bowling ; thus in
three consecutive innings Grace scored 839 runs, and was only got
out twice. His 344 was the third highest individual score made in
a big match in England up to the end of rgoi. He also scored 301
for Gloucestershire v. Sussex at Bristol, in August 1896. He made
over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable perhaps being in
1871, when he performed the feat twice, each time in benefit matches,
and each time in the second innings, having been each time got out
in the first over of' the first innings. He scored over too runs on
121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at Bristol ior
Gloucestershire v. Somersetshire in 1893. He made every figure
from o to 100, on one occasion " closing *' the innings when henad
made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits.
In 1871 he made ten “ centuries," ranging from 968 to 116. In the
matches between the Gentlemen and Players he scored " three
3©9
figures " fifteen times, and at every place where these matches hare
been played. He made over mu in each of bis “ first appearances “
at Oxford and Cambridge. Three times he made over too in each
innings of the same match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v.
North of the Thames, 130 and 102 not out; at CUftoa, in 2887,
for Gloucestershire v. Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton,
in. 1888, for Gloucestershire n. Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869,
playing at the Oval for the Gentlemen of the South r. the Players
of the South, Grace and B. B. Cooper pul on 283 runs for the Bret
wicket, Grace scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and
Scotton put on 170 runs lor the first wicket of England n. Australia;
this occurred at the Oval in August, and Grace's total soore was
170. In consecutive innings against (he Players from 1871 to 1873
he scored 217, 77 and 112, 117, 103, 1 38 and 70. He only twice scored
over 100 in a lag match in Australia, nor did lie ever make aoo at
Lord's, his highest being 190 for the M.C C r. Cambridge University
in 1894. His lfighest aggregates were 27)9 (1871), 3632 (1876),
234G (1895), 2139 (1873), 2135 (1891,| .Hid go,.2 (1887). He scored
three successive centuries in first-class cricket in 1871, 1872, 1873,
1874 and 1876. Playing against Kent at Gravesend in 1893, he
was batting, bowling or fielding during tin* whole time the game
was in progress, his scores being 237 and 73 not out. He scored
oyer 1000 luns and took over too wicker, jn seven different seasons,
viz. in 1874, ift(>5 runs and 129 wickets; in 1N73, 1498 runs, 192
wickets; in 1870, 2(122 runs, 124 wickets; in 1877, 1474 runs, T79
wickets; in 1878, 1131 runs. 153 wickets; ill 1883, 1688 runs,
118 wickets; in 1880, 1840 runs, 122 wickets He never captured
200 wickets in a season, liis highest record being 792 in 1875. Play¬
ing against Oxford University in x88(i, lie took all flic wickets in
the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1K03 lie not only made
las hundredth century, but actually scored 1000 runs in the month
ol May alouc, his cliiei scores in that month being up, 288, 259, 73
and 1,19, lie being then forty-seven yeais old. He also made during
that year scores of 123, 119,118, 104 and 103 not out, his aggregate
for the year being 234(1 “ n <l bis average 31; lus innings of 118
was made against the Players (at Lord's), the chief Ixiwlcn being
irichardson, Mold, Peel and Attewoll; he scored level with his
partner, A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen yeurs), the paii making
131 before a wicket fell, Grace making In all M« out of 241. This
may fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years In 1898
the match between Gentlemen v. Players was, as a special compli¬
ment, arranged bv the M.G.C, committee to take place on ins hirth-
d ly, and he celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out,
though handicapped by lameness unci an injured hand, ‘in iwenty-
six different seasons he scored over 1000 runs, in three of these
yuars being the only man to do so and five times being one out of
two.
I hiring the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored
nearly 31,000 runs, with an average of 43 ; and in bowling he took
more than 2800 wirkets, at an average cost of about 30 runs per
WKkct. lie made lus highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had his
highest average (78) in 1871 ; his average for the decade 18681877
was 57 runs. His style as a batsman was more commanding than
graceful, but as to its soundness and efficacy there were never
two opinions; the severest criticism ever passed upon his powers
was to the effect that he did not play slow bowling quite as well
at fast. _ (W. J.F.) '
GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grains, beloved, pleasing ;
formed from the root era-, Gr. xair-, cf. \aipm, \dfifsa, y aptv),
a word of many shades of meaning, bi^t always connoting the
idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others
or that which one shows to others. The New English Dictionary
groups the meanings of the word under three main heads;
(x) Pleasing quality, gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3)
gratitude, thanks.
It is in the second general sense of “ favour bestowed ” that
the word has its most important connotations. In this sense
it means something given by superior authority as a concession
made of favour and goodwill, not as an obligation or of right.
Thus, a concession may he made by a sovereign or other public
authority “ by way of grace.” Previous to the Revolution of
1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known in
constitutional law as “ Graces.” “ Letters of Grace ” (gratia*,
graiiosa rescripta) is the name given to papal rescripts granting
special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the Site. In
the language of the universities the word still survive! in a
shadow of this sense. The word “ grace ” was originally a
dispensation granted by the congregation of the university,
or by one of the faculties, from some statutahle conditions re¬
quired far a degree. In the English universities these conditions
ceased to be enforced, and the “ grace ” thus became an essential
preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the
meaning of (a) the licence granted by congregation to take a
GRACES, THE—GRACIAN Y MORALES
310
degree, (b) other decree* of the governing body (originally <&-
pentation* from itatutes), all such degrees being called “ grace* ”
at Cambridge, (c) the permission which a candidate for a degree
most obtain from his college or hall.
To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses
of the word in such phrases as “ do me this grace,” “ to be in
some one’s good graces ” and certain meanings of “ the grace of
God.” The style “ by the grace of God,” borne by the king of
Great Britain and Ireland among other sovereigns, though,
as implying the principle of “ legitimacy,” it has been since the
Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the addition
of “and the will of the people,” meuns in effect no more than the
“ by Divine Providence,” which is the style borne by archbishops.
To the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the
phrase* implying the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling
certain obligations, e.g. “ a fortnight’s grace.” In law the “ days
of grace ” are the period allowed for the payment of a bill of
exchange, after the term for which it has been drawn (in England
three days), or foi the payment of an insurance premium, &c.
In religious language the “ Day of Grace ” is the period still
open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of clemency
or mercy, too, “ grace ” is still, though rarely used : “an Act
of Grace ” is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted
by act of parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative
of the great, “ Your Grace,” “ His Grace,” &c., became dutiful
paraphrases for the simple “ you ” and “ he.” Formerly used
in the royal address (“ the King's Grace,” 5 x.), the style is in
F.ngland now confined to dukes and archbishops, though the
style of “ his most gracious mujesty ” is still used. In Germany
the equivalent, Euer Gnadett, is the style of princes who are not
Durehlauckt ( i.e. Serene Highness), and is often used as a polite
address to any superior.
In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the
word is used in several of the above senses, “ grace ” (Gr. x“ 7 “ s )
has special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous,
unmerited activity of the Divine Dive in the salvation of sinners,
and the Divine influence operating in man for his regeneration
and sanctification. Those thus regenerated and sanctified are
said to tie in a “ state of grace.” In the New Testament grace
is the forgiving mercy of God, as opposed to any human merit
(Rora. xi. 6 ; F.ph. ii. 5 ; Col. i. 6, &c.); it is applied also to
certain gifts of God freely bestowed, e.g. miracles, tongues, Sec.
(Rom. xv. 15 ; 1 Cor. xv. 10 ; Eph. iii. 8, Sic.), to the Christian
virtues, gifts of God also, c.g. charity, holiness, Sic. (2 Cor.
viii. 7 ; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally,
as opposed to the Eaw (John i. 17 ; Rom. vi, 14 ; 1 Pet. v. 12,
Sec.) ; connected with this is the use of the term “ year of grace ”
for a year of the Christian era.
The word “ grace ” is the central subject of three great
theological controversies: (1) that of the nature of human
depravity and regeneration (see Pei.aoius), (2) that of the
relation between grace and free-will (see Calvin, John, and
Ahminuis, Jacobus), (3) that of the “ means of grace ” between
Catholics and Protestants, i.e. whether the efficacy of the
sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is ex opere opcralo
or dependent on the faith of the recipient.
In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed,
“ grace " survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or
after meals. The word was originally used in the plural, and
“ to do, give, render, yield graces ” was said, in the general
sense of the French tender graces or Latin gralias agree, of any
giving thanks. The close, and finally exclusive, association
of the phraie “ to say grace ” with thanksgiving at meals was
possibly due to the formula “ Gratias Deo agamus ” (“ let us
give thanks to God ”) with which the ceremony licgan in monastic
refectories. The custom of saying grace, which obtained in
pre-Christian times among the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and
was adopted universally by Christian peoples, is probably less
widespread in private houses than it used to lie. It is, however,
still maintained at public dinners and also in schools, colleges
and institutions generally. Such graces are generally in Latin
and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, e.g. “ Laos
Deo,” “ Benedictus benedicat,” and sometime*, as at the
Oxford and Cambridge colleges, of considerable length. In
some countries grace has sunk to a polite formula; in Germany,
e.g. it is usual before and after meals to bow to one’s neighbours
and say “ Gesegnete Malzeit 1 ” (May your meal be blessed),
a phrase often reduced in practice to “ Malzeit ” simply.
GRACHS, THE, (Gr. Xdpirts, Lat. Gratiae), in Greek mythology,
the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in
moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charts, to
a number or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the
Iliad one Charis is the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised
wife of Sleep, while the plural Charites often occurs. The Charites
are usually described as three in number—Aglaia (brightness),
Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia (bloom)—daughters of Zeus
and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus), or of Helios
and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta
(noise) and Phaenna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and
Hegemone (queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with
whom they live on Mount Olympus, and the companions of
Aphrodite, of Peitlio, the goddess of persuasion, and of Hermes,
the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm is an indispensable
adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist is indicated
by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient
seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest
images, in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up
in their temple. Their worship was said to have been instituted
by Eteocles, whose three daughters fell into a well while dancing
in their honour. At Orchomenus nightly dances took place,
and the festival Charitcsia, accompanied by musical contests,
was celebrated ; in Paros their worship was celebrated without
music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while sacrificing
to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son
Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the
Eumenides ; at Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane,
were held at the entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo,
Hegemone and Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, that young
Athenians, on first receiving their spear and shield, took the
oath to defend their country. In works of art the Charites were
represented in early times as beautiful maidens of slender form,
hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery ;
later, the conception predominated of three naked figures
gracefully intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the
rose and musical instruments. In Rome the Graces were
never the objects of special religious reverence, but were described
and represented by poets and artists in accordance with Greek
models.
Sep F. H. Krause, Musen, Gratien, Horen, und .V'. > up hen (1871),
arid ‘the articles by Stoll and Furtwingler in Koscher’s Lcxikon der
Mythologie, and by S. Gsell in Dareraberg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire
1 Its antiqnilts, with the bibliography.
GRACIAN T MORALES, BALTASAR (1601-1658), Spanish
prose writer, was born at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of
January 1601. Little is known of his personal history except
that on May 14, 1619, he entered the Society of Jesus, and that
ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at Tarazona,
where he died on the 6th of Decemlx’r, 1658. His principal
works are El Hcroe (1630), which describes in apophthcginatic
phrases the qualities of the ideal man ; the Arte de ingenio,
tratado de la Agudeza (1642), republished six years afterwards
under the title of Agudeza, y arte de ingenio (1648), a system
of rhetoric in which the principles of conceptismo as opposed
to culteranismo are inculcated ; El Discrcto (1645), a delineation
of the typical courtier ; El Ordctdn manual y arte de prudencia
1647), a system of rules for the conduct of life ; and El Crilicon
1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical allegory of human
existence. The only publication which bears Grecian's name is
El Comulgatorio (1655) ; his more important books were issued
under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Grecian (possibly a brother
of the writer) or under the anagram of Grecian de Marloncs.
Grecian was punished for publishing without his superior's
permission El Criticim (in which Defoe is alleged to have found
the germ of Robinson Crusoe)-, but no objection was taken to
GRACKLE-
its substance. He ha* been excessively praised by Schopenhauer,
whose appreciation of the author induced him to translate the
Ordado manual, and he has been unduly depreciated by Ticknor
and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his
systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories.
See Karl Borinski, Baltasar Graciin and die Hoftitteratur in
Deutschland (Halle, 1S94); Benedetto Croce, I Trattatisti itali an i del
" concettismo " e Baltasar Graciin (Napoli, 1899); Narciso Jose
Liftdn y Heredia, Baltasar Graciin (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer
and Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the Oriculo manual
into German and English.
GHACKLE (Lat. Gracctuus or Graculus), a word much used in
ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to
memliers of the families Sturnidac belonging to the Old World
and Icleridae belonging to the New. Of the former those to which
it has been most commonly applied are the species known as
mynas, mainas, and minors of India and the adjacent countries,
and especially the Gracula religiosa of Linnaeus, who, according
to Jerdon and others, was probably led to confer this epithet
upon it by confounding it with the Stumus or Acridothrres
tristis ,' 1 which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to Ram Deo,
one of their deities, while the true Gracula religiosa docs not
seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in.
Gracula religiosa.
in length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple
and green reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the
quill-feathers of the wings. The hill is orange and the legs
yellow, but the bird's most characteristic feature is afforded
by the curious wat ties of bright yellow, which, beginning behind
the eves, run backwards in form of a lappet on each side, and then
return in a narrow stripe to the top of the head. Beneath each
eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This species is
common in southern India, and is represented farther to the
north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by
cognate forms. They are all frugivorous, und, being easily
tamed and learning to pronounce words very distinctly, are
favourite cage-birds. 1 '
In America the name Grackle has been applied to several
species of the genera Scnlecophagus and Quiscalus, though these
are more commonly called in the United Stales and Canada
“ blackbirds,” and some of them “ boat-tails.” They all belong
to the family Icleridae. The best known of these are the rusty
grackle, S. ferruginous, which is found in almost the whole of
North America, and Q. purpweus, the purple grackle or crow-
1 By some writers the birds of the genera Acridotheres and Temenu-
ckus are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of Gracula
arc called " hill mynas ” by way of distinction.
3 For a valuable monograph on the various species of Gracula and
its allies see Professor Schlegel’s “Bijdrage tot de Keonis von liet
Geschlacht 'Beo'" ( Naderlandsch Tijischnftvoor de Dierkunde i. 1-9).
3J*
blackbird, of more limited range, for though •fcundaat ia most
parts to the east of the Kockv Mountains, it seems not to appear
on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer’* or the blue-headed
grackle, S. cyanocepkalus, which has a more western range, not
occurring to the eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth
species, Q. major, inhabits the Atlantic States as far north as
North Carolina. All these birds are of exceedingly omnivorous
habit, and though destroying large numbers of pernicious
insects are in many places held in bud repute from the mischief
they do to the corn-crops. (A. N.)
GRADISCA, a town of Austria, in the province of Gbrz and
Gradisca, ro ra. S.W. of Gbrz by rail. l’op. (1900) 3843, mostly
Italians. It is situated on the right hank of the Isonzo and was
formerly a strongly fortified place. Its principal Industry is silk
spinning. Gradisca originally formed part of the margraviate
of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of Aquileia in 1038,
and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca was
fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to
the emperor Maximilian 1 . In 1647 Gradisca and its territory,
including Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected
into a separate countship in favour of Johann Anton von
Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On the extinction of his line
in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was completely incor¬
porated with Gbrz in 1754. The name was revived by the
constitution of 1861, which established the cvownland of Gbrz
and Gradisca.
GRADO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo ;
ji m. W. by N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a
left-hand tributary of the Nalon. Pop. (1900) 17,125. Grade
is built in the midst of a mountainous, well-wooded and fertile
region. It has some trade in timber, live stock, rider and
agricultural produce. The nearest railway station is that of the
Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and small-arms
factory, 5 m. S.E.
GRADUAL (Med. 1 -at. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or
degrees ; gradus, step), advancing or taking place by degrees
or step by step; hence used of a slow progress or a gentle de¬
clivity or slope, opposed to steep or precipitous. As a sub¬
stantive, “ gradual ” (Med. Lat. graduate or gradate) is used of
a service btx>k or antiphonal of the Roman -Catholic Church
containing certain antiphons, called 11 gruduuls,” sung at the
service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle.
This antiphon received the name either because it was sung
on the steps of the altar or while the deacon was mounting the
steps of the ambo for the reading or singing of the Gospel. For
the so-called Gradual Psalms, cxx.-cxxxiv., the ‘‘songs of
degrees,” LXX. <t>oi) dru fiatifiiitv, see Psalms, Book or.
GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduate, to admit to an academical
degree, gradus), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the
academical sense intransitively, i.e. “ to take or proceed to a
university degree,” and figuratively of acquiring knowledge of,
or proficiency in, anything. The original transitive sense of
“ to confer or admit to a degree ” is, however, still preserved in
America, where the word is, moreover, not strictly confined to
university degrees, but is used also of those successfully com¬
pleting a course of study at any educational establishment.
As a substantive, a “ graduate ” (Med. Lat. graduatus) is one
who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have
matriculated at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are
known as “ undergraduates.” The word “ student," used of
undergraduates e.g. in Scottish universities, is never applied
generally to those of the English and Irish universities. At
Oxford the only “ students ” are the } ‘ senior students ” (i.e,
fellows) and “ junior students ” (i.e. undergraduates on the
foundation, or “ scholars ”) of Christ Church. The verb “ to
graduate ” is also used of dividing anything into degrees of parts
in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application
sec Graduation below. It may also mean “ to arrange in
gradations ” or “ to adjust or apportion according to a given
scale.” Thus by “a graduated income-tax” is meant the
system by which the percentage paid differs according to the
amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.
—GRADUATE
312
GRADUATION
M AD P iTOI («*• also Graduate), the art of dividing straight
scales, circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required
number of equal parts. It is the most important and difficult
part of the work of the mathematical instrument maker, and is
required in the construction of most physical, astronomical,
nautical and surveying instruments.
The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the
teeth of their wheels at regular intervals ; but so long as it was
confined to them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in
its performance was required. Tin's only arose when astronomy
began to be seriously studied, and the exact position of the
heavenly bodies to be determined, which created the necessity
for strictly accurate means of measuring linear and
magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art which
required special talents and training, and the best artists gave
great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments.
Of these may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-174*), John
Bird (1709-1776), John Smeaton (17*4-179*), Jesse Ramsdfin
( 1 7 A 5 — °°)> John Troughton, Edward Troughton (1753-1835),
William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross.
The first graduated instrument must have been done by the
hand and eye alone, whether it was in the form of a straight¬
edge with equal divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but,
once in the possession of one such divided instrument, it was a
comparatively easy matter to employ it as a standard. Hence
graduation divides itself into two distinct branches, original
graduation and copying, which latter may be done either by the
hand or by a machine called a dividing engine. Graduation
may therefore be treated under the three heads of original
graduation, copying and machine graduation.
Original Graduation. In regard to the graduation of straight
scales elementary geometry provides the means of dividing
r straight line into any number of equal parts by the method
of continual bisection ; but the practical realization of the
geometrical construction is so difficult as to render the method
untrustworthy. This method, which employs the common
diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius
which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read
tonunutos-a R ‘ slllt > according to Thomson and Tait (Nat.
Phtl.), giving no greater accuracy than is now attainable by
the pocket sextants of Troughton and Simms, the radius of
whose arc is little more than an inch.”
The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the
J!, bisection or by stepping. Jn continual bisection
to* t u n . K . th , °, f Uic bne is first laid down. Thun, as nearly as
possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked
cli-cs from cacli end of the line. Should these marks
u> nci le the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not as
will almost always be the case, the distance between the mark's is
carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The
teto’riw™ ‘V^iT 1 a !’| ,U f 1 l< ! thc llaIves thus obtained, and so on
‘ lv V ii , nR ' he lme lnk ' ports represented by 2, 4, 8 if,
*t„: . dt ; 3,rerl d,v “ , °! ,s reached. In the method of stepping
the smallest division required is hrst taken, as accurately as possible
steJh"™ I tS i “??, U i ut U, ") an “ w then laid oil, by successive
Steps bom one end of the line. In this method, any error at starting
wHl be multiplied at each division by the number of that division
,- r T? rs raad * umially adjusted by the dots being put either
‘ U -r?- C hy m0!uls of the dividing punch guided by a
magmfune glaaa. Tins is an extremely tedious process, as the dots
Bliapelo^s H ' tered MVCra timrs ’ are “P* to insufferably large and’
TTie division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle
as the graduation of straight lines.
The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was
vatorvln ra i' am (lf, 7 . 3 -i 75 i) for Greenwich Obser‘-
vatory in 17*3. In this two concentric ares of radii of,-8s and
95-K in. r«P«ctively were first described by the beam-compass On
the inner of these the are of 90° was to be divided into degrees and
tore <v Ut! ’ °i* d **ree> whfie the same on tlie outer was to be divided
P a J 7 » nd the* again into 16th parts. The reason for
,?*!» Wm " *•»£.'*’ and ,f> being both powers of *, the
tfvWons could he got at by continual bi£tion alone, which, in
Urahams opinion who first employed it, is tlie only accurate
method, and would thug serve as a check upon the accuracy of the
divisions of the outer are. With the same distance on the beam-
a " r®* ni * d b» describe the inner are, laid off from o‘,
the point 60 was ^t once determined. With the points o* sad 60*
as centres successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very
toe arc of 60”, two slight marks were maSTon tttt
“TJ*. toe distance between these marks was divided by the hand
aided by a lens, and this gave the point 30*. The chord of 6o*
Uid off ‘ram the point; 30* gave the point 90°, and the quadrant
was now divided into three equal parts. Each of these parts was
o^ S e e » C ^i an i th u r “toting divisions again trisecte^givtoj
'® f P a !7 ° f h *““• of these quinquesected gave degrees, the
l*th parti of which were arrived at by Trisecting and trisecting «
«d°» e ° uter ar . C wa * 1 divided by continual bisection alrat
“ d ? toble was constructed by which the readings of the one are
could be converted into those of the other. After the dots ; _j,
Sf'riFr tl !!,, re , quired , divisions were obtained, either straight strokes
■ , towarcl8 the centre were drawn through thorn by the
hl the ie knl e ' “ tometimes small arcs were drawn through them
which 6 ™ am ’t° mpas f having its fixed point somewhere onthe line
quadrantal arc at the p° int
r ,J, ho u . ( ; xt important example 01 graduation was done by Bird in
1767 His quadrant, which was also 8-ft radius J divided
into degrees and 12th parts of a degree. He emnloved th» mJeaf 1
of continual bisection aided by chords taken from an exact scale of
equal part, which could read to -ooi of an inchand which he had
previously graduated by continual bisections. With the beam
20' ■ From ?hb
puted and each of t£m bj WmToi the^o?V^^'kSd
off on a separate beam-compass to be ready. The radius laid off
thC J' oint fl °" • ” ‘he chord of V ,o” the arc “ 0o‘ was
bistcted from the point 30“ the radius laid off gave the point 00°
from ys^WMliidoff f° ff b “ k ^ ards . from 90“ gave the point ~ 5 \
1 75 , . ° <( fon v»tds the chord of io^ 20' ■ and from 00 s
was laid off backwards the chord of 4° 40'; and these were fournUo
coincide in the point 8 5 « 20'. Now 8y“ S g , ' re* ,
sections For"^^™* 0 " 8 ,! 0 * 8 K 2 °' Were ,tm nd by continual bi¬
sections. For the remainder of the quadrant beyond Ss° 20'
was^laid'Fjff' from^ttef - Chord of 8uch divisions
divlde bv coFZj^i.^ 85 £» and toe corresponding arc
,,‘T d by continual blsoebons as before. There was thus a severe
; ck ,T" he a a CU s raC s y ° f toe points already found, viz 1,° 3,?
00 - 75 > 9° 1 which, howevei, wore found to coincide with the
hnes throuciftfe'dS obttia f by continual bisections. The short
The nexf sFif, v 1 dra wn n toe way already mentioned,
lohn md EdZrd Tr^re 1 " « raduation are the brotliers
P’i ~-:tew rraija js
gave the point 60 . This are bisected and the half laid oil from
7S° ■ M tT ( . t »rr , £!I lt 90 ■ ? he between 60° and 90° bisected gave
•o„rn,. ‘- Ll tWee S l 5 aad 9° bisected gave the point 82- 30'
Furtl ir th« be »re e S*^- 3O 0 a o nd bi3ec ted gave the Jmint 86»
r s of ,t .r„ ^!!, n 0 8 o 3 ? and 8(, ° '5' trisected, and two-
Keen ‘AW ®, 2 '1°' * ave tl,e l“'nt 8.5°, while the arc
' and 8 f: r 5 .also trisected, and one-third part laid off
m l 8t” tV’lfriFe th - P °‘ nt 2;i '' Ltt5tlv - ‘be arc between S 5 »
Lave 8s» l • f T ulni l u ' !Se oted, and four-fifths taken beyond 83“
isisias&s; ™ fN
toJ| K 7p th °, d of origmal graduation discovered by Edward Trouch-
mpioyed bv himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft radius Th<»
onto h 048 ° n ^ Sw L h d e
revolved 16 times n ,y US DeX:t P rovid « d , of “ach diameter that it
the outer ^ ■ own axis wlule made to roll once round
wasnttacheffto^frame rc e t Tbls J ollcr ,>. I . nad< ‘ movable on pivots,
flifinre+i • I ^ ^me-work, which could lx* slid freely, yet tiehtlv
along the circ e, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of frictional
°"..toe outer edge. The roller wasTiso, af“lFv£gW
properl} adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as possible into
tteT,nJ artS by ” n 7 Parallel to its axis ' While thelrlmeca^ins
Snmc ofZ ™ r once TOund along the circle, tlie P 2 "i
“ , the roller-divisions with the circle were accurately ob-
y t , w ° microacopes attached to the frame, one of which
id^ Ch )' T t sll >dl call H) commanded the ring on the circle near its
roUer-divlslons* 8 Th rec ^ iv f to' divisions and the other viewed the
Jrith faint dSti InF of contact thus ascertained were marked
^neari y d tuul“ rt e m0ndUm C,rC ‘ e U ‘^b y divided into 256
I 'f x i part i )1 th e operation was to find out and tabulate the
errors of these dots, which are called apparent errora in
t ba t*^ ts°n efah Ko ° ** eacbdot bci, ‘? escerfained on the sujiposiHon
sc^ fw® urs . T K u f 0 ™ 1 Fot tois purpore two Taicro
ani^iirome^^ S ' a iL aU L A and were token, with cross wires
“to a 9 ^’!?.^. COn y ting ° f tt and head divided
di ^ 0n *- 50 04 wh,c b read in the one and 30 in the opposite
were fixed so that their croSwirre
«I»ctively bisected the dote o and i*8, which were supposed to
roood l ^*? y ;. Opp0 Sf; 2 be - c i rc,e . w .“ . now .turned nahbway
GRADUATION jm
-ad, should dot o be found to ooincide with B, then the two dots
wen 180° apart. If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coin¬
cided with dot o, and the number of divisions of the micrometer
hand noted. Half this number save clearly the error of dot taS,
and it was tabulated +or- according as the arcual distance between
u and 1*8 was found to exceed or fall short of the remaining part
of the circumference. The microscope B was now shifted, A re¬
maining opposite dot o as before, till its wire bisected dot 64, and,
by giving the circle one quarter of a turn on its axis, the difference
of the arcs between dots a and 64 and between 04 and 1*8 was
obtained. The half of this difference gave the apparent error of
dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper sign. With the micro¬
scope A still in the same position the error of dot 192 was obtained,
and in the same way by shifting B to dot (* the errors of dots 3a,
96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In this way the
apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated.
From this table of apparent errors a table of real errors was
drawn up by employing the following formula :—
j(*„+ *,)+*= the real error of dot b,
where x a is the real error of dot a, x, the real error of dot c, and *
the apparent error of dot b midway between a and c. Having got
the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives
the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots.
The last part of Troughton’s process was to employ them to cut
the final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5' each.
Now the mean interval between any two dots is 3<>o°/2j6 = 5' x I6J,
and hence, in the final division, thus interval must be divided into
■ (>{ equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a
subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and
had a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable
as to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis,
and rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional
adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow
ol its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting
the roller. While the roller passes over an angular space fqual to
the mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must
pass over 16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle re¬
presented by 360° x 16/236=22° 30'. This interval was therefore
divided by ibjj, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was
laid off on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each
equal to i° 20'; and, to provide for the necessary Iths of a division,
there was laid off at each end of the Bector, and beyond the 16
equal parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts.
A microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on
the main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions,
i ust as the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle,
lefore the first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was
brought under I and then the division cut at the point on the circle
indicated by H, which also coincided with the dot o. The frame
was then slipped along the circle by the slow screw motion provided
for the purpose, till the first sector-division, by the action of the
roller, was brought under I. The second mark was then cut on the
circle at the point indicated by H. Thai the marks thus obtained
are 5' apart is evident when we reflect that the distance between
tbem must be ^th of a division on the section which by construction
is 1“ 20'. In this way the first 10 divisions were cut; but before
cutting the 17th it was necessary to adjust the micrometer wires
of H to the real error of dot I, as indicated by the table, and bring
back the sector, not to zero, but to jjtli short of zero. Starting
from this position the divisions between dots 1 and 2 were filled in,
and then H was adjusted to the real error of dot 2, and the sector
brought back to its proper division before commencing the third
course. Proceeding in this manner through the whole circle, the
microscope H was finally found with its wire at zero, and the sector
with its 16th division under its microscope indicating that the
circle had been accurately divided.
Copying, —In graduation by copying the pattern must be
either an accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately
divided circle, commonly called a dividing plate.
In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided,
usually called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their
upper faces in the same plane. The dividing square, which closely
resembles an ordinary joiner’s square, is then laid across both,
and the point of the dividing knife dropped into the zero division
of the pattern. The square is now moved up close to the point
of the knife ; and, while it is held firmly in this position by the
left hand, the first division on the work is made by drawing the
knife along the edge of the square with the right hand.
It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale
are either greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet
this case, and still use the same pattern, the work must be fixed
at a certain angle 6 i inclination with the pattern. This angle
it found in the following way. Take the exact ratio of a division
on the pattern to the required division on the scale. Call this
ratio a. Thu, if the required divisions are longer than those
of the pattern, the angle is cot “ ‘a, but, if shorter, the angle is
sec ‘o. In the former case two operations are required before
the divisions are cut: first, die square is laid on the pattern,
and the corresponding divisions merely notched very faintly
on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the square is applied
to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite each faint
notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is sec ~ ‘a, the
dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions cut
when (he edge of the square coincides with the end of each
division on the pattern.
In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This
is a circular plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully
graduated near its outer edge. It is turned quite-flat, and has
a steel pin fixed in its centre, and at right angles to its plane.
For guiding the dividing knife an instrument called an index
is employed. This is a straight bar of thin steel of length equal
to the radius of the plate. A piece of metal, having a V notch
with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one end of the bar in
such a position that the vertex of the notch is exactly in a line
with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the index is
laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the
straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The
work to be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed
by two clamps in a position exactly concentric with it. The
index is now laid on, with its edge coinciding with any required
division on the dividing plate, and the corresponding division
on the work is cut by drawing the dividing knife along the
straight edge of the index.
Machine Graduation. —The first dividing engine was probably
that of Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly
used by him for cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was
followed shortly after by an engine devised by the due de
Chaulnes; but the first notable engine was that made by Ramsden,
of which an account was published by the Board of Longitude
in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of £300,
and a further sum of £315 was given to him on condition that he
would divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of ether
makers. The essential principles of Kamsden’s machine have
been repeated in almost all succeeding engines for dividing
circles.
Ramaden’s machine consisted of a large brass plate 45 in. in dia¬
meter. carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge
of the plate was ratched with 21(10 teeth, into which a tangent
screw worked, by means of which the plate could be made to turn
through any required angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved .
tlie plate through 1°, and A>tli of a turn through ,1-th of a degree.
On the axis of the tangent screw was placed u cylinder having a
spiral groove cut on its surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 00
teeth was attached to this cylinder, and was so arranged that, when
tlie cylinder moved in one direction, it catried the tangent screw
with it, and so turned the plate, but when it moved in the opposite
direction, it left the tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary.
Round the spiral groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wonnd,
one end of which was attached to a treadle and the other to a counter¬
poise weight. When the treadle was depressed tlie tangent screw
turned round, and when the pressure was removed ft returned, in
obedience to the weight, to its former position without affecting
the screw. Provision was also made whereby certain stops could be
placed in the way of the screw, which only allowed it tne requisite
amount of turning. The work to be divided was firmly fixed on the
plate, and made concentric with it. The divisions were cut, while
the screw was stationary, by means of a dividing knife attached to
a swing frame, which allowed it to have only a radial motion, in
this way the artist could divide very rapidly by alternately depress¬
ing the treadle and working the dividing knife.
Ramsden also constructed a linear dividing engine on essentially
the same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular
plate with its notches stretched out into a straight line and made
movable in a straight slot, the screw, treadle, &c., remaining
as before, we get a very good idea of toe linear engine.
In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing
engine, of which toe plate was smaller than in Ramaden’s, ana
which differed considerably in simplifying matters of detail
The plate was originally divided by Troughton’s own method,
already described, and the divisions so obtained were employed
3H
GRADUS—GRAETZ
to ratal) the edge of the piste for receiving the tangent screw
with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (Trans. Sac. Arts, 1*30-
1831) constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably
from those of Ramsden and Troughton.
The essential point of difference is that, in Koas's engine, the
tangent screw does not torn the engine plate; that is done by an
independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is
oniy to stop the plate after it has passed through the required
angular interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated.
Round the circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which
just look as if the circumference hod been divided into as many
deep and somewhat peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through
each of these teoth a hole is bored parallel to the plane of the plate
and also to a tangent to its circumference. Into these holes are
screwed steel screws with capstan heads and fiat ends. The tangent
screw consists only of a single turn of a large square thread which
works in the teeth or notches of the plate. This thread is pierced
by 90 equally distant holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw,
and at the same distance from it. Into each of these holes is in¬
serted a steel screw exactly similar to those in the teeth, but with
its end rounded. It is the rounded and flat ends of these sets of
screws coming together that stop the engine plate at the desired
position, and the exact jioint can lie nicely adjusted by suitably
turning the screws.
A description is given of a dividing engine made by William
Simms in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, 1843. Simms
b l C T L u C ° nvinced dlat u P° n s "toller circles the divisions
■which had been put upon a large plate with very great accuracy
was not only more expeditious but more exact than original
graduation. His machine involved essentially the same prin¬
ciple as Troughton s. The accompanying figure is taken bv
permission. ’
The plate A is 4b in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-meta!
fetot on°an hdald^"'A haS tw 5 wts o{ 5 ' dmsioniJSne very
‘"laid rm « silver, and the other stronger on the gun-
pU ! ° B b >'original graduation, mainly on the
et« 4 n? Is that o' Tro,,R n t . 0n - ,°, ne ver V K r °nt improvement in this
engine is that the axis B is tubular, as seen at C. TTie object of this
hollow is to receive the axis of the circle to be divided/so that it
MSSLSftS *«* pl i te b> a the da,n P s E > without having first
and ? 0, er P arts to which it has already
been carefully fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting
'*h‘"h can hardly be done without some error. D m tile tangent
thf frame carrying it whicb turns on carefully polished
S. pivots. The smew is pressed against the edge of the plate
T* 1 * 1 under tb * ®" d 01 th* tfver G , and by sSew-
»* tte lever dorwntheecrew can be altogether removed from'contact
with tlie plate. The edge of the plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which
' : “L°PI , 9 dt ® the original division by a circular cutter attached
to the screw frame. H hr the spiral barrel round which the catgut
L* < 5 n ® ""d nf which IS attached to the crank L on the
the axis J ancighe other to a oounterpaiee weight not seen
On the other end of j w another crank inclinodto Land carryfaTa
l!*f. d i^.. ro - U n ! r | Kli,<! weightaeen at K. The object of this Weight
h to beatice the fprmer and give steadiness to the motion Onthe
suds J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which move the tod I, which,
byanotherpan-ofbe veiled wheels attached to the box li, gives
morion to the axis M oo the end of which is an eccentric for moving
roe bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying the cutter. Be.
tween toe eccentric and the point of the screw P is an undulathu
plate by which long divisions can be cnt. The cutting apparMm
» supported upon the two parallel rails which can be rieVatod m
depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting apparatus
. C r n iim. , m ? l V y ,0 rward 1 backward upon these rails to* saitebdos
b ? x N is movable npon the bar R, and
t f Me “ *? len S th by having a kind cf telescope
joint. The engine » self-acting, and can be driven either by hand
or by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown is
or oot of gear at once by a handle seen at b.
Mention niay be made of Donkin’s linear dividing engine
in which a compensating arrangement is employed whereby
i B rea t accuracy is obtained notwithstanding the i nr^ -up^ 0 f
1 the screw used to advance the cutting tool. Dividing engines
have also been made by Reichenbach, Repsoki and others in
Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other astronomical
instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R Watts
& Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the Monthly Not R. A. S.
January 1909.
Of*/!?? °f dM *i n S Astronomical Instruments
(London, 1767) Due de Chantaes, Noumlle Mtthods pour divisor
m S * malktmatiifm et d’astronomu (1768); Ramsden,
fr m L E "P ne for dividing Mathematical Instruments
(London 1777 ) j Troughton's memoir, Phil. Trans. (1809); Memoirs
0/ Ike Royal Astronomical Society, v. 425, viii. 141, ix. 17, i«.
See also J. E. Watkins, "On the Uamsden Machine," Smithsonian
Rep. (iSgo) p, 72r ; and l, Ambxoim, Astranomische lnstrumenten-
hunde(ib 09 ). (J. Bt.)
GRADUa, or Gradus ad Parnassum (a step to Parnassus),
a Latin (or Greek) dictionary, in which the quantities of the
vowels of the words are marked. Synonyms, epithets and
poetical expressions and extracts are also included under the
more important headings, the whole being intended as an aid
for students in Greek and Latin verse composition. The first
Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit P*ul Aler
(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus
^ on 8 e ( j8 5 °)i Engfish-Latin by A. C. Ainger and
H. G. Wintle (1890); Greek by J. Brassc (1828) and E. Moltby
(1815), bishop of Durham.
GRAETZ, HEINRICH (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish
historian of modern times, was bom in Posen in 1817 and died
at Munich in 1891. He received a desultory education, and
was largely self-taught. An important stage in his development
was the period of three years that he spent at Oldenburg as
assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened orthodoxy
was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz
proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1S42. Breslau
was then becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the
leader of Jewish reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger’s
attitude, and though he subsequently took radical views of the
Bible and tradition (which made him an opponent of Hirsch),
Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform. He contended for
freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for freedom
of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the
rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career. For some years
he supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute
by his published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the
fourth volume of his history of the Jews made him famous. This
fourth volume (the first to be published) dealt with the Talmud.
It was a brilliant resuscitation of the past. Graetz’s skill in
piering together detached fragments of information, his vast
learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were equalled by
his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book
of the 19th century produced such a sensation as this, and
Graetz won at a bound the position he still occupies as recog¬
nized master of Jewish history. His Gesckickte der Juden,
begun in 1853, was completed in 1875 ! nen editions of the
several volumes were frequent. The work has been translated
into many languages; it appeared in English in five volumes
m 1891-1895. The History is defective in its lack of objectivity ;
Graetz's judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular he
lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a walk
GRAEVIUS—GRAFE, K. FJ VON
3*5
of genius. Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv.
Graetz was appointed on the staff of the new Breslau Seminary,
of which tne first director was Z. FrankeL Graetz passed the
remainder of his life in this office ; in 1869 he was created pro¬
fessor by the government, and also lectured at the Breslau
University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a biblical
critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the
date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books.
His critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief con¬
tribution to biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor
Bacher edited Graetz’s Emendationes to many parts of the
Hebrew scriptures.
A full bibliography of Grants's works is given in the Jewish
Quarterlv Review, iv. 194; a memoir oi Graetz is also to be found
there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the " index " volume
of the History in the American re issue of the English translation
in six volumes (Philadelphia, 1898). (I. A.)
GRAEVIUS (properly Gbave or Greffe), JOHANN GEORG
(1632-1703), German classical scholar and critic, was bom at
Natimburg, Saxony, on the 29th of January 1632. He was
originally intended for the law, but having made the acquaintance
of J. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer, under his
influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He com¬
pleted his studies under D. Hcinsius at Leiden, and under the
Protestant theologians A. Moms and D. P.londel at Amsterdam.
During his residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel’s influence
he abandoned Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church ;
and in 1656 he was Tailed by the elector of Brandenburg to
the chair of rhetoric in the university of Duisburg. Two years
afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he was chosen
to succeed that scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was translated
to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the chair
of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January tnh, 1703)
thafc of history and politics. Gracvius enjoyed a very high
reputation as a tearher, and his lecture-room was crowded
by pupils, many of them of distinguished rank, from all parts
of the civilized world. He was honoured with special recogni¬
tion by Taiuis XIV., and was a particular favourite of William III,
of England, who made him historiographer royal.
His two most important works are the Thesaurus antiquitatum
Romanarum (il>n.|-if>90, in 12 volumes), and the Thesaurus anti¬
quitatum et histuriarum Itahae published after Ills death, and
continued by the drier Burmann (1704-1725). His editions at the
classics, although they marked a distinct advance in scholarship,
are now for the most part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667),
Lucian, Pseudosaplnsta (lOO.H), Justin, Historiar PhiHpfncac (iWx)),
Suetonius (1072), Catullus, Tibullus ei Propertius (1680), and
several of the works oi Cicero (his best production!. He also edited
many uf the writings of contemporary scholars. The Oraito funebris
by P. Burmann (1704) contains an exhaustive list of the works
of this scholar ; see also P. H. Kiilb in Ersch and Gruber's Atlgemrinr
Enivhtapuilie, and J. E. Sandys, History ot Classical Scholarship, ii,
(1908).
GRAF, ARTURO (1848- ), Italian poet, of German ex¬
traction, was bom at Athens. He was educated at Maples
University and became a lecturer on Italian literature in Rome,
till in 1882 he was appointed professor at Turin. He was one
of the founders of the Giamale della letteratura italiana, and his
publications indude valuable prose criticism; but he is best
known as n poet. His various volumes of verse— Fqestc e
rtoveUe (1874), Dope il bamonla verst (1893), &c.—give him a
high place among the recent lyrical writers of his country.
GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815-1869), German Old Testa¬
ment scholar and orientalist, was bom at Miilhausen in Aisace
on the 28th of February 1815. He studied Biblical exegesis
and oriental languages at the university of Strassburg under
E. Reuss, and, after holding various teaching posts, was made
instructor in French and Hebrew at the Landesschule of Meissen,
receiving in 1652 the title of professor. He died on the r6th of
July 1869. Graf wgs one of the chief .founders of Old Testament
criticism. In his principal work. Die gesclfichtlichen Bucher
des Allen Testaments (1866), he sought to show that the priestly
legislation of Exodus, Leviticus ami Numbers is of later origin
than the book of, Deuteronomy. He stdl, however, held the
accepted view, that the Elohistic narratives formed part of the
Gnmdstkrifi end therefore belonged to the ddeet portions 9f
the Pentateuch. Tha reaeons urged against the contention that
the priestly legislation and the Elohistic narratives were separ¬
ated by a space of 500 years were so strong as to induce Graf,
in an essay, “ Die sogenunnte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs,”
published shortly before his death, to regard the whole Orund-
sekrift as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch,
The idea had already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since
Graf was the first to introduce it into Germany, the theory,
as developed by Julius Wdlhaosen, has been called Hie Graf-
Wellhausen hypothesis.
Graf also wrote, Her Segen Moses Dtul. j; (1 857) aad Dee Prophet
Jeremia erkldrt (1802). See T. K. Clieyne, Pounders 0/ Old Testament
Criticism (1893); and Otto Pflciderors book ti.inslatad'into English
by J. F. Smith ns Development of Theology (18911). '
GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828-1870), German oculist, sen
of Karl Ferdinand von Griife, was bora at Berlin on the 22nd
of May 1828. At an early age he manifested a preference for the
study of mathematics, but this was gradually superseded by an
interest in natural science, which led him ultimately to the study
of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at Berlin, Vienna,
Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and devoting
special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice
as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution
for the treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many
similar ones in Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was
appointed teacher of ophthalmology in Berlin university; in
1858 he became extraordinary prolessor, and in 1866 ordinary
professor. Grafe contributed largely to the progress of the
'science of ophthalmology, especially by the establishment in
1855 of his Archiv fiir Ophthalmologic, in which he had Ferdinand
Arlt (1812-1887) and F. C. Bonders (1818-1889) as collaborators.
Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his method
of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He
was also regarded us an authority in diseases of the nerves
and brain. He died at Berlin on the 20th of July 1870.
See Ein Wort dor Erinntrung an Albrecht von Graft (Halle, 1870)
by his cousin, Alfred Grille (1830-1899), also a distinguished ophthal¬
mologist, and the anther of Das Sihen der Schielende* (Wlesfctoen,
1807) I and E. Michaels, Albrecht von Gnlfe. Sein Lebm una
Wtrheu (Berlin, 1877).
GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802-1868), German educationist, was
bom at Buttstiidt in Saxe-Weimar on the 3rd of May 180a.
He studied mathematics and theology at Jena, and in 1823
obtained a curacy in the town church of Weimar. He was
transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825 ; in 1840
he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science '
of education (Piidagogik) in that university; und in 1842 he
became head of tire: Burgerschulr (middle class sellout) in Cause!.
After reorganizing the schools of the toyn, he became director
of the new llealschule in 1843; and, devoting himself to the
interests of educational reform in electoral Hesse, he became
in 1849 a member of the school commission, and also entered
the house of representatives, where he made himself somewhat
formidable as an agitator. In 1852 for having been implicated
in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular
minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission,
he was condemned to three years' imprisonment, a sentence
afterwards reduced to one of twelve months. On his release he
withdrew to Geneva, where he engaged in educational work
till 1855, when he was appointed director of the school of industry
at Bremen. He died in that city on the 21st of July 1868.
Besides being the author oi many text-books and occasional
paper* on educational subjects, he wrote Das HechtsverhOUnis der
Volkssckule von innen und aussen (1829); Die Sckulreform (1834);
Sckule und Vnterricht (1839) ; Allgemeine Pddagogih (1843); Die
dmtlseke VoUtssckuD (1*47). Together with Neumann, he ate edited
the Archiv ftr doe prahtischr VoUssckatuesen (1828-1633!.
GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1787-1840), German
surgeon, was bom at Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He
studied medicine at Halle and Leipzig, and alter obtaining
licence from the Leipzig university, he was in 1807 appointed
private pbysician to Duke Alexius of Anhait-Bemburg. In
18r2.be became professor of mguy and director of the surgical
GRAFFITO—GRAFTON, DUKES OF
clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was super-
intendent of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded
in 1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed
physician to the general staif of the army, and he became a
director of the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-
Chirurgical Academy. He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1840
at Hanover, whither he had been called to operate on the eyes
of the crown prince. GrSfe did much to advance the practice
of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment of wounds.
He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was chiefly
due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted
students from all parts of Europe.
The following are his principal works : Normm far die Ablosunf
grosser Gliedmaesen (Berlin, 1812); Rhinoptastik (1818) ; Nsue Bet-
tnige eur Kunst Theile dee Angesichls organitch ju erseteen (1821! :
Die epidemisch-hontagibse Augenblennorrhoe Agyptens in den
europdischen Befmungsheereu (1824); and ] ahresbericUe ilber das
htinuch-chirurgisch-augenareUiche Institut der Vniversitdl eu Berlin
I1H17-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the Journal
fUr Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde. See E. Michaelis, Karl Ferdinand
von Grdfe in seiner joiShrigen Wirken far Stoat und Wissenschaft
(Berlin, 1840).
GRAFFITO, plural graffiti, the Italian word meaning " scribb¬
ling ” or “ scratchings ” (graffiare, to scribble, Gr. ypaepttv),
adopted by archaeologists as a general term for the casual
writings, rude drawings and markings on ancient buildings,
in distinction from the more formal or deliberate writings known
as “ inscriptions.” These “ graffiti,” either scratched on stone
or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a nail, or, more rarely,
written in red chalk or black charcoal, arc found ih great abund-,
ance, e.g. on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The best-known
“ graffiti ” arc those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and else¬
where in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrueci
(Graffiti di Pompei, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra (“Graffiti di
Roma ” in Balletino della commissions municipals archaeologica,
Rome, 1893; see also Corp. Ins. Lai. iv., Berlin, 1871).
The subject matter of these scribblings is much the same as
that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys, street idlers
and the casual “ tripper.” The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote out
lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from \ irgil for
memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, “ sports¬
men ” scribbled the name of horses they had been “ tipped,”
and wrote those of their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse
is frequent, and rude caricatures are found, such as that of one
Peregrinus with an enormous nose, or of Naso or Nasso with
hardly anv. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes up his election address
and appeals to the pilicrepi or ball-players for their votes for
him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for lovers in de¬
jection or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius appear
to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt
the nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome
near the Porta Portuensis has been found an inscription begging
people not to scribble ( scaripharr) on the walls.
Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to
the philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the
various alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasion¬
ally guide the archaeologist to the date of the building on which
they appear, but they are chiefly valuable for the light they
throw on the everyday life of the “ man in the street ” of the
period, and for the intimate details of customs and institutions
which no literature or formahinscriptions can give. The graffiti
dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in this respect
particularly noteworthy ; the rude drawings such as that of
the secular caught in the net of the retiarius and lying entirely
at his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents
of these shows were like than any account in words (see Garrueci,
op. cit., Pis. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst, 2nd
ed., 2908, ch. xxx.). In t86ft in the Trastevere quarter of Rome,
near the church of S. Crisogono, was discovered the guard-house
(excubitonum) of the seventh cohort of the city police (vigiles),
the walls being covered,by the scribblings of the guards, illustrat¬
ing in detail the daily routine, the hardships and dangers, and
the feelings of the men towards their officers (W. Henzen,
“ L’ Escubitorio delk Settima coorte dei Vigili ” in Bull. Inst.,
1867, and Annali Inst., 1874; see also R. Lanciani, Ancient
Pome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, 330, and Ruins and
Excavations of Ancient Rome, 1897, 548). The most famous
graffito yet discovered is that generally accepted^ representing
a caricature of Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the
Domus Gelotiana on the Palatine in 1857, and now preserved
in the Kircherian Museum of the Collegio Romano. Deeply
scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad in the short tunica
with one hand upraised in salutation to another figure, with
the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a cross ;
beneath is written in rude Greek letters “ Anaxamenos worships
(his) god.” It has been suggested that this represents an
adherent of some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal¬
headed deities of Egypt (see Ferd. Becker, Das Spottcrucifix
der rbmischen Kaiserpaldste, Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, Das
Spottcrucifix vom Palatin, Freiburg in Breisgau, 1872; and
Visconti and Lanciani, Guida del Pdalino).
There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti,
in the Edinburgh Review , October 1859, vol. cx. (C. We,)
GRAFLY, CHARLES (1862- ), American sculptor, was
born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December
1862. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy
of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri M. Chapu and Jean
Dampt, and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He received an
Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his “ Mauvais
Presage,” now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal
at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893,
Atlanta, 1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor,
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts), 1899. In 1892 he
became instructor in sculpture at the Pennsylvania Academy
of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at the Drexel Institute,
Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the National
Academy of Ik sign in 1905. His better-known works include :
“ General Reynolds,” Fairmount Park, Philadelphia ; “ Foun¬
tain of Man ” (made for the Pan-American Exposition at
Buffalo); “ From Generation to Generation ” ; “ Symbol of
Life ”; “ Vulture erf War,” and many portrait busts.
GRAFRATH, a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach,
14 m. E. of Diisscldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop.
(1905) 9030. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical
churches, and there was an abbey here from 1185 to 1803. The
principal industries are iron and steel, while weaving is carried
on in the town.
GRAFT (a modified form of the earlier “ graff,” through
the French from the Late Lat. graphium, a stylus or pencil),
a small branch, shoot or “ scion,” transferred from one plant or
tree to another, the “ stock,” and inserted in it so that the two
unite (see Horticulture). The name was adopted from the
resemblance in shape of the “ graft ” to a pencil. The transfer
of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another part
of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows
is also known as “ grafting,” and is frequently practised in
modern surgery. The word is applied, in carpentry, to an
attachment of the ends of timbers, and, as a nautical term, to
the “ whipping ” or “ pointing ” of a rope’s end with fine twine
to prevent unravelling. “ Graft ” is used as a slang term, in
England, for a “ piece of hard worV.” In American usage
Webster’s Dictionary (ed. 1904) defines the word as “ the act of
any one, especially an official or public employ^, by which he
procures money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position ;
also the surreptitious gain thus procured.” It is thus a word
embracing blackmail and illicit commission. The origin of the
English use of the word is probably an obsolete word “ graft,”
a portion of earth thrown up by a spade, from the Teutonic root
meaning “ to dig,” seen in German graben. and English “ grave.”
GRAFTON, DUKES OF. The English dukes of Grafton are
descended from Henry Fitzroy (1663-1690), the natural son
of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers (countess of Castlemaine and
duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was married to the daughter
and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created earl of Euston;
in 1675 1 ^ was created duke of Grafton. He was brought
GRAFTON, R.-4JRAHAM, SIR G.
up as a sailor, and *aw military service at the siege of Luxemburg
in 1684. At James II.’s coronation he was bird high constable.
In the TebeUwn of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the
royal troops in Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill
(duke of Marlborough), and joined William of Orange against
the king. Ha died of a wound received at the storming of Cork,
while.leading William’s forces, being succeeded as and duke
by his son Charles (1688-1757).
Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811),
one of the leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the
and duke, and was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He
first became known in politics as an opponent of Lord Bute : in
1765 he was secretary of state under the marquis of Rockingham;
hut he retired next year, and Pitt (becoming earl of Chatham)
'formed a ministry in which Grafton was first lord of the treasury
(1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham's illness
at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective
leader, but political differences and the attacks of “. Junius ”
led to his resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy
seal in Lord North’s ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being
in favour of conciliatory action towards the American colonists.
In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 he was again lord privy
seal. In later years he was a prominent Unitarian.
Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous
other children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitz¬
roy (1764-1820), whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858),
governor of New South Wales, and Robert Fitzroy (q.v.), the
hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th duke's son, who
succeeded as 5th duke, was father of the 6th and 7th dukes.
The 3rd duke left in manuscript a Memoir of his public career,
of which extracts have t«en printed in Stanhope's History , Walpole’s
Memories of George III. (Appendix, vol, iv.), and Campbell's Ltves
of the Chancellors.
GRAFTON, RICHARD (d. 1572), English printer and chron¬
icler, was probably born about 1513. He received the freedom
of the Grocers' Company in 1534. Miles Covcrdale’s version
of the Bible laid first been printed in 1535. Grafton was early
brought into touch with the leaders of religious reform, and in
1537 be undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch,
to produce a modified version of Coverdale’s text, generally
known as Matthew's Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris
to reprint Coverdale’s revised edition (1538). There Whitchurch
and he began to print the folio known as the Great Bible by
special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from the French govern¬
ment. Suddenly, however, the work was officially stopped qnd
the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell eventu¬
ally bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed
in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under
his direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton
and Whitchurch secured the exclusive right of printing church
service books, and on the accession of Edward VI. he was
appointed king’s printer, an office which he retained throughout
the reign. In this capacity he produced The fymke. of the ( ommon
I'raier and Administracion of the Sacramenles, and other Rites
and Ceremonies of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche of
Englattdc (1549 fol.), and Acles of Parliament (1552 and 1553).
In 1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey’s proclamation and signed
himself the queen's printer. For this he was imprisoned for a
short time, and he seems thereafter to have retired from active
business. His historical works include a continuation (1543)
of Hardyng’s Chronicle from the beginning of the reign of Edward
IV. down to Grafton's own times. He is said to have taken
considerable liberties with the original, and may practically be
regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in 1548
Edward Hall’s Union of the .. . Families of Lancastre and
Yorke, adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After
he retired from the printing business he published An Abridge¬
ment of the Chronicles of England (1562), Manuell of the Chronicles
of England (1565), Chronicle at large and meere Historyc of the
Affayres of Englamd(l$(&). In these books he chiefly adapted
the work of his predecessors, but in some cases he gives detailed
accounts of contemporary events. His name frequently appears
3*7
in the records of St Bartholomew’s and Christ’s hospitals, and
in 1553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King Edward’s
foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the
City in Parliament, and in 1360-1563 he gat for Coventry.
An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A.
Kiqgdon under the auspices of the Grocers’ Company, with the title
Richard Grafton, Citieen and Grocer of London, a-c., in continuation
of Incidents in the Lives of T. Poynts and R. Grafton (rSgj), His
Chronicle at large was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in >809.
GRAFTON, a city of Clarence county, New South Wales,
lying on both sides of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m.
from its mouth, 342 m. N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901)
4174, South Grafton, 976. The two sections, North Grafton
and South Grafton, form separate municipalities. The river
is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate
burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The
entrance to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton
is the seat of the Anglican joint-bishopric of Grafton andArmidale,
and of a Roman Catholic bishopric created in >888, both of which
have fine cathedraLs. Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are
important industries, and there are several sugar-mills in the
neighbourhood ; great numbers of horses, also, are bred for the
Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and fruits are
also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney.
There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &c. The city became a
municipality in 1859.
GRAFTON, a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1905, state census) 505a. It is
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the
Jioston & Albany railways, and by interurban electric lines.
The township contains several villages (including Grafton, North
Grafton, Saundersville, Fishervilte and Famumsville); the
principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The
villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many
summer residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public
library. There is ample water power from the Blackstone
river and its tributaries, and among the manufactures of Grafton
are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &c. Within what is now
Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of Hassanaraesit.
John Eliot, the “ apostle to the Indians,” visited it soon after
1651, and organized the third of his bands of “ praying Indians ”
there ; in 1671 he established a church for them, the second of
the kind in New England, and also a school. In 1654 the Massa¬
chusetts General Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive
use, a tract of about 4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole
proprietors until 1718, when they sold a small farm to Elisha
Johnson, the first permanent white settler in the neighbourhood.
In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro, Sudbury, Concord and
Stowe, with the permission of the General Court, bought from the
Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to establish forty
English families on the tract within three years, and to maintain
a church and school of which the Indians should have free use.
The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour
of the 2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded
Indians died about 1825.
GRAFTON, a city and the county-scat of Taylor county, West
Virginia, U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of
Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, of whom 226 were
foreign-horn and 162 were negroes. It is served by four divisions
of the Baltimore & Ohio railway, which maintains extensive car
shops here. The city is about 1000 ft. above sea-level. It has
a small national cemetery, and about 4 m. W., at Pruntytown,
is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is situated near
large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among its
manufactures are michme-shop and foundry products, window
glass and pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-miH
products. The first settlement was made about 1852, and
Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and chartered as a city in
1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city were increased
by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900, 796),
of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory.
GRAHAM, SIR GERALD (1831-1899), British general, was
born on the 27th of June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was
3 i8 GRAHAM, SIR JAMES—GRAHAM, T.
educated at Dresden and Woolwich Academy, and entered the
Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with distinction through
the Russian War of 1854 to 1836, was present at the battles of
the Alma and Inloerman, was twice wounded in the trenches
before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for
gallantry at the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism
on numerous occasions. He also received the Legion of Honour,
and was promoted to a brevet majority. In the China War of
1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho and Tang-ku, the
storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely wounded,
and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and C.B.).
Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties
until 1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works
for barracks at the war office, a position he held until his promo¬
tion to major-general in 1881, In command of the advanced
force in Kgvpt in 1882, he bore the brunt of the fighting, was
present at the action of Magfar, commanded at the first battle
of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his brigade at
Tell-el-Kehir. For his services in the campaign he received the
K.C.B. and thanks ol parliament. In 1884 he commanded the
expedition to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful
battles of El i'cb and Xanmi. On his return home he received
the thanks of parliament and was made a lieutenant-general
for distigguished service in the field. In 1885 he commanded
the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin and
Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suukin to Otao, when the
expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.).
In 1806 he was made G.C.B., and in 18(g) colonel-commandant
Royal Engineers. He died on the 17th of December 1899.
He published in 1875 a translation of Goctae’s Operations of
the German Engineers in rSyo-rSyt , and in 18H7 Last Words
with Gordon.
GRAHAM, SIB JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792-
j 861), British statesman, son of a baronet, was born at Naworth,
Cumiierland, on the 1st of June 1792, and was educated at
Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting the university,
while making the “ grand tour ” abroad, he became private
secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England
in 1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in Uie
Whig interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820.
In 1S24 he succeeded to the baronetcy ; and in 1826 he re-entered
jiarliament as representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon
exchanged for the county of Cumberland. In the same year
he published a pamphlet entitled “ Corn and Currency,” which
brought him into prominence os a man of advanced Liberal
opinions; and he liecamc one of the most energetic advocates
in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl
Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of the
admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he
sat for the eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dis¬
sensions on the Irish Church question led to his withdrawal
from the ministry in 1834, and ultimately to his joining the
Conservative party. Rejected by his former constituents in
1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841 for
Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert
Peel as secretary of state lor the home department, a post he
retained until 1H46. As home secretary he incurred considerable
odium in Scotland, by his unconciliating policy on the church
question prior to the “ disruption ” of 1843 : and in 1844 the
detention and opening of letters at the post-office by his warrant
railed a storm of public indignation, which was hardly allayed
by the favourable report of a parliamentary committee of
investigation. From 1K46 to 1852 he was out of office ; but in
the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen’s cabinet as first lord
of the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short
time in the Palmerston ministry of 1853. The appointment of
a select committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Russian
war ultimately ied to his withdrawal from official life. He
continued as a private member to exercise a considerable in¬
fluence on parliamentary opinion. He died at Netherby,
Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861.
Mis Id ft, by C S. Parker, waa published m 190 f.
GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794-1851), American dietarum,
was bom in Suffieid,Connecticut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst
College, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1826,
but he seems to have preached but little. He became an ardent
advocate of ternperanoe reform and of vegetarianism, having
persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the oause of abnormal
cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he died
at Northampton, Massachusetts, on toe nth of September
1851. His name is now remembered because of his advoaacy
of unbolted (Graham) flour, and as toe originator of “ Graham
bread.” But his reform was much broader than this. He urged,
primarily, physiological education, and in his Science of Humah
Life (1836; republished, with biographical memoir, 1858)
furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had
carefully planned a complete regimen including many details'
besides a strict diet. A Ternperanoe (or Graham) Boarding
House was opened in New York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath
Nicholson, who published Nature's Own Book (2nd ed., 1835)
giving Graham's rules for boarders; and in,Boston a Graham
House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street.
There were many Graham ites at Brook Farm, anil the American
Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly
called The tiraham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to
illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science of
human life as taught by Sylvester Graham, edited by David Campbell.
Graham wrote Essay on Cholera (1832) ; The lisculapian Tablets
of the Nineteenth Century (1834) '• Lectures to Young Men on Chastity
(2nd ed., 1837) ; and Bread and Bread Making ; and projected a
work designed to show that his system was not counter to the
Holy Scriptures.
GRAHAM, THOMAS (1805-1869), British chemist, born at
Glasgow on the 20th of December 1805, was the son of a merchant
of that city. In 1819 he entered the university of Glasgow with
the intention of becoming a minister of the Established Church.
But under the influence of Thomas Thomson (1773-5852),
the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste for experimental
science and especially for molecular physics, a subject which
formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After
graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of
Professor T. C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow
gave lessons in mathematics, and subsequently chemistry,
until the year 1829, when lie was appointed lecturer m the
Mechanics’ Institute. In 1830 he succeeded Dr Andrew Ure
(1778-1857) as professorof chemistry in the Atidersonian Institu¬
tion, and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was
transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College,
London. There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir
John Herschel as Master of the Mint, a post he held until his
death on the 16th of September 1869. The onerous duties
his Work at the Mint entailed severely tried liis energies, and
in quitting a purely scientific career he was subjected to the
cares ol official life, for which he was not fitted by temperament.
’The researches, however, which he conducted between 1861
and 1861) were as brilliant os any of those in which he engaged.
Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836,
and u corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847,
while Oxford made him a D.C.L, in 1855. He took a leading part
in the foundation of the London Chemical and the Cavendish
societies, and served as first president of both, in 1841 and 1846.
Towards the close of his life the presidency of toe Royal Society
was offered him, but his failing health caused him to decline
the honour.
Graham's work is remarkable at once for its originality and
for the simplicity of the methods employed in obtaining most
important results. He communicated papers to the Philosophical
Society of Glasgow before the work of that society was recorded
in Transactions, but his first published paper, “ On the Absorp¬
tion of Gases by Liquids,” appeared in the Annals of Philosophy
for 1826. The subject with which his name is most prominently
associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first paper on this
subject (1829) he thus summarises the knowledge experiment
had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of
gases. “ Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in in¬
teresting speculations, the experimental information we possess
GRAHAME—GRAHAM'S TOWN
an Hie subject amounts to bttte mom than the well-established
fact that gases of a different nature when brought into contact
do not arrange themselves according to their density, but they
spontaneously diffuse through each other so as to remain in an
intimate etate of mixture for any length of time.” For the
fissured jar of }. W. D&bereiner he substituted a glass tube
dosed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple ap¬
pliance he developed the law now known by his name “ that
the diffusion rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their
density.” (See Diffusion.) He further studied the passage
of gases by transpiration through fine tubes, and by effusion
through a minute hole in a platinum disk ,and was enabled to show
that gas may enter a vacuum in three different ways: (i) by the
molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of which a gas pene¬
trates through the pores of a disk of compressed graphite ; (2)
by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a platinum
disk (the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being
similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is
usually carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity
many thousand times as great as is demonstrable by the latter ;
and (3) by the peculiar rate of passage due to transpiration through
fine tubes, in which the ratios appear to lie in direct relation with
no other known property of the same gases—thus hydrogen has
exactly double the transpiration rate of nitrogen, the relation of
those gases as to density being as 1:14. He subsequently
examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions of india-
rubber, unglazed earthenware and plates of metals such as
palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septu
neither by diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but ip virtue
of a selective al sorption which the septa appear to exert on the
gases in contact with them. By this means (“ atraolvsis ”) he
was enabled partially to separate oxygen from uir.
His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine
the spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the
experiments he divided bodies into two classes—crystalloids,
such as common salt, and colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type
—the former having high and the latter low diffusibility. He
also proved that the process of liquid diffusion causes partial
decomposition of certain chemical compounds, the potassium
sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium
sulphate in alum by the higlier diffusibility of the former salt.
He also extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids,
adopting the method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poise-
uille. He found that dilution with water does not effect pro¬
portionate alteration in the transpiration velocities of different
liquids, and a certain determinable degree of dilution retards
the transpiration velocity.
With regard to Graham’s more purely chemical work, in 1833
he showed that phosphoric anhydride and water form three
distinct acids, and he thus established the existence of polybasic
acids, in each of which one or more equivalents of hydrogen are
replaceable by certain metals (see Acid). In 1835 he published
the results of an examination of the properties of water of crys¬
tallization as a constituent of salts. Hot the least interesting
part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain definite salts with
alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of alcoholates
was given. A brief paper entitled “ Speculative Ideas on the
Constitution of Matter ” (1863) possesses special interest in con¬
nexion with work done since his death, because in it he ex¬
pressed the view that the various kinds of matter now recognized
as different elementary substances may possess one and the same
ultimate or atomic molecule in different conditions of movement.
Graham's Elements of Chemistry, lirst published in 1*33, went
through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled
under j. Otto's direction. His Chemical and Physical Researches
were collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and
printed “ for presentation only " at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith
contributing to the’ volume a valuable preface and analysis of its
oontenta. See also T. E. Thorpe, Essays in Historical Chemistry
(190*).
GRAHAM, 1 AXH (1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in
Glasgow oa the 2rad of April 1765, the son of a successful
lawyer. After completing his literary course at Glasgow univer¬
3*9
sity, Grahame went in 1784 to Edinburgh, where he qualified
as writer to the signet, and subsequently for the Scottish bar,
of which he was elected a member in 1705. But his p re fe re nc es
had always been lor the Church, and when he was forty-four
be took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton,
Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works
include a dramatic poem, Mary Queen of Scots (l8ot), The
Sabbath (1804), British Georgies (i8o_|). The Birds of Scotland
(r8o6), and Poems on the Abolition eif the Slave Trade (rSro).
His principal work, The Sabbath, a sacred and descriptive poem
in Wank verse, is characterised by devotional feelmg and by
happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In the notes to his poems
he expresses enlightened views on popular education, the criminal
law and other public questions. He was emphatically a friend
of humanity—a philanthropist as well as a poet. He died In
Glasgow on the r4th of September 1811.
GRAHAM'S DYKE (or Stratton—trench), a local name for the
Roman fortified frontier, consisting of ram pari, forts and road,
which ran across the narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth
to the Clyde (about 36 m.), and formed from a.ii. 140 till about
185 the northern frontier of Roman Britain. The name is
locally explained as recording a victorious assault on the defences
by one Robert Graham and his men ; it has also been connected
with the Grampian Hills and the Latin summing icrm eroma.
But, us is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke
(Fordun, a.d. 1385), it is the same as the term Grim's Ditch which
orrurs several times in England in connexion with early ramparts
—for example, near Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between
Berkhampstcad (Herts) and Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems
to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might he credited with the
wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short periods of time.
By antiquaries the Graham’s Dyke is usually styled the Wall
of Pius or the Antoninc Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus
Pius, in whose rrign it was constructed. See further Britain :
Roman. (E. J. H.)
GRAHAM'S TOWN, a city of South Africa, the administrative
centre for the eastern part of the Cape province, 10dm. by rail
N.E. of Port Elizabeth and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of port Alfred.
Pop. (1904) 13,887, of whom 7283 were whites and 1837 were
electors. The town is built in a basin of the grassy hills forming
the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above sea-level. It Is a
pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy climate,
and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The
streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the
High Street are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St
George, built from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemora¬
tion Chapel, the chief place of worship of the Wesleyans, erected
by the British emigrants of 1820. The Roman Catholic cathedral
of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to thgjcft of the High Street.
The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a square clock tower
built on arches over the pavement. Graham's Town is one
of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides
the public schools and the Rhodes University College (which
in 1904 took over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St
Andrew’s College), scholastic institutions are maintained by
religious bodies. The town possesses two large hospitals, which
receive patients from all parts of South Africa, and the govern¬
ment bacteriological institute. It is the centre of trade for an
extensive pastoral and agricultural district. Owing to Hie sour
quality of the herbage m the surrounding suurveld, stock-breeding
and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent replaced
by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham’s Town is the
most important entrepfit. Dairy farming is much practised in
the neighbourh««I
In 1812 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters
of the British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape
Colony from the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after
Colonel John Graham (1778-1821), then commanding the forces.
(Graham had commanded the light infantry battalion at the
taking of the Cape by the British in the action of the 6th of
J anuary 1806. He also took part in campaigns in Italy and
tolland during the Napoleonic tram.) la 1819 an attempt was
GRAIL, THE HOLY
3*°
made by the Kaffir* to surprise Graham’s Town, and 10,000
man attacked it, but they, were repulsed by the garrison, which
numbered not more than 3*0 men, infantry and artillery, under
Lieut-Colonel (afterwards General Sir) Thomas Wiltshire. In
182s the town was chosen as the headquarter* of the 4000
British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony in 1820. It
has maintained its position as the most important inland town
of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape
parliament met in Graham’s Town, the only instance of the
legislature sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed
by a municipality. The rateable value in 1906 was £891,536
and the rate levied 2jd. in the pound.
See T. Sheffield, The Story 0/ the Settlement . . . (and ed.,
Graham's Town, 1884) : C. T. Campbell, British South Africa . . .
with notices of some of the British Settlers of iSeo (London, 1897).
GRAIL, THE HOLT, the famous talisman of Arthurian
romance, the object of quest on the part of the knights of the
Round Table. It is mainly, if not wholly, known to English
readers through the medium of Malory’s translation of the
French Quite ilu Smut Graal, where it is the cup or chalice of the
Lust Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the wounds
of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved.
Students of the original romances are uwurc that there is in these
texts an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature
and origin of the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to
determine the precise value of these differing versions. 1 Broadly
speaking the Grail romances have been divided into two main
classes: (1) those dealing with 1 he search for the Grail, the
Quest, and (2) those relating to its early history. These latter
appear to lie dependent on the former, for whereas we may
have a Quest romance without any insistence on the previous
history of the Grail, that history is never found without some
allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its
successful termination. The Quest versions again fall into three
distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero
who is respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most
important and interesting group is that connected with Perceval,
and he was regarded as the original Gruil hero, Gawain being,
as it were, his understudy. Recent discoveries, however, point
to u different conclusion, and indicate that the Contain stories
represent an early tradition, and that we must seek in them
rather than in the Perceval versions for indications as to the
ultimate origin of the Grail.
The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will
lie seen from the billowing summary.
i. Gawain, included in the continuation to Chretien's Perceval
by Wauchier de Denain, and attributed to Bleheris the Welshman,
who is probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus
Cambrensis, and considerably earlier than Chretien de Troyes.
Here the Grail is u food-providing, self-acting talisman, the pre¬
cise nature of which is not specified ; it is designated as the
“ rich ” Grail, and serves the king und his court sans serjant
el sans seneschal, the butlers providing the guests with wine.
In another version, given at an earlier point of the same con¬
tinuation, but apparently deriving from a later source, the
Gruil is lnirne in procession by a weeping maiden, und is called
the “ holy ’’ Grail, but no details as to its history or character
are given. In a third version, that of Itiu Crone, a long und con¬
fused romance, the origin of which has not been determined,
the Grail appears as u reliquary, in which the Host is presented
to the king, who once a year partakes alike of it and of the blood
which flows from the luncc. Another account :s given in the
prose Lancelot, but here Gawain has been deposed from his
post as first hero of the court, and, as is to lie expected from the
treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit ends
in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with
the atm,isphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the
* The etymology of the O. Fr. graal or great, at which " grail "
is an adaptation, has been much discussed. The Low Lat. original,
gradate or grasalc, a flat dish or platter, lias generally been taken to
represent a diminutive rratelta of crater, bowl, or a lost cralale,
formed from the same word (see W. W Skeat, Preface to Joseph
of Arimatkie, Early Eng. Text Soc.)_ Ed.
Quite, and is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These
are the Gawain versions.
2. Percxval.—T he most important Perceval text is the
Conte del Grael, or Perceval le Galois of Chrdtien de Troyes.
Here the Grail is wrought of gold richly set with precious stones;
it is carried in solemn procession, and the light issuing from it
extinguishes that of the candles. What it is is not explained,
but inasmuch as it is the vehicle in which is conveyed the Host
on which the father of the Fisher king depends for nutriment,
it seems not improbable that here, as in Diu Crone, it is to be
understood as a reliquary. In the Parztval of Wolfram von
Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with that
of Chretien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a precious
stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the guardian¬
ship of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a
body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and
youth preserving talisman—no man may die within eight days
of beholding it, and the maiden who bears it retains perennial
youth—and an oracle choosing its own servants, and indicating
whom the Grail king shall wed. The sole link with the Christian
tradition is the statement that its virtue is renewed every Good
Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven. The discrepancy
between this and the other Grail romances is most startling.
In the short prose romance known as the “ Didot ” Perceval
we have, for the first time, the whole history of the relic logically
set forth. The Perceval forms the third and concluding section of
a group of short romances, the two preceding being the Joseph
of Arimathca and the Merlin. In the first we have the precise
history of the Grail, how it wus the dish of the Last Supper,
confided by our Lord to the care of J oseph, whom he miraculously
visited in the prison to which he had been committed by the
Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his brother-in-
law Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the final
winner und guardian of the relic. The Merlin forms the con¬
necting; thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and
the chivalric atmosphere of Arthur’s court; and finally, in the
Perceval, the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned
by Merlin of the quest which awaits him and which he achieves
after various adventures.
In the Perlesvaus the Grail is the same, but the working out of
the scheme is much more complex ; a son of Joseph of Arimathea,
Josephe, is introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar
to that used so effectively in the Parztval.
3. Galahad. —The Quite du Saint Graal, the only romance
of which Galahad .s the hero, is dependent on and a completion
of the Lancelot development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot,
as lover of Guinevere, could not he permitted to achieve so
spiritual an emprise, yet as leading knight of Arthur’s court it
was impossible to allow him to be surpassed by another. Hence
the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by the Grail king’s
daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the quest,
foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his
father’s fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail-
winner, could not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail,
the chalice of the Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the
Gawain stories, self-acting and food-supplying.
The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and
the early history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and deal¬
ing only with the early history, is the Grand Saint Graal, a work
of interminable length, based upon the Joseph of Arimathea,
which has undergone numerous revisions and amplifications:
its precise relation to the Lancelot, with which it has now much
matter in common, is not easy to determine.
To be classed also under the head of early history are certain
interpolations in the MSS. of the Perceval, where we find the
Joseph tradition, but in a somewhat different form, e.g. he is
said to have caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of re¬
ceiving the holy blood. With this account is also connected the
legend of the Polio Santo of Lucca, a crucifix said to have been
carved by Nicodemus. In the conclusion to Chritaan’s poem,
composed by Manessier some fifty years later, the Grail is said
to have followed Joseph to Britain, how, is not explained.
ORAILj THE HGLY>! H*
Another continuation by Gwbert, interpolated between those of
Waudiier and Mantssier, relates how the Grail was brought
to Britain by Perceval’s mother in the companionship of Joseph.
It will be seen that with the exception of the Grand Saint
Croat, which has now been practically converted into an introduc¬
tion to the Quite, no two versions a gre e with each other; indeed,
with the exception of tire oldest Grtwoj'n-Grail visit, that due to
Bleheris, they do not agree with themselves, but all show,
more or less, the influence of different and discordant versions.
Why should the vessel of the Last Supper, jealously guarded at
Castle Corbenk, visit Arthur’s court independently ? Why
does a sacred relic provide purely material food ? What connexion
can there be between a precious stone, a battylus, as Dr Hagen
has convincingly shown, and Good Friday ? These, and such
questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn.
Numerous attemptsnave been made to solve these problems,
and to construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so
far the difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would
admit of the practically simultaneous existence of apparently
contradictory features. At one time considered as an introduc¬
tion from the East, the theory of the Grail as an Oriental talisman
has now been discarded, and the expert opinion of the day may
be said to fall into two groups: (i) those who hold the Grail
to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel which has
accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained, acquired
certain folk-lore characteristics ; and (2) those who hold, on the
contrary, that the Grail is aborigine folk-lore and Celtic, and
that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather
than an essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth
in the work of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of
Mr Alfred Nutt, the two constituting the only traraux d'ensemble
which have yet appeared on the subject. It now seems probahle
that both are in a measure correct, and that the ultimate solution
will be recognized to lie in a blending of two originally inde¬
pendent streams of tradition. The researches of Professor
Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in England have
amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on popular
thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation
worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called
mysteries of Adonis. Here the ordinary' processes of nature
and progression of the seasons were symbolized under the figure
of the death and resuscitation of the god. These rites are found
all over the world, and in his monumental work, The Golden
Rough, Dr Frazer has traced a host of extant beliefs and practices
to this source. The earliest form of the Grail story’, the Ganain-
Bleheris version, exhibits a marked affinity with the characteristic
features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we have a castle
on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of which is
never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted
country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the
dead man, and which is restored to fruitfulness when the quester
usks the meaning of the marvels he beholds (the two features
of the weeping women and the wasted land being retained in
versions where they have no significance); finally the mysterious
food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common feast—one
and all of these features may be explained as survivals of the
Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key
to the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature
myth : Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero ;
Dr Lewis Mott has pointed out the correspondence between the
so-called Round Table sites and the ritual of nature worship ; but
it is only with the discovery of the existence of Bleheris as reputed
authority for Arthurian tradition, and the consequent recogni¬
tion that the Grail story connected with his name is the earliest
form of the legend, that we have secured a solid bads for such
theories.
With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research
has again aided us—-we know now that a legend similar in all
respects to the Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely
current at least a century before our earliest Grail texts. The
story with Nirodemus as protagonist is told of the Saint-Sang
relic at Ffcamp; and, as stated already, a similar origin is
ascribed to the Valia Saida at Lucca. Ia.ti^ iWterifw^Ae
legend professes to date from toe 8th centoV# WW
have examined the texts in their present form pp ndd f fti th et fly re
may be solid ground for this attribution. It isjfau dgy w WS Oiffi
that toe material for our Grail legend, in, lU if^ment. lortp,
existed long ulterior to any extant text, andrtirere.k np impro¬
bability in holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries
which had assumed the form of a popular folk-tale, neaype
finally Christianised by combination with an, emeUy MPtitor
ecclesiastical legend, the point of oontact being the vmsel pf the
common ritual feast. Nor can there be much dqubt w*t in this
process of combination the Ffcamp legend played on important
role. The best and fullest of the Perceval MSS. refer tQ a book
written at Ffcamp as source for certain Perceval adventures.
What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact tnat
certain special Fecamp relics, silver knives, appear in the. Grail
procession of the Paraival, it seems most probable t^pt it was a
Perceval- Grail story. The relations between the famous Bene¬
dictine abbey and the English court both before and after toe
Conquest were of an intimate Character. Legends of the part
played by Joseph of Arimathea in the conversion of Britain are
closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks of which founda¬
tion showed, in the 12th century, considerable literary activity,
and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the
present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glaston¬
bury elaborating ideas borrowed from Ffcamp. This much is
certain, that between the Saint-Sang of Ffcamp, the I ’olio Santo
of Lucca, and the Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link,
the precise nature of which has yet to be determined. The two
former were popular objects of pilgrimage; was the third
originally intended to serve the same purpose by attracting
attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of the Grail,
Joseph of Arimathea ?
Hjbuoqbafhv.—F or the Gawain Grail visits ter the Fotvin
edition of the Perceval, which, however, only gives the Bleheris
version; the second visit is found in the beat and most complete
MSS., such as 12,570 and 12,577 (P"n<te francais) of the Paris library.
Diu Crtne, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852), vol. vi. of Arthurian
Romances (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, Diu Crdut
and Prose Lancelot visits.
The Conte del Graal, nr Perceval, is only accessible in the edition
of M. Potvin (0 vols,, 1866-1871). The Mona SIS., from which this
lias been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and un¬
trustworthy text. Par rival, by Wolfram von Eechenbach, has been
frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877),
in Deutsche Classiher des Mittelalters, contains full notes and u
glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K.
Lachmann (1891), Lritzmann (1902-1905) and E. Martin (1005).
There are modem German translations by Simrack (very doer to
the original) and Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with
notes and appendices by J. L. Weston. " Didot" Perceval, ed.
Hucher, Le Saint Graal (1875-1878), vol. i. Perlesvaus was printed
by Potvin, under the title of Perceval le%GaUois. in vol. i. of the
edition above referred to; a Welsh version from toe Hengwcrt MS.
was published with translation by Canon K. Williams (3 vols.,
1876-1892). Under the title of The High History of the Holy Grail
a line version was published by Dr Sebastian Evans In the Temple
Classics (2 vols., 1B98). The Grand Saint Graal sets published by
Hucher as given above; this edition includes the Joseph of Arimathea.
A 13th-century metrical English adaptation by one Henry LovaUch,
was printed by Dr Fumivall for the Roxburgh* Club 1861-1863;
a new edition was undertaken for the Early English Text Society.
Quite du Saint Graal can best be studied in Malory's somewhat
abridged translation, books xiii.-xviii. of the Marie Arthur. It
has also been printed by Dr Fumivall for the Roxburgh* Club,
from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these texts ie,
however, very good, and the student who can decipher old Dutch
would do welt to read It in the metrical translation published by
Joenckbloet, Roman van Laneetoet, as the original here was con¬
siderably fuller.
For general treatment of the subject see Legend of Sir Perceval,
by J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvil. (1906)1; Studios on the
Legend of the Holy Grail, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise
treatment of the subject by the earns Writer in No. 14 ot Papular
Studies (1903); Professor Birch-Hlnehfdd ‘s Die Sage vom Gral
<1877). The late Professor Heinzel's Die alt-JraneiMfcheu Grti-
Romanen contains a mass of valuable matter, but Is veiy cornused
and ill-arranged For the Ffcamp legend 1 sw Lertrux de Ltaeey's
Essai sUr rAbove de Feseamp (1810); for the Voito Saute aad
kindred legends, Ernest von DobscWtz, Ckrtttru-BiUer ( L s fpa lf,
*899). , j, orjT
XII, JI
Ui. GRAIN—GRAIN TRADE
MUI (derived through the French from Let granum, teed,
frtthah Aryan root meaning" to wear down,” which also appears
in the common Teutoniewjortl “com "), a word particularly
applied to the seed, hr botanical language the “ fruit/’ of cereals,
m<i hence applied, at a collective term to cereal plant* generally,
to which, in English; the temi “ com " is also applied (see
Grain Tsade). Apart from thie, the chief meaning, the word
is used of the nudt refuse of brewing and distilling, and of many
hard rounded small particles, resembling the seeds of plants,
such a* * grains ”.df sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, Ac. “ Grain ”
h also the name Of the smallest unit of weight, both in the
United Kingdom aqd the United States of America. Its origin
is suppoeed to be the weight of a grain of wheat, dried and
gathered from the middle of the ear. The troy grain -1/5760
of a lb, the avoirdupois gram ■*> 1/7000 of a lb. In diamond
weighing the grain"! of the carat,» -7925 of the troy
gram. The wort “grains ” was early used, as also in French,
of dm small seed-Hke insects supposed formerly to be the
berries of trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see
Cochineal and Kermes). From the Fr. en grume, literally in
dye, comes the French verb engrainer, Eng. “engrain” or
“ ingrain,” meaning to dye in any fast colour. From the further
use of “ grain ” for the texture of snbstanoes, such as wood,
meat, fire., “engrained” or “ingrained” meuns ineradicable,
impregnated, dyed through and through. The “grain” of
leather is the side of a skin showing the fibre after the nair has
been removed. The imitating in paint of the grain of different
kinds of woods is known as “ graining ” (see Painter-Work).
“ Grain,” or more commonly in the plural “ grains,” construed
as a singular, is the name of an instrument with two or more
barbed prongs, used for spearing fish. This word is Scandinavian
in origin, and is connected with Dan. green, Swed. gren, branch,
and means the fork of a tree, of the body, or the prongs of a fork,
Ac. It is not connected with “ groin,” the inguinal parts of the
body, which m its earliest forms appears as grynde.
GRAINS OF PARADISE, Guinea Grains, or Melegueta
Pepper (Ger. Paradieskbruer, Fr. graines de Paradis, mani-
guetlr), the seeds of Amomtm Melegueta, a reed-like plant of the
natural order Zingiberaceae. It is a native of tropical western
Africa, and of Prince’s and St Thomas's islands in the Gulf of
Guinea, is cultivated iu other tropical countries, and may with
ease be grown in hothouses in temperate dimates. The plant
has a branched horizontal rhizome; smooth, nearly sessile,
narrowly lanceolate-oblong alternate leaves ; large, white, pale
pink or purplish flowers ; and an ovate-oblong fruit, enshcathed
in bracts, which « of a scarlet colour when fresh, and reaches
under cultivation a length of 5 m. The Beeds are contained in
the acid pulp of the fruit, arc commonly wedge-shaped and
bluntly angular, are about ij lines in diameter and have aglossy
dark-brown husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous
caruncle at the base and a white kernel. They contain, accord¬
ing to Fliickiger and Hanbury, 0-3% of a faintly yellowish
neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not acrid taste, and
a specific gravity at 15-5° C. of 0'8as, and giving on analysis the
formula C m H, # 0 , or ; also 5-83% of an
intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin.
Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British phar¬
macopoeias, and in the 13th and succeeding centuries were used
as a drag and n spice, the wine known as hippocras being
flavoured with them and With ginger and cinnamon. In 1629
they were employed among the ingredients of the twenty-four
herring pies which were the ancient fee-favour of the city of
Norwich, ordained to lx- carried to court by the lord of the
manor of Carleton (Johnston and Church, Chem. of Common
1 * 1 *, p. 355. 1879). Grains of paradise were anciently brought
•verland from West Africa to the Mediterranean ports of the
Barbery states, to be Shipped for Italy. They are now exported
almost exclusively froth the Gold Coast. Grains of paradise are
to some extent used illegally to give a fictitious strength to malt
liquor^ gin and cordials. By 56 Geo. III. c. 58, no brewer or
deefarm beer shall have in hii possession or use grains of paradise,
under a penalty of £300 for each offence ; and no druggist shall
sell the same to a brewer under a penalty of £500. They are,
however, devoid of any injurious physiological action, and are
much esteemed as a spice by the nativu of Guinea.
See Bentley and Triaaen, Medicinal Plante, tab. 368; T ,tmrmn.
Biel, des Drogues, pp. 436-460 (1878).
GRAIN TRADE. The complexity of the conditions of fife
in the 20th century may be well illustrated trim the grain trade
oftheworld. The ordinary bread sold in Great Britain represent*,
for example, produce of nearly evexy country in the world
outride the tropics.
Wheat has been cultivated from remote antiquity. In a
wild state it is practically unknown. It is alleged to have been
found growing wild between the Euphrates and the
Tigris; but the discovery has never been authenticated.
and, unless the plant be sedulously cared for, the species ?”»r *"*
dies out in a surprisingly short space of time. Modern
experiments in cross-fertilization in Lancashire by the Garton
Brothers have evolved the most extraordinary “ sports,” showing,
it is claimed, that the plant has probably passed through stages
of which until the present day there haa been no conception.
The tales that grains of wheat found in the cerements of Egyptian
mummies have been planted and come to maturity are no longer
credited, for the vital principle in the wheat berry is extremely
evanescent; indeed, it it doubtful whether wheat twenty years
old is capable of reproduction. The Garton artificial fertiliza¬
tion experiments have shown endless deviations from the ordinary
type, ranging from minute seeds with a closely adhering husk
to big berries almost as large as sloes and about as worthless.
It is conjectured that the wheat plant, as now known, is a
degenerate form of something much finer which flourished
thousands of years ago, and that possibly it may be restored
to its pristine excellence, yielding an increase twice or thrice
as large as it now does, thus postponing to a distant period the
famine doom prophesied by Sir W. Crookes in his presidential
address to the British Association in 1898. Wheat well repays
careful attention; contrast the produce of a carelessly tilled
Russian or Indian field and the bountiful yield on a good Lincoln¬
shire hum, the former with its average yield of 8 bushels, the
latter with its 50 bushels per acre; or compare the quality,
as regards the quantity and flavour of the flour from a fine
sample of British wheat, such as is on sale at almost evety
agricultural allow in Great Britain, with the produce of an
Egyptian or Syrian field ; the difference is so great as to cause
one to doubt whether the berries are of the same species.
It may be stated roundly that an average quartern loaf in
Great Britain is made from wheat grown in the following countries
in the proportions named ;—
i
| U.S.A.
U.K.
1 | 1
X 1 <
si
t
<3 i
1*5
4
<
l|
u
: oz.
Oz.
Oz. Oz.
Oz.
Oz. 1
Oz.
Oz.
Oz.
I 26
13
0 ! '
4
3
2
1
t
Or
expressed in
percent
ages as
follow
a:—
40
to
1 8
Li_
J 1
3
. *..
2
For details connected with grain and its handling see Aori-
cultcre, Corn Laws, Granaries, Flour, Baking, Wheat, Ac.
Wheat occupies of all cereals the widest region of any food¬
stuff. Rice, which shares with millet the distinction of being
the principal food-stuff of the greatest number of human beings,
is not grown nearly as widely as is wheat, the staple food of the
white races. Wheat grows as far south as Patagonia, and as
far north as the edge of the Arctic Circle ; it flourishes throughout
Europe, and across the whole of northern Asia and in Japan ;
it is cultivated in Persia, and raised largely in India, as far south
as the Nizam's dominions. It is grown over nearly the whole of
North America. In Canada a very fine wheat crop was raised
in the autumn of 1898 as far north as the mission at Fort
Providence, on the Mackenzie river, in a latitude above 6a 0 —
or less than 200 m. south of the latitude of Dawson City—the
period between seed-time and harvest having been ninety-one
GRAIN TRADE
m3
fays. In Africa it was an article of commerce' ia the days of
Jacob, wheat ton Joseph may be aaid to have run toe first and
only successful “corner” in wheat. For many centuries
Egypt was famous as a wheat raiser; it was a cargo of wheat
from Alexandria which St Paul helped to jettison oil fine of his
shipwrecks, as was also, in all probability, that oftlie'“ ship of
Alexandria whose sign was Castor and Pollux," named in the
same narrative. General Gordon is quoted as having stated
that the Sudan if properly settled would be capable of feeding
the whole of Europe. Along the north coast of Africa are arenn
which, if properly irrigated, as was done in the days of Carthagv,
could produce enough wheat to feed half of the Caucasian race.
For instance, the vilayet of Tripoli, with an area of 400,000 sq. m.,
or three times the extent of Great Britain and Ireland, according
to the opinion of a British consul, could raise millions of acres of
wheat. The cereal flourishes on all the high plateaus of South
Africa, from Cape town to the Zambezi. Land is being extens¬
ively put under wheat in the pampas of South America and
in toe prairies of Siberia.
In the raising of the standard of farming to an English level
the volume of the world’s crop would be trebled, another fact
which Sir William Crookes seems to have overlooked. The
experiments of the late Sir J. B. Lawes in Hertfordshire have
proved that the natural fruitfulness of the wheat plant can be
increased threefold by the application of the proper fertilizer.
The results of these experiments will be found in a compendium
issued from the Rotbamsted Agricultural Experimental Station.
It is by no means, however, the wheat which yields the greatest
number of bushels per acre which is the most valuable from a
miller's standpoint, for the thinness of the bran and the fineness
and strength of the flour are with him important considerations,
too often overlooked by the farmer when buying his seed.
Nevertheless it is the deficient quantity of the wheat raised in
the British Islands, and not the quality of the grain, which has
l>een the cause of so much anxiety to economists and statesmen.
Sir J. Caird, writing in the year 1880, expressed the opinion
that arable land in Great Britain would always command a
substantial rent of at least 30s. per acre. His figures
rmtti * were based on the assumption that wheat was imported
duty free. He calculated that the cost of carriage from
abroad of wheat, or the equivalent of the product of an acre of
good wheat land in Great Britain, would not be less than 30s.
per ton. But freights had come down by 1900 to hulf the rates
predicated by Caird; indeed, during u portion of the interval they
ruled very close to zero, as far as steamer freights from America
were concerned. In 1900 an all-round freight rate for wheat
might be taken at 15s. per ton (a ton representing approximately
the produce of an acre of good wheat land in England), say from
tos. for Atlantic American and Russian, to 30s. for Pacific
American and Australian; about midway between these two
extremes we find Indian and Argentine, the greatest bulk
coming at about the 15s. rate. Inferior land hearing less than
4$ quarters per acre would not be protected to the same extent,
and moreover, seeing that a portion of the British wheat crop
has to stand a charge us heavy for land carriage across a county
as that borne by foreign wheat across a continent or an ocean,
the protection is not nearly so substantial as Caird would make
out. The compilation showing the changes in the rates of charges
for the railway and other transportation services issued by the
Division of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, U.S.A.
(Miscellaneous series, Bulletin No. 15, 1898), is a valuable
reference book. From its pages are culled the following facts
relating to the changes in the rates of freight up to the year
1897. 1 In Table 3 the average rates per ton per mile in cents
are shown since 1846. For the Fitchburg Railroad the rate for
that year was 4-5*3 cents per ton per mile, since when a great
and almost continuous fall has been taking place, until in 1897,
t Valuable information will also be found in Bulletin No. 38
(1903), “ Crop Export Movement and Port Facilities on the Atlantic
and Gulf Ceasts, in Bulletin No. 49 (1907), “Cost of Hauling
Crops from Farms to Shaming Points "; and is Bulletin No. 69
(1908), " European Grain Trade."
toe latest year given, the rate had declined to -*7® of a cpntper
tea per mile. The railway which shows the greatett fall i* the
Chesapeake & Ohio, for toe'charge has fafian from over 7 cents
in i86b and 1863 to -419 of a cent in 1897, whereat toe Erie rates
have fallen only from 1-948 in 185; to -609 in 1897. Putting
toe rates of the twelve returning railways together, we find the
average freight in the two years 1859-1860 was 3-006 cents per
ton per mile,- and that fa 1896-1897 the average rate had fallen
to -797 of a cent per ton per mile. This difference is very large
compared with toe smallness of the unit. Coming to the rates
on grain, we find (in Table *3) a record for the forty years 1858-
1897 of the charge on wheat from Chicago to New York, via
all-rail from 1858, and via lake and rail since 1868, the aufaerity
befag the secretary of the Chicago Board of Trade. From 1858
to 1862 the rate varied between 42-37 nnd 34 -Ho cents per bushel
for the whole trip of roundly 1000 m., the average rate in the
quinquennium being 38-43. In the five years immediately prior
to the time at which Sir j. Caird expressed the opinion that the
cost of carriage from abroad would always protect the British
grower, the average all-rail freight from Chicago to New York
was 17-76 cents, while the summer rate (partly by water) was
13-17 cents. These rates in 1897, the last year shown on the
table, had fallen to 12-50 and 7-4* respectively. The rates have
been as follows in quinquennial periods, via ail rail:—
Chicago to New York in Cents per Bushel.
1858- j 1863-
1 1862. | 1867.
1868- . 1873-
1871. 1877.
i8 7 8-
1882.
1883-
1887.
1888-
1802.
1 « 93 -
1897.
38-43 31 -4J
2791 2iag
16-77
14-67
14-->2
IS -.88
Calculating roundly a cent as equal to a halfpenny. and eight
>ushels to the quarter, the above would appear in English
:urrency as follows :—
Chicago to New York in Shillings and Pence per Quarter.
1858- I 1863-
1862 I 1867.
1868- 1 1873-
1872 1877.
1878-
1882.
1883-
1887.
1888-
1892.
1893-
1897.
H. (1. j b. (].
12 8 1 10 6
is. d. , M. d.
, 9 3 . i 7 *
s. d.
5 7
s. d.
4 I0 i
s. d,
4 xo
k. d.
4 3
Another table (No. 3R) shows the average rates from Chicago
to New York by lakes, canal and river. These » their quin¬
quennial periods arc given for the season as follows
In Cents per Bushel 0/ 60 ft.
This latter mode it toe cheapest by which gram can be carried
to toe eastern seaboard from toe American prairies, and it can
now be done at a cost of 7s. 6d. per ton. The ocean freight has
to be added before toe grain -can be delivered free on the quay
at Liverpool. A rate from New York to Liverpool of aid.
per bushel, or 7s. tod. per too, a low rate, reached M Dec. 1900,
m yet sufficiently high, it is claimed, to leave a profit! indeed,
there have frequently been times when the rate was a* lew,at id.
per burirel; or 3s, ad. per ton; and in periods of spent trade
depression wheat is carried from New York to Liverpool as
ballast, being paid for-by, the ship-owner. Another route worked
more cheaply than formally is-mat by river, from toatrnQin of
the winter wheat belt, aay at St Louis, to New Orleans, and thence
by steamer to Liverpool. The river rate has fallen below five
3H
GRAIN TRADE
cent) per bushel, or 7). per ton, 1340 lb. In Table No. ji the
ooet of transportation is comp a red year by year with the export
price of the two leading cereals in the States as follows:—
Wheal and Com—‘Export Prints and Transportation Rafts compand.
1
r anju
j
C^nts.
1867
1 80 S
fo-92
venw.
» 5 ' 9 J
j Vi
$ 0-72
<84-1
14-58
4*94
I *36
t6'23
I 3'57
6*20
1869
1*05
1730
[ 6-10
-71-8
14-98
4-86
1870
X *12
1485
7-54
So-5
2 . 3-78
5-84
1871
I*l8
17-75
6 - 6.5
-67-9
16-53
411
1872
1*31
31 55
6-o8
•61 -8
19-62
3-15
1873
f *5
i6-8g
6-8i
• 54'3
I 5'39
3-53
1874
1*29
ia -75
1012
•647
21-29
573
*875
•97
9-90
g-8o
73-8
8-93
8-26
1876
ill
8-03
13-86
•603
7'93
7*0o
l »77
1 12
10-76
1 ' 0-41
-56-0
9-41
5*95
1878
*•33
9-ro
14-62
- 53-8
8-27
6-75
1870
1 <7
Il-fio
9-22
o- 47 -i
20-43
4-52
1880
I- 2 S
12-27
10-19
-54 4
II*I4
4-«7
1881
I *1T
8-19
13-55
- 55-2
7 * 2 f>
7-60
1882
1*19
7-89
15-08
•66-8
?' 23
9-24
■ H8<
8-37
13-50
■68-4
7 *00
8 -y 3
1884
* *°7
6-31
<6-96
•61-i
5-64
10-83
1883
•8<>
5'87
: 14-65
- 54-0
5-38
I0*04
1880
87.
999
•498
7-08
6*24
1887
•Sy
8-51
IO*4(l
■ 47-9
7-88
0*o8
1888
•85
5 - 9.1
M ‘33
■55 0
5-42
10*17
1 l88q
•90
6-89
> 3-"6
•474
6-19
7 * 6 (>
1890
•83
5-8(1
14-16
-41-8
5-20
8-20
1 1891
•93
5 ' 9 ( >
1 15-60
- 57-4
5-36
10-71
1892
103
5 -<'i
18-3(1
■55
5-03
20-93
189.1
•80
(>•31
12-08
•53
571
9-28
1894
•f »7
4'44
15-09
■40
3-99
H -53
1895
•58
4 -u
14-11
•53
371
24-29
, 1890
•05
5-.48
1 12-08
•38
4'94
7-69
1897
75
4-.15
[_ 17-24
•31
3-79
8-iH
The farmers of the United States have now to meet a greatly
increased output from Canada—the cost of transport from that
country to England being much the same as from the United
States. So much improved is the position of the farmer in North
America compared with what it was about 1870, that the trans¬
port companies in 1001 carried 17! bushels of his grain to the
seaboard in exchange for the value of one bushel, whereas in
1867 he had to give up one bushel in every six in return for the
service. As regards the British farmer, it does not appear as if
he had improved his position ; for he has to send his wheat to
greater distances, owing to the collapse of many country millers
or their removal to the seaboard, while railway rates have fallen
only to a very small extent; again the farmer's wheat is worth
only half of what it was formerly; it may be said that the British
furmer has to give up one bushel in nine to the railwuy company
for the purpose of transportation, whereas in the 'seventies he
gave up one in eighteen only. Enough has teen said to prove
that the advantage of position claimed for the British farmer
by Cuird was somewhat illusory. Speaking broadly, the Kansas
or Minnesota farmer's wheat does not have to pay for carriage
to Liverpool more titan 2s. 6d to 7s. (id. per ton in excess of the
rate paid by a Yorkshire farmer; this, it will be admitted, does
not go very far towards enabling the latter to pay rent, tithes
and rates and taxes.
The subject of the rates of ocean carriage at different periods
requires consideration if a proper understanding of the working
of the foreign mum trade is to be obtained. Only a very small
proportion of the decline in the price of wheat since 1880 is due
to cheapened transport rates; for while the mileage rate has
I wen falling, the length of haulage has been extending, until
in 1000 the principal wheat fields of America were 3000 m.
farther from the eastern seaboard than was the case in 1*70,
and consequently, notwithstanding the fall in the mileage rate
of $0 to 75 %, it still costs the United Kingdom nearly aa much
to have its quota of foreign wheat fetched from abroad as it did
then. The difference in the cost of the operation is.shown in
the following tabular statement, 60th Ihe cost in the aggregate
on a year’s imports and the oost per quarter
Quantity a/ Wheat and Wheaton Flour fas wheat) imported into the
Vailed Kingdom tram various sources during the calendar year
1900, together with the average rate of freight.
1900.
Countries of Origin.
..
Quantities.
Qrs. 480 lb.
Ocean Freight
to United
Kingdom.
Per 4801b.
Total Cost
of Ocean
Carriage.
Atlantic America . .
11,171,100
569,000
s. d.
* 3
1
1,257,100
South Russia ....
2 2
62,000
Pacific America . . .
2,389,900
8 1
966,000
Canada .
1,877,100
2 8
250,000
Rumania.
176,400
2 $
22,000
Argentina and Uruguay
4,322,300
4 10
1,045,000
France ...
251,900
I 3
26,000
Bulgaria and Rumelia .
30,600
2 6
4,000
India.
2,200
4 0
400
Austria-Hungary . .
389,300
i 9
34,000
Chile.
600
North Russia . .
462,700
I 6
35,000
Germany.
438,700
883 f QOO
I 6
33 »°°°
284,000
28,000
Australasia ....
6 5
Minor Countries . . .
*25,100
2 6
Total ....
23,190,800
Average 3s. 6d.
44,036,30°
Comparing these figures with a similar statement for the year
1872, the most remote year for which similar facts are available,
it will be found that the actual total cost per quarter for ocean
carriage has not much decreased.
Quantity of Wheat and Whcaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the
United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year
1872, together with the average rate of freight.
1872.
Countries of Origin,
South Russia
United States
Germany
France . .
North Russia
Canada .
Chile . . .
Turkey .
Spain
Scandinavia
Quantities.
Qrs
Ocean Freight
to United
Kingdom.
Per qr.
Total Cost
of Carriage.
'
s. d.
/
3,678,000
8 6
2,563,000
2,030,000
6 6
659,000
910,000
2 O
91,000
660,000
3 “
99,000
536,000
4 6
120,000
490,000
2 0
49,000
400,000
7 6
150,000
330,000
12 0
198,000
195,000
7 6
72,000
130,000
3 6
23,000
160,000
2 0
16,000
N.R. - A trifling quantity of Californian and Australian wheat
was imported in the period in question, but the Board of Trade
records do not distinguish the quantities, therefore they cannot
be given. The freight in that year from those countries averaged
about 13s. per quarter.
The exact difference between the average freight for the years
1872 and 1900 amounts to about 2S. rid. per quarter (480 lb),
a trifle in comparison with the actual fall in the price of wheat
during the same years.
The following data tearing upon the subject, for selected
periods, are partly taken from the Com Trade Year-Book
j United Kingdom
Annual Imports.
3 ear. | wi, eM and hour.
Qrs.
Ocean Freight
to United
Kingdom.
Perqr.
1
Aggregate Cost
of Carriage.
X872 | 9 , 469,000
s. d.
6 5
£
3,040,000
1SS2 , 14,830,000
7 4
5,420,000
1894 16,229,000
3 9
3,041,000
1893 j 23,197,000
3 °
3,825,000
3,238 otw
1896 ' 23,431,000
2 0
1900 ' 23,196,000
3 6
4,036,000
^ GRAM
335
In puling, it may be pointed out that lor a period of four yean,
from 1871 to 1874, the price M wheat averaged 56s. per quarter
(or 7s. per bushel), with the charge lor ocean carriage at 6s. gd.
per quarter, whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in England at 28*.
(or 3s. 6d. per bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was
3s. 6d. per quarter; the ocean transport companies earned eight
bushels of wheat across die seas in 1901 for the value of one
bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in 187a.
The contrast between the cue of railway freight and ocean
freight is to be explained by the greater length of the present
ocean voyage, which now extends to 10,000 miles in the cue of
Europe’s importation of white wheat from the Pacific Coaat of
die United States and Australia, in contrast with the short
voyage from the Black Sea or across the English Channel or
German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this phase
of the question that an American statistician has fallen into die
error of stating that about 16s. per quarter of the fall in the price
of wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1894, is attributable
to the lessened cost of transport.
Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat
may be, it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of
Wheat Prices
The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year
of English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T.
Saiith, Melford the period covered being from 1656 to 1905 :
Prtee per Quarter
i *
< fc
36 o
51 9
8.
d.
s.
]
s.
ri.
I
s.
4
s.
a. :
1656
38
2
1706
>3
1 i
1756
40
I
1806 1
79
11
1856
6g
2 J
1647
41
5
1707
25
4
>757
53
4
1807 |
75
4
>857
36
4
1638
57
9
1708
36 10
1758;
44
51
1808 j
»4
4
1858
44
2
1639
58
8
1709
69
9
>759
35
3!
1809
97
4
1859
43
9
1660
5°
2
1710
69
4
1760
3*
5
1B10
TOO
5
i860
53
3
1661
62
2
17H
48
0
1761
26
9
1811
95
3
1861
55
4
1662
65
9
1712
4>
2
1762 j
14
8
1812
126
6
1862
55
5
1663
50
8
1713
45
41 1
1763
.0
I
1813
log
9
>863144
y l
1664
36
O
1714
44
9j
>7f>4,
4>
5
1814
74
4
X864 J 40
1665
43 10
1715
3«
2 !
>765
48
O
1815
65
7
1865
41
10
1666
3 2
O
1716
42
8:11766!
43
I
1816
78
6
1866
49
>11
I667
32
O
1717
4°
7
1767.
57
4
1817
96 111
l86'/
64
5
1668
35
6
1718
34
6
1768
53
9
1818
86
3 i
1868
63
9
I669
39
5
1719
3»
1
17691
4°
7
1819
74
6
1869
48
2 I
167c 1
37
0
1720
32
10
1770;
43
6
1K20
67
10
1870
4b 11 j
1671
17
4
1721
33
4'
>77>
47
2
1821
5&
1
1H71
56
1672
36
5
1722
32
0 >7721
5°
8
,1822
44
7
187a
57
°
1673
41
5
1723
3° >°, >773
5>
O
1823
53
4
1873
58
1674
6l
0
1724
32
IO
>774
52
8
1824
63
ri
1874
55
9!
1675
57
5
J 7 2 5
43
>
>775!
48
4
1825
68
6
1875
45
2 1
1676
33
9
1726
4°
IO
T776
38
2
1826
58
8
1876
48
2
1677
37
4
1727
17
4
1777
45
6
1827
5 8
6
1877
56
9|
1678
52
5
1728
4»
5
>778
42
0
1828
60
5
1878
46
*i
1679
53
4
1729
4>
7
>779
33
8
1829
66
3
4°
43
10 1
1680
4°
0
173°
32
5
1780
35
8
1830
64
3
1880
44
1681
41
5
173*
29
2
1781
44
8
1831
66
4
1881
45
4
1682
39
1
1732
23
8
1782
47 >0
1832
58
8
ins*
45
•
1683
35
6
>733
25
8
1783
52
8
11833
52
Ji
1883
4>
7'
1684
39
1
1734
34
6,
1784
48 10
>834
4 6
a
1884
35
I685
4>
5
>735
38
2
17 8 5
5>
10
>835
39
4
1885
32
10
1686
3°
2
1730
35 >°
1786
38 10
1836
48
6
1886
3>
0
1687
22
4
1717
33
9!
1787
41
2
1837
55
0
: 1887
32
6
1688
4°
10
173 8
3>
6
1788
45
0
1838
64
7 ij 1888
3>
TO
1689
26
8
>739
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’ 4 * 7
1 Average for 40 years uuj.
rail or ocean freights. Incidental charges are lower than they
were in 1870; handling charges, broken’ come n iw i e m and
insurance premiums have been in many instances reduced, but
all these economies when combined only amount to about as.
per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the
rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive
at an aggregate economy of 8s, per quarter, or not,onto third
of the actual difference between the average price of wheat
in 187s and 1900. To what the remaining difference was due
it is difficult to say with certitude; there are some who argue
that the tendency of prices to fall is inherent, and that the
constant whittling away of intermediaries' profits is sufficient
explanation, while bi;metallists have maintained (hat the
phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German
government in demonetizing silver in 187a.
GUAM, or Chick-pea, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal
gram (from Port, gr 3 o, formerly gram, Lat. grayum, Hindi
Cham i, Bengali ChhoUt, Ital. cue, Span, garbanto), the
Cictr arietinum of Linnaeus, so named from the resemblance
of its seed to a ram’s head. It is a member of ihe natural order
Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in the south of
Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, hut is not known
undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose
branches, and alternately arranged pitmafely compound leaves,
with small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The
flowers are borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half
the length of the leaf and jointed and bent in the middle ; the
corolla is blue-purple. The inflated pod, 1 to if in. long, contains
two roundish seeds. It was cultivated by the Greeks in Homer's
time under the name erebinthos, and is also referred to by
Dioicorides as bias from the resemblance of the pea to the head
of a ram. The Romans called it ctcer, from which is derived
the modem names given to it in the south of Europe. Names,
more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the peoples
of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there
is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in
modem Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in
Egypt from the beginning of the Christian era, but there is no
proof that it was known to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de
Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 3*5) suggests that the
plant originally grew wild in the countries to the south of the
Caucasus and to the north of Persia. “The western Aryans
(Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into southern
Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was
also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India.” Gram
is largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw
or cooked in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition,
and when roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as
ordinary flour. In Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient
in soups. They contain, in too parts without husks, nitrogenous
substances 32-7, fat 3-76, starch 63-18, mineral matters :-6
parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in Parkes’s Hygiene).
The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs clothing the
leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the cold
season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of
oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by
means of cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in
domestic medicine. The steam of water in which the fresh plant
is immersed is in the Deccan resorted to by the Portuguese
for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The seed of Phaseaius
Mungo, or green gram (Hind, and Beng. moong), a form of which
plant with black seeds ( P. Max of Roxburgh) is termed black
gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes
in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for sow, and is
stated by Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of toe Hindu
bath. A variety, var. radiatus (P, Raxburghii, W. and Am.,
or P. radiatus, Roxb.) (vem. urid, miskkaUi ), also known as
green gram, it perhaps the most esteemed of the leguminous
plants of India, where the meal of its seed enters into the com-.
, position of the more delicate cakes, and dishes. Hone gram,
1 [Miches biflerus .(vern. hulthi), which supplies in Madras
the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is
326,
GRAMMAR
extensively employed «* * food for horses end cattle m South
India, w h ere also it is eaten in curries.
See W. Elliot, " On the Farinaceous Grains and the vanoos kinds
of Piiim need in Southern India.” Edin. New Phil. Jount. xv i.
(1862I '6 «!■; «■ 1>rur y. The Useful Plants of India J1873);
IT. C. Putt, Materia Medica of the Hindus (Calcutta, 1877); G. Watt,
Dictionary ef the Economic Products of India (1890).
GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars •, Or. ywp,
letter, from y fxQ*tr, to write). By the grammar of a language is
meant either the relations borne by the words of a sentence
and by sentences themsebres one to another, or the systematised
exposition of these. The exposition may be, and frequently is,
incorrect; but it always presupposes the existence of certain
customary uses of words when in combination. In what follows,
therefore, grammar will be generally employed in its primary
sense, as denoting the mode in which words are connected in
order to express a complete thought, or, as it is termed in Jtigic,
a proposition.
The object of language is to convey thought, and so long
as this object is attained the machinery for attaining it
is of comparatively slight importance. The way in
which we combine our words and sentences matters
little, provided that our meaning is clear to others.
The expressions “horseflesh” and “flesh of a horse”
are equally intelligible to an Englishman and therefore are
equally recognized by'English grammar. The Chinese manner
of denoting a genitive is by placing the defining word before
that which it defines, as in koue jin, “ man of the kingdom,”
literally “ kingdom man,” and the only reason why it would be
incorrect m French or Italian is that such a combination would
be unintelligible to a Frenchman or an Italian. Hence it is
evident that the grammatical correctness or incorrectness of an
expression depends upon its intelligibility, that is to say, upon
die ordinary use and custom of a particular language. Whatever
is so unfamiliar as not to be generally understood is also un¬
grammatical. In other words, it is contrary to the habit of a
language, as determined by common usage and consent.
In this way we can explain how it happens that the grammar
of a cultivated dialect and that of a local dialect in the tame
country so frequently disagree. Thus, in the dialect of West
Somerset, thef is the nominative of the second personal pronoun,
while in cultivated English the plural accusative you (A.-S.
eote) has come to represent a nominative singular. Both
are grammatically correct within the sphere of their respective
dialects, but no further. You would be as ungrammatical in
West Somerset as thre is in classical English ; and both you and
thee, as nominatives singular, would have been equally ungram¬
matical in Early English. Grammatical propriety is nothing
more than the established usage of a particular body of speakers
at a particular time in their history.
It follows from this that the grammur of a people changes,
like its pronunciation, from age to age. Anglo-Saxon or Early
English grammar is not the grammar of Modem English, any
more than Ijitin grammar is the grammar of modem Italian ;
and to defend an unusual construction or inflexion on the ground
that it once existed in literary Anglo-Saxon is as wrong as to
import a peculiarity of some local dialect into the grammar
of the cultivated speech. It further follows that different
languages win have different grammars, and that the differences
will be more or less according to the nearer or remoter relation¬
ship of the languages themselves and the modes of thought
of those who speak them. Consequently, to force the gram¬
matical framework of one language upon another is to miscon¬
ceive the whole nature of the latter and seriously to mislead
the learner. Chinese grammar, for instance, can never be under¬
stood until we discard, not only the terminology of European
grammar, but the very conceptions which underlie it, while
the polysynthetic idioms Of America defy all attempts to discover
in mein “ the parts of Speech ” and the various grammatical
ideas Which occupy so large a place in our school-grammars.
The endeavour to find lire distinctions of Latin grammar in that
of English has only resulted in grotesque errors, and a total
misapprehension of the usage of the English language.
It is to the Latin grammarians—or, more correctly, to the
Greek grammarians, upon whose labours those of the Latin
writers were based—that we owe the claasificttioa of
the subjects with which grammar is commonly sup- u,
posed to deal. The grammar ef Dionysius Thrax.j— Tr .
which he wrote for Roman schoolboys in the time
of Pompey, has formed the starting-point for the innumer¬
able school-grammars which have since seen the light, and
suggested that division of the matter treated oi Which they have
followed. He defines grammar as a practical acquaintance with
the language of literary men, and as divided into six pasts—
accentuation and phonology,expianationof figurative expressions,
definition, etymology, general rules of flexion and critical
canons. ’’Of these, phonology and accentuation, or prosody,
can properly be included in grammar only in m» far as the
construction of a sentence and the grammatical meaning of a
word are determined by accent or letter-change; the accentual
difference in English, for example, between incense and intense
belongs to the province of grammar, since it indicates a difference
between noun and verb; usd the chargee of vowel in the Semitic
languages, by which various nominal and verbal forms are
distinguished from one another, constitute a very important
part of their grammatical machinery. But where accent and
pronunciation do not serve to express the relations of words
m a sentence, they fall into the domain of phonology, not of
grammar. The explanation of figurative expressions, again,
must be left to the rhetorician, and definition to the lexicographer;
the grammarian has no more to do with them than he has with
the canons of criticism.
In fact, the old subdivision of grammar, inherited from the
grammarians of Ronie and Alexandria, must be given up and
a new one put in its place. What grammar really deals with
are all those contrivances whereby the relations of words and
sentences are pointed out. Sometimes it is position, sometimes
phonetic symbolization, sometimes composition, sometimes
flexion, sometimes the use of auxiliaries, which enables the
speaker to combine his words in such a way that they shall be
intelligible to another. Grammar may accordingly be divided
into the three departments of composition or " word-building,”
syntax and accidence, by which is meant an exposition of the
means adopted by language for expressing the relations of
grammar when recourse is not had to composition or simple
position.
A systematized exposition of grammar may be intended for
the purely practical purpose of teaching the mechanism of a
foreign language. In this case all that is necessary
is a correct and complete statement of the facts. But 91
a correct and complete statement of the facts is by no Baa f'
means so easy a matter as might appear at first sight.
The facts will be distorted by a false theory in regard to them,
while they will certainly not be presented in a complete form if
the grammarian is ignorant of the true theory they presuppose.
The Semitic verb, for example, remains unintelligible so long
as the explanation of its forms is sought in the conjugation of
the Aryan verb, since it has no tenses in the Aryan sense of the
word, but denotes relation and not time.
A good practical grammar of a language, therefore, should be
based on a correct appreciation of the facts which it expounds,
and a correct appreciation of the facts is only possible where
they are examined and co-ordinated in accordance with the
scientific method. A practical grammar ought, wherever it is
possible, to be preceded by a scientific grammar.
Comparison is the instrument with which science works, and
a scientific grammar, accordingly, is one in which the comparative
method has been applied to the relations of speech. If we would
understand the origin and real nature of grammatical forms,
and of the relations which they represent, we must compare them
with similar forms in kindred dialects and languages, as well
as with the forms under which they appeared themselves at an
earlier period of their history. We shall thus have a comparative
grammar and an historical grammar, the latter being devoted
to tracing the history o! grammatical forms and usages in the
GRAMMAR
hum language. Of course, an historical grammar is only
possible where a succession al written records exists; where
a language possesses no older literature we must be content
with a comparative grammar only, and look to cognate idioms
to throw light upon its grammatical peculiarities. In this case
we have frequently to leave whole forms unexplained, or at
most conjectural!)- interpreted, since the machinery by means of
which the relations of grammar are symbolized is often changed
so completely during the growth of a language as to cause its
earlier shape and character to be unrecognizable. Moreover,
our area of comparison must be as wide as possible; where we
have but two or three languages to compare, we are in danger
of building up conclusions on insufficient evidence. The gram¬
matical errors of the classical philologists of the 18th century
were in great measure due to the fact that their area of comparison
was confined to Latin and Greek.
The historical grammar of a single language or dialect, which
traces the grammatical forms and usages of the language as far
back as documentary evidence allows, affords material to the
comparative grammarian, whose task it is to compare the
grammatical forms and usages of an allied group of tongues
and thereby reduce them to their earliest forms and senses.
The work thus carried out by the comparative grammarian
within a particular family of languages is made use of by universal
r nmar, the object of which is to determine the ideas that under-
all grammar whatsoever, as distinct from those that are
peculiar to special families of speech. Universal grammar is
sometimes known as “ the metaphysics of language,” and it
has to decide such questions as the nature of gender oV of the
verb, the true purport of the genitive relation, or the origin of
grammar itself. Such questions, it is clear, can only be answered
by comparing the results gained by the comparative treatment
of the grammars of various groups of language. What historical
grammar is to comparative grammar, comparative grammar is
to universal grammar.
Universal grammar, as founded on the results of the scientific
study of speech, is thus essentially different from that “ universal
grammar ” go much in vogue at the beginning of the
jiilmjusj' 19th century, which consisted of a series of a priori
assumptions based on the peculiarities of European
grammar and illustrated from the same source. But universal
grammar, as conceived by modem science, is as yet in its infancy ;
its materials are still in the process of being collected. The
comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages is alone
in an advanced state, those of the Semitic idioms, of the Finno-
Ugrian tongues and of the Bantu dialects of southern Africa
are still in a backward condition; and the other families of
speech existing in the world, with the exception of the Malayo-
Polynesian and the Sonorian of North America, have not as yet
been treated scientifically. Chinese, it is true, possesses an
historical grammar, and Van Eys, in his comparative grammar
of Basque, endeavoured to solve the problems of that interesting
language by a comparison of its various dialects ; but in both
cases the area of comparison Ls too small for more than a limited
success to be attainable. Instead of attempting the questions
of universal grammar, therefore, it will be better to confine our
attention to three points—the fundamental differences in the
grammatical conceptions of different groups of languages, the
main results of a scientific investigation of Indo-European
grammar, and the light thrown by comparative philology upon
the grammar of out own tongue.
The proposition or sentence is the unit and starting-point of
speech, and grammar, as we have seen, consists in the relations
DMWr- ol ■** several P * 0 * 8 on * xnother. together with the
meulM expression of them. These relations may be regarded
ruiav from various points of view. In the polysynthetic
iUZZOiaZ. fang u n g " 11 of America the sentence is conceived as a
********* whole, not composed of independent words, but, like
the thought which it expresses, one and indivisible. What we
should denote by a series of words is consequently denoted by a
(ingle long compound —kultgaUhts in Delaware, for instance,
signifying “ give me your pretty little paw," and agUkUgiarior-
■suamipoh in Eskimo, " he goes away hastily andoKrts himself
to write.” Individual words can be, and ofteniase, ex t r acted
from the sentence; but in this case theyiktand, SBuit dWre,
outside it, being represented by a pronoun witirin the sentence
itself. Thus, in Mexican, we can say not only wf-ioh»-fe»qqa, “ 1
look for flowers,” but also ni-k-tmna sotsill, where the inter¬
polated guttural is the objective pronoun. As a necessary resVk
of this conception of the sentence the American languages
possess no true verb, each act being expressed as a whole fay a
single word. In Cherokee, for example, while there is; no verb
signifying "to wash" in the abstract, no less than thirteen
words are used- to signify every conceivable mode and object' of
washing. In the incorporating languages, again; of which
Basque may be taken as a type, the object cunnnof be conceived
except as contained in the verbal action. Hence every verbal
form embodies an objective pronoun, even though the Object
may be separately expressed. H we pass to an isolating language
like Chinese, we find the efcact converse of that which meets us
in the polysynthetic tongues. Here each proposition or thought
is analysed into its several elements, and these are set over
against one another as so many independent words. The
relations of grammar are consequently denoted by position,' the
particular position of two or more words determining the relation
they bear to each ether. The analysis of the sentence has not
been carried so far in agglutinative languages like Turkish.
In these the relations of grammar are represented by individual
words, which, however, are subordinated to the words expressing
the main ideas intended to be in relation to one another. The
defining words, or indices of grammatical relations, arc, in a
large number of instances, placed after the words which they
define; in some cases, however, as, for example, in the Bantu
languages of southern Africa, the relation is conceived from
the opposite point of view, the defining words being prefixed.
The inflexional languages call in the iud of a new principle.
The relations of grammar are denoted symbolically either
by a change of vowel or by a change of termination, more
rarely by a change at the beginning of a word. Each
idea, together with the relation which it bears to the other
ideas of u proposition, is thus represented by a single word;
that is to say, the ideas which make up the elements of a
sentence are not conceived severally and independently, as in
Chinese, but as always having a certain connexion with one
another. Inflexional languages, however, tend to become
analytical by the logical separation of the flexion from the idea
to which it is attached, though the primitive point of view is.
never altogether discarded, and tracts of Anion remain even in
English and Persian. In fact, there is no example of a language
which has wholly forsaken the conception of rite sentence and
the relation of its elements with which it started, although each
class of languages occasionally trespasses on the grammatical
usages of the others. In language, as elsewhere in nature, there
are no sharp lines of division, no sudden leaps; species passes
insensibly into species, class into class. At the same time the
several types of speech—polysynthntic, isolating, agglutinative
and inflexional—remain (dear and fixed ; and even where two
languages belong to the same general type, as, for instance, an
Indo-European and a Semitic language in the inflexional group,
or a Bantu and a Turkish language in the agglutinative group,
we find no certain example of grammatical interchange. Amixed
grammar, in which the grammatical procedure of two distinct
families of speech is intermingled, is almost, if not altogether,
unknown.
It is obvious, therefore, that grammar constitutes the surest
and most important basis for a classification of languages.
Words may be borrowed freely by one dialect from another, or,
though originally unrelated, may, by the action of phonetic
decay, come to assume the same forms, while the limited number
of articulate sounds and conceptions out of which language was
first developed, and the similarity of the circumstances by which
the first speakers were everywhere surrounded, naturally peoduce
a resemblance between the roots of many, unconnected tongues.
Where, however, the fundamental conceptions of grammar and
GRAMMAR
3 **
the machinery by which they are expressed are the same, we
may have no hesitation in inferring a common origin.
The main results of scientific inquiry into the origin and
primitive meaning of the forms of Indo-European grammar
. may he summed up as follows. We start with stems
or themes, by which are meant words of two or
S w w» w more syllables which terminate in a limited number
tnmrntr. of These stems can be classed in groups of
two kinds, one in which the groups consist of stems of similar
meanings and s im ilar initial syllables, and another in which
the final syllables alone coincide. In the first case we have
what are termed toots, the simplest elements into which
words can be decomposed; in the second case stems proper,
which may be described as consisting of suffixes attached to
roots. Roots, therefore, are merely the materials out of which
speech can be made, the embodiments of isolated conceptions
with which the lexicographer alone has to deal, whereas stems
present us with words already combined in a sentence and
embodying the relations of grammar. If we would rightly
understand primitive Indo-European grammar, we must conceive
it as having lieen expressed or implied in the suffixes of the stems,
and in the order according to which the stems were arranged in
a sentence. In other words, the relations of grammar were
denoted partly by juxtaposition or syntax, partly by the suffixes
of stems.
These suffixes were probably at first unmeaning, or rather
clothed with vague significations, which changed according to
the place occupied in the sentence by the stem to which they
were joined. Gradually this vagueness of signification dis¬
appeared, and particular suffixes came to be set apart to represent
particular relations of grammar. What had hitherto been
expressed by mere position now attached itself to the terminations
or suffixes of stems, which accordingly became full-grown words.
Some of the suffixes denoted purely grammatical ideas, that is
to say, were flexions ; others were classificatory, serving to
distinguish nouns from verbs, presents from aorists, objects
from agents and the like; while others, again, remained un¬
meaning adjuncts of the root, 'this origin of the flexions explains
the otherwise strange fact that the same suffix may symbolise
wholly different grammatical relations. In Latin, for instance,
the context and-dictionary will alone tell us that mus-as is the
accusative plural of a noun, and am-as the second person singular
of a verb, or that mus-a is the nominative singular of a feminine
substantive, bnn-a the accusative plural of a neuter adjective.
In short, the flexions were originally merely the terminations of
stems which were Adapted to express the various relations of
words to each othMf in a sentence, as these gradually presented
themselves to the consciousness and were extracted from what
* had been previously implied by position. Necessarily, the same
suffix might be used sometimes in a classificatory, sometimes in a
flexiona) sense, and sometimes without any definite sense at all.
In the Greek dative-locative irdS-«r-cn, for example, the suffix
-« is classificatory ; in the nominative iroiUs it is flexiona).
When a particular termination or suffix once acquired a
special sense, it would be separated in thought from the stem to
which it belonged, and attached in the same sense to other stems
and other terminations. Thus in modern English we can attach
the suffix -t« to almost any word whatsoever, in order to give
the latter a transitive meaning, and the Gr. a -Hearn, quoted
above, really contains no less than three suffixes, -«s, -mi and
the last two lwth denoting the locative, and coalescing,
through irfi, into a single syllable -in. The latter instance shows
us how two or more suffixes denoting exactly the same idea may
be tacked on one to another, if the original force and signification
of the first of them comes to be forgotten. Thus, in 0 . Eng.
sang-estre was the feminine of sang-err, “ singer,” but the meaning
of the termination has so entirely died out of the memory that
we have to add the Romanic - ess to it if we would still distinguish
it from the masculine singer. A familiar example of the way
ill which the full senw of the exponent of a grammatical idea
fades from the mind and has to be supplied by a new exponent
is afforded by the use of expletives in conversational English
to denote the superlative “ Very- warn ” expresses little more
than the positive, and to represent the intensity of his feelings
the Englishman has recourse to such expressions as “ awfully
warm ” like the Ger. “schrecklich warm. ■
Such words as “very,” “awfully,” “schrecklich,” illustrate
a second mode in which Indo-European grammar has found
means of expression. Words may lose their true signification
and become the mere exponents of grammatical ideas. Professor
Earle divides all words into presentivr and symbolic, the former
denoting objects and conceptions, the latter the relations which
exist between these. Symbolic words, therefore, are what the
Chinese grammarians call “ empty words ”—words, that is, which
have been divested of their proper signification and serve a gram¬
matical purpose only. Many of the classificatory and some of
the fiexional suffixes of Indo-European speech can be shown
to have had this origin. Thus the suffix tar, which denotes
names of kinship and agency, seems to come from the same mot
as the Lat. terminus and trans, our through, the Sans, tar-imi,
“ I pass over,” and to have primarily signifie d “ one that goes
through ” a thing. Thus, too, the Eng. head or hood, in words
like godhead and brotherhood, is the A.-S. had, “ character ”
or “ rank ” ; dent, in kingdom, the A.-S. dim, “ judgment ” ;
and lock or ledge, in wedlock and knowledge, the A.-S. lac, “ sport ”
or “gift.” In all these cases the “empty words,” after first
losing every trace of their original significance, have followed
the general analogy of the language and assumed the form and
functions of the suffixes with which they had been confused.
A third mode of representing the relations of grammar is
by the symbolic use of vowels and diphthongs. In Greek, for
instance, the distinction between the reduplicated present Slbyu
and the reduplicated perfect SiStaxa is indicated by a distinction
of vowel, and in primitive Aryan grammar the vowel a seems
to have been set Apart to denote the subjunctive mood just as
ya or i was set opart to denote the potential. So, too, according
to M. Hovelacque, the change of a into i or «in the parent Indo-
European symbolized a change of meaning from passive to active.
This symbolic use of the vowels, which is the purest application
of the principle of flexion, is far less extensively carried out in
the Indo-European than in the Semitic languages. The Semitic
family of speech is therefore a much more characteristic type of
the inflexional languages than is the Indo-European.
The primitive Indo-European noun possessed at least eight
cases—nominative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, dative,
genitive, ablative and locative. M. Bergaigne has attempted
to show that the first three of these, the “ strong cases ” as
they are termed, are really abstracts formed by the suffixes
-as <-s), -an-, -«, -l, -a and -ya (-*), the plural being nothing
more than an abstract singular, as may be readily seen by
comparing words like the Gr. «ro-s and oirt-t, which mean
precisely the same. The remaining “ weak ” cases, formed by
the suffixes -sma, -sya, -sya, -y&, -i, -an, -t, -bhi, -su, -i, -a and -a,
are really adjectives and adverbs. No distinction, for example,
can be drawn between “ a cup of gold ” and “ a golden cup,”
and the instrumental, the dative, the ablative and the locative
are, when closely examined, merely adverbs attached to a verb.
The terminations of the strong cases do not displace the accent
of the stem to which they are suffixed ; the suffixes of the weak
cases, on the other hand, generally draw the accent upon
themselves.
According to Hubschmann, the nominative, accusative and
genitive cases are purely grammatical, distinguished from one
another through the exigencies of the sentence only, whereas
the locative, ablative and instrumental have a logical origin and
determine the logical relation which the three other cases bear
to each other and the verb. The nature of the dative is left
undecided. The locative primarily denotes rest in a place, the
ablative motion from a place, and the instrumental the means or
concomitance of an action. The dative Hubschmann regards
as “the case of the participant object." Like Hubs chm a nn ,
Holzweissig divides the cases into two classes—the one gram¬
matical and the other logical; and his analysis of their primitive
meaning is the same as that of Hubschmann, except as regards
GRAMMAR
the dative, the primary sense of which he thinks to have been
motion towards a place. This is also the view of Delbriick, who
makes it denote tendency towards an object. Delbriick, how¬
ever, holds that the primary sense of the ablative was that of
separation, the instrumental originally indicating concomitance,
while there was a double locative, one used like the ablative
absolute in Latin, the other being a locative of the object.
The dual was older than the plural, and after the development
of the latter survived as a merely useless encumbrance, of which
most of the Indo-European languages contrived in time to get
rid. There are still many savage idioms in which the conception
of plurality has not advanced beyond that of duality, in the
Bushman dialects, for instance, the plural, or rather that which
is more than one, is expressed by repeating the word ;* thus tu
is "mouth,” tutu "mouths.” It may be shown that most of
die suffixes of the Indo-European dual are the longer and more
primitive forms of those of the plural which have grown out of
them by the help of phonetic decay. The plural of the weak cases,
on the other hand (the accusative alone excepted), was identical
with the singular of abstract nouns; so far as both form and
meaning are concerned, no distinction can be drawn between
ome and firos. Similarly, humanity and mm signify one and
the same thing, and the use of English words like sheep or fish
for both singular and plural shows to what an extent our apprecia¬
tion of number is determined by the context rather than by the
form of the noun. The so-called " broken plurals ” of Arabic
and Ethiopic are really singular collectives employed to denote
the plural.
Gender is the product partly of analogy, partly of phonetic
decay. In many languages, such as Eskimo and Chocktaw, its
place is taken by a division of objects into animate and inanimate,
while in other languages they are separated into rational and
irrational. There are many indications that the parent Indo-
European in an early stage of its existence had no signs of gender
at all. The terminations of the names of father and mother,
pater and mater, for example, are exactly the same, and m Latin
and Greek many diphthongal stems, as well as stems in r or va
and u (like v«5s and v«k«s, irdAts and his), may be indifferently
masculine and feminine. Even stems in o and a (of the second
and first declensions), though the first are generally masculine
and the second generally feminine, by no means invariably
maintain the rule; and feminines like humus and ofios, or
masculines like advena and rroAm/s, show that there was a time
when these stems also indicated no particular gender, but owed
their subsequent adaptation, the one to mark the masculine
and the other to mark the feminine, to the influence of analogy.
The idea of gender was first suggested by the difference between
man and woman, male and female, and, as in so many languages
at the present day, was represented not by any outward sign
but by the meaning of the words themselves. When once arrived
at, the conception of gender was extended to other objects besides
those to which it properly belonged. The primitive Indo-
European did not distinguish between subject and object, but
personified objects by ascribing to them the motives and powers
of living beings. Accordingly they were referred to by different
pronouns, one class denoting the masculine and another class
the feminine, and the distinction that existed between these two
classes of pronouns was after a time transferred to the nouns.
As soon as the preponderant number of stems in o in daily use
had come to be regarded as masculine on account of their mean¬
ing, other stems in o, whatever might be their signification,
were rpade to follow the general analogy and were similarly
classed as masculines. In the same way, the suffix t or ya
acquired a feminine sense, and was set apart to represent the
feminine gender. Unlike the Semites, the Indo-Europeans were
not satisfied with these two genders, masculine and feminine.
As soon as object and subject, patient and agent, were clearly
distinguished from each other, there arose a need for a third
gender, which should be neither masculine nor feminiite, but
denote things without life. This third gender was fittingly
expressed either by the objective case used as a nominative (e.g.
regnum), or by a stem without any case ending at all (e.g. virus).
m
The adverbial meaning of so many of the. cases explains tbs
readiness with which they became crystallised m tw sdverhs sod
prepositions. An adverb is the attribute of an tttributer—" the
rose smells sweetly,” far example, being resolvable' the
rose has the attribute of scent with the further sfttribUte ef
sweetness.” In our own language once, noise, n e ed s , See ail
genitives ; seldom is a dative. The Latin and GreekAuna and
X<ymu are locatives, fasillime ( factllumtd) and rvrvgwt ablatives,
vavrr) and a/ux instrumentals, impos, i(ijs and rpAo*' genitive*.
The frequency with which particular cases of particuktr nouns
were used in a specifically attributive sense caused them to
become, as it were, petrified, the other cases of the nouns in
question passing out of use, and the original force of those that
were retained being gradually forgotten. Prepositions an
adverbs employed to define nouns instead of verbs and adjectives.
Their appearance in the Indo-European languages is compara¬
tively late, and the Homeric poems silow us to trace their growth
in Greek. The adverb, originally intended to define the verb,
came to be construed with the noun, and the government of
the case with which it was construed was accordingly transferred
from the verb to the noun. Thus when we read in the Odyssey
(> v - 43)> “vrous S' «Kri)yoi' 6riiov &i jiav, we see that «<c is still an
adverb, and that the accusative is governed by the verb ;• it is
tjtrite otherwise, however, with u line like 'ArptsSi/s hi yipovrat
aoAAius f/ytv ’A yaiiov is ehurir/v (U. j, (jq) where the adverb has
passed into a preposition. The same process of transformation
is still going on in English, where we can say indifferently,
“ What are you looking at ? ” using “ at ” as an adverb, and
governing the pronoun by the verb, and “ At what am you
looking ? ” where “ at ” has become a preposition. With the
growth and increase of prepositions the need of the case-endings
diminished, and in some languages the latter disappeared
altogether.
Like prepositions, conjunctions also are primarily adverbs
used in a demonstrative and relative sense. Hence most of the
conjunctions are petrified cases of pronouns. The relation
between two sentences was originally expressed by simply setting
them side by side, afterwards by employing a demonstrative
at the begmning of the second clause to refer to the whole pre¬
ceding one. The relative pronoun can be shown to have been
in the first instance a demonstrative ; indeed, .we can still use
that in English in a relative sense. Since the demonstrative
at the beginning of the second clause represented the first clause,
and was consequently an attribute of the second, it had to stand
in some case, and this case became a conjunction. How closely
allied the adverb and the conjunction aAfcnay be seen from
Greek and Latin, where uc or quum can beulri as either the one
or the other. Our own and, it may be obsMtitd, has probably
the same root as the Greek locative adverb in, and originally!
signified “ going further.”
Another form of adverb is the infinitive, the adverbial force
of which appears clearly in such u phrase as “ A wonderful thing
to see.” Various cases, such as the locative, the drive or the
instrumental, are employed in Vedic Sanskrit in She sense of
the infinitive, betides the bare stem or neuter farmed:by the
suffixes man and van. In Greek the neuter stem and the dative
case were alone retained for the purpose. The first is found in
infinitives like 86/uv and <t>ipnv (for an earlier Uo), the
second in the infinitives in -et. Thus the Gr. Smoot answers
letter for letter to the Vedic dative divine, “ to give,” and the
form is explained by the Vedic vayodkai, iatveryit-dhai,
literally “ to do living," dhai being the drive of s noun from
the root dhi, “ to place ” or “ do.” When the form if'wSun&m
had once come into existence, analogy was ready to create each
false imitations as yptUpaxr&tu or The , I at in
infinitive in -re for -se hits the same origin, amort, far instance,
being the dative of an old stem amas. In fieri for -fierei at fiesei,
from the same root as our English be, the original length of the
final syllable is preserved. The suffix in -urn is on accusative, like
the corresponding infinitive of classical Sanskrit. This origin
of the infinitive explains the Latin construction of the tmanfr'r
and infinitive. When the Roman said, ‘HMiror tend me:nihil
xn. n a
GRAMMAR
319
seribere,'' ail that ha meant at tint was, “ 1 wander at you for
writing nothing to me,” where the infinitive was merely a dative
cm ueed adverbially.
The history of the infinitive makes it clear how little distinction
must have been felt at the outset between the noun and the verb.
Indeed, the growth of the verb was a slow process. There was a
time m the history of Indo-European speech when it had not as
yet risen to the consciousness of the speaker, and in the period
when the noun did not possess a plural there was as yet also no
verb. The attachment of the first and second personal pronouns,
or of suffikes resembling them, to certain stems, teas the first
stage in the' development of the latter. Like the Semitic verb,
the Indo-European verb seems primarily to have denoted relation
only, and to have been attached as an attribute to the subject.
The idea <of time, however, was soon put into it, and two tenses
were created, the one expressing a present or continuous action, the
other an aoristie or momentary one. The distinction of sense was
symbolized by a distinction of pronunciation, the root-syllable
of the aorist being an abbreviated form of that of the present.
This abbreviation was due to a change in the position of the accent
(which was shifted from the stem-syllable to the termination),
and this change again was probably occasioned by the prefixing
of the so-called augment to the aorist, which survived into his¬
torical times only m Sanskrit, Zend and Greek, and the origin of
which is still a mystery. The weight of the first syllable in the
aorist further caused the person-endings to be shortened, and so
two sets of person-endings, usually termed primary and secondary,
sprang into existence. By reduplicating the root-syllable of
the present tense a perfect was formed ; but originally no dis¬
tinction was made between present and perfect, and Greek verbs
like USutfu and *)k«> are memorials of a time when the difference
between “ I am come ” and “ I have conic " was not yet felt.
Reduplication was further adapted to the expression of intensity
and desire (in the so-called intensive and desiderative forms).
My the side of the aorist stood the imperfect, which differed
from the aorist, so far as outward form was concerned, only
in possessing the longer and more original stem of the present.
Indeed, as Benfey first saw, the aorist itself was primitively
an imperfect, and the distinction between aorist and im¬
perfect is not older than the period when the stem-syllables of
certain imperfects were shortened through the influence of the
accent, and this differentiation of forms appropriated to denote
a difference between the sense of the aorist and the imperfect
which was beginning to be felt. After the analogy of the im¬
perfect, a pluperfect was created out of the perfect by prefixing
the augment (of the Greek is an illustration);
though the plupurept, too, was originally an imperfect formed
from the reduplamral present.
| Besides time, mood was also expressed by the primitive
■Indo-European verb, recourse being had to symbolization for
the purpose. The imperative was represented by the bare stem,
like the vocative, the accent being drawn liack to the first
syllable, though other modes of denoting it soon rame into
vogue. Possibility was symbolized by the attachment of
the suffix -ya to the stem, probability by the attachment of
-0 and -i, and in this way the optative and conjunctive moods
first arose. The creation of a future by the help of the suffix
•aya seems'to belong to the same period in the history of the
verb. This suffix is probably identical with that used to form
a large class of adjectives and genitives (like the Greek ortroto
for farwona); in this ease future time will have been regarded
os an attribute of the subject, no distinction being drawn, for
instance, between " rising sun " and “ the sun w ill rise.” It
is possible, however, that the auxiliary verb as, “ to be," enters
into the competition of the future; if so, the future will be
the product'Qf the second stage in the development of the Indo-
European verb when new forms were created by means of
composition, The sigmatic or first aorist is in favour of this
view, as it certainly belongs to the age of Indo-European unity,
and may be a compound of the verbal stem with 'the auxiliary as.
Alter the separation of the Indo-European languages, com¬
position Was largely employed in the formation of new tenses.
Thus in Latin we have perfects like scrip-si and arn-vi, formed
by the help of the auxiliaries as (sum) and fm, while such forms
as amaeeram (amam-eram) or anutrem (ama-stm) bear their
origin on their face. So, too, the future in Latin and Old Celtic
(amabo, Irish carub) is based upon the substantive verb fuo
“ to be,” and the English preterite in -ed goes bade to a suffixed’
did, the reduplicated perfect of da. New tenses and moods,
however, were created by the aid of suffixes as well as by the
aid of composition, or rather were formed from nouns whose
steins terminated in the suffixes in question. Thus in Greek
we have aorists and perfects in -««, and the characteristics of
the two passive aorists, ye and the, are more probably the suffixes
of nominal stems than the roots of the two verbs ya, “ to go,”
and dhd,'“ to place,” as Bopp supposed. How late some of there
new formations were may be seen in Greek, where the Homeric
poems are still ignorant of the weak future passive, the optative
future, and the aspirated perfect, and where the strong future
passive occurs but once and the desiderative but twice. On
the other hand, many of the older tenses were disused and lost.
In classical Sanskrit, for instance, of the modal aorist forms
the precative and benedktive almost alone remain, while the
pluperfect, of which Delbriick has found traces in the Veda,
has wholly disappeared.
The passive voice did not exist in the parent Indo-European
speech. No need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as “ 1
am pleased ” could be as well represented by “ This pleases me,”
or “ I please myself.” It was long before the speaker was able
to imagine an action without an object, and when he did so,
it was a neuter or substantival rather than a passive verb that
he formed. The passive, in fact; grew out of the middle or
reflexive, and, except in the two aorists, continued to be repre¬
sented by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin the second
person plural is really the middle participle with estis understood,
and the whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that
the characteristic r which Latin shares with Celtic could have
had at the outset no passive force.
Much light has been thrown on the character and construction
of the primitive Indo-European sentence by comparative syntax.
In contradistinction to Semitic, where the defining word follows
that which is defined, the Indo-European languages place that
which is defined after that which defines it; and Bergaigne
has made it clear that the original order of the sentence was
(i) object, (t) verb, and (3) subject. Greater complication of
thought and its expression, the connexion of sentences by the
aid of conjunctions, and rhetorical inversion caused that dis¬
location of the original order of the sentence which reaches its
culminating point in the involved periods of Latin literature.
Our own language still remains true, however, to the syntax
of the parent Indo-European when it sets both adjective and
genitive before the nouns which they define. In course of time
a distinction came to be made between an attribute used as a
mere qualificative and an attribute used predicatively, and
this distinction was expressed by placing the predicate in op¬
position to the subject and accordingly after it. The opposition
was of itself sufficient to indicate the logical copula or sub¬
stantive verb; indeed, the word which afterwards commonly
stood for the latter at first signified “ existence,” and it was only
through the wear and tear of time that a phrase like Dtus bonus
est, “ God exists as good,” came to mean simply “ God is good.”
It is needless to observe that neither of the .two articles was
known to the parent Indo-European ; indeed, the definite article,
which is merely a decayed demonstrative pronoun, has not yet
been developed in several of the languages of the Indo-European
family.
We must now glance briefly at the results of a scientific in¬
vestigation of English grammar and the modifications they
necessitate in our conception of it. The idea that i artM „.
the free use of speech is tied down by the rules of titmoi
the grammarian must first be given up; all that the cogUot
grammarian can do is to formulate the current uses pc—ume.
of his time, which are determined by habit and custom,
and are accordingly in a perpetual state of flux. We must next
GRAMMAR
33*
get rid of the notion that English grammar should be modelled
after that of ancient Rome; until we do so we shall never
understand even the elementary principles upon which it is
famed. We cannot speak of declension*, since English has no
genders except, in the pronouns of the third person, and no
cases except the genitive and a few faint traces of an old dative.
Its verbal conjugation is essentially different from that of an
inflexional language like Latin, and cannot be compressed into
the same categories. In English the syntax has been enlarged
at the expense of the accidence; position has taken the place
of forms. To speak of an adjective “ agreeing ” with its sub¬
stantive is as misleading as to speak of a verb " governing ”
a case. In fact, the distinction between noun and adjective
is inapplicable to English grammar, and should be replaced
by a distinction between objective and attributive words. In
a phrase like “ this is a cannon,” cannon is objective ; in a phrase
like “ a cannon-ball,” it is attributive; and to call it a sub¬
stantive in the one case and an adjective in the other is only
to introduce confusion. With the exception of the nominative,
the various forms of the noun are all attributive ; there is no
difference, for example, between “ doing a thing ” and “ doing
badly.” Apart from the personal pronouns, the accusative
of the classical languages can. be represented only by position;
but if we were to say that a noun which follows a verb is in the
accusative case we should have to define “ king ” as an accusative
in such sentences as “ he became king ” or “ he is king.” In
conversational English ‘‘ it is me ” is as correct as “ e'est moi ”
in French, or “ det er mig ” in Danish ; the literary “ it is I ”
is due to the influence of classical grammar. The combination
of noun or pronoun and preposition results in*a compound
attribute. As for the verb, Sweet has well said that “ the really
characteristic feature of the English finite verb is its inability
to stand alone without a pronominal prefix." Thus “ dream ”
by itself is a noun; 11 1 dream ” is a verb. The place of the
pronominal prefix may be taken by a noun, though both poetry
and vulgar English frequently insert the pronoun even when
the noun precedes. The number of inflected verbal forms is
but small, being confined to the third person singular and the
special forms of the preterite and past participle, though the
latter may with more justice be regarded as belonging to the
province of the lexicographer rather than to that of the gram¬
marian. The inflected subjunctive (hr, were, save in “ God save
the King,” &c.) is rapidly disappearing. New inflected forms,
however, are coming into existence ; at all events, we have
as good a right to consider wont, shant, cant new inflected forms
as the French aimerai (amare habeo), aimerais (amarc habtbam).
If the ordinary grammars are correct in treating forms like
“ I am loving,” “ 1 was loving,” “ I did love,” as separate
tenses, they are strangely inconsistent in omitting to notice
the equally important emphatir form “ I do love ” or the negative
form “ I do not love ” (“ I don’t love ”), as well as the semi-
inflexional “ I ’ll love,” “ he’s loving.” It is true that these
latter contracted forms are heard only in conversatioiAmd not
seen in books: but the grammar of a language, it must be
remembered, is made by those who speak it and not by the
printers.
Our school grammars are the inheritance we have received
from Greece and Rome. The necessities of rhetoric obliged the
Sophists to investigate the structure of the Greek
tormtf 01 bmguage, “"d to them was accordingly due the first
grammar, analysis of Greek grammar. Protagoras distinguished
the three genders and the verbal moods, while Pro-
dicus busied himself with the definition of synonyms. Aristotle,
taking the side of Democritus, who had held that the meaning
of words is put into them by the speaker, and that there is no
necessary connexion between sound and sense, laid down that
words “ symbolize ” objects according to the will of those who
use them, and added to the wop* or “ noun,” and the fn\p* or
“ verb,” the <rvvtmr/tos or “ particle.” He also introduced the
term iriwis, “case,” to denote any flexion whatsoever. He
further divided nouns into simple and cpmpound, invented for
the neuter another name than that given by Protagoras, and
starting from the termination of the nominative singular, en¬
deavoured to ascertain the rules for indicating a difference of
gender. Aristotle was followed by the Stoics, who separated the
oftipov or “ article ” from the particles, determined a fifth part
of speech, the jrarSemjeor “ adverb," confined the term "case "
to'the flexions of the nouns, distinguishing the four principal
cases by names, and divided the verb into its tenses, moods
and classes. Meanwhile the Alexandrian critics were studying
the language of Homer and the Attic writers, and comparing
it with tite language of their own day, the result being a minute
examination of the facts and rules of grammar. Two schools of
grammarians sprang up—the Analogists, headed by Aristarchus,
who held that a strict law of analogy existed between idea
and word, and refused to admit exceptions to the grammatical
rules they laid down, and the Anomalists, who denied general
rules of any kind, except in so far as they were consecrated by
custom. Foremost among the Anomalists was Crates of Mallos,
the leader of the Pergamenian school, to whom we owe the first
formal Greek grammar and collection of the grammatical facts
obtained by the labours of the Alexandrian critics, ns well rs an
attempt to reform Greek orthograph) . The immediate cause
of this grammar seems to have bee., a comparison of Latin with
Greek, Crates having lectured on the subject while ambassador
of Attalus at Rome in 159 b . c . The zeal with which the Romans
threw themselves into the study of Greek resulted in the school
grammar of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, which he
published at Rome in the time of Pompey and which is still
in existence. Latin grammars were soon modelled upon it,
and the attempt to translate the technical terms of the Greek
grammarians into Latin was productive of numerous blunders
which have been perpetuated to our own day. Thus tenues
is a mistranslation of the Greek ipiXu, “ unaspirated ”: gruetivus
of y«eunj, the case " of the genus ” ; accusations of imtuitho/,
the case “ of the object ” ; infinitivus of drape pharos, “ without
a secondary meaning ” of tense or person. New names were
coined to denote forms possessed by Latin and not try Greek;
ablative, for instance, was invented by Julius Caesar, who also
wrote a treatise De apologia. By the and century of the Christian
era the dispute between the Anomalists and the Analogists was
finally settled, analogy being recognized as the principle that
underlies language, though every rule admits of exceptions.
Two eminent grammarians of Alexandria, Apollonius Dyscolus
and his son Herodian, summed up the labours and controversies
of their predecessors, and upon their works were based the Latin
grammar composed by Aelius Donatus in the 4th century, and
the eighteen t»oks on grammar compiled hggPriscian in the age
of Justinian. The grammar of Donatus dominated the schools
of tiie middle ages, and, along with the productions of Priscian,
formed the type and source of the Latin and Greek school-
grammars of modern Europe.
A few words remain to be said, in conclusion, on the hearing
of a scientific study of grammar upon the practical task of
teaching and learning foreign languages. The grammar Ltml „
of a language is not to be confined within tife rules **
laid down by grammarians, much less is it the creation *rta»«r
of grammarians, and consequently the usual mode J^'“*<**
of making the pupil learn by heart certain fixed rules
and paradigms not only gives a false idea of what grammar
really is, but also throws obstacles in the way of acquiring it.
The unit of speech is the sentence ; and it is with the sentence
therefore, and not with lists of words and forms, that the pupil
should begin. When once a sufficient number of sentences has
been, so to speak, assimilated, it will be easy to analyse them
into their'component parts, to show the relations that these
bear to one another, and to indicate the nature and varieties of
the latter. In this way the learner will he prevented from
regarding grammar as a piece of dead mechanism or a Chinese
puzzle, of which the parts must be fitted together in accordance
with certain artificial rules, and will realize that it is a living
organism which has a history and a reason of its own. The
method of nature and science alike is analytic; and if we would
learn a foreign language properly we must learn it as we did
GRAMMICHELBi*©RAAK)NT, COMTE DE
out nwthrr tnnpin by first mattering the expression of * com¬
plete thought and then breaking up *» e*pre«c» into it*
■ereral elements. (A. H.B.)
Rea PmtotosY, and article* on the various languages. Also
Steinthal. CharahterieUh der kaupteichhchsten Typtn iet Spraoh-
hones (Berlin. i8»o) ; Schleicher, Compendium 0/ the Comparative
Grammar 0/ the Indo-European Languages, translated by H. Bendall
(London, 1874); Perti, Aryan Philology according to the most recent
Researches, translated by E. S. Roberts (London, 1879); Sayce,
Introduction to the Science ol Language (London, 1879); Lerach, Die
Sprachphitoeophie dor Alien (Bonn, 1838-1841); Stemthal, Geschichte
der Sprachwiseehschaft bei den Griechen und RBmern mil besouderrr
Rilcksicht auf die Logik (Berlin, 1863, 2nd ed. 1890); Delbriick,
Ahtativ local it instrumentalie in Altmdischen, Latetnsschen, Grie-
ehischen, lend Deutschen (Berlin, 1864); JoUy, Bin Kapitel err-
gleichender Syntax (Munich, 1873); Hiibsdimann, Zur Casuslehrc
(Munich, 1875) ; Holzwoixsig, Wahrheil und Irrlhum der localistischcn
Casustheorie (Leipzig, 1877) ; Draeger, Histonsche Syntax der
laMnischen Sprackt (l-eiprig, 1874 -1878); Sweet, Words, Logic,
and Grammar (London, 1876): P. Giles, Manual 0/ Comp. IVulology
(1901); C. Abel, Agyp‘ -indo-eur. Sprachverwandschajt (1903);
Brugmanu and Delhruck, Grundriss d vcrgl. Gram. d. 1 ndogerm. Spr.
(1886-1900); Fritz Mauthncr, Deitrdge sur riner Kritik der Sprarhc
vol. iii. (root); T. G. Tucker, tntrod. to a Nat. Hist, of Language
(1908).
GRANIKHILI, a town of Sicily, in the provinoe of Catania,
55 m. S.W. of it l)y rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 15,075.
It was built in 1693, offer the destruction by an earthquake
of the old town of Occhiali to the north; the latter, on account of
the similarity of name, is generally identified with Echetla, a
frontier city between Syracusan and Carthaginian territory
in the time of Hiero II., which appears to have been originally
a Sice! city in which Greek civilization prevailed from the 5th
century onwards. To the east of Grammichele a cave shrine
of Oemeter, with fine votive terra-cottas, has been discovered.
See Mon. Lincei, vii. (1C07), 201 1 No1 - degh scavi (190*), 223.
GRAMMONT (the Flemish name Gheeraardsbergen more
dearly reveals its etymology Gerardi-mons), a town in East
Flanders, Belgium, near the meeting point with the provinces of
Brabant and Hainaut. It is on the Dendor almost due south
of Alost, and is chiefly famous because the charter of Grammont
given by Baldwin VI., count of Flanders,in a.d. 1068 was the first
of its kind. This charter has been styled “ the most ancient
written monument of civil and criminal lawB in Flanders.” The
modern town is a busv industrial centre. Pop. (1904) 12,835.
GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGftNOR ALFRED, Due de, Due df,
Gwcmt, Prince he Bidacjtf, (1819-1880), French diplomatist
and statesman, was horn at Paris on the 14th of August 1819, of
one of the most illustrious families of the old noblesse, a cadet
branch of the viscounts of Aure, which took its name from
the seigniory of Gramont in Navarre. His grandfather, Antoine
Louis Marie, due de Gramont (1755 1 836), hud emigrated during
the Revolution, and his father, Antoine Heraclius Genevifrve
Agf'nor (1789-1855), duo de Gramont and de Guiche, fought under
the British flag in the Peninsular War, became a lieutenant-
general in the French army in 1823, and m 1830 accompanied
Charles X. to Scotland. The younger generation, however,
were Itonapartist in sympathy; Gramont’s cousin Antoine
Louis Raymond, comle de Gramont (1787-1825), though also
the son of an imigre, served with distinction in Napoleon’s
armies, while Antoine Agtnor, due de Gramont, owed his career
to his early friendship fur Louis Napoleon.
Educated at the feoole.Pofytechnique, Gramont early gave
up the army for diplomacy. It was not, however, till after the
coup i'itat of the 2nd of December 1851, which made Louis
Napoleon supreme in France, that he became conspicuous as
a diplomat. He was successively minister plenipotentiary at
Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853), ambassador at
Rome (1857) and at Vienna (i86r). On the 15th of May 1870
he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in the OHivier
cabinet, und was thus largely, though not entirely, responsible
for the bungling of the negotiations between France and Prussia
■rising out of the candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohensoilem
far the throne of Spain, which led to the disastrous war of
1870-71. The exact share of Gramont in this responsibility has
been the subject of much controversy. The last word may be
•aid to have been uttered by M. £miie OHivier himself in his
L’Empire liberal (tosbe srii., 2909, patssei!). The famous declara¬
tion read by Gramont in the Chamber on fee 16th of July, fee
“ threat wife the hand on fee sword-hilt,” as Bismarck oaUed
it, was the joint work of the whole oubinet; the original draft
presented by Gramont was judged to be too “ elliptical ” in its
conclusion and not sufficiently vigorous; the reference to a
revival of fee empire of Charles V, was suggested by OHivier;
the paragraph asserting that France would not allow a foreign
power to disturb to her own detriment fee actual equilibrium
of Europe was inserted by fee emperor. So far, then, as this
declaration is concerned, it is clear feat Gramont’s responsibihty
must be shared with his sovereign and Ids colleagues (OHivier
op. eit. xii. 107 ; see also the two projets de declaration given
on p. 570). It is clear, however that he did not share fee
“ passion ” of his colleagues for “ peace wife honour,” dear
also that he wholly misrtad the intentions of the European
powers in the event of war. That he reckoned upon the active
alliance of Austria was due; according to M. OHivier, to the fact
that for nine years he had been a persona grata in the aristocratic
society of Vienna, where the necessity for revenging the humilia¬
tion of 1866 was an article of faith. This confidence made him
less disposed than many df his cojjeagues to make the best of the
renunciation of the candidature made, on hehalf of his son,
by the prince of Hohcneoflern-Sigmaringefi. It was Gramont
who pointed out to the emperor, on the evening of the 12th,
the dubious circutristanoes' of the act of renunciation, and on
the some night, without informing M. OHivier, despatched to
Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram demanding fee king of
Prussia’s guarantee feat the candidature would not be revived.
The supreme responsibility for this act must rest with the
emperor, “ who imposed it by ail exercise of personal power on
the only one of his ministem who aoukl have lent himself to such
a forgetfulness of the safeguards of a parliamentary rdgime.”
As for Gramont, he bad “ no conception of the exigencies of
this regime; he remained an ambassador accustomed to obey
the orders of his sovereign : in all good faith he had no idea that
this was not correct, and feat, himself a parliamentary minister,
he had associated himself with an act destructive of the authority
of parliament.” 1 “ On his part,” adds M. OHivier, “ it was fee
result only of obedience, not of warlike premeditation ” {op. eit.
p. 263). The apology may be taken for what it is worth. To
France and to the world Gramont was responsible for the policy
which put his country definitely into the wrong in the eyes of
Europe, and enabled, Bismarck to administer to her the “ slap
in the face ” (soufflet)~us Gramont called it in the Chamber—
by.means of fee mutilated “Ems telegram,” which was the
immediate cause of fee French declaration of war on the 15th.
After the defeat of Weriseehurg (August 4) Gramont resigned
office with fee rest of the OHivier ministry (August 9), and after
the revolution of September he went to England, returning after
the war to Paris, where he died on the :8th of January 1880.
His msRiage in 1848 with Miss Mackinnon, a Scottish lady,
remained without issue. During his retirement he published
various apologies for his policy in 1870, notably La France et
la Prusse avani la guerre (Paris, 1872).
Besides M. Olhvrer’s work quoted in the text, sec L. TUouveacl,
Le Secret de I'empereur, correspondence . . . ichangie entre M.
Thouvenel, le due de Gramont, et le gfnhed comle de Flahaut 1S60-
/S6j (2nd ed., 2 vols-, 1889). A small pamphlet containing his
Souvenirs iSyS-iSyo was published In 1901 by hie brother Antoine
Lton Phtlilwrt Auguste de Gramont, due de Lesparre.
GRAMONT, PHILIBERT, Comte de (1621-1707), the subject
of the famous Memoirs, came of a noble Gascon family, said
to have been of Basque origin. His grandmother, Diane
d’Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was “ k belle Corisande,”
one of the mistresses of Henry IV. The grandson assumed that
1 Compare with this Bismarck’s remarks to Hohenlohe (Hohenlohe,
Denkudlrdigheiten, ii. 71): " When Gramont was made minister,
Bismarck said to Benedetti that this indicated that the emperor
was meditating something evil, otherwise he would not have made
so stupid a person minister. Benedetti replied that the emperor
knew too little of him, whereupon Bismarck said that the emperor
bad once described Gramont to him as ' on ancien belktrc.’ "
GRAMOPHONE—^ORAMBOUND >33
hi* lather Antoine H. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was the
son of Henry IY-, and regretted that he had not claimed the
privileges of royal birth. Philibert de. Gramoot woe the eon of
Antoine II. by his second marriage with Claude de Montmorency,
and was bom m i6as, probably at the family seat of Bidache.
He was destined far the church, and was eduaated at the tollige
of Pau, in Beam. He refused the eoctesiastical. life, however,
and joined the army of Prince Thomas of Savoy, then besieging
Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under his elder
half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince
of Conde. He was present at Fribourg and Nordlingen, and
also served with 'distinction in Spain and Flanders in 1647 an d
1648. He favoured Cpndf’s party at the beginning of the
Fronde, but changed sides before he was too severely com¬
promised. In spite of his record in the army he never received
any important commission either military or diplomatic, perhaps
because of an incurable levity in his entiook. He was, however,
made a governor of the Pays d’Aunis and lieutenant of Bearn.
During the Commonwealth be visited England, and in 1662
he was exiled from Paris for paying court to Mademoiselle de la
Mottc Houdancourt, one of the king's mistresses. He went to
London, where he found at the court of 'Charles II. an atmosphere
congenial to his talents for intrigue; gallantry and pleasure.
He married in London, undcf pressure from her two brothers,
Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of his future biographer. She
was one of the great beauties of the English court, and was,
according to her brother’s optimistic account, able to fix the
count's affections. She was a woman of considerable wit, and
held her own at the court of Louis XIV., but her husband pursued
his gallant exploits to the close of a long life, being, said Ninon
de Hindus, the only old man who could affect the follies of
youth without being ridiculous. In 1664 he was allowed to
return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in connexion
with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 1671 and 1676. In 1688
he was sent by Louis XIV. to congratulate James II, on the
birth of an heir. From all these small diplomatic missions he
succeeded in obtaining considerable profits, being destitute
of scruples whenever money was in question. At the age of
seventy-five he had a dangerous illness, during which he became
reconciled to the church. His penitence does not seem to have
survived his recovery. He was eighty years old when he supplied
his brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (y.r.), with the materials
for his Memoires. Hamilton said that they had been dictated
to him, but there is no doubt that he was the real author. The
account of Gramont’s early carter was doubtless provided by
himself, but Hamilton was probably more familiar with the
history of the court of Charles II., which forms the most interest¬
ing section of the book. Moreover Gramont, though he had a
reputation for wit, was no writer, and there is no reason to
suppose that he was capable of producing a work which remains
a masterpiece of style and of witty portraiture. When the
Mcmoircs were finished it is said that Gramont sold the MS.
for J 500 francs, and kept most of the money himself. Fsntenelle,
then censor of the press, refused to license the book from con¬
siderations of respect to the strange old man, whose gambling,
cheating and meannesses were so ruthlessly exposed. But
Gramont himself appealed to the chancellor and the prohibition
was removed. He died on the 10th of January 1707, and the
Memoirts appeared six years later.
Hamilton was far superior to the comte de Gramont, but he
relates the story of his hero without comment, and nu condemna¬
tion of the prevalent code of morals is allowed to appear, unless
in on occasional touch of irony. The portrait is drawn with
such skill that the count, in spite of his biographer's candour,
imposes by his grand air on the reader much as he appears to
have done op his contemporaries. The book is the most entertain¬
ing of contemporary igemoirs, and in no other book is there a
description so vivid, truthful, and graceful of the licentious court
uf Charles II. There are other wad less flattering accounts of
the count. His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he
was a privileged person who was allowed to state even the most
unpleasing truths to Louis XIV. Saint-Simon in bis memoirs
Boyer
1719, The
was edited
describes the relief that was felt at court when the old man’s
death mm announced.
Atonewyt it levied* tomU it Cramnuml ptrticaMrmtnl
I'histoire amourfusr it la tour i‘A uulrta re sous U rtf** it Ceantsli
was printed ta Holland with the inscription Cologne, 17U. Other
edition* followed in 171$ and 1716 Memoirs of ike Lift if Ct»*t ft
G r m mm oat . . '. trenstmUd out of the I-renck by Mr [Ami]
(1714b was supplemented by * " compleat key a
Mtmoires " augmentOes de note* et d cdairciwemen*
bv Horace Walpole in <772. In *793 appeared in London an edition
adorned with portraits engraved after originals in the royal collec¬
tion. An Enaliih edition by Sir Watte* Scott w«* published by
H. G. Bohn (1846), and this with addition, wa* reprinted in .88»,
1890,1 Hut, <Sc. Among other modem editions are mgaasatirt one
in the Bihliotkiaue Ckorpentier edited byM. Gustave Brunet (t?i9) 1
Mtmoires . . . (Paris, rH8«) with etching* by L. Boirtoo after C.
Detect and an introduction by H. Cnusaeron; Hftntoirs .
(1889), edited by Mr H. ViioteHy; and Mttkoiro . . .
edited by Mr Gordon Goodwin.
GRAMOPHONE (an invented word, formed on an,, inversion
of “ phonogram ”; sound, ypdppa, letter), an instinnBont
for recording and reproducing sound*. It depends on the same
general principles as the phonograph (g.v.), bug it differs in
certain details of construction, especially in having the sound-
record cut spirally on a flat did: instead elf round a cylinder.
GRAMPIANS, THE, a mass of mountains in central. Scotland.
Owing to the number of ramifications and ridges it is difficult
to assign their precise limits, but they may be described as
occupying the area between a line drawn from Dumbartonshire
to the North Sea at Stonehaven, and the valley of thei Spey or
even Gientnore (the Caledonian Canal). Their trend is from
south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural
division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They lie in the
shires of Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine,
Aberdeen, Banff and Inverness, Among the highest summits
are Ben Nevis, Ben Maodhui, the Cairngorms, Ben Lowers, Ben
More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruacbanand Ben Lomond. Theprincipal
rivers flowing from the watershed northward are the rindhom,
Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the South
Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass
is wild and rugged ; on the south the slope itafttn gentle;afford¬
ing excellent pasture in many places, but both sections contain
some of the finest deer-forests in Scotland. They aw crossed
by the Highland, West Highland and Callander to Oban railways,
and present some of the finest scenery in the kingdom. The
racks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss, schists, quartzite, porphyry
and diorite. Their fastnesses were originally inhabited by the
northern Piets, the Caledonians who, under Galgacue, were
defeated by Agricola in a.d. 84 at Won* Graupiu*—the false
reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name
of the mountains—the site of which has not been ascertained,
Some authorities place it at Ardoch ; others near the junction
of the Tay and Isla, or at Dalginross nfcar Comrie ; while some;
contending for a position nearer the east coast, refer it to a site
in west Forfarshire or to Raedykes near Stonehaven.
GRAMPOUND, a small market town in the raid-parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, 9 m. ENJ.E. of Truro, and s ra.
from its station (Grampound Road) on the Great Western
railway. It is situated on the river Fal, and has seme industry
in tanning. It retains an ancient town hall; there is a good
market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the Fal, are
several early earthworks.
Grampound (Ponsraure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graund-
pond) and the hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were formerly
so closely associated that in 1400 the former is found styled the
vill of Grauntpond called Tibeste. At the time of the Domesday
Survey Tibeste was amongst the most valuable of the manors
granted to the count of Mortaio. The burgensic character of
Pansmure first appears in 1399. Thirty-five years la tec John
of Eltham granted to the burgesses the whole town of Graunt¬
pount. Th<S grant was confirmed in 1278 when its extent and
jurisdiction were defined. It was provided that the hundred
court of Powdershire should always be held there and two fairs at
the feasts of St Peter in Cathedra and St Barnabas, both of
which are still held, and a Tuesday market (now held on Friday)
GRAMPUS—GRAN ADA
334
and that it should be a free borough rendering a yearly rent to
the earl of Cornwall. Two members were summoned to parlia¬
ment by Edward VI. in 1553. The electors consisted of an
indefinite number of freemen, about 50 in all, indirectly nomin¬
ated by the mayor and corporation, which existed by prescription.
The venality of the electors became notorious. In 1780 £3000
was paid for a seat: in 1812 each supporter of one of the
candidates received £ 1.00. The defeat of this candidate in 1818
led to a parliamentary inquiry which disclosed a system of
wholesale corruption, and in 1821 the borough was disfranchised.
A form er woo llen trade is extinct.
GRAMPUI (Orca gladiator, or Orca area), a cetacean belonging
to the Delphitiiiae or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded
head without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical
teeth. The upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, and
the under parts white, with a strip of the same colour over
each eye. The 0 . Fr. word was grapois, graspeis eircraspeis,
from Med. Lat. crassus piscis, fat fish. This was adapted into
English as grapeys, graspeys,Sic.,md in the 16th century becomes
gr amide pose ns if from grand poisson. The final corruption to
“ grampus " appears in the 18th century and was probably
nautical in origin. The animal is also known as the “ killer,”
in allusion to its ferocity in attacking its prey, which consists
largely of seals, porpoises and the smaller dolphins. Its fierce¬
ness is only equalled by its voracity, which is such that in a
specimen measuring 21 ft. in length, the remains of thirteen
seals and thirteen porpoises were found, in a more or less digested
state, while the animal appeared to have been choked in the
endeavour to swallow another seal, the skin of which was found
entangled in its teeth. These cetaceuns sometimes hunt in packs
or schools, and commit great havoc among the belugas or white
whales, which occasionally throw themselves ashore to escape
their persecutors. The grampus is an inhabitant of northern
seas, occurring on the shores of Greenland, and having been
caught, although rarely, as far south as the Mediterranean.
There are numerous instances of its capture on the British coasts.
(See Cetacea.)
GRANADA, LUIS DC (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and
ascetic writer, born of poor parents named Sarrik at Granada.
He lost his lather ut an early age and his widowed mother was
supported by the charity of the Dominicans. A child of the
Alhambra, he entered the service of the alcalde as page, and,
his ability being discovered, received his education with the
sons of the house. When nineteen he entered the Dominican
convent and in 1525 took the vows ; and, with the leave of his
prior, shared his daily allowance of food with his mother. He
was sent to Valladolid to rontinuc his studies and then was
appointed procurator at Granada. Seven years after he was
elected prior of the convent of Scala Caeli in the mountains of
Cordova, which after eight years he succeeded in restoring from
its ruinous state, and there he began his work as a zealous
reformer. His preaching gifts were developed by the orator
Juan de Avila, and he became one of the most famous of Spanish
preachers. He was invited to Portugal in 1555 and became
provincial of his order, declining the offer of the archbishopric
of Braga but accepting the position of confessor and counsellor
to Catherine, the queen regent. At the expiration of his tenure
of the provincialship, he retired to the Dominican convent at
Lisbon, where he lived till his death on the last day of 1588.
Aiming, both in his sermons and ascetical writings, at develop¬
ment of the religious view, the danger of the times as he saw it
was not so much in the Protestant reformation, which was an
uutside influence, but in the direction that religion had taken
among the masses. He held that in Spain the Catholic faith
was not understood by the people, and that their ignorance was
the pressing danger. He fell under the suspicion of the In¬
quisition : his mystical teaching was said to be heretical, and
his most famous book, the Guia dr Pescadores, stiH a favourite
treatise and one that has been translated into nearly every
Kuropean tongue, was put on the Index of the Spanish Inquisi¬
tion, together with his book on prayer, in 1559. His great
opponent was the restless and ambitious Melchior Cano, who
stigmatized the second book as containing grave errors smacking
of the heresy of the Akunbrados and manifestly contradicting
Catholic faith and teaching. But in 1576 the prohibition was
removed and the works of Luis de Granada, so prized by St
Francis de Sales, have never lost their value. The friend of St
Teresa, St Peter of Alcantara, and of all the noble minds of Spain
of his day, no one among the three hundred Spanish mystics
excels Luis de Granada in the beauty of a didactic style, variety
of illustration and soberness of statement.
The last collected edition of his works is that published in 9 voli.
at Antwerp in 1578. A biography by L. Monoz, La Vida y deludes
de Luis de Granada (Madrid, 1639) ; a study of his system by P.
Kousselot in Mystiques espagnoles (Paris, 1867); Ticknor, History
of Spanish Literature (vol. iii.), and Fitnnauricc Kelly, History
of Spanish Literature, pp. 200-202 (London, 1898), may also be
consulted.
ORARADA, the capita), of the department of Granada,
Nicaragua; 32 m. by rail S.E. of Managua, the capital of the
republic. Pop. (1900) about 25,000. Granada is built on the
north-western shore of Lake Nicaragua, of which it is the principal
port. Its houses arc of the usual central American type, con¬
structed of adobe, rarely more than one storey high, and sur¬
rounded by courtyards with ornamental gateways. The suburbs,
scattered over a large areh, consist chiefly of cane huts occupied
by Italians and half-castes. There are several ancient churches
and convents, in one of which the interior of the chancel roof
is inlaid with mother-of-pearl. An electric tramway connects the
railway station and the adjacent wharves with the market,
about t m. distant. Ice, cigars, hats, boots and shoes arc
manufactured, but the characteristic local industry is the pro¬
duction of “ Panama chains,” ornaments made of tnin gold wire.
In the neighbourhood there are large cocoa plantations ; and the
city has a thriving trade in cocoa, coffee, hides, cotton, native
tobacco and indigo.
Granada was founded in 1523 by J'rancisco Fernandez de
Cordoba. It became one of the wealthiest of central American
cities, although itxhad always a keen commercial rival in Leon,
which now surpasses it in size and importance. In the 17th
century it was often raided by buccaneers, notably in 1606,
when it was completely sacked. In 1855 it was captured and
partly burned by the adventurer William Walker (see Central
America: History).
GRANADA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed
in 1833 of districts belonging to Andalusia, and coinciding with
the central parts of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop.
(1900) 492,460 : area, 4938 sq. m. Granada is bounded on the
N. by Cordova, Jaen and Albacete, E. by Murcia and Almeria,
S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Malaga. It includes the
western and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (?.».), a vast
ridge rising parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest altitudes
in the Cerro de Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta
(11,148), which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser ranges,
such as the Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara or Harana,
adjoin the main ridge. From this central watershed the three
principal rivers of the province take their rise, viz.: the Guadiana
Menor, which, flowing past Guadix in a northerly direction, falls
into the Guadalquivir in the neighbourhood of Ubeda; the
Genii which, after traversing the Vega, or Plain of Granada, leaves
the province a little to the westward of Loja and joins the Guadal¬
quivir between Cordova and Seville ; and the Rio Grande or
Guadalfeo. which falls into the Mediterranean at Motril. The
coast is little indented and none of its three harbours, Almunkcar,
Albunol and Motril, ranks high in commercial importance.
The climate in the lower valleys and the narrow fringe along the
coast is warm, but on the higher grounds of the interior is
somewhat severe; and the vegetation varies accordingly from
the subtropical to the alpine. The soil of the plains is very
productive, and that of the Vega of Granada is considered the
richest in the whole peninsula; from the days of the Moors it
has been systematically irrigated, and it continues to yield jn
great abundance and in good quality wheat, barley, maize, wine,
oil, sugar, flax, cotton, silk and almost every variety of fruit.
In the mountains immediately surrounding the city of Granada
' GRANADA' /,
485
occur many kinds of alabaster, some very fine; there are also
quantities of jasper and other precious stones. Mineral waters
chiefly chalybeate and sulphurous, are abundant, the most
important springs being those of Alhama, which have a tempera¬
ture of ti2° F. There are valuable iron mines, and small
quantities of sine, lead and mercury are obtained. The cane
and beet sugar industries, for which there are factories at Loja.
at Motril, and in the Vega, developed rapidly after the loss of
the Spanish West ladies and the Philippine Islands in 1898,
with the consequent decrease in competition. There are also
tanneries, foundries and manufactories of woollen, linen, cotton, '
and rough friese stuffs, cards, soap, spirits, gunpowder and '
machinery. Apart from the great highways traversing the pro- !
vince, which are excellent, the roads are few and ill-kept. The J
railway from Madrid enters the province on the north and
bifurcates north-west of Guadix; one branch going eastward
to Almeria, the other westward to Loja, Malaga and Algeciras. <
Baza is the terminus of a railway from I/irca. The chief towns
include Granada, the capital (pop. 1900, 75,900) with Alhama
de Granada (7607), Baza (12,770), Guadix (12,652), Loja (19,143),
Montefrio (10,725), and Motril (18,528). These are described in
separate articles. Other towns with upwards of 7000 inhabitants
are Albunol (8646), Almunecar (8022), Cullar de Baza (8007),
Hu&car (7763), (llora (9496) and Puebla de Don Fadrique
(7420). The history of the ancient kingdom is inseparable from 1
that of the city of Granada (?.».).
GRANADA, the capital of the province, and formerly of the
kingdom of Granada, in southern Spain; on the Madrid-Granadn-
Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900) 75,900. Granada is magnifi¬
cently situated, 2195 ft. above the sea, on the north-western
slope of the Sierra Nevada, overlooking the fertile lowlands
known as the Vega de Granada on the west and overshadowed !
by the peaks of Veleta (11,148 ft.) and Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) on I
the south-east. The southern limit of the city is the river Genii,
the Roman Singilis and Moorish Shawl, a swift stream flowing
westward from the Sierra Nevada, with a considerable volume
of water in summer, when the snows have thawed. Its tributary
the Darro, the Roman Salon and Moorish Hadarro, enters
Granada on the east, flows for upwards of a mile from east to
west, and then turns sharply southward to join the main river, j
which is spanned by a bridge just above the point of confluence.
The waters of the Darro are much reduced by irrigation works
along its lower course, and within the city it has been canalized
and partly covered with a roof.
Granada comprises three main divisions, the Antequeruela,
the Albaicin (or Albaycin), and Granada properly so called.
The first division, founded by refugees from Antequera in 1410,
consists of the districts enclosed by the Darro, besides a small
area on its right, or western bank. It is bounded on the east
by the gardens and hill of the Alhambra (q.v.), the most celebrated
of all the monuments left by the Moors. The Albaicin (Moorish
Rabad al Bayasin, “ Falconers' Quarter ") lies north-west of
the Antequeruela. Its name is sometimes associated with that
of Baeza, since, according to one tradition, it was colonized by
citizens of Baeza, who fled hither in 1246, after the capture
of their town by the Christians. It was long the favourite
abode of the Moorish nobles, but is now mainly inhabited by
gipsies and artisans. Granada, properly so called, is north
of the Antequeruela, and west of the Albaicin. The origin of
its name i? obscure ; it has been sometimes, though with little
probability, derived from granada, a pomegranate, in allusion
to the abundance of pomegranate trees in the neighbourhood.
A pomegranate appears on the city arms. The Moors, however,
called Granada Karnatlah or Kamattah-al-Yahud., and possibly
the name is composed of the Arabic words hum, “ a hill,” and
naltah, “ stranger,"—the “ city ” or ‘‘ hill of strangers.”
Although the city has been to some extent modernized, the
architecture erf its more ancient quarters has many Moorish
characteristics. The streets are, as a rule, ill-lighted, ill-paved
and irregular ; but there are several fine squares and avenues,
such us the Bibarrambia, where tournaments were held by the j
Moors j the spacious Plaza del Trionfo, adjoining the bull-ring, i
on the north; the Alameda, planted with plane tsow, and %
Pasao del Salon. The business centre of the city is the Buena
Real, a square named alter a gate now demolished.;! . • ?
Granada is the see at an archbishop. Its cathedral, which
commemorates the reconquest of southern Spainfrom the Moors,
is a somewhat heavy classical building, begun in tsty by,Diego
de Siloe, and only finished in 1703. It is profusely ornamented
with jasper and coloured marbles, and surmounted bv a dome.
The interior contains many paintings and sculptures qy Alonso
Cano (1601-1667), the architect of the fine west facade,.and other
artists. In one of the numerous.chapels, known as the; Chapel
Royal (Capilla Real), is die monument of Philip I. of Castile
(1478-1506), and his queen jaanna; with the tomb of Ferdinand
and Isabella, the first rulers of united Spain (1452 -1516). The
church of Santa Maria (1705-1759), which may be regarded as
an annexe of the cathedral, occupies the site of the chief
mosque of Granada. This was used as a church ufitjl *66*.
Santa Ana (1541) also replaced a mosque; Nuestra Sen ora de
las Angustias (1664-1671) is noteworthy for its fine towers, and
die rich decoration of its high altar. The com ent of San
Geronimo (or Jeronimo), founded in 1492 by Ferdinand and
Isabellu, was converted into barracks in 1810; its church contains
the tomb of the famous captain Gonsalvo or Gonzalo de Cordova
(1453-1515). The Cartuja, or Carthusian monastery, north of
the city, was built in 1516 on Gonzalo’s estate, and in bis memory.
It contains several fine paintings, and an interesting church of
the 17th and i8di centuries.
After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings, as the
Generalife and Torres Bermejas, which are more fidy described
in connexion with it, the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada
are the 13th-century villa known as the Cuarjto Real de San
Domingo, admirably preserved, and surrounded by beautiful
gardens ; the Alcdzar de Genii, built in the middle of the 14th
century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the Casa del
Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a ware¬
house in the 19th century. Few Spanish cities possess a-greater
number of educational and charitable establishments. The
university was founded by Charles V. in 1531, and transferred
to its present buildings in 1769. It is attended by about 600
students. In 1900, the primary schools of Granada numbered
22, in addition to on ecclesiastical seminary, a training-school
for teachers, schools of art and jurisprudence, and museums of
art and archaeology. There were twelve hospitals and.Orphansges
for both sexes, including a leper hospital in one: of the convents.
Granada has an active trade in the agricultural produce of the
Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse linen
and woollen fabrics. Silk-weaving was once ^extensively
carried on, and large quantities of silk were exported to Italy,
France, Germany and even America, but this industry died
during die 19th century.
History.— The identity of Granada with the Iberian city .of
J liber ris or Jliberri, which afterwards became a flourishing
Roman colony, has never been fully established; but Roman
tombs, coins, inscriptions, &c., have been discovered in die
neighbourhood. With the rest of Andalusia, as a result of the
great invasion from the north in the 5th century, Grenada,.fell
to the lot of the Vandals. Under the caliphs of GnstcfYavtOftarards
from the 8th century, it rapidly gained in importance, and
ultimately became the seat of a provincial government, which,
after the fall of the Omayyad dynasty in 1031, or, according to
some authorities, 1038, ranked with Seville, Jaen ;and others
as an independent principality. The family of this Tea, 2 M p
or Zeiri maintained itself as the ruling dynasty until,. 1090;
it was then displaced by the Almohadea, who were in turn
overthrown by the Almoravides, in 1154. The dominion of
the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for an interval of
one year (t 160-1161), until 1S29. From 1229 to 1238 .Granada
formed part of the kingdom of Murcia; but ia tfce last-nan.":
year it passed into the hands of Abu Abduilah Mahommod tbs
Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of ti» dynasty of the
Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of teen in 5246, but united
Granada, Almeria and Malaga under bis sceptre, aw), m the
GRANADfLI/A^-<3RANARIES
33*
lervourof the Christian crusade against the Moors had temporarily
•bated, he made peace with Castile, and even aided the Christian*
to vanquish the Moslem princes of Seville. At the same time
he offered asylum to rehiees from Valencia, Murcia and Other
territories in which the Moors had been overcome. A 1 Ahmar
and his successors ruled over Grenada until 149s, man unbroken
line of twenty-five sovereigns who maintained thm independence
partly by force, and partly by payment of tribute to their stranger
neighbours. Their encouragement of commerce—notably the
silk trade with Italy—rendered Granada the wealthiest of
Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and science
attracted rhany learned Moslems, such as the historian I bn
Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and
resulted irt a brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra if
the supreme monument.
The kingdom of Granada, which outlasted all the other
Moorish states in Spam, fell at last through dynastic rivalries
and a harem intrigue. The two noble families of the Zegri and
the Beni Serraj (better known in history and legend as the
Abenctrrage*) encroached greatly upon the royal prerogatives
during the middle years of the 15th century. A crisis arose
in 146s, when an endeavour to control the Abencerrages resulted
m the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his
son, Muley Abu’l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of
MulhaCCn, the loftiest peak of the Sierra Nevada, and in a score
of legends. Muley Hassan weakened his position by resigning
Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and incurred the enmity of
his first wife Aisha by marrying a beautiful Spanish slave,
Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and taken
the name of Zorayah, “ morning star.” Aisha or Ayesha, who
thus saw her sons Abu Abdullah Mahommcd (Boabdil) and Yusuf
in danger of being supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages,
whose leaders, according to tradition, paid for their sympathy
with their lives (see Alhambra). In 1482 Boabdil succeeded
in deposit* his father, who fled to Malaga, but the gradual
advatite of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella forced
him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands
of Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1483-1486). In 1491 after the
loss of these leaders, the Moors were decisively beaten ; Boabdil,
who had already been twice captured and liberated by the
Spaniards, was compelled to sign away his kingdom; and on
the «d of January 1492 the Spanish army entered Granada,
and the Moorish power in Spain was ended. The campaign
had aroused intense interest throughout Christendom; when
the news reached London a special thanksgiving service was held
in St Paul's Cathedral by order of Henry VII.
GRANADILLA, the name upplied to Passiflora quadrangularis ,
Linn., a plant of the natural order Passiforeae, a native of
tropical America, having smooth, cordate, ovate or acuminate
leaves; petioles bearing from 4 to 6 glands; an emetic and
narcotic root; scented flowers; and a large, oblong fmit,
containing numerous seeds, imbedded in a subacid edible pulp.
The granadilla is sometimes grown in British hothouses. The
fruits of several other species of Passifiora are eaten. P.
laurifoha is the ” water lemon,” and P. mdtijormis the “ sweet
calabash " of the West Indies.
GRANARIES. From ancient times grain has been stored in
greater or lesser bulk. The ancient Egyptians made a practice
of preserving pain in years of plenty against years of scarcity,
•hd probably Joseph only carried out on a large scale an habitual
practice. I he dimutc of Egypt being very dry, grain could be
stored in pits for a long time without sensible loss of quality.
The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a favourite way of
storing gtain from time immemorial in all oriental lands. In
Turkey and Persia usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when
comparatively Cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons
of dearth. Probably that custom is not yet dead. In Malta
a relatively targe stock of wheat is always preserved in some
hoiidreds of pits (silos) ( i t in the rock. A single silo will store
Irani 60 to 80 tor« of wheat, which, with proper precautions,
■will keep in good condition for four years or mere. The silos
art shaped like a cylinder resting on a truncated cone, and
surmounted by the same figure. The mouth of the pit is round
and small and covered by a stone stab, and the inside is lined
with barley straw and kept very dry. Samples are occasionally
taken from the wheat as from the hold of a ship, and at any
signs of fermentation the granary is cleared and the wheat
turned over, but such is the dryness of these silos that little
trouble of this kind is experienced.
Towards the close of the 19th century warehouses special*
intended for holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain,
but America is the home of great granaries, known there as
elevators. There are climatic difficulties in the way of storing
grain in Great Britain on a targe scale, but these difficulties
have been largely overcome. To preserve grain in good condition
it must be kept as much as possible from moisture and heat.
New grain when brought into a warehouse has a tendency to
sweat, and in this condition will easily heat. If the heating is
allowed to continue the quality of the grain suffers. An effectual
remedy is to turn out the grain in layers, not too thick, on a
floor, and to keep turning it over so as to aerate it thorough*.
Grain car thus be conditioned for storage in silos. There is
reason to think that grain in a sound and dry condition can be
better stored in bins or dry pits than in the open air; from a
series of experiments carried out on behalf of the French govern¬
ment it would seem that pain exposed to the air is decomposed
at 3i times the rate of pain stored in silo or other bins.
In comparing the grain-storage system Of Great Britain with
that of North America it must be borne in mind that whereas
Great Britain raises a comparatively small amount of pain,
which is more or less rapidly consumed, grain-growing is one of
the greatest industries of the United States and of Canada.
The enormous surplus of wheat and maize produced in America
can only be profitably dealt with by such a system of storage
as has grown up there since the middle of the 19th century.
The American farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate
rate, and can get an advance on his warrant if he is in need of
money. A holder of wheat in Chicago can withdraw a similar
pade of wheat from a New York elevator.
Modem granaries are all built on much the same plan. The
mechanical equipment for receiving and discharging grain is
very similar in all modem warehouses. A granary is usual*
erected on a quay at which large vessels can lie and discharge.
On the land side railway sidings connect the warehouse with
the chief fines in its district; accessibility to a canal is an ad¬
vantage. Ships are usually cleared by bucket elevators which are
dipped into the cargo, though in some cases pneumatic elevators
are substituted {see Conveyors). A travelling band with throw-
off carriage will speedily distribute a heavy load of grain.
Band conveyors serve equally well for charging or discharging
the bins. Bins are invariably provided with hopper bottoms,
and any bin can be effectively cleared by the band, which runs
underneath, either in a cellar or in a specially constructed
tunnel. All granaries should be provided with a sufficient
plant of cleaning machinery to take from the grain impurities
as would be likely to be detrimental to its storing qualities.
Chief among such machines are the warehouse separators
which work by sieves and air currents (see Floor and Flour
Manufacture).
The typical grain warehouse is furnished with a number of
chambers for grain storage which are known as silos, and may
be built of wood, brick, iron or ferro-concrete. Wood silos
are usually square, made of flat strips of wood nailed one on top
of the other, and so overlapping each other at the comers that
alternately a longitudinal and a transverse batten extends
past the comer. The gaps are filled by short pieces of timber
securely nailed, and the whole silo wall is thus solid. This type
of bin was formerly in great favour, but it has certain draw¬
backs, such as the possibility of dry rot, while weevils are apt
to harbour in the interstices unless lime washing is practised.
Bricks and cement are good materials for constructing silos
of hexagonal form, but necessitate deep foundations and sub¬
stantial walls. Iron stars of circular form are used to some
extent in Great Britain, but are more common in North and
GRANARIES
337
South America. In their case the wans are much thinner than
with any other material, but the condensation against the inner
wail in wet weather is a drawback in damp climates. Cylindrical
tank aloe have also been made ef fire-proof tiles. Fan®-*onctete
silos have been built on both the Monier and the Henneblque
systems. In the earlier type the bin was made of an iron or
steel framework filled in with concrete, but more recent struc¬
tures are composed entirely of steel rods embedded in cement.
Granaries built of this material have the great advantage, if
properly constructed, of being free from any risk of failure even
in case of uneven expansion of the material With brick silos
collapses through pressure of the stored material are not unknown.
One of the largest and most complete grain elevators or ware¬
houses In the world belongs to the Canadian Northern Railway
Company, and was erected at Port Arthur, Canada, in
r“T 1901-11(04. It has a total storage capacity of 7,000,000
nmimli bushels, or 873,1x10 qrs. of 480 Ih. The range of buildings
and bins iorma an oblong, and consists of two storage
houses, B and C, placed between two working or receiving houses
A and D (fig. 1). The receiving homes are fed by railway sidings.
House A, for example, has two tidings, one mailing through it and
repaired since they can be removed and replaced without affecting
tiw main bin walk It is claimed that these facer s cmu Mt ut e the
best possible protection against tire. A steel fMmewom, eoyeied
with tiles, crowns th e s e circular bins and contains me «Onv«yors
and spouts which are used to fill the bins. Five tunnels' in the
concrete bedding that supp ort s the bins carry the Vtt t CQOaieyora
which bring bade the grain to the working house for cleaning or
s hip m ent. There are altogether in each of the 1 storage houses 80
circular bins, each .21 ft. m diameter, and so grouped so to form
63 smaller interspace bins, or 143 bins in all Each bhl will afore
grain in a column 85 ft. deep, and the whole group has a capacity
of 2,500,000 bushels. These farts were all constructed by the Barnett
ft Record Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, TT.S.A., in,.(to-
cordafice with the Johnson ft Record patent system of fireproof
tile grain storage construction. In case one of the working houses
is attacked by fire the fire-proof storage houses protect not only
their own contents tint also the other working house, afid in the
event of its disablement or destruction the remnihing one can be
easily connected with both the storage houses and handle their
contents.
Circular tank siloe have not been extensively adopted in Great
Britain, but a typical silo tank installation exists at the Walmsley
& Smith flour mills which stand beside the Devonshire dock at
Barrow-in-Furness. There four circular bins, built of riveted steal
Fig. 1.
the other beside it. Each siding serves five receiving pits, and a
receiving elevator ol io,ono lb capacity per minute, or 60,000
bushels per hour, can draw grain from either of two pits. Five
elevators of 12,000 bushels per hour on the other side 01 the house
serve five warehouse separators, and all the grain received or dis¬
charged is weighed, there being ten sets of automatic scales in the
upper part of the house, known as the cupola. The hopper of each
weigher can take a charge of 1400 bushels (84,0001b). Grain enn
be conveyed either vertically or horizontally to any part of the
house, into any of the bins in the annex B, or into any truck or lake
steamer. This bouse is constructed of timber and roofed with
torrugated iron. The conveyor belts are 36 in. wide; those at the
top of the house are provided with throw-off carriages. The dust
from the cleaning machinery is carefully collected and spouted to
the furnace under the boiler house, where it is consumed. The
cylindrical silo bins in the storage houses consist of hollow tiles of
burned clay which, it is claimed, are fire-proof. The tiles are laid
on end and are about 12 in. by 12 in. and from 4 hr. to 6 in. in thick¬
ness according to the size of the bin. Each alternate course consists
of grooved blocks of channel tile forming a continuous groove or
belt round the bin. This groove receives a steel band acting as a
tension member and resisting the latent! pressure of the grain.
The steel bands pnee in position, the groove is completely filled with
cement grout by which the steel is encased and protected. Usually
the bottoms of the tens ere furnished with self-discharging hoppers
of weak cinder or gravel concrete finished with cement mortar.
For the foundation or s u pp ortin g floor reinforced concrete is fre¬
quently used. The tiles aueadv described are faced with tBes 1 to
1 m thick, which are laid solid in cement mortar covering the whole
exterior of the Wn. Any damage to toe teeing tiles can sandy be
| plates, stand in a group on a quadrangle close to the mill ware-
| house. A covered gantry, through whicfii passes a band conveyor,
runs from the mill warctiousc to the working silo house _____
j which stands in the central space amid the four steel “
tanks. The tanks are 70 ft. high, with a diameter of 4J ft., ^
! and rest on foundations of concrete and steel. Each has a
separate conical roof and they are fiat-bottomed, the grain resting
directly on the steel and concrete foundation bed. As the load of
the full tank is very heavy its even distribution on the bed h con¬
sidered a point of importance. Each tank cun bold about *300 tons
of wheat, which gives a total storage capacity for the four bins of
over 43,000 qrs. of 480th. Attached to the mill warehouse te a skip
elevator with a discharging capacity of 73 tons an hour. The grain
is cleared by this elevator from the hold or holds of the veaeel to be
unloaded, and is delivered to the basement of the warehouse. Thence
it is elevated to an upper storey and passed through an automatic
weigher capable of taking a charge of 1 ton. From the weighing
machine it can be taken, with or without a preliminary cle an i ng ,
to any floor of the warehouse, which has n total storing capacity
of 8000 tons, or It can be carried by the hand conveyor through the
gantry to the working house of the silo installation and distributed
to any one of the four tank silos. There is also a connexion by a
band conveyor running through a covered gantry into the mill,
which stands immediately ih the rear. It Uperfeetty easy to torn
over the contents of any tank Into any other tana. The whole
intake and wheat handling plant is moved by two electro-motors of
35 H.P. each, one installed in the warehouse and the other fat the
sflo working house. Steel site tanks have the advantage of storing
a heavy stock of wheat at comparatively small capital outlay.
On an average an ordinary silo bin wffl not hold mote than 500 to
GRANARIES
2000 qn., but each of the bitu at Barrow will contain s 300 tons or
over (ioo qn. The steel construction also reduces the risk oi fire
and conseq uently lessens the fixe premium
The important granaries at'the Liverpool docks date from 1868,
but have since been brought up to modem requirements- The
1 ■ warehouses on the Waterloo docks have an aggregate
(.rustyser ltan g e um of H | ecres, while the sister warehouses on
the Birkenhead side, which stand on the margin of the great float,
have an area of 11 acres. The total capacity of these warehouses
is about 200,000 qn.
The grain warehouse of the Manchester docks at Traflord wharf
is locally known as the grain elevator, because it was built to a
great extent on the model of an American elevator.
7!**' Some of the mechanical equipment was supplied by a
emrw. cUeggg gnu. The total capacity is 1,500,000 bushels or
40,000 tons of grain, which is stored in 226 separate bins. The
granary proper stands about 340 ft. from the side of the dock, but
u directly connected with the receiving tower, which rises at the
per hour; weighing in the tower; conveying grain into the ware,
house and distributing it into any of the 226 bins; moving grain
from bin to bin either for aerating or delivery, and simultaneously
weighing in bulk at the rata of 500 tons per hour; sacking grain,
weighing and loading the sacks into 40 railway trucks and to carts
simultaneously; loading grain from the warehouse into barges or
coasting craft at the rate of 150 tons per hour in bulk or of 250 sacks
per hour. This warehouse is equipped with a dryer of American
construction, which can deal with 50 tons of damp grain at one time
and is connected with the whole bin system so that grain can be
readily moved from any bin to the dryer or oonversely.
A grain warehouse at the Victoria docks, London, belonging to the
London and India Docks Company (fig. 2) has a storing capacity
of about 23,000 qrs. or 200.000 bushels. It is over
100 ft. high, and is built on the American plan of interlaced f-aadae.
timbers resting on iron columns. The walls are externally cased
with steel plates. The grain is stored in 56 alios, most of which are
about 10 ft. square by 50 ft. deep. The intake plant has a capacity
jlont/on Grain Eltvator Oo.'i
L,-^r .
Wniqh Mount 1*
—1-_ v .
I ^Transit S/fosJa
Si ifftl, Molt holding loop gotj
Outoido $ (mutton'
General Plan of Storage &. Transit Silo*,
Victoria Docks, Loudon.
Scale, 140 lector inch.
f , 3 i at too tans of/wheat an hour, and in-
dudes six automatic grain scales, each
y of Vhieh can weigh OS', one sack at a
time/ The main delivery flora of the
Warejgaase -is at a convenient height
fbove the ground level. Portable
flutomatiejroigbing machines can be
. placed under any bin. The whole of
Y|: the plant<ie driven by electric motors,
J )J one being allotted to eaph machine.
" The transit silos of the London Grain
Elevator’Coc. / ny, also at the Victoria
docks, consist of four complete and in-
- ■f'-.-fi dependent installations standing on
~~~ thro* tongues of laud which project
** J(j into the water (figs. 2 and 3). Each
silo house is furnished with eight bins,
^ each of which, 12 ft. square by 80 ft.
daep, has a capacity of 1000 qrs.
of grain. A kind of well in the middle
ol each silo house contains toe neces-
' YL. sary elevators, staircases, Arc. The silo
bins in each granary arc erected 011 a
to massive cast iron tank forming a sort
' of cellar, which rests on a concrete
foundation 0 ft. thick. The base oi
the tank is 30 ft, below the water level.
. The silos are formed of wooden battens
UMt Silo*, nailed one on top of the other, the
1. pieces interlacing. Rolled steel girders
resting on cast iron columns support
the silos. To ensure a clean discharge
the hopper bottoms were designed so
as to avoid joints and thus to be
free from rivets or similar protuber-
Tho exterior of each silo house is covered with corru-
wators edge, by a band conveyor protected by a gantry. The ances. The exterior of each silo house is covered with corru-
main building is 448 ft, long by 80 ft. wide; the whole of the super- 1 gated iron, and toe same material is used for the roofing. No
structure was constructed of wood with an external casing of brick- ! conveyors serve the silo bins, as the elevators which rise above the
work and tiles. The receiving tower is fitted with a bucket elevator j tops of the silos can feed any one of them by gravity. There are
capable, within fairly wide limits, of adjustment to the level of the ; three delivery elevators to each granary, one with a capacity of
haul to be unloaded, The elevator has the large unloading capacity j 120 tons and the other two of 100 tons each an hour. Each silo
of 330 tons pur hour, assuming it to be working in a full lirad. It | house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120 tons per
■a supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system) which | hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the house.
is supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system) which
can raise 200 tons per hour and is used chiefly iu dealing with parcels
oi grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary elevator
1 full hold. It | house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120 tons per
system) which 1 hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the house,
eg with parcels j The delivery elevators discharge into a receiving shed in which
oi grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary elevator 1 there is a large hopper feeding six automatic weighing machines,
cannot reach. The power required to work the large elevator as j Each charge as it is weighed empties itself automatically into sacks,
well as the various band conveyors is supplied by two sets of hori- j
rental Corliss compound engines of 300 H.P. jointly, which are fed 1
rental uiruss compound engines of 300 H.F. jointly, which are fed
by two Galloway betters working at 100 lb pressure. The pneumatic
elevator Is driven by two sets of triple expansion vertical engines
oi boo H.F. fed by three boilers working at a pressure of 1602b.
The grain received in the tower is automatically weighed. From
the receiving tower the grain is conveyed into the warehouse where
it is at once elevated to the tap of a central tower, and is thence
distributed to any of the bin* by band conveyors in toe usuel way.
The m enh a nkal equipment of this warehouse is very complete,
and the fallowing several operation* can be simultaneously effected :
which are then ready for loading. Each pair of warehouses is pro¬
vided with a conveyor band 308 ft. long, used either for carrying
sacks from the weighing sheas to railway trucks or for carrying
grain in bulk to barges or trucks. Each silo house has an identical
mechanical equipment apart from the delivery band it shares with
its fellow warehouse. All operations in connexion with the alio
houses are effected under cover. The silos are normally fed by a
fleet of twenty-six of Philip’s patent self-discharging lighters. These
craft are hopper-bottomed and fitted with band conveyors of toe
ordinary type, running between toe double keelson of the lighter and
delivering into an elevator erected at the stern of the lighter. By
discharging grain from v esse ls iu toe dock at toe rate oi 350 tons ! this means little trimming is required after the bugs,
GRANARIES
•bout 200 too* of (rain, has been cleared. Ocean steamers of such
draft a* to preclude their entry into any of the op river dock* are
cleared at Tilbury by these lighten. It i* add fiat grain loaded
at Tilbory into there lighten can be delivered from rile transit silos
to railway trucks or barges in about six houn. The total Stonge
capacity of the silos amounts to 32,000 qn. The motive power is
furnished by 14-gas engines of a total capacity of 366 HJP.
Two of the largest granaries on the continent of Europe are
situated at the mouth of the Danube, at Braila and Galatz, in
ffnuaafa Rum,ul ‘* l i end serve for both the reception and discharge
of grain. At the edge of the quay on -which these ware¬
houses are built there are rails with a gauge of ill ft., upon which
run two mechanical loading and unloading appliances. The first
consists of a telescopic elevator which raises the grain and delivers
it to one of the two bond conveyors at the head of the apparatus.
Each of these bands feeds automatic weighing machines with an
hourly capacity of 75 tons. From these weighers the grain is either
discharged through a ipanhole in the ground to a band conveyor
running in a tunnel parallel to the quay wall, or it is raised by a
second elevator (part of the same unloading apparatus), set at an
inclined angle, which delivers at a sufficient height to load railway
trucks on the siding running parallel to the quay. A turning gear
is provided so as to reverse, if required, the operation of the whole
apparatus, that the portion overhanging the water can be turned
to the land side. The unloading capacity is 130 tons of grain per
hour. If it be desired to load a ship the telescopic elevator ha*
only to be turned round and dipped into any one of 15 wells, which
A. Mffi gl*»a t*r *
B. t*o*hi*g Hmtattri
C «/<••
D. 0 flWers
E. W*tgk Hum—
F. Auttmmth BcmImi
O. 8mok §mn* Oixntr*
I capacity of the elevators and conveyors is too tons of grain per hour.
The mechanical equipment is so complete that tour distinct cp rea
tioos are claimed as poaaUito. A ship may bo u nlo ade d tote m*
or into the granary floors, and may simultaneously be loaded either
from silos or ffoora with different kinds of grain. Again, a cargo may
be discharged either into silos or upon the floore, and simultaneously
the grain may be cleaned. Grain may also be cleared from a vernal,
mixed with other grain already received, and then distributed to
any desired point. With equal facility grain may be cleaned, blended
with other varieties, re-stored in any section of the granary, and
transferred from one ship to another.
A granary with special features of interest, erected on the quay
at Dortmund, Germany, by a co-operative society, is built of brick
on a base of hewn stone, with beams and supports of niKMinS
timber. It is _ 78 ft. high and consists of seven floore, '
including basement and attic. Here again there are two sections,
the larger being devoted to the storage of grain in low bins, while
the smaller section consists of an ordinary silo house. Grain in
sacks may be stored in the basement of the larger section which has
a capacity of 1673 tons as compared with 823 tons in the silo depart¬
ment. Thus the total storage capacity is 2500 tons. In the rilo
house the bins, constructed of planks nailed one over the other, are
of varying sire and are capable of storing grain to a depth of 42 to
47 ft. Some of the bins have been specially adapted for receiving
damp grain by being provided intemaHy with transverse wooden
arms which form square or lozenge-shaped sections. The object of
this arrangement is to break up and aerate the stored grain. The
Transit Siloe of the
London Grain Elevator Co. Lb
Victoria Docka, London.
Longitudinal Elevation looking towards Barge Blevatora.
Flo. 3.
Croat Section through Traneit SUso.
can be filled up with grain from the land side. The capacity of
each granary is 233,333 qrs.
Many large granaries have been built, in which grain is stored
on open floors, in bulk or in sacks. A notable instance is the ware-
stuttrmrt kouse of the city of Stuttgart. This is a structure of
M ' seven floors, including a basement and entresol. An
engine house accommodates two gas engines as well as an
hydraulic installation for the lifts. The grain is received by an
elevator from the railway trucks, and is delivered to a weighing
machine from which it is carried by a second elevator to the top
storey, where it is fed to a band running the length of the building.
A system of pipes runs from floor to floor, and by means of the
band conveyor with its movable throw-off carriage grain can be
shot to any floor. A second bond conveyor is Installed in the
entresol floor, and serves to convey grain either to the elevator,
if it is desired to elevate it to the top floor, or to the loading shed.
A second elevator runs through the centre of the building, and is
provided with a spout by means of which grain can be delivered
mto the hopper feeding the cleaning machine, whence the grain
asses into a second hopper under which is an automatic weigher ;
irectly under this weigher the grain is sacked.
A good example of a grain warehouse on the combined silo bin
and floor storage system is afforded by the granary at Mannheim
on the Rhine, which has the storage capacity of 2100
' tons. The building is 370 ft. in length, 78 ft. wide and
78 ft. high, and by means of transverse walls it is divided into three
sections; of these one contains silos, in another section grain is
stored on open floors, while the third, which is situated between
the other two, is the grain-cleaning department. This granary
stands by the quay side, and a ship elevator of great capacity,
which serves the cleaning department, can rapidly clear any ship
or barge beneath. The central or screening house section contains
machinery specially designed for cleaning barley as well ss wheat.
The barlev plant has a capacity of 5 tons per hour. There are four
main elevators in this warehouse, while two more serve the screen
house. The usual band conveyors fitted with throw-off carriages
are provided, and are supplemented by an elaborate system of pipes j
which receive grain from the elevators and bands and distribute I
it at any required paint The plant is operated by electric motors. !
If desired the floors of the non-rilo section can be utilized for storing '
other goods than grain, and to this end a lift with a capacity of 1
ton rims from the basement to the top storey. The combined
arms are of triangular section and are slightly hollowed at the base
so as to bring a current of air into direct contact with the grain.
The air can be warmed if necessary. The other slid larger section of
the granary is provided with 103 bins of moderate height arranged
in groups of 21 on the five floors between the basement and attic.
On the intermediate floors and the bottom floor'eaeh bin lies exactly
under the bin above. Grain ie not stored in these bins to a greeter
depth than 3 ft. The bins are fitted with removable side walls,
and damp grain is only stored in certain bins aerated tor half the
area of their side walls through a wire mesh. The arrangements
for distributing grain in this warehouse are very complete. The
uncleaned grain Is taken hy the receiving elevator, with a lifting
capacity of 20 tons per hour, to a warehouse separator, whence it is
passed through an automatic weigher and is then either sacked or
S}K>uted to the main elevator (capacity 23 tons per hoar) and ele¬
vated to the attic. From the head of this main elevator tire grain
can either be fed to a bin in one or other of the main granary floors,
or shot to one of the bins in the silo house. In the attic the grain is
carried by a spout and belt conveyor to one or other of the turn¬
tables, as the appliances may be termed, which serve to distribute
through spouts the grain to any one of the floor or silo bins. Alter¬
natively, the grain may be shot into the basement and there fed
back into the main elevator by a band conveyor. In this way the
grain may be turned over as often as it is deemed necessary. At
. the bottom of each bin are four apertures connected by spouts,
both with the bin below and with the central vertical pipe which
passes down through the centre of each group of bins. To regulate
the course of the grain from bin to bin or from bin to central pipe,
the connecting spouts are fitted with valves of ingenious yet simple
construction which deflect the grain In any desired direction, so
that the contents of two or more bins may be blended, or grain
may be transferred from a bin on one floor to a bln on a Sower
floor, missing the bin on the floor between. The valves are con¬
trolled by chains from the basement
With reference to the floor bins used at Dortmund, it may be
observed that there are granaries built on a similar principle in the
United Kingdom. It is probable that bins of moderate height, are
mare suitable for storing grain containing a considerable amount of
moisture than deep silos, whether made of wood, ferroconcrete or
other material. For one thing floor bins of tfre Dortmund pattern
can be more effectually aerated than deep silos German wheat
has many characteristics in common with British, and, especially
940
GRANARIES
in n orth Germany, fs net infrequently harvested in a more or less
dfitep cond ition . In the United Kingdom, Messrs Spencer ft Co., Of
MMMhOtn, have erected sevemi granaries on the floor-trin principle,
Mo hove adopted an i ng e n to ns system of " telescopic “ spouting,
by tneans of which grant may be discharged from one bin to another
Or at ady desired point. This spouting can be applied to bins
etther with level hears or with hoppered bottoms, if they are arranged
one above the other on rite different hoors, and is so constructed that
an opening can be effected at certain points by sintplv sliding
upwards a section of the spout.
National Granaries .—Wheat forms the staple food of a large
proportion of the population of the British Isles, and of the total
amount consumed about four-fifths is sea-borne. The stocks
normally- held in the country being limited, serious consequences
might result from any interruption of the supply, such as might
occur were Great Britain involved in war with a power or powers
aommanding a strong fleet. To meet this contingency it has
been suggested that the State should establish granaries contain¬
ing a national reserve of wheat for use in emergency, or should
adopt measures calculated to induce merchants, millers, &c., to
hold larger stocks than at present and to stimulate the production
of home-grown wheat.
Stocks of wheat (and of flour expressed in its equivalent weight
of wheat)are hejd by merchants, millers and farmers. Merchants’
Ameuat at stac * £s are kept in granaries at ports of importation
ttaeka. «*d known as first-hand stocks. Stocks of wheat
and flour in the hands of millers and of flour held by
bakers are termed second-hand stocks, while farmers’ stocks only
consist of native wheat. Periodical returns are generally made
of first-hand or port stocks, nor should a wide margin of error be
possible in the case of fanners' stocks, but second-hand stocks are
more difficult to gauge. Since the last decade of the 19th century
the storage capacity of British mills has considerably increased.
A* the number of small mills has diminished the capacity of the
bigger one* has increased, and proportionately their warehousing
accommodationhaibeen enlarged. At the present time first- hand
stocks tend to diminish because a larger proportion of millers’
holdings are in mill granaries and silo houses. The immense
preponderance of steamers over sailing vessels in the grain trade
has also had tb* effect of greatly diminishing stocks. With his
cargo or parcel on a steamer a corn merchant can tell almost to a
day when it will be due. In fact foreign wheat owned by British
merchants is to a great extent stored in foreign granaries in
preference to British warehouses. The merchant’s risk is thereby
lessened to a certain extent. When his wheat has been brought
into a British port, to send it farther afield means extra expense.
But wheat in an American or Argentine elevator may he ordered
wherever the best price can be obtained for it. Options or
" futures,” too, have helped to restrict the size of wheat stocks
in the United Kingdom. A merchant buys a cargo of wheat mi
passage for arrival at a definite time, and, lest the market value
of grain should have depreciated by the time it arrives, ho sells
an option against it. In this way he hedges his deal, the option
serving as insurance against loss. This is why the British com
trade finds it less risky to limit purchases to bare needs, protecting
itself by option deals, than to store large quantities which may
depreciate and involve their owners in loss.
Varying estimates have been made of the number of weeks’
supply of breadstuffs (wheat and flour) held by millers at various
seasons of the year. A table compiled by the secretary of the
National Association of British and Irish Millers from returns
for 1901 made by 170 milling firms showed 4-7, 4-9, 4-9 and
^weeks’ supply at the end of March, June, September and
December respectively. These 170 mills were said to represent
4b % of .the nulling capacity of the United Kingdom, and claimed
to have ground ra,000,000 qrs. out of 25,349,000 qrs. milled hi
1902. These were obviously large mills; it is probable that the
other mills would not have shown anything like such a proportion
oi stock of either raw or finished material. A fair estimate of the
stocks normally held by miileri and bakers throughout the
United Kingdom would be about four weeks’ supply. First-hand
stocks vary considerably, but the limits are definite, ranging from
’ rw '~“ to 3,500,000 qrs., the latter being a high figure. The !
tendency is for first-hand stocks to decline, but two weeks’ supply
must be a minimum. Farmers’ stocks necessarily Vary wrtlf tte
size of the crop and the period of the year: they will range Item
9 or 10 weeks on the 1st at September to a half 'week on the »t of
August Taking all the stocks together, it is very exceptional
for the stock of breadstuffs to fall below 7 weeks’ supply. Be¬
tween the cereal years 1893-1894 and 1903-1904, a period of
570 weeks, the stocks of all kinds fell below 7 weeks’ supply (n
only 9 weeks; of these 9 weeks 7 were between the beginnirig of
June and the end of August 1898. This was immediately after
the Leiter collapse. In scven.of these eleven years there is no
instance of stodcs falling below 8 weeks’ supply. In 21 out of
these 570 weeks and in 39 weeks during the same period stocks
dropped below 7J and 8 weeks’ supply respectively. Roughly
I speaking the stuck of wheat available fer bread-making varies
1 from a two to four months’ supply and is at times well above
the latter figure.
The formation of a national reserve of wheat, to be held at
the disposal of the state in case of urgent need during war, is
beset by many practical difficulties. The father of
the scheme was probably The Millar, a well-known N,rhuuU
trade journal. In March and April r886 two articles '***"'*'
appeared in that paper under the heading “ Years of Plenty
and State Granaries,” in which it was urged that to meet the
r;sk of hostile cruisers interrupting the supplies it would be
desirable to lay up in granaries on British soil and under govern¬
ment control a stock of wheat sufficient for 12 or alternatively
6 months’ consumption. This was to be national property, not
to be touched except when the fortune of war sent up the price
of wheat to a famine level or caused severe distress. The State
holding this large stock—a year’s supply of foreign grain would
have meant at least 15,000,000 qrs., and have cost about
£25,000,000 exclusive of warehousing—was in peace time to sell
no wheat except when it became necessary to part with stock
as a precautionary measure. In that case the wheat sold was to
be replaced by the same amount of new grain. The idea was
to provide the country with a supply of wheat until sufficient
wheat-growing soil could be broken up to make it practically
self-sufficing m respect of wheat. The original suggestion fell
quite flat. Two years later Captain Warren, R.N., read a paper
on “ Great Britain’s Corn Supplies in War,” before the London
Chamber of Commerce, and accepted national granaries us the
only practicable safeguard against what appeared to him a great
peril. Hie representatives of the shipping interest opposed the
scheme, probably because it appeared to them Hkely to divert
the public from insisting on an all-powerful navy. The corn
trade opposed the project on account of its great practical
difficulties. But constant contraction of the British wheat
acreage kept the question alive, and during the earlier half of the
nineties it was a favourite theme with agriculturists. Some
influential members of parliament pressed the matter on the
government, who, acting, no doubt, on the advice of their military
and naval experts, refused either a royal commission or a depart¬
mental committee. While the then technical advisers of the
government were divided on the advisability of
national granaries as a defensive measure, the balance of expert
opinion was adverse to the scheme. Lord Wolseley, then
commander-in-chief, publicly stigmatized the theory that Great
Britain might in war be starved into submission as “ unmitigated
humbug.”
In spite of official discouragement the agitation continued,
and early in 1897 the council of the Central and Associated
Chambers of Agriculture, at the suggestion to a
great extent of Mr R. A. Yerburgh, nominated ******
a committee to examine the question of national mut".
wheat stores. This committee held thirteen sittings
and examined fifty-four witnesses. Its report, which was
published (L. G. Newman & Co., 12 Finsbury Square, London,
E.C.) with minutes of the evidence taken, practically recom¬
mended that a national reserve of wheat on the lines already
sketched should be formed and administered by the State, and
that the government should be strongly urged to obtain the
GRANBY
34*
appointment of * royal commission, comprising repmaatativta
of agriculture, the own trade, shipping, and the army and navy,
to conduct an exhaustive inquiry into the whole subject of the
national food-supply in case of war. Hus recommendation was
ultimately carried into effect, but not till nearly five yean bad
elapsed. Of two schemes for national granaries put before tire
Yerburgh committee, one was formulated by Hr Seth Taylor,
a London miller and Com merchant, who reckoned that a store.
of 10,000,000 qrs. of wheat might be accumulated at an average
cost of 40s. per qr.—this was in the Letter year of high prices—
and distributed in six . specially constructed granaries to be
erected at London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Glasgow and
Dublin. The cost of the granaries was put at £7,500,000. Mr
Taylor's scheme, all diarges included, such as a| % interest on
capital, cost of storage (at 6d, per qr.), and as. per qr. for cost
of replacing wheat, involved un annual expenditure of £1,250,000.
The Yerburgh committee also considered a. proposal to stimulate
the home supply of wheat by offering a bounty to farmers for
every quarter of wheat grown. This proposal has taken different
shapes ; some have suggested that a bounty should ire given
on every acre of land covered with wheat, while others would
only allow the bounty on wheat raised and kept in good condition
up to a certain date, say the beginning of the following harvest.
It is obvious that a bounty an the area of land covered by
wheat, irrespective of yield, would be a premium on poor fanning,
and might divert to wheat-growing land unsuitable for that
purpose. The suggestion to pay a bounty of say js. to 5s. per qr.
for all wheat grown and stacked for a certain time stands on a
different basis; it is conceivable that a bounty of ‘53. might
expand the British production of wheat from say 7,000,000 to
9,000,000 qrs., which would mean that a bounty of £2,250,000
per annum, plus costs of administration, hud secured an extra
home production of 2,000,000 qrs. Whether such a price would
be worth paying is another matter; the Yerburgh committee's
conclusion was decidedly in the negative. It has also been
suggested that the State might subsidize millers to the extent
of as. 6d. per sack of a8o lb per annum on condition that each
maintained a minimum supply of two months’ flour. This may
be taken to mean that for keeping a special stock of flour over
and above his usual output a miller would be entitled to an
annual subsidy of 2s. 6d. per sack. An extra stock of 10,000,000
sacks might be thus kept up at an annual cost of £1,250,000,
plus the expenditure of administration, which would probably
be heavy. With regard to this suggestion, it is very probable
that a few large mills which have plenty of warehouse accom¬
modation and depots all over the country would be ready to
keep up a permanent extra stock of 100,000 sacks. Thus a mill
of 10,000 sacks' capacity per week, which habitually maintains
a total stock of 50,000 sacks, might bring up its stuck to 150,000
sacks. Such a mill, being a good customer to railways, could
get from them the storage it required for little or nothing. But
the bulk of tbc mills have no such advanti^es. They have little
or no spare warehousing room, and are not accustomed to keep
uny stock, sending their flour out almost as fast as it is milled.
It is doubtful therefore if a bounty of 2s. 6d. per sack would
have the desired effect of keeping up a stock of 10,000,000 sacks,
sufficient for two to three months’ bread consumption.
The controversy reached a climax in the royal commission
appointed in 1905, to which was also referred the importation
of raw material in war time. Its report appeared in
question whether the unquestioned
imj.imc. dependence of the United Kingdom on an uninterrupted
supply of sea-borne breadstuff* renders it advisable or
not to maintain at all times a six months’ stock of wheat and
flour, it returned no decided answer, or perhaps it would be
more correct to say that the commission was hopelessly divided.
The main report was distinctly optimistic so far ns the liability
of the country to turns and distress at the hands of a hostile
naval power or combination of powers was concerned. But
there were several dissentients, and there was hardly any
portion of the report in chief which did not provoke some
reservation or another. That a maritime war would cause
freights and insurance to rise in a high degree waa freely admitted,
mad it was also admit bed that the price of bread must also lire
very snpraciaHy. But, provided the navy did ndt break down,
the risk of starvation was dismissed. Therefore all the proposals
ior providing granaries or inducing mer ch a n t s and
aaillera to carry bigger stocks were put aside as unpractical and
unnecessary. The oommissiou was, however, inclined to consider
more favourably a suggestion for providing free storage lor
wheat at the expense of the State. The idea was that ii the State
would subsidise sny huge granary company to the exteht Of 6d.
or sd. per qr., grain now warehoused in foreign lands would be
attracted to the British Isles. But on the whole the comminion
held that the Win effect of the scheme would he to saddle the
government with the rent of all grain stored in public warehouses
in the United Kingdom without materially increasing stocks.
The proposal to offer bounties to farmers to hold stoats for a
longer period and to grow more wheat met with equ«% ltttle
favour.
To sum up the advantages of national granaries, assuming
any sort of disaster to the navy, the possession of a reserve
of even six months’ wheat-supply in addition to ordinary stocks
would prevent panic prices. On the other hand, the difficulties
in the way of forming and administering such a reserve are very
great. The world grows no great surplus of wheat, and to form
a six months’, much more a twelve months’, stock would be
the work of years. The government in buying up the wheat
would have to go carefully if they would avoid sending up
prices with a rush. They would have to buy dearly, and when
they let go a certain amount of stock they would be bound to
sell cheaply. A stock once formed might be held by the State
with little or no disturbance of the com market, although the
existence of such an emergency stock would hardly encourage
British fanners to grow more wheat. The cost of erecting,
equipping and keeping in good order the netessary warehouses
would be, probably, much heavier than the most liberal estimate
hitherto made by advocates of national granaries. (G. F. Z.)
ORAHBY, JOHN MANNERS, Marquess of (1721-1770),
British soldier, was the eldest son of the third duke of Rutland.
He was bom in 1721 and educated at Eton and Trinity College,
Cambridge, and was returned as member of parliament for
Grantham m 1741. Four years later he received a commission
as colonel of a regiment raised by the Rutland interest in and
about Leicester to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745.
This corps never got beyond Newcastle, but young Granby
went to the front as a volunteer on the duke of Cumberland's
staff, and saw active service in the last stages of the insurrection.
Very soon his regiment was disbanded. He continued in parlia¬
ment, combining with it military duties, making the campaign
of Flanders (1747). Promoted major-general in *755, three
years later he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards
(Bhrcs). Meanwhile he had married the daughter of the duke
of Somerset, and in 1754 had begun his parliamentary connexion
with Cambridgeshire, for which county he sat until his death.
The same year that saw Granby made colonel of the Blues,
saw also the despatch of a considerable British contingent to
Germany. M mden was Granby’s first 'great battle. At the head
of the Blues he was one of the cavalry leaders halted at the
critical moment by Sackville, and when in consequence that
officer was sent home in disgrace, Lieut.-Genera) Lord
Granby succeeded to the command of the British contingent
in Ferdinand’s army, having 32,000 men .under his orders at
the beginning of 1 760. In the remaining campaigns of tire Seven
Years’ War the English Contingent was more conspicuous by its
conduct than the Prussians themselves. On the 31st of July
1760 Granby brilliantly stormed Warburg at the head of the
British cavalry, rapturing 1500 men and'ten pieces of artillery.
A year later (15th of July (761) the British defended the hgjghts
of Vellinghausen with what Ferdinand himself itvled " indescrib¬
able bravery.” In the last campaign, at Gravefixtein und
Wilhebnjthal, Horaburg and Cassel, Granby.’a men We (he brunt
of the fighting and earned the greatest stare of tire glory.
Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself
3+*
GRAN CHACO—GRAND ALLIANCE
the papular hero of the war. It is said that couriers awaited
his arrival at all the home ports to offer him the choice of the
Ordnance or the Horse Guards! His appointment to the Ordnance
bore the date of the ist of July 1763, and three years later he
became commander-in-chief. In this position he was attacked
by “ Junius,’’ and a heated discussion arose, as the writer had
taken the greatest pains in assailing the most popular member
of the Grafton ministry. In 1770 Granby, worn out by political
and financial trouble, resigned all his offices, except the colonelcy
of the Blues. He died at Scarborough on the 18th of October
1770. He had been made a privy councillor in 1760, lord
lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1762, and LL.D. of Cambridge in
1769. *
Two portraits of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds,
* the National Gallery. Hi* contemporary
>lic-hor
one of which is now in the National Gallery. vuu temporary
popularity is indicated by the number of inns and public-houses
which took his name and had hia portrait as sign-board.
GRAN CHACO, an extensive region in the heart of South
America belonging to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20°
to 29 0 S. lat., and divided between the republics of Argentine,
Bolivia and Paraguay, with a small district of south-western
Matto Grosso (Brazil). Its area is estimated at from 250,000
to 4 J 5 ) 000 s<J- id.) but the true Chaco region probably does not
exceed 300,000 sq. m. The greater part is covered with marshes,
lagoons and dense tropical jungle and forest, and is still un¬
explored. On its southern and western borders there are ex¬
tensive tracts of open woodland, intermingled with grassy plains,
while on the northern side in Bolivia are large areas of open
country subject to inundations in the rainy season. In general
terms the Gran Chaco may be described as a great plain sloping
ggntly to the S.E., traversed in the same direction by two great
rivers, the Pilcoptayo and Bermejo, whose sluggish courses are
not navigable because of sand-banks, barriers of overturned trees
and floating vegetation, and confusing channels. This excludes
that part of eastern Bolivia belonging to the Amazon basin,
which is sometimes described as part of the Chaco. The greater
part of its territory is occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians,
some of whom are still unsubdued, while others, like the Matacos,
are sometimes to be found on neighbouring sugar estates and
estancias as labourers during the busy season. The forest wealth
of the Chaco region is incalculable and apparently inexhaustible,
consisting of a great variety of palms and valuable cabinet
woods, building timber, &c. Its extensive tracts of “ quebracho
Colorado ” (Loxopterygium Larenttii) are of very great value
because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its
extract are hugely exported. Civilization is slowly gaining
footholds in this region along the southern and eastern borders?
BRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OP THE (alternatively called the
War of the League of Augsburg), the third 1 of the great aggressive
wars waged by Louis XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire,
Great Britain! Holland and other states. The two curlier wars
which are redeemed from oblivion by the fact that in them
three great captains, Turenne, Condi and Montecucculi, played
leading parts, are described in the article Dutch Wars. In
the third war the leading figures are : Henri de Montmorency-
Bouttevllle, duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of
umde and heir to his daring method of warfare ; William of
Orange, who had fought against both Condi and Luxemburg
m the earlier wars, and was now king of England; Vaubaii,
the founder of the sciences of fortification and siegecraft, and
C&tuiit, the follower of Turenne’s cautious and systematic
strategy, who was the first commoner to receive high command
in the army of Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these men—except
Vauban—are overshadowed by the great figures of the preceding
generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes,
the war of 1689-97 was an affair of positions and manoiuvres.
It waa wtthm these years that the art and practice of war
began to crystallize into the form called “ linear ” in its strategic
t ' ■ ! n S. n .* n y " c, ™f- d -VUiaacc '• is applied to the coalition against
onlv mri' }£F~L 2 $ * 5 .® Augsburg This coalition not
cwy waged tha war dealt within the present article, but (with only
sheet modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the
war of tha Atanish Succession (f.».) that fohovwd. ,y
and tactical aspect, and " cabinet-war ’’ in its political and moral
aspect. 'In the Dutch ware, and in the minor wars that pre¬
ceded the formation df the League of Augsburg, there were
still survivals of the loose organization, violence and wasteful
barbarity typical of the Thirty Years’ War; and even in the
War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier years) occasional
brutalities and devastations showed that the okl spirit died hard.
But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery in
toe old days now provoked loud indignation, and when the
fierce Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally
understood that barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating
popular sympathies, but also as rendering operations a physical
impossibility for want of supplies.
Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people
into submission, armies systematically conciliated them by
paying cash and bringing trade into the country.
Formerly, wars had been fought to compel a people c ?Z* et,r
to abjure their faith or to change sides in some
personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no
longer been the case. The Peace of Westphalia established
the general relationship of kings, priests and peoples on a basis
that was not really shaken until the French Revolution, and
m the intervening hundred and forty years the peoples at large,
except at the highest and gravest moments (as in Germany in
1689, France in 1709 and PniBsia in 1757) held aloof from active
participation m politics and war. This was the beginning of
the theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only,
and that intervention in it by the civil population was a punish¬
able offence. Thus wars became toe business of toe professional
soldiers in the king’s own service, and the scarcity and costliness
of these soldiers combined vyith the purely political character
of the quarrels that arose to reduce a campaign from an “ intense
and passionate drama to a humdrum affair, to which only
rarely a few men of genius imparted some degree of vigour, and
which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small
expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As between
a prince and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred
the average man—the Dragonnades, for instance, or toe English
Revolution—but foreign wars were " a stronger form of diplo¬
matic notes,” as Clausewitz called them, and were waged with
the object of adding a codicil to the treaty of peace that had
closed the last incident.
Other causes contributed to stifle the former ardour of war.
Campaigns were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty
thousand men. Large regular armies had come into fashion,
and, as Guibcrt points out, instead of small armies charged with
grand operations we find grand armies charged with small
operations. The average general, under toe prevailing conditions
of supply and armament, was not equal to the task of commanding
such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces that
Louis XIV. had created was therefore out of toe question, and
the field armies split into six or eight independent fractions,
each charged wito operations on a particular theatre of war.
From such a policy nothing remotely resembling the crushing
of a great power could be expected to be gained. The one
tangible asset, in view of future peace negotiations, was therefore
a fortress, and it was on toe preservation or capture of fortresses
that operations in all these wars chiefly turned. The idea of
the decisive battle for its own sake, as a settlement of the quarrel,
was far distant; for, strictly speaking, there was no quarrel,
arid to use up highly trained and exceedingly expensive soldiers
m gaining by brute force an advantage that might equally well
be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish.
■p* fortress was, moreover, of unmediate as well as contingent
value to a state at war. A century of constant warfare had
1 impoverished middle Europe, and armies had to spread over a
large area if they desired to “ live on toe country.” This was
dangerous in toe face of toe enemy (cf. toe Peninsular War),
and it was also uneconomical. The only wav to prevent the
country people from sending their produce into toe fortresses
for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be paid
at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises
GRAND ALLIANCE *43
mrely brought this about, amt to live at all, whether an supplies
brought up from the home country and stored in magazines
(which had to be guarded) or on local resources, an army had
as a rule to maintain or to Capture a large fortress. Sieges,
therefore, and manoeuvres are the features of this form Of war,
wherein armies progressed not with the giant strides of modem
war, but in a succession of short hops from one foothold to the
next. Ibis was the procedure of the average commander, and
even when a more intense spirit of conflict was evoked by the
Luxemburg! and Marlborough# it wae but momentary and
spasmodic.
The general Character of the war being borne m mind, nine-
tenths of its marches and manoeuvres can be almost “ taken as
read "; the remaining tenth, the exceptional and abnormal
part of it, alone possesses an interest for modem readers.
In pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany Louis XIV.
sent his troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest,
into that country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding
parties plundered the country as far south as Augsburg, for the
political intent of their advance suggested terrorism rather than
conciliation as the best method. The league of Augsburg at
once took up the challenge, and the addition of new members
(Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the “ Grand
Alliance ” of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian
states, Great Britain, the emperor, the elector of Branden¬
burg, &c.
“ Those who condemned the king for raising up so many
enemies, admired him for having so fully prepared to defend
himself and even to forestall them,” says Voltaire. Louvois
had in fact completed the work of organizing the French army
on a regular and permanent basis, and had made it not merely
the best, but also by far the most numerous in Europe, for Louis
disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 875,Coo soldiers and 60,000
sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket
bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The
only relic of the old armament was the pike, which was retained
for one-quarter of the foot, though it had been discarded by the
Imperialists in the course of the Turkish wars described below.
The first artillery regiment was created in 1684, to replace the
former semi-civilian organization by a body of artillerymen
susceptible of uniform training and amenable to discipline
and orders.
In 1689 Louis had six armies on foot. That in Germany,
which had executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not
D»rm»tu- ' n R position to resist the principal army of the coalition
tiattotthe so far from support. Louvois therefore ordered it
Paiatimata.to lay waste the Palatinate, and the devastation of
ltat ‘ the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires,
Oppenheim and Worms was pitilessly and methodically carried
into effect in January and February. There had been devasta¬
tions in previous wars, even the high-minded Turenne had
used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population
or a prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the
great war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces
of their passage that it took a century to remove. Butnere the
devastation was a purely military measure, executed systemati¬
cally over a given strategic front for no other purpose than to
delay the advance of the enemy’s army. It differed from the
method of Turenne or Cromwell m that the sufferers were not
those people whom it was the puipose of the war to reduce to
submission, but others who Had no interest in the quarrel. It
differed from Wellington's laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in
that it was not done for the defence of the Palatinate against
a national enemy, but because the Palatinate was where it was.
The feudal theory that eveiy subject of a prince at war was an
armed vassal, and therefore an enemy of the prince’s enemy,
had in practice 'been obsolete for two centuries past; by 1690
the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its instru¬
ments had patted out of touch with the people at huge, and it
had become thoroughly understood that the army alone was
concerned with the army’s business. Thus it was that this
devastation excited universal reprobation, and that, in the words'
Of a modem French writer, the “ idea of Germany came to
birth to the flames of the Palatinate.”
As a military measure, this crime was, moreover, quite unprofit¬
able ; for it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French
commander, to hold out on the east side of the middle Rhine,
and he could think of nothing better to do than to go farther
south and to ravage Baden and the Breisgau, which was not
even a military necessity. The grand army of the Aliks, coming
farther north, was practically unopposed. Oiarles of Lorraine
and the elector of Bavaria—lately comrades in the Turkish war
(see below)—invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg Bonn.
The latter, following the evil precedent of his enemies, sheUed
the town uselessly instead of making a breach in its walls and
overpowering its French garrison, an incident not calculated
to advance the nascent idea of German unity. Mainz, valiantly
defended by Nicolas du Ble, marquis d’Uxelles, had to surrender
on the 8th of September. The governor of Bonn, baron d’Asfeld,
not in the least intimidated by the bombardment, held out till
the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of Branden¬
burg, and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered
him by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on the rath
of October. Only 850 men out of his 6000 were left to surrender
on the 16th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than, the
elector, escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufilers, with
another of Louis’s armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured
by the French in r684 and since held) and Trarbach towards the
Rhine, but in spite of a minor victory at Kochheim on the arst
of August, he was unable to relieve either Mainz or Bonn.
In the I/jw Countries the French marshal d’Humkres, being
in superior force, had obtained special permission to offer battle
to the Allies. Leaving the garrison of Lille and Toitmay to
amuse the Spaniards, he hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the
Dutch, who from Namur had advanced slowly on Philippeville.
Coming upon their army (which was Commanded by the prince
of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an advanced
post in the little walled town of Walcourt, he flung his advanced
guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to clear
the way for "his deployment beyond the river Heure (27th
August). After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt,
he drew hack. For a few days the two armies remained face
to face, cannonading one another at intervals, but no further
fighting occurred. Humkres returned to the region of the
Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels. For the others
of Louis’ six armies the year’s campaign passed off quite
uneventfully.
Simultaneously with these operations, the Jacobite cause was
being fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with
desultory engagements between the Orangemen of the _. ___.
north and the Irish regular army, most of which the earl *
of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for King James.
The northern struggle after a time condensed itself into
the defence of Derry and Enniskillen. The siege of the former
place, begun by James himself and carried on by the French
general Rosen, lasted 105 days. In marked contrast to the sieges
of the continent, this was resisted by the townsmen themselves,
under the leadership of the clergyman George Walker. But the
relieving force (consisting of two frigates, a supply ship and a three
under Major-General Percy Kirke) was dilatory, and it was not
until the defenders were in the last extremity that Kirke actually
broke through the blockade (July 31st). Enniskillen was less
closely invested, and its inhabitants, organized by Colonel Wolseley
and other officers sent by Kirke,’ actually kept the open field and
defeated the Jacobites at Newtown Butler (July 31st). A few days
later the Jacobite army withdrew from the north. But it was long
before an adequate army could be sent over from England tq.dsai
with it Marshal Schomberg (q.v.), one of the most distinguished
soldiers of the time, who had been expelled from the French service
as a Huguenot, was -indeed sent over in August, but the army he
brought, some 10,000 strong, was composed of raw recruits, and
when it was .a s s em bled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its
work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But Jam-‘«
failed to take advantage of h/s opportunity to renew the war in the
north, and the relics of Sehomberg’s army wintered in security,
covered by the Enniskillen troops, in the spring of ttgo, however,
more troops, this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark
and Brandenburg, were sent, and in J une, Schomberg in Ireland and
Major-General Scravemore in Chester having thoroughly organized
ana equipped the field army, King William assumed the command
344 GRAND ALLIANCE
kunatU, Fm days a/tor bis arrival be began bis advance front
Loughbrickland near Newry, and on the ist of July be engaged
Janet's main army on the river Boyne, close to Drogheda. Schom-
beiy teas killed and William HfanbMi wonnded, but the Irish army
was rotted.
Mo stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin
or in the Waterford district. Laurun, the commander of the French
auxiliary corps in James’s army, and Tyrconnel both discounten¬
anced any attempt to defend Limerick, where the Jacobite forces
bad reassembled * but Patrick Sarsfieid ieari of Lucan), an the
spokesman of the younger and more ardent of the Irish officers,
pleaded for its retention. He was left, therefore, to hold Limerick,
while Tyrconnel and Laurun moved northward into Galway. Here,
as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the active sympathies of the
people against the invader, and Sarsfieid not only surprised and
destroyed the artillery train of William's army, but repulsed every
assault made on the walls that Laurun had said " could be battered
down by rotten apples." William gave up the siege on the 30th
of August. The failure was, however, compensated in a measure by
the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord Marlborough,
which captured Cork and Kmsale, and.ncxt year (1691) the Jacobite
cause was finally crashed by William's general Ginckell (afterwards
earl of Atblone) in the tattle of Aughrim in Galway (July 12th),
in which St Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the
Jacobite army dissipated, Ginckell, following up his victory, be¬
sieged Limerick afresh. Tyroonnel died of apoplexy while organizing
the defence, and this time the town was invested by sea as well as
by land. After six weeks’ resistance the defenders offered to
capitulate, and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on the
ist of Octobe r the Irish war came to an end. Sarsfieid and the
moat energetic of King James's supporters retired to France and
were there formed into the famous " Irish brigade.” Sarsfieid was
killed at the battle of Neerwinden two years later.
The campaign of 1690 op the continent of Europe is marked
by two battles, one of which, Luxemburg’s victory of I'leurus,
belongs to the category of the world’s great battles. It is
described under Fleurus, and the present article only deals
summarily with the conditions in which it was fought. These,
though they in fact led to an encounter that could, in itself,
fairly be called decisive, were in closer accord with the general
spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of them.
Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvohs, and he had
consequently been allotted only an insignificant part in the first
campaign. But after the disasters of 1689 Louis re-arranged
the commands on the north-east frontier so as to allow Huraifires,
Luxemburg and Bouffiers to combine for united action. “ I
will take care that Louvnis plays fair,” Louis said to the duke
when he gave him his letters of service. Though apparently
Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a mmh i i ytt fon
himself, as senior officer he would automatically take command
if it came about. The whole force available was probably dose
on roo,ooo, but not half of these were present at the decisive
battle, though Luxemburg certainly practised the utmost
“ economy of force ” as this was understood in those days (see
also Neerwinden). On the remaining theatres of war, die
dauphin, assisted by the due de Lorge, held the middle Rhine,
and Catinat the Alps, while other forces were in Roussillon, See.,
as before. Catinat’s operations are briefly described below.
Thoae of the others need no description, for though the Allies
formed a plan for a grand concentric advance on Paris, the
preliminaries to this advance were so numerous and so dosely
mterdapendent that on the jpost favourable estimate the winter
would necessarily find the Allied armies many leagues short of
Paris. In fact, the Rhine offensive collapsed when Charles of
Lorraine died (17th April), and the reconquest of his lost duchy
ceased to be a direct object of the war.
Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre
country, where he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt
an d “ eating up ” the country between Qudenarde
mm. ’ Ghent in the face of a Spanish army concentrated
at the latter place (15th May-nth June). He then
left Humtfires with a Containing force in the Scheldt region and
hurried back to the Sombre to interpose between the Allied
army under Waldeck and the fortress of Dinant w hich Waldeck
was credited with the intention of besieging. His march from
Toutway to Getpinnes has counted a model of sfc»l—the locus
classtcus for the maxim that ruled till the advent of Napoleon—
“march always in ithe order in which you encamp, or purpose
to encamp, or fight.” Far four <Mys the array marched terras
country in close order, covered in all directions by reconnoitring
cavalry and advanced, flank and rear guards. Under thes e
conditions <deven miles a day was practically forced marchin g,
and on arriving at Jeumont-sor-Sambre the army was given
three days’ rest. Then followed a few leisurely marches in the
direction oT Charleroi, during which a detachment of Boufflers’s
array came in, and the cavalry explored the country to the north.
On new* of the enemy’s army being at Tfcazegnies, Luxemburg
hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this
proved to be a detachment only, and soon information ,came
in that Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Thereupon
Luxemburg, without consulting his subordinate generals, took
his army to Vefcioe. He knew- that the enemy was matking
time till the troop* of Liege and the tirandenburgers from the
Rhine were near enough to co-operate in the Dinant enterprise,
and he was determined ,to fight a battle at once. From V-daine,
therefore, on the morning of the rst of July, the army moved
forward to, Fleurus and there won one of the most brilliant
victories in the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg
was not allowed to pursue his advance. He was ordered to
bold his army in readiness to besiege either Namur, Mons,
Charleroi or Ath, according as later orders dictated; and to
send back the borrowed regiments to Bouffiers, who was being
pressed back by the Brandenburg and Liege troops. Thus
Waldeck reformed his army in peace at Brussels, where Wi llem
Ill. of England soon afterwards assumed command of the
Allied forces in the Netherlands, and Luxemburg and the other
marshals stood fast for the rest of the campaign, being forbidden
to advance until Catinat—in Italy—should have won. a battle.
In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke of Savoy
had long disquieted the French court. His personal connexions
with the imperial family and his .resentment against
Louvois, who,had on some occasion treated him with
his usual patronizing arrogance, inclined him to join the
Allies, while on the other hand he could hope for extensions
of his scanty territory only by siding with Louis. In view of
this doubtful condition of affairs the French army under Catinat
had for some time been maintained on the Alpine frontier, and
in the summer of 1690 Louis XIV. sent an ultimatum to Victor
Amadeus to cumpel him to taka one side or the other actively
und openly. The result was that Victor Emmanuel threw in
his Jot with the Allies and obtained help from the Spaniards
and Austrians in the Milanese, Catinat thereupon advanced
into Piedmont, and won, principally by virtue of his own watchful¬
ness wad the high efficiency of his troops, the important victory
of Staffords (August 18th, 1690). This did not, however, enable
him to overrun Piedmont^ and as the duke was soon reinforced,
he had to be content with the methodical conquest of a few
frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a small French army-
under the due de Noailles passed into Catalonia and there lived
at the enemy’s expense for the duration of the campaign.
In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion
of the German princes prevented vigorous action, the following
year, 1691, was uneventful. But in the Netherlands there
were a siege, a war of manoeuvre* and a cavalry combat, each
in its way somewhat remarkable. The siege was that of Mans,
which was, like many sieges in the former wars, .conducted with
much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Bouffiers and Vauban
under him. On the surrender of the place, which was
by red-hot shot (April 8th), Louis returned to Versailles and
divided his army between Bouffiers and Luxsmfeuig, the former
of whom departed to the Meuse. There he attempted by bom¬
bardment to enforce the surrender of Liege, but had to desist when
the elector of Brandenburg threatened Dinant, The principal
armies on either side faced one another under the command
respectively of William III. .and of Luxemburg. The Allies
were first concentrated to the south ,of Namur, and Luxemburg
hurried thither, but neither party found any tempting opportunity
for battle, and when the cavalry had consumed all the forage
available in the district, the two armies edged away gradually
towards Flanders. The war of manoeuvre continued, with a
GRAND ALLIANQE' H 5
.light glance of advantage on Luxemburg’s side, until September,
when William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in command
of the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter quarters
amongst the garrison towns. 'Ibis gave the momentary oppor¬
tunity for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Louse
(10th Sept.) he feH upon the cavalry of Waldeck’s rearguard
and drove it back in disorder with heavy losses until the pursuit
was checked by the Allied infantry.
In 169a 1 the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than
before, although Lorge made a successful raid into Wiirttemberg
in September and foraged his cavalry in German territory till
the approach of winter. The Spanish campaign was unimportant,
but on the Alpine side the Allies under the duke of Savoy drove
back Catinat into Dauphini, which they ravaged with fire and
sword. But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms
than the Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry—amongst
whom figured the heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708),
daughter of the marquis de la Charce—they beset every road
with such success that the small regular army of the invaders
was powerless. Brought practically to a standstill, the Allies
soon consumed the provisions that could be gathered in, and
then, fearing lest the snow should close the passes behind them,
they retreated.
In the Low Countries the campaign as before began with a
great siege. Louis and Vauban invested Namur on the 26th
of May. The place was defended by the prince de
sit* ot Bafbgnfon (who had been governor of Luxemburg
tin!'’ when that place was besieged in 1684) and Coehoom
(q.v.), Vauban’s rival in the science of fortification.
Luxemburg, with a small army, manoeuvred to cover the siege
against William III.’s army at Louvain. The place fell on the
5th of June, 8 after a very few days of Vauban’s “regular"
attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as before,
Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg
10 “ preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing
the enemy’s enterprises and subsisting the army at his expense."
This negative policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard-
fought battle. William, employing a common device, euinounced
his intention of retaking Namur, but set his army in motion
for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses held by the French.
Luxemburg, warned in time, hurried towards the Scheldt, and
the two armies were soon face to face again, Luxemburg about
Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. William then
s naurk. {orme( j t jj e p ] an 0 [ Bur p r i s i n g Luxemburg’s right
wing before it could be supported by the rest of his army,
relying chiefly on false information that a detected spy
at his headquarters was forced to send, to mislead the duke.
But Luxemburg had the material protection of a widespread
net of outposts as well as a secret service, and although ill in
lied when William’s advance was reported, he shook off his
apathy, mounted his horse and, enabled by his outpost reports
to divine his opponent’s plan, he met it (3rd August) by a swift
concentration of his army, against which the Allies, whose
advance and deployment had been mismanaged, were powerless
(see Steenkirk). Tn this almost accidental battle both sides
suffered enormous losses, and neither attempted to bring about,
or even to risk, a second resultless trial of strength. Boufflers’s
army returned to the Sambre and Luxemburg and William
established themselves for the rest of the season at Lessines
and Ninove respectively, 13 m. apart. After both armies
had broken up into their winter quarters, Louis ordered
Boufflers to attempt the capture of Charleroi. But a bombard¬
ment failed to intimidate the garrison, and when the Allies
began to re-assemble, the attempt was given up (i9th-snt Oct.).
This failure was, however, compensated by the siege and capture
of Fumes (a8th Dec. i6qa-7th Jan. 1693).
In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It
began, as mentioned above, with a winter enterprise that at
‘ Louyois died in Jiily (691,.
5 A few days before Sus the great naval reverse of La Hogue put
an end to the p roje c t s of Invading England hitherto entettwned at
Versatile*.
least indicated die aggressive spirit of the French generals.
The king promoted his admiral, Tourville, and Catinat, the
rotuner, to the marsbfdahip, and founded the military order of
St Louis on the toth of April. The grand army in the Netherlands
this year numbered 1x0,000, to oppose whom William III. had
only some 40,000 at hand. But at the very beginning Co opera¬
tions Louis, after reviewing this huge force at Gembloux, broke
it up, in order to send ,30,000 under the dauphin to Germany,
where Lorge had captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if re¬
inforced, to overrun south Germany. But the imperial general
Prince Louis of Baden took up a position near Heilbronn so
strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not venture to attack
him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream, and for
the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed,
of commanding in chief m a great battle. He himself, to judge
by his letter to Monsieur on the 8th of June, regarded his action
as a sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And,
before the event falsified predictions, there was much to be said
for the course he took, which accorded better with the prevailing
system of war than a Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system
of war the rival armies, as armies, were almost in a state of
equilibrium, and more was to be expected from an army dealing
with something dissimilar to itself—a fortress or a patch of land
or a convoy— -Sian from its collision with another army of equal
force.
Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity.
He was still superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had
the advantage of position. The former, authorised
by his master this year “ non settlement d’empecher les w Tm4*n.
ennemis de rien entreprendre, mats d'emporter quelques
wantages stir eux," threatened Lidge, drew William over to its
defence and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however,
retired to another position, between the Great and Little Geete
rivers, and there, in a strongly entrenched position around
Neerwinden, they were attacked by Luxemburg on the 29th of
July. The long and doubtful battle, one of the greatest victories
ever won by the French army, is briefly described under Neer-
winden. It ended in a brilliant victory for the assailant, but
Luxemburg’s exhausted army did not pursue; William was as
unshaken and determined as ever; and the campaign closed,
not with a treaty of peace, but with a few manoeuvres which,
by inducing William to believe in an attack on Ath, enabled
Luxemburg to besiege and capture Charleroi (October).
Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year.
Catinat, advancing from Fenestrelle and Susa to the relief of
Pineroio (Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was
besieging, took up a position in formal order of battle
north of the village of Marsaglia. Here on the 4th of
October the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army,
front to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency
of the French, and Catinat’s minute attention to details 8 in
arraying them, gave the new marshal a victory that was a not
unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The Piedmontese and their
allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, as
against Catinat’s 1800. But here, too, the results were trifling,
and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the year in
which “ people perished of want to the accompaniment of
Te Deums
In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and
famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The
armies were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William
offered no further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In
September, after inducing William to desist from his intention of
besieging Dunkirk by appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry, J
which had ridden from the Meuse, too m., in 4 days, Luxemburg
gave up his command. He died on the 4th oi January following,
and with him the tradition oi the Condi school of warfare dis¬
appeared from Europe. la Catalonia the marshal de Noafile* won
a victory (27th May) over the Spaniards at the ford of the Ter
* is.-g iia- is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first, instances
of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry.
4 Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A
regiment of them had been raised in <692 from deeerters from the
Austrian service.
3+*
GRAND ALLIANCE
(TorroeBx, j th. above the month of the river), and in consequence
c aptu y d a n timber of walled towns.
William found Morthal Vitteroi a far lees formidable
opponent than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in
keeping him , in Flanders while a corps of the Allies in-
vested Namur. Coehoom directed the siege-works, and
,..__ Boufflers the defence. Gradually, aa in 1694, the de-
• tot war. were dislodged from the town, the citadel
outworks and the citadel itself, the last being assaulted with
success by the " British grenadiers," as the song commemorates,
on the 30th of August. Boufflers wss rewarded ror his sixty-seven
days' defence by the grade of marshal.
By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague
and indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted nis
efforts to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding
campaigns. In this new policy he met with much success.
Boufflers, Lorge, Noailles and even the incompetent Villeroi held
the field jn their various spheres of operations without allowing the
Allies to inflict any material injury, and also (by having recourse
again to the policy of living by plunder) preserving French soil
from the burden of their own maintenance. In' this, as before, they
were powerfully assisted by the disunion and divided counsels of
their heterogeneous enemies, In Piedmont, Catinat crowned his
work by making peace and alliance with the duke of Savoy, and
the two late eoemffls having joined forces captured one of the
fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was in 1697. Catinat
and Vanban besieged-Ath. This siege was perhaps the most regular
and methodical erf the great engineer's canter. It lasted 43 days
and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir
from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to
attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendfime, Noailles'
successor, captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on
the 30th of October, closed this war by practically restoring the
status quo ant * ; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand
Alliance that opposed them ceased to have force, and three years
later the strugglebegan anew (see Spanish StrresssiON, War of the).
Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been en¬
gaged in a much more serious war on his eastern marches against
Austro- old enemy, the Turks. This war arose in 1684 out
Twrtitti » nten ud disturbances in Hungary. The campaign of
wmm the following year is memorable for all time as the last
fM 4 -/ 6 FF.ffl rp ®t wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommsd IV. ad-
‘vaneed from Belgrade in May, with 400,000 men, drove
back the small imperial army of Prince Charles of Lorraine,
and early in July invested Vienna itself. The two months' defence
of Vienna by Count Rudiger Starhemberg (1635-170:) and the
brilliant victory of the relieving army led by John Sbbieski, Mw of
Poland, and Prince Charles on the zath of September 1683, were
events which, bcaides their intrinsic importance, possess the romantic
interest of an old knightly crusade against the heathen.
But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed,
differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe.
Turkey figured rather as a factor fa the balance of power than as
the " infidel," and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were
characterised by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk
which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as
methodica l and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign.
In 1684 Charles of Lorraine gamed a victory at Waitaen on the 47th
of June and another at Eperies on the 18th of September, and
unsuccessfully besieged Budapest.
In 1(18.5 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory
pMt (Sept. and). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great
victory at Mohacz (Aug. lath). In 1(188 the Austrians advanced
stfll further, took Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia.
The margrave Louis of Baden, who afterward became one of the
most celebrated of the methodical generals of the day, won a victory
at Derbvnt on die 5th of September 1688, and next year, in spite of
the outbreak of a general European war, he managed to win another
battle at Nisch (Sent. 44th), to capture Widin (Oct. 14th) and to
advance to the Balkans, but-in 1690, more troops having to l>c
Sr! 5 : r '?£ 7 i, <or European war, the imperialist generals lost
Widin and Belgrade one after the other. There was, however,
no repetition of th, scene* of 1683, far in 1691 Louis won the battle
of Suantaaraen (Aug. 19th). After two more desultory if successful
campaigns he was celled to serve in westers Europe, and for three
years more the war dragged on without result, until in 1697 the
young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the imperialists
afrfwoo. great and decisive victory at Zeuta on the Them (Sept,
nth). This induced a last general advance of the Germans east-
ward, which was definitively successful and brought about the
peace of Cariowite (January 1699). (C. F. A.)
'Naval Operations
, ' c * e °f the war waged by the powers of western
Europe ton 1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King
| Louis XIV., was not marked by any very conspicuous erhihjg i m i
of energy or capacity, but it was singularly decisive in its results.
At the beginning of the struggle the French fleet kept the sea
m face of the united fleets of Great Britain and Holland. It
displayed even in 1690 a marked sup eri o ri ty over them.. Before
the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port,: and though
its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the
French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to
make a proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king’s
ministers to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most
effective aims, were largely responsible for the result.
When the war began in 1689, the British. Admiralty was still
suffering from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II.,
which had been only in part corrected during toe short reign of
James II. The first squadrons were sent out late and in in¬
sufficient strength. The Dutch, crushed by toe obligation to
maintain a great army, found an increasing difficulty in preparing
their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a despotic monarch,
with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his power to
strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting
one. Ireland was stdl loyal to King James II., and would there¬
fore have afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French
fleet. No serious attempt was made to profit by toe advantage
tout presented. In March 1689 King James was landed and
reinforcements were prepared for him at Brest. A British
squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert (afterwards
Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached toe French
port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted
toe convoy off the Old Hoad of Kinsale on the roth of May.
The French admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay,
and an indecisive encounter took place on the uto of May.
The troops and store for King James were successfully landed.
Then both admirals, the British and toe French, returned home,
and neither in that nor in the following year was any serious
effort made by toe French to gain command of the sea between
Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet
entered the Channel, and gained a success over the combined
British and Dutch fleets on the soto of July 1690 (see Beachy
Head, Battle of), which was not followed up by vigorous
action. In the meantime King William III. passed over to
Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following
year, while toe. cause of King James was being finally ruined
in Ireland, toe main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of
Biscay, principally for toe purpose of avoiding battle. During
toe whole of 1689,1690 and 1691, British squadrons were active
on the Irish coast. One raised the siege of i-ondondeny in July
1689,. and another convoyed the first British forces sent over
under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy
Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition
under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took
Cork and reduced a large part of the south of toe island. In
169: the French did little more than help to carry away the
wreckage of their allies and their own detachments. In 1692
a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to employ their fleet
to cover an invasion of England (see La Hogue, Battle of).
It ended in defeat, and toe allies remained masters of the Channel.
The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval
power of King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. ■ In the
next year, 1693, he was able to strike a severe blow at the Mies.
The important Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and
Holland, called for convenience toe Smyrna convoy, having
been delayed during the previous year, anxious measures were
taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the arrangements
of toe allied governments and admirals were not good. They
made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps
to discover whether or not toe French fleet had left toe port.
'ITie convoy was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet.
But as th* French admiral Tourville had left Brest for toe Straits
of Gibraltar with a powerful force and had been joined by a
squadron from Toulon, the whole convoy was scattered or taken
by him, in the latter days of June, near Lagos. But though
this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat at La
GRAND CANARY-OGRAND CANYON 347
Hague, it was the last serious effort made by the rmry of Louis
XIV. in this war. Want of money compelled him to ley his
fleet up. 'Die allies were now free to make, fall use of theb own,
to harass the French coast, to intercept French commerce, and
to co-operate with the armies acting against France. Some of
the operations undertaken by them were more remarkable for
the violence of the effort than for theraagnitudeof the results.
The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the
attempts to destroy St Malo, the great nursery of the active
French privateers, by,infernal machines, did little harm. A
British attack on Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy
loss. The Bcheme had been betrayed by Jacobite correspondents.
Yet the inability of the Frenchkmg to avert these enterprises
showed the weakness of his navy and the limitations of his power.
The protection of British and Dutch commerce was never com¬
plete, for the French privateers were active to the end. But
French commerce was wholly ruined.
It was the misfortune of the allies that their co-operation
with armies was largely with the forces of a power so languid
and so bankrupt as Spain. Yet the series of operations directed
by Russel in the Mediterranean throughout 1694 and 1695
demonstrated the superiority of the allied fleet, and checked
the advance of the French in Catalonia. Contemporary with
the campaigns in Europe was a long series of cruises against the
FVench m the West Indies, undertaken by the British navy,
with more or less help from the Dutch and a little feeble assistance
from the Spaniards. They began with the cruise of Captain
Lawrence Wright in 1690-1691, and ended with that of Admiral
Nevil in 1696-1697. It cannot be said that they attained to airy
very honourable achievement, or even did much to weaken the
French hold on their possessions in the West Indies and North
America. Some, and notably the attack made on Quebec by
Sir William Phips in 1690, with a force raised in the British
colonies, ended in defeat. None of them was so triumphant
as the plunder of Cartagena in South America by the Frenchman
Pointis, in 1697, at the head of a semi-piratical force. Too often
there was absolute misconduct. In the buccaneering and piratical
atmosphere of the West Indies, the naval officers of the day,
who were still infected with the corruption of the reign of Charles
II., and who calculated on distance from home to secure them
immunity, sank nearly to the level of pirates and buccaneers.
The indifference of the age to the laws of health, and its ignorance
of them, caused the ravages of disease to be frightful. In the
cate of Admiral Nevil’s squadron, the admiral himself and all
his captains except one, died during the cruise, and the ships'
were unmanned. Yet it was their own vices which caused
these expeditions to fail, and not the strength of the French
defence. When the war ended, the navy of King Louis XIV.
had disappeared from the sea.
See Burchett, Memoir* of Transactions at Sea taring the War
with France, 11*88-/697 (London, 1703); Ledi&rd, Naval History
(London, 1735), particularly valuable for the quotations in hfs
notes. For the West Indian voyages, Tronde, Batailles navales is
la France (Fans, 1867) ; De Yonghe, ( lesekieisnis van h*t Ntdsr-
landschs Zsewetm (Haarlem, i860). (D. H.)
BRAND CANARY (Gran Canaria), an island in the Atlantic
Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary
Islands ty.e.). Pop. (1900) 137471 ; area 533 sq, m. Grand
Canary, the most fertile island of the group, is nearly circular
in shape, with a diameter of 34 m. and a circumference of 75 m.
The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines radiating to
the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Lange
tracts are covered with native nine (P. canariensis). There are
several mineral sprmgs an the island. Los Palmas (pop. 44,517),
the capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8976),
the second place in tha island, stands on a plain, surrounded
by palm trees. At Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas,
the wmlring of earthenware vessels employs some hundreds
of people, who inhabit hates nude in the tula.
GRAMS CAN YQR,<a (profound gorge in the north-west comer
of Aripona, m the sootb-weetam part of the United States of
America, carved in the plateau region by the Colorado river.
Of it Captain Dutton says 1 “Those who have long and carefully
studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do not hesitate for
a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all
earthly:spectacles ”; and this is also the vcrdictof rfcsmj who
have only viewed it in one or two of its parts.
Ihe Colorado river is made by the junction of two largastrearos,
the Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky
Mountains. It has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage
area of 255400 sq, m., emptying into the head of the Gulf of
California- In its oourse the Colorado passes through a mountain
section;, then a plateau section j end finally a desert lowland
section which extends to its- mouth. It is in the plateau section
that the Grand Canyon «. situated. Here the surface of the
country lire from 5000 to 9009 ft. above Bea-level, being a table¬
land region of. buttes and mesas divresified by lava, intrusions,
flows and cinder cones. The region consists ip the main .of
stratified rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position,
though profoundly faulted here and there, and with some
moderate folding. For a thousand miles the river has cut a
series of canyons, bearing different names, which reach their
culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 tn. long, and the contiguous
Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther
down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from
2000 to 6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest
and deepest canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth
is the wmk of the Colorado river, with apoompanying weathering,
through long ages; and the river is still engaged in deepening
it as it rushes along the canyon bottom.
The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient
rainfall for forests, whose growth is also made possible in part
by the cool climate and consequently retarded evaporation;
but the less elevated portions have an arid climate, while the
climate in the canyon bottom is that of the true desert. Thus
the canyon is really in a desert region, as is shown by the fact
that only two living streams enter the river for a distance of
500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand
Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand
Canyon itself. This, moreover, is dry during most of the year.
In spite of this lack of tributaries, a large volume of water flows
through the canyon at all seasons of the year, some coming
from the scattered tributaries, some from springs, but most
from the rains and snows of the distant mountains about the
headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon
walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility
of the long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea
across a vast stretch of arid land.
The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown
depth, and at times of flood has a greatly increased volume.
The river varies in width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow
Granite Gorges, where it bathes both rock walls, to 500 os 600
ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of the Marble and Grand
Canyons, the river falls 3330 ft., and at one point has a fall of
*10 ft- m jo m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20 or
more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and
rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the
Green and Grand.
Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude
of lateral canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy
rain. As Powell says, the region “ is a composite of thousands,
and tens of thousands of gorges.” There are “thousands of
gorges like that below Niagara Falls, and there are a thousand
Yosemites.” The largest of all, the Grand Canyon, has an
avenge depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 4} to is m. For a
long distance, where crossing the Kaibab, plateau, die depth
is 6000 ft. For much of the distance three is an inner narrower
gorge sunk in the bottom of a broad outre canyon. The narrow
gorge is m some places no more than 5500 ft. wide at the top.
To illustrate the depth of the Grand Canyon, Powell writes:
“ Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft high) by the roots to
the level of die sea, and drop it head first into the Grand Canyon,
and the dam will not force its waters over the wail.”
While them are notable differences in the Grand Canyon
from paint to point, the main dements are much alike throughout
3+*
GRAND ALLIANCE
(TorroeBx, j th. above the month of the river), and in consequence
c aptu y d a n timber of walled towns.
William found Morthal Vitteroi a far lees formidable
opponent than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in
keeping him , in Flanders while a corps of the Allies in-
vested Namur. Coehoom directed the siege-works, and
,..__ Boufflers the defence. Gradually, aa in 1694, the de-
• tot war. were dislodged from the town, the citadel
outworks and the citadel itself, the last being assaulted with
success by the " British grenadiers," as the song commemorates,
on the 30th of August. Boufflers wss rewarded ror his sixty-seven
days' defence by the grade of marshal.
By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague
and indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted nis
efforts to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding
campaigns. In this new policy he met with much success.
Boufflers, Lorge, Noailles and even the incompetent Villeroi held
the field jn their various spheres of operations without allowing the
Allies to inflict any material injury, and also (by having recourse
again to the policy of living by plunder) preserving French soil
from the burden of their own maintenance. In' this, as before, they
were powerfully assisted by the disunion and divided counsels of
their heterogeneous enemies, In Piedmont, Catinat crowned his
work by making peace and alliance with the duke of Savoy, and
the two late eoemffls having joined forces captured one of the
fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was in 1697. Catinat
and Vanban besieged-Ath. This siege was perhaps the most regular
and methodical erf the great engineer's canter. It lasted 43 days
and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir
from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to
attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendfime, Noailles'
successor, captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on
the 30th of October, closed this war by practically restoring the
status quo ant * ; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand
Alliance that opposed them ceased to have force, and three years
later the strugglebegan anew (see Spanish StrresssiON, War of the).
Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been en¬
gaged in a much more serious war on his eastern marches against
Austro- old enemy, the Turks. This war arose in 1684 out
Twrtitti » nten ud disturbances in Hungary. The campaign of
wmm the following year is memorable for all time as the last
fM 4 -/ 6 FF.ffl rp ®t wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommsd IV. ad-
‘vaneed from Belgrade in May, with 400,000 men, drove
back the small imperial army of Prince Charles of Lorraine,
and early in July invested Vienna itself. The two months' defence
of Vienna by Count Rudiger Starhemberg (1635-170:) and the
brilliant victory of the relieving army led by John Sbbieski, Mw of
Poland, and Prince Charles on the zath of September 1683, were
events which, bcaides their intrinsic importance, possess the romantic
interest of an old knightly crusade against the heathen.
But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed,
differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe.
Turkey figured rather as a factor fa the balance of power than as
the " infidel," and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were
characterised by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk
which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as
methodica l and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign.
In 1684 Charles of Lorraine gamed a victory at Waitaen on the 47th
of June and another at Eperies on the 18th of September, and
unsuccessfully besieged Budapest.
In 1(18.5 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory
pMt (Sept. and). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great
victory at Mohacz (Aug. lath). In 1(188 the Austrians advanced
stfll further, took Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia.
The margrave Louis of Baden, who afterward became one of the
most celebrated of the methodical generals of the day, won a victory
at Derbvnt on die 5th of September 1688, and next year, in spite of
the outbreak of a general European war, he managed to win another
battle at Nisch (Sent. 44th), to capture Widin (Oct. 14th) and to
advance to the Balkans, but-in 1690, more troops having to l>c
Sr! 5 : r '?£ 7 i, <or European war, the imperialist generals lost
Widin and Belgrade one after the other. There was, however,
no repetition of th, scene* of 1683, far in 1691 Louis won the battle
of Suantaaraen (Aug. 19th). After two more desultory if successful
campaigns he was celled to serve in westers Europe, and for three
years more the war dragged on without result, until in 1697 the
young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the imperialists
afrfwoo. great and decisive victory at Zeuta on the Them (Sept,
nth). This induced a last general advance of the Germans east-
ward, which was definitively successful and brought about the
peace of Cariowite (January 1699). (C. F. A.)
'Naval Operations
, ' c * e °f the war waged by the powers of western
Europe ton 1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King
| Louis XIV., was not marked by any very conspicuous erhihjg i m i
of energy or capacity, but it was singularly decisive in its results.
At the beginning of the struggle the French fleet kept the sea
m face of the united fleets of Great Britain and Holland. It
displayed even in 1690 a marked sup eri o ri ty over them.. Before
the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port,: and though
its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the
French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to
make a proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king’s
ministers to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most
effective aims, were largely responsible for the result.
When the war began in 1689, the British. Admiralty was still
suffering from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II.,
which had been only in part corrected during toe short reign of
James II. The first squadrons were sent out late and in in¬
sufficient strength. The Dutch, crushed by toe obligation to
maintain a great army, found an increasing difficulty in preparing
their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a despotic monarch,
with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his power to
strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting
one. Ireland was stdl loyal to King James II., and would there¬
fore have afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French
fleet. No serious attempt was made to profit by toe advantage
tout presented. In March 1689 King James was landed and
reinforcements were prepared for him at Brest. A British
squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert (afterwards
Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached toe French
port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted
toe convoy off the Old Hoad of Kinsale on the roth of May.
The French admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay,
and an indecisive encounter took place on the uto of May.
The troops and store for King James were successfully landed.
Then both admirals, the British and toe French, returned home,
and neither in that nor in the following year was any serious
effort made by toe French to gain command of the sea between
Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet
entered the Channel, and gained a success over the combined
British and Dutch fleets on the soto of July 1690 (see Beachy
Head, Battle of), which was not followed up by vigorous
action. In the meantime King William III. passed over to
Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following
year, while toe. cause of King James was being finally ruined
in Ireland, toe main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of
Biscay, principally for toe purpose of avoiding battle. During
toe whole of 1689,1690 and 1691, British squadrons were active
on the Irish coast. One raised the siege of i-ondondeny in July
1689,. and another convoyed the first British forces sent over
under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy
Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition
under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took
Cork and reduced a large part of the south of toe island. In
169: the French did little more than help to carry away the
wreckage of their allies and their own detachments. In 1692
a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to employ their fleet
to cover an invasion of England (see La Hogue, Battle of).
It ended in defeat, and toe allies remained masters of the Channel.
The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval
power of King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. ■ In the
next year, 1693, he was able to strike a severe blow at the Mies.
The important Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and
Holland, called for convenience toe Smyrna convoy, having
been delayed during the previous year, anxious measures were
taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the arrangements
of toe allied governments and admirals were not good. They
made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps
to discover whether or not toe French fleet had left toe port.
'ITie convoy was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet.
But as th* French admiral Tourville had left Brest for toe Straits
of Gibraltar with a powerful force and had been joined by a
squadron from Toulon, the whole convoy was scattered or taken
by him, in the latter days of June, near Lagos. But though
this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat at La
GRANDEE—GRAN0MONTINES
includes the tides of grand-duke ( vettkiy knyca) of Smolensk,
Lithuania, Voihynia, Podolia and Finland. Until 1886 this
title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the style “ Imperial
Highness,” was borne by all descendants of the imperial house.
It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and sisters,
and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of
the imperial house bear the title of prince (knyaz) and princess
(knyaginya, if married, knyazhna, if unmarried) with the style of
“ Highness.” The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary,
also bears this title as “ grand-duke ” of Transylvania, which
was erected into a “ grand-princedom ” (Grossfiirstentum) in
1765 by Maria Theresa.
GRANDEE (Span. Grande), a title of honour borne by the
highest class of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have
been originally assumed by the most important nobles to dis¬
tinguish them from the mass of the ricos hombres, or great barons
of the realm. It was thus, as Selden points out, not a general
term denoting a class, but “ an additional dignity not only to
all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also ” (Titles of
Honor, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain privileges ;
notably that of sitting covered in the royal presence. Until
the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the
territorial nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more
important rights, e.g. freedom from taxation, immunity from
arrest save at the king's express command, and even—in certain
cases—the right to renounce their allegiance and make war on
the king. Their number and privileges were further restricted
by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved to the
crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were
further divided into three classes: (x) those who spoke to the
king and received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those
who addressed him uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his
answer; (3) those who awaited the permission of the king before
covering themselves. All grandees were addressed by the king
as “ my cousin ” (mi primo), whereas ordinary nobles were
only qualified as “my kinsman ” (mi pariente). The title of
“ grandee,” abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived
in 1834, when by the Estatudo real grandees were given precedence
in the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however,
purely titular, and implies neither privilege nor power.
GRAND FORKS, a city in the Boundary district of British
Columbia; situated at the junction of the north and south forks
of the Kettle river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop.
(1908) about 2500. It is in a good agricultural district, but
owes its importance largely to the erection here of the extensive
smelting plant of the Granby Consolidated Company, which
smelts the ores obtained from the various parts of the Boundary
country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and Old Ironsides
mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great
Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent
railway communication with the south and east.
GRAND FORKS, a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks
county, North Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river
(of the North) and Red Lake river (whence its name), about
80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1960) 7652, of whom 2781 were
foreign-bom; (1905 state census) 10,127. If is served by the
Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has a
considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a
channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand
Forks. At University, a small suburb, is the University of
North Dakota (co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with
it is Wesley College (Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks
(with a campus adjoining that of the University), but formerly
the Red River .Valley University at Wahpeton, North Dakota.
In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors and 861 students ;
its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000 pamphlets. At
Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard’s Ursuline Academy (Roman
Catholic) and Grand >Forks College (Lutheran). Among the
city’s principal bfiildings are .the public library, the Federal
building and-a Y.M.C.A. budding. As the centre of the great
wheat valley of the Red river, it has a busy trade ih wheat, flour
and agricultural machinery and implements, as well as large
349
jobbing interests. There are railway car-shops here, and among
the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks and tiles ana
cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an electric
lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d.,1804)
erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur
Company on the site of, the present city; it afterwards became
a trading post of the Hudson’s Bay, company. The first per¬
manent settlement was made in .1871, and Grand Forks was
reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a city in i88x.
GRAND HAVEN, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the
mouth of Grand river, 30 m. W. bv N. of Grand Rapids and
78 m. E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900)4743, of whom 1277 were
foreign-bora; (1904 state census) 5439. It is served by the
Grand Trunk and the P 4 re Marquette railways, and by steamboat
lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is connected
with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The
city manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and
leather; is a centre for the shipment of fruit ana celery; and
has valuable fisheries near—fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially
whitefish, are shipped in considerable quantities. Grand Haven
is the port of entry for the Customs District of Michigan, and has
a small export and import trade. The municipality owns and
operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant.* A trading
post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the American
Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not
begin until r834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836,
and was chartered as a city in 1867.
GRANDDR, URBAN (1590-1634), priest of the church of
Sainte Croix at Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was
accused of witchcraft in 1632 by some hysterical novices of
the Carmelite Convent, where the trial, protracted for two
years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and burnt alive
at Loudun on the 18th of August 1634.
GRAND ISLAND, a city and the county-seat of Hall county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., on the Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S.
of Omaha. Pop. (1900) 7554 (1339 foreign-bom); (1910) 10,326.
It is served by the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways, being the
western terminus of the last-named line and a southern terminus
of a branch of the Union Pacific. The city is situated on a slope
skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river, in the
midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist;
co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island
Business and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat
of a state Sailors’ and Soldiers’ Home, established in 1888.
Grand Island has a large wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &c.;
is an important horse-market, and has large stock-yards. There
are shops of the Union Pacific in the city* and among its manu¬
factures are beet-sugar—Grand Island is in one of the principal
beet-sugar-growing districts of the state—brooms, wire fences,
confectionery and canned com. The most important industry
of the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and neat cattle.
A “ Grand Island ” was founded in 1857, and was named from
a large bland (nearly 50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site ;
but the present city was laid out by the Union Pacific ( in 1866.
It was chartered as a city in 1873.
GRANDMONTINESt a religious order founded by St Stephen
of Thiers in Auvergne towards the end of the nth century.
St Stephen was so impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he
saw in Calabria that he desired to introduce the same manner
of life into his native country. He was ordained, and in 1073
obtained the pope’s permission to establish an order. He
betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near
Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived
there for some time m complete solitude. A few disciples
gathered round him, and a community was formed. TTre rule
was not reduced to writing until after Stephen’s death, 1124.
The life was eremitical and very severe in regard .to silence,
diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule of
the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from
the Augustinian canons. The superior was called the “ Corrector.”
GRAND RAPIBSa-GRANET;
W
MNWt.1150 tile hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled
bt the neighbooring desert 5 f Grandmont, whence the order
derived its name. Louis VII. founded a house at Vincennes
near Paris, and the order had in great vogue in France, as many
as sixty houses being established by' njo, but'it seems never to
have found favour out of Fiance; it had, however, a couple of
cells in England up to the middle of the 15th century. The
system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the
management of the temporals was in great measure'left In their
hands; the arrangement did not work well," and dim quarrels
between the lay brothers and the choir monks were a constant
source of weakness. Later centuries witnessed mitigations and
reforms in the Kfc, and at last the order came to an end just
before the French Revoiu tion - There were two or three convents of
Grandmontine nuns. The order played no great part in history.
See Helyot, Hist, its ordres eeUgiiux (1714), vii. cc. 54, 55 ; Max
Hdmbuelier, Ordtn wed KontrteaHoHen (1896), i. 5 31 ; and the
art in Wetzer and Welte, Kirckanlexicon (ed. 2), and in Herzog,
Realenoyktopdiie (ed. 3). (E. C. B.)
GRAND RAPID*, a city and the county-seat of Kent county;
Michigan, U.S.A., it the head of navigation on the Grand river,
about 30 m. from Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit.
Pop. (1890) 60,278; (1900) 87,565, of whom 33,896 were
foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910, census) 112,571.
Of the foreign-born population in 1900,11,137 were Hollanders;
3318 English-Canadtans; 3253 Germans; 1137Irish; 1060from
German Poland ; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is
served by the Michigan- Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern, the Grand Trunk, the Ptire Marquette and theGrand
Rapids & Indiana railways, and by electric interurban railways.
The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a range of hills on
either side, and about midway between these hills the river flows
over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in 1 m. Factories and
mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all
along the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences
command picturesque views from the hills farther back, the
residences on the W. side being less pretentious and standing
on bottom-lands. The principal business thoroughfares are
Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the important
buildings are the United States Government building (Grand
Rapids iB the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial
district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city
hall, the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of
Chicago), the Manufacturer’s building, the Evening Press
building, the Michigan TruBt building and several handsome
churches. The principal charitable institutions are the municipal
Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city hospital; the Union Benevo¬
lent Association, Which maintains a home and hospital for the
indigent, together with a training school for nurses; Saint
John’s orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the
Dominican Sisters); Saint Mary’s hospital (in charge of the
Sisters of Mercy); Butterworth hospital (with a training school
for nurses); the Woman’s Home and Hospital, maintained
largely by the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union; the
Aldrich Memorial Deaconess’ Home; the D. A. Blodgett
Memorial Children's Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home.
About 1 m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan
SoHders’ Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E.
limits of the city is Reed’t Lake, a popular resort during the
summer season. The city is the see of Roman Catholic and
Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1907-1908, through the
efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused
in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for
a “ city p!*n,’ ! and flood walls were completed for the protection
of the lower parts- of the city from inundation. The large
quantities of froit, cereals and vegetables from the surrounding
country, and ample' facilities for transportation by rail and by
(foe river, which is navigable from below the rapids to its mouth,
make the - -. .Timerce-pnfb trade of Grand Rapids very important.
Ita manufacturing interests are greatly promoted by the fine
Water-power, and as a furniture centre the city has a world-wide
reputation—the 1 value ofthe furniture manufactured within its
fc
limits in 1904 amounted to *9,409,097, about 5-5 % of the vdue
of all furniture manufactured in the United States. Grand
Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers—a large proportion of
the whole world's product,—flour and grist mill products,
foundry and machine-shop products, plamng-mil products,
school seats, wood-working tools, fly paper, calcined plaster
barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons, agricultural implements and
bricks and tile. The total factory product in 1904 was valued
at *31,032,589, an increase of 39-6 % in four years.
On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large
Ottawa Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a
Baptist mission was established in 1824. Two years later* trad¬
ing post joined the mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, arid for
the next few years the growth was lapid. The settlement was
organized as a town in 1834, was incorporated as a village in 1838,
and was chartered as a city in 1850, the city charter being revised
in 1857,1871,1877 and 1905.
GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Wood county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about
137 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4493, of whom 1073
were foreign-bom; (1905 state census) 6157. It is served
by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Green Bay &
Western, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Mil¬
waukee & St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing
centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, door and blinds,
hulls and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and
flour. The public buildings include a post office, court house, city
hall, city hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892).
The city owns and operates its water-works ; the electric-lighting
and telephone companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was
first chartered as a city in 1869. That part of Grand Rapids on
the west bank of the Wisconsin river was formerly the citv of
Centralia (pop. in 1890,1435); it was annexed in 1900.
GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee), a town in the Swiss canton of
Vaud, near the south-western end of the Lake of Neuchatel,
and by rail 20 m. S.W. of Neuchatel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon.
Its population in 1900 was 1771, mainly French-speaking and
Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the home of a noted race
of barons, while in the very old church (once belonging to a
Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman columns,
&c,, from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobaroo factory.
Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle
was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of Savoy.
It was retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison
put to death. The Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in
a famous battle (2nd March 1476) defeated Charles with great
loss, capturing much booty. The scene of the battle was between
Concise and Cor cede*, north-east of the town, and is marked by
several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was thence¬
forward till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and
then was given to the canton du L6man, which in 1801 became
that of Vaud.
See F. Chabloz, La BataiUa it Grandson (Lausanne, 1897).
GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS (1777-1849), French painter,
was bom at Aix in Provence, on the 17th of December 1777 ; his
father was a small builder. The boy’s strong desires led his
parents to place him—after some preliminary teaching from
a passing Italian artist—in • free school of art directed by
M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation. In-1793
Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon,
at the close of which he obtained employment as a decorator in
the arsenal. Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance
of the young comte de Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet,
in the year 1797, went to Paris. De Forbin was one of the
pupils of David, and Granet entered the same studio. Later he
possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins, which,
ing served for a manufactory of assignats during the Revolu¬
tion, was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists.
In the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the
Capuchins, Granet found the materials for tint one picture to
the painting of which, with varying success, he devoted his life.
GRANGE^rJGBANITE 35*
In i 80s he left -Peris for Rome, where he semained until i8tg,
when he retained to Parish bringing with him besides various
other works one of fourteen repetitions of his celebrated Chosur
des Chpudos, executed in 18m. The figures of the monks
celebrating mas* sire taken ia this subject as a substantive-part
of the architectural effect, and; this is the case with aU Gcanet’s
works, even with those in which the, figure subject would seem
to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest.
“ Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall,” i8io(Leucbten-
berg' oollection); “ Sodoma A l’hdpital,” 1815 (Louvre);
“ Basiiique basse de St Francois d’Assise,” 18*3 (louvre);
“Rachat de prisonniers,” 1831 (Louvre); “Mort de Poussin,”
1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among hb principal works;
all are marked by the same peculiarities, everything is sacrificed
to tone. In 1819 Louis Philippe decorated Granet, and after¬
wards named him Chevalier de l’Ordre St Michel, and Censer-
vateur des tableaux de Versailles (1836). He became member of
the institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the
ties which bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre,
Gianet constantly returned to Romo. After 1848 he retired to
Aix, immediately lost hb wife, and died himself on the 21st of
November 1849. He bequeathed to his native town the greater
part of hb fortune and all hb collections, now exhibited in the
MusAe, together with a very fine portrait of the donor painted
by Ingres m 1811.
GRANGE (through the A.-Fr. graunge, from the Med. Lat.
granea, a place for storing grain, grtmum), properly a granary
or bam. In the middle ages a “ grange ” was a detached portion
of a manor with fam-houses and hams belonging to a lord or to
a religious house; in it the crops could be conveniently stored for
the purpose of collecting rent or tithe. Thus, such bams are often
known as “ tithe-barns." In many cases a chapel was included
among the buildings or stood apart as a separate edifice. The
word is still used as a name for a superior kind of farm-house,
or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and agricultural
land attached to it.
Architecturally considered, the “ grange ” was usually a long
building with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or
columns into a sort of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly
buttressed. Sometimes these granges were of very great extent;
one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was originally 2*5 it- lung by
7 s ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft. long) existed at Chertsey.
Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exbt at Glastonbury,
Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary’s Abbey, York, and at Cuxwold.
A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of
the iqth century. In France there are many examples m stone of
the nth, 13th and 14th centuries ; some divided into, a central
and two side aisles by arcades in stone. Externally granges are
noticeable on account of their great roofs and the slight elevation
of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only in height. In the 15th century
they were sometimes protected by moats and towew. At
Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long;
Vauclcrc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys ;
at PerriAres, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and OuiUy near Falaise, all
in Normandy ; and at St Martin-au-Bob (Oise) are a series of
fine examples. Attached to the abbey of Longcbamps, near
Paris, is one of the best-preserved granges in France, with walls
in stone and infernally divided into three aisles in oak timber
of extremely fine construction.
In the social economic movement in the United States of
America, which began in 1867 and was known as the “ Farmers’
Movement,” “ grange ” was adopted as the name for a local
chapter of the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, and the move¬
ment b thus often known as the “ Grangers’ Movement” (see
Farmers’ Movement). There are a National Grange at Wash¬
ington, supervising tl*# local .'divisions, and state granges in
most states. •,
GRANGEKOTHH, a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire,
Scotland. Fpp. It b situated on the south shore
of the estuary o| jhe.Fafih,at the mouth of the Carron and
of -Grange Sun, anaht-bsnd tributary of the Catron, jm.N.E.
of Fran bf An North British and Caledonian railways. It
b the teetoiaus of the Forth and Clyde Canal, from the opening
of which (r 789) its history may be dated. The principal buddings
ans the town hidl (in the Gredt style), public hall, public institute
and free library, and there is a,public park presented by the
marquess of Zetland. Suite 1810, when it became a head port, it
has,gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth
west of Leith. The first dock (opened in 1848), the second
(1859) and the third.(s88s) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber
ponds of 44 acres and a total quayage of 2300 yards. New
docks, 93 acres in extent, with an entrance from the firth, wren
opened in 1905 at a cost of more than ,£1,000,000. The works
rendered it necessary to divert the Influx of the Grange from the
Carron to the Fbrth, Timber, pig-iron and ironore are thelead-
ing imports, and coal,-produce and iron the chief exports. The
industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron
founding. There b regular steamer communication with London,
Christiania, Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experi¬
ments in steam navigation were carried out in 1802 with the
“ Charlotte Dundee ” on the Forth and Clyde Canal at Grange¬
mouth. Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a seat
of the marquess of Zetland.
6HARGIS,IAMBS (1723-2776), English clergyman and print-
collector, was born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford,
and then entered holy orders, becoming vicar of Shiplake ■; but
apart from hb hobby of portrait-collecting, which resulted in
the principal work associated with hb name, and the publication
of some sermons, his life was uneventful. Yet a new word was
added to the language—“ to grangerize on account of him.
In 1769 he published in two quarto volumes a Biographical
History of England “ consisting of characters dispersed in different
classes, and adapted to a methodical -catalogue of engraved
British heads ” ; this was “ intended as an essay towards re¬
ducing our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge
of portraits.” The work was supplemented in later editions by
(banger, and still further editions were brought out by the Rev.
Mark Noble, with additions from Granger’s materials. Blank
leaves were left for the filling in of engraved portraits for extra
illustration of the text, and it became a favourite pursuit to
discover such illustrations and insert them in.a Granger, so that
" grangerizing ” became a term for such an extra-illustration
of any work, especially with cuts taken from other books. The
immediate result of the appearance of Granger’s own work was
the rbe in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out
and inserted in collector's copies.
GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. grant to, grained; Lat.
granttm, grain), the group designation for a family of igneous*
rocks whose essential characteristics are that they are til acid
composition (containing high percentages of silica), oculist
principally of quartz and felspar, with some mica, hornblende
or augite, and are of -holocrystalline or '* granitoid ” structure.
In popular usage the term is given to almost any crystalline rock
which resembles granite in appearance or properties. Thus
syenites, (Sorites, gabbros, diabases, porphyries, gneiss, and even
limestones and dolomites, are bought and sold daily as "granites.”
True granites are common rocks, specially among the -older
strata of the -earth’s crust. They have great variety in colour
and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others
are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state
of preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant
minerals, and partly also on rite relative proportion ia which
they contain biotite and other dark -coloured silicates. Many
granites have large rounded or angular crystals of felspar (Shop
granite, many Cornish granites), well seen an polished faces.
Others show an elementary foliation or banding (ag. Aberdeen
granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear ia
the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group; .
In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering
wide areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular
said may be 20 m. in diameter or more. In the aune.-dutrict
separate areas ec " bosses ” of granite may be found, all having
much in common ia their minemlogical and Structural features,
and such groups have prbbably all proceeded from the same
35*
t /
i *
GRANITE' ’ H,
focua or deep-seated source. Towards their maargtas these
granite outcrops often show modifications bv which they pass into
diorite or syenite, &c.; they may also tie finer grained (like
porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of
pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or vans often run out
Into the surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is
intrusive and has forced its way upwards by splitting apart the
strata among which it lies. Further evidence of this is afforded
by the alteration which the granite has produced through a zone
Which varies from a few yards to a mile or more in breadth
around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites slates become
converted into homfelses containing biotite, chiastolite or
andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals ; lime¬
stones recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their
composition, are more or less profoundly modified in such a way
as to prove that they have been raised to a high temperature by
proximity to the molten intrusive mass. Where exposed in
cliffs and other natural sections many granites have a rudely
columnar appearance. Others weather into large cuboidal
blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean
masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature.
These differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks
which traverse the rock and are opened up by the action of
frost and weathering.
The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their
principal component minerals may be identified in the hand
specimens by the unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white
or pink, with smooth cleaved surfaces; the quartz is usually
transparent, glassy with rough irregular fractures; the micas
appear as shining black or white flakes. Very coarse granites
are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine granites
are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also been
applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly
scales of white mica ; others contain dark green or black horn¬
blende in small prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet
are occasionally visible. In the tourmaline granites prisms of
black schorl occur either singly or in stellate groups. The
parallel banded structures of many granites, which may be
original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the granite
gneisses or orthogneisses.
Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with
perthite or microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase
(ranging from oligoclase to albite) is practically never absent.
These minerals are often clouded by a deposit of fine mica and
kaolin, due to w’eathering. The quartz is transparent, irregular
in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled with very small
cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and sometimes
a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in
parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale
green in section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless.
Tourmaline may be brown, yellow or blue, and often the same
crystal shows zones of different colours. Apatite, zircon and
iron oxides, in small crystals, are always present. Among the
less common accessories may be mentioned pinkish garnets;
andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless grains of
topaz ; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which weather
to dark green pinite ; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl,
tinstpne, orthite and pyrites.
The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal
type, and may be ascertained by observing the perfection with
whioi the different minerals have crystallized and the order in
which they enclose one another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides
are the first; their crystals are small, very perfect and nearly
free from enclosures; they are followed by hornblende and
biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds the brown mica.
Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and forms well¬
shaped crystals of which the central* parts may be more basic
than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline
and micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left
between the earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are
unusual; sometimes the first of the felspars have preceded the
hornblende or biotite which may envelop then in ophitic manner.
*
An'earlier generation of felspar, and occasionally -nkoof quartz,
may be represented by largeand perfect crystals of these minerals
giving the rock a porphyntic character. , .
Many granites have suffered modification by the action Of
vapours emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric
emanations exert a profound influence on granitic rocks.; their
felspar is resolved into aggregates of kaolin/ muscovite and
quartz ; tourmaline appears, largely replacing the brown mica ;
topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the rotten granite or
china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over considerable
areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable sources of
china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may
traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable
quantities. These veins are the principal sources of tin in Corn¬
wall, but the same changes may appear in the. body of the
granite without being restricted to veins, and tinstone occurs
also as an original constituent of some granite pegmatites.
Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals
tend to lose their original forms and to break into mosaics of
interlocking grains. The latter structure is very well seen in the
uartz, which is a brittle mineral under stress. White * mica
evelops in the felspars. The larger crystals are converted into
lenticular or elliptical “ atqjen,” which may be shattered through¬
out or may have u peripheral seam of small detached granules
surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of “ granu-
litic ” or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock,
giving it a roughly foliated character.
The interesting structural variation of granite in which there
are spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known
as “ orbicular granite.” The spheroids range from a fraction
of an inch to a foot in diameter, and may have a felspar crystal
at the centre. Around this there may be several zones, alternately
lighter and darker in colour, consisting of the essential minerals
of the rock in different proportions. Radiate arrangement is
sometimes visible in the crystals of the whole or part of the
spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are found in Sweden,
Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are simply
dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably
due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as
they separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its
crystallization. The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many
round or ovoidal felspar crystals scattered through a granitic
matrix. These larger felspars have no crystalline outlines and
consist of orthoclase or microcline surrounded by borders of
White oligoclase. Often they enclose dark crystals of biotite
and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these granites
contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite
masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks,
it is common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous
materials which are more or less dissolved and permeated by
the granitic magma.
The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts
of the world is given below
SiO„.
Al,O a .
Fe..O,.
FeO.
MgO.
CaO.
Na,n.
K.O.
I.
74-69
l6*2I
I* If)
048
0*28
i-iS
3'64
11.
71 '33
II-lS
3-90
*•43
o*88
2*10
3 49
III.
7*'93
I3'87
1-94
o-79
0-51
0-74
3-68
374
IV.
76-iz
I2-l8
1*21
072
I-I2
l-J4
a-53
3*21
V.
73-9°
13-65
0-28
0-42
0*14
o**3
2-53
7 99
VI.
16-62
o-43
*72
I-Co
0*71
l-8o
(1-48
I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit Guiana
(Harrison); III. Rods, near AlnS, Vestemorrland, Sweden (Holm-
quist); IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebiree (Milch);
V. Pikes Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson's Creek, near
Omeo, Victoria (Howitt).
Only the most important components arc shown in the table,
but all granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium
oxide, phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium,
manganese and water. These are in all eases less than X %, and
usually much less than this, except the water, which may be z or
3 % in weathered rocks. From the chemical composition ft may be
computed that granites contain, on an average, 35 to 35 % of quartz,
zo to 30 % of orthoclase, zoto 30 of plagioclase felspar (including
the albite of minroperthite) and 5 to 10 % Of ferramagnesian
GRAN SASSO D’IXALI A^GRANT, SIR F.
silicates and minor accessories such as apatite, tircon, spheno tad |
iron oocides. The aplites, pegmatites, graphic granites and muacot.:
vite granites are usually, richest in silica^while with increase of biotite \
and osrablende, augite and enstatite the analyses show the presence
of more magnesia, non and Kme.
In the weathering of granite the quarts suffers little change;
the felspar pasaes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, mus¬
covite and secondary quarts, while chlorite, quarts and calcite
replace the biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes
a rusty brown colour from the liberation Of the oxides of iron, and
the decomposed mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade;
where the granite has been cut by joint planes not too close together
weathering proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks
may be left embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water
in the rock increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in
solution; they form valuable sources of mineral food to plants.
The chemical changes are shown by the following analyses:
Analyses of 1 ., fresh grey granite; II. brown moderately firm
granite; III. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the
same mass (anal. G. P. Merrill).
The differences are surprisingly small and are principally
an increase in the water and a diminution in the amount of
alkalis and lime together with the oxidation of the ferrous
oxide. (j, s. F.)
ORAN SASSO D’ ITALIA (“Great Rock of Italy”), a mountain
of the Abruzzi, Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines,
9560 ft. in height. In formation it resembles the limestone Alps
of Tirol and there are on its elevated plateaus a number of doline
or funnel-shaped depressions into which the melted snow and
the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow for the greater
part of the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Como, as it is
sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a
magnificent spectacle; the Alpine region beneath its summit
is still the home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense
woods of beech and pine. The group has numerous other lofty
peaks, of which the chief are the Pizzo d’ Intermesole (8680 ft.),
the Como Piccolo (8650 ft.), the Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and
the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The most convenient
starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of Aquila,
at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has
erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a
special guidebook (E. Abbate, Guida al Grart Sasso <f Italia,
Rome, 1888). The view from the summit extends to the
Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the mountains of Dalmatia on
the east in clear weather. The ascent was first made in 1794
by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the
interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150,
with later alterations (see Gavini, in V Arte, 1901, 316, 391).
GRANT, 8IR ALEXANDER, 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British
scholar and educationalist, was bom in New York on the 13th of
September 1826. After a childhood spent in the West Indies,
he was educated at Harrow and Oxford. He entered Oxford
as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently held a fellowship at Oriel
from 1849 to. i860. He made a special study of the Aristotelian
philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the Ethics
(4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book at Oxford.
In 1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service,
and in 1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the
latter year he succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1859 he went to
Madras with Sir Charles Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector
of schools; the next year he removed to Bombay, to fill the post
of Professor of History and Political Economy in the Elphinstone
College. Of this he became Principal in 1862; and, a year
later, vice-chancellor of Bombay University, a post he held from
1863 to 1865 and again from 1865 to 1868. In 1865 he took upon
himself also the duties of Director of Public Instruction for
Bombay Presidency, In 1868 he was appointed a member of
the Legislative Council. In the same year, upon the death of
Sir David Brewster, tie was appointed Principal of Edinburgh
m
University, which had conferred an honorary LLD. dagmupoO
him in. 1865. From that time till his death (which occurred id
Edinburgh.'on the 301th of November 1884) his (Meqgfts were
entirely devoted to the well-being of the UnweesitjA The
institution of the medical school in the University was almost
solely due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival,
celebrated in 1884, was the result of his wisely directed enthu¬
siasm. In that year he published The Story of the University of
Edinburgh during its First Three Hundred YearIff He was
created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in 1880, and an honorary fellow
of Oriel College in 1882.
GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known
as Mrs Grant of Laggan, was bom in Glasgow, on the 21st of
February 1755. Her childhood was spent in America, her father,
Duncan MacVicar, being an arrhy officer on
service there. In 1768 the family returned
to Scotland, and in 1779 Anne married
James Grant, an army chaplain, who was
also minister of the parish of Laggan, near
Fort Augustus, Inverness, where her father
was barrack-master. On her husband’s death in 1801 she
was left with a large family and a small income., In 1802 she
published by subscription a volume of Original Poems, with
some Translations from the Gaelic, which was favourably received.
In 1806 her Letters from the Mountains, with their spirited descrip¬
tion of Highland scenery and legends, awakened much interest.
Her other works are Memoirs of an American Lady, with Sketches
of Manners and Scenery in America as they existed previous to
the Revolution (1808), containing reminiscences of her childhood;
Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of Scotland (1811);
and Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem (1814). In 1810
she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her
life she received a pension from government. She died on the
7th of November 1838.
See Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs Grant of Laggan, edited
by her son J. P. Grant (3 vola., 1844).
GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823), British politician, was bom
at Aldourie, Inverness-shire, on the i6th of April 1746, the day
on which his father, Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting
for the Jacobites at Culloden. When a young man Charles
went to India, where he became secretary, and later a member
of the board of trade. He returned to Scotland in 1790, and in
1802 was elected to parliament as member for the county qf
Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests were in
Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility
to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen ■
chairman of the directors of the East India Company and he
retired from parliament in 1818. A friend of William Wilberforce,
Grant was a prominent member of the evangelical party in the
Church of England ; he was a generous supporter of the church’s
missionary undertakings. He was largely responsible for the
establishment of the East India college, which was afterwards
erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the 31st of October
1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created a peer in 1835 as
Baron Glenelg.
See Henry Morris, Life of Charles Grant (1904).
GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878), English portrait-painter,
fourth son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was bom
at Edinburgh in 1803. He was educated for. the bar, but at the
age of twenty-four he began at Edinburgh systematically to
study the practice of art. On completing a course of instruction
he removed to London, and as early as 1843 exhibited at the
Royal Academy. At the beginning of hi? career he utilized his
sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horses
and hounds, such as the “ Meet of H.M, Staghounds ” and the
“ Melton Hunt ” ; but his position in society, gradually made
him a fashionable portrait-painter. In drapery be had the taste
of a connoisseur, and rendered the minutest details of costume
with felicitous accuracy. In female portraiture be achieved
considerable success, although rather in depicting the high¬
born graces and external characteristics thart.tbs truepenonauty.
Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned Lady
xir. is
H.O.
SiO„.
TiO a .
Ai, 0 „.
FeO.
Fe,O s .
CaO.
MgO.
Na, 0 .
KjO.
P,O t -
I.
1-22
69 33
n.d.
I 4'33
3-60
, ,
3’2t
2-44
2 70
2-67
0*10
II.
3-27
6682
n.d.
15-62
1-69
1-88
313
2-76
2-58
2-44
n.d.
III.
4-70
65-69
0-31
15-23
4'39
263
2*b4
2 12
2*00
006
35*
t /
i *
GRANITE' ’ H,
focua or deep-seated source. Towards their maargtas these
granite outcrops often show modifications bv which they pass into
diorite or syenite, &c.; they may also tie finer grained (like
porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of
pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or vans often run out
Into the surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is
intrusive and has forced its way upwards by splitting apart the
strata among which it lies. Further evidence of this is afforded
by the alteration which the granite has produced through a zone
Which varies from a few yards to a mile or more in breadth
around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites slates become
converted into homfelses containing biotite, chiastolite or
andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals ; lime¬
stones recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their
composition, are more or less profoundly modified in such a way
as to prove that they have been raised to a high temperature by
proximity to the molten intrusive mass. Where exposed in
cliffs and other natural sections many granites have a rudely
columnar appearance. Others weather into large cuboidal
blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean
masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature.
These differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks
which traverse the rock and are opened up by the action of
frost and weathering.
The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their
principal component minerals may be identified in the hand
specimens by the unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white
or pink, with smooth cleaved surfaces; the quartz is usually
transparent, glassy with rough irregular fractures; the micas
appear as shining black or white flakes. Very coarse granites
are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine granites
are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also been
applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly
scales of white mica ; others contain dark green or black horn¬
blende in small prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet
are occasionally visible. In the tourmaline granites prisms of
black schorl occur either singly or in stellate groups. The
parallel banded structures of many granites, which may be
original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the granite
gneisses or orthogneisses.
Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with
perthite or microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase
(ranging from oligoclase to albite) is practically never absent.
These minerals are often clouded by a deposit of fine mica and
kaolin, due to w’eathering. The quartz is transparent, irregular
in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled with very small
cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and sometimes
a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in
parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale
green in section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless.
Tourmaline may be brown, yellow or blue, and often the same
crystal shows zones of different colours. Apatite, zircon and
iron oxides, in small crystals, are always present. Among the
less common accessories may be mentioned pinkish garnets;
andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless grains of
topaz ; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which weather
to dark green pinite ; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl,
tinstpne, orthite and pyrites.
The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal
type, and may be ascertained by observing the perfection with
whioi the different minerals have crystallized and the order in
which they enclose one another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides
are the first; their crystals are small, very perfect and nearly
free from enclosures; they are followed by hornblende and
biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds the brown mica.
Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and forms well¬
shaped crystals of which the central* parts may be more basic
than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline
and micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left
between the earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are
unusual; sometimes the first of the felspars have preceded the
hornblende or biotite which may envelop then in ophitic manner.
*
An'earlier generation of felspar, and occasionally -nkoof quartz,
may be represented by largeand perfect crystals of these minerals
giving the rock a porphyntic character. , .
Many granites have suffered modification by the action Of
vapours emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric
emanations exert a profound influence on granitic rocks.; their
felspar is resolved into aggregates of kaolin/ muscovite and
quartz ; tourmaline appears, largely replacing the brown mica ;
topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the rotten granite or
china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over considerable
areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable sources of
china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may
traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable
quantities. These veins are the principal sources of tin in Corn¬
wall, but the same changes may appear in the. body of the
granite without being restricted to veins, and tinstone occurs
also as an original constituent of some granite pegmatites.
Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals
tend to lose their original forms and to break into mosaics of
interlocking grains. The latter structure is very well seen in the
uartz, which is a brittle mineral under stress. White * mica
evelops in the felspars. The larger crystals are converted into
lenticular or elliptical “ atqjen,” which may be shattered through¬
out or may have u peripheral seam of small detached granules
surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of “ granu-
litic ” or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock,
giving it a roughly foliated character.
The interesting structural variation of granite in which there
are spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known
as “ orbicular granite.” The spheroids range from a fraction
of an inch to a foot in diameter, and may have a felspar crystal
at the centre. Around this there may be several zones, alternately
lighter and darker in colour, consisting of the essential minerals
of the rock in different proportions. Radiate arrangement is
sometimes visible in the crystals of the whole or part of the
spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are found in Sweden,
Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are simply
dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably
due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as
they separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its
crystallization. The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many
round or ovoidal felspar crystals scattered through a granitic
matrix. These larger felspars have no crystalline outlines and
consist of orthoclase or microcline surrounded by borders of
White oligoclase. Often they enclose dark crystals of biotite
and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these granites
contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite
masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks,
it is common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous
materials which are more or less dissolved and permeated by
the granitic magma.
The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts
of the world is given below
SiO„.
Al,O a .
Fe..O,.
FeO.
MgO.
CaO.
Na,n.
K.O.
I.
74-69
l6*2I
I* If)
048
0*28
i-iS
3'64
11.
71 '33
II-lS
3-90
*•43
o*88
2*10
3 49
III.
7*'93
I 3'87
1-94
o -79
0-51
0-74
3-68
374
IV.
76-iz
I2-l8
1*21
072
I-I2
l-J 4
a -53
3*21
V.
73 - 9 °
13-65
0-28
0-42
0*14
o **3
2-53
7 99
VI.
16-62
o -43
*72
I-Co
0*71
l-8o
(1-48
I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit Guiana
(Harrison); III. Rods, near AlnS, Vestemorrland, Sweden (Holm-
quist); IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebiree (Milch);
V. Pikes Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson's Creek, near
Omeo, Victoria (Howitt).
Only the most important components arc shown in the table,
but all granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium
oxide, phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium,
manganese and water. These are in all eases less than X %, and
usually much less than this, except the water, which may be z or
3 % in weathered rocks. From the chemical composition ft may be
computed that granites contain, on an average, 35 to 35 % of quartz,
zo to 30 % of orthoclase, zoto 30 of plagioclase felspar (including
the albite of minroperthite) and 5 to 10 % Of ferramagnesian
GRANT, 8IR P.<-^3H!ANT, U. S.
$85
nearly all their guns at Serai Ghat. He also took part in die
operations connected with the recapture of Lucknow, shortly
after which he was promoted to the rank of major-general,
and appointed to.the command of the force employed for die final
pacification of Indio, a position in which his unwearied energy,
and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring,
rendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification
was quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 ha was
appointed, with the local rank of lieutenant-general, to the com¬
mand of the British land forces in the united French and British
expedition against China. The object of the campaign was
accomplished within three months of the landing of the forces at
Fei-tang (1st of August i860). The Toku Forts had been carried
by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the open and
Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called
the “ most successful and the best carried out of England’s
little wars,” he received the thanks of parliament and was
gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he was made lieutenant-general and
appointed rommander-in-chief of the army of Madras; on his
return to England in 1865 he was made quartermaster-general
at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to the command
of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in the
reform of the educational and training systems of the forces,
which followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of
annual army manoeuvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant.
In 187* he was gazetted general. He died in London on the
7th of March 1875.
Incidents 1 n the Sepoy War of iSjj-yS, compiled from the Private
Journal oj General Sir Hope Grant, K.C.B., together with some ex¬
planatory chapters by Capt. H. Knotty*. Royal Artillery, was jniblished
in 1873, and Incidents m the China War of tS 6 o appeared posthum¬
ously under the same editorship in 1875.
GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895), British field marshal, was
the second son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair,
Inverness-shire, where he was horn on the 11th of September
1804. He entered the Bengal native infantry as ensign in 1820,
and became captain in 1832. He served in Oudh from 1834 to
1838, and raised the Hariana light Infantry. Employed in the
adjutant-general’s department of the Bengal army from 1838
until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served
under Sir Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843,
winning a brevet majority, was adjutant-general of the army
at the battles of Moodkee in 1845 (twice severely wounded),
and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846, receiving the C.B. and the
brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took part in the battles
of Chillianwalla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining further promotion,
and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He served also
in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted major-
general in 1854, he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army
from 1856 to 1861. He was made K.C.B. in 1837, and on General
Anson’s death was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme
command of the army in India. From Calcutta he directed
the operations against the mutineers, sending forces under
Havelock and Outram for the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow,
until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as com¬
mander-in-chief, when he returned to Madras. On leaving
India in 1861 he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted
lieutenant-general in 1862, was governor of Malta from 1867 to
1872, was made G.C.M.G. in 1868, promoted general in 1870,
field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the Royal Horse Guards
and gold-stick-in-waiting to the queen in 1885. He married as
his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh
(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal
Hospital, Chelsea, from 1874 until his death there on the 28th
of March 1895.
GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892), British astronomer, was bom
at Grantown, Scotland, on the 17th of June 1814. At the age
of thirteen the promise of a brilliant career was clouded by a
prolonged illness of such a serious character as to incapacitate
him from ah school-work for six years. At twenty, however,
hit health greatly improved, and he set himself resolutely, without
assistance, to repair his earlier disadvantages by the dihgent
study of Greek, Latin, Italian and mathematics. Astronomy
also occupied his attention, and it was stimulated fry tho return
of Halley-e comet in 1835, as well as by his subotte Mi ebwrrilg
the annular eclipse of the sun of the 15th of May *836. - After
a short course at King’s College, Aberdeen, be obtained in 1841
employment in his brother’s counting-house in London. Daring
this period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of
physical astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he
had to search, amongst other records, those of the French
Academy, and for that purpose took up his residence in Paris
in 1845, supporting himself By giving lessons in English, He
returned to London 011847. The History 9/ Physical Astronomy
from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century Was
first published in parts in The Library of Useful Knowledge, but
after the issue of the ninth part this mode of publication was
discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 183s, The
main object of the work is, m the author’s words, “ to exhibit
a view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a
knowledge of the mechanical principles which regulate the
movements of the celestial bodies, and in explaining the various
phenomena relative to their physical constitution which observa¬
tion with the telescope has disclosed.” The lucidity and complete¬
ness with which a great variety of abstruse subjects were treated,
the extent of research and the maturity of judgment it displayed,
were the more remarkable, when it is remembered that this was
the first published work of one who enjoyed no special oppor¬
tunities, either for acquiring materials, or for discussing with
others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of.
The book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature,
and earned for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal
Astronomical Society’s gold medal. In 1859 he succeeded John
Pringle Nichol as professor of astronomy in the University of
Glasgow. From time to time he contributed astronomical
papers to the Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten,
Comptes rendus and other scientific serials; but his principal
work at Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large
number of stars with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory.
The results of these labours, extending over twenty-one years,
are contained in the Glasgow Catalogue of 641s Stars, publiahed
in 1883. This was followed in 1892 by the Second Glasgow
Catalogue of *jj6 Stars, published a few weeks after his death,
which took place on the 24th of October 1892.
See Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, liii., 2to (E. Donkin) ;
Nature, Nov, 10, 1892 ; The Times, Nov. 2, 1892; Ray. Society's
Catalogue of Scient. Papers. (A. A. R.*)
GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885), American soldier,
and eighteenth president of the United States, was born at'
Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the 27th of April 1822. He was a
descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman, who settled in
Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. JKis earlier years were
spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his. farm in
Ohio. In 183$ he was appointed to a place in the military
academy at West Point, and it was then that his name assumed
the form by which it is generally known. He was christened
Hiram, after an ancestor, with Ulysses for a middle name.
As he was usually called by his middle name, the congressman
who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his
first name, and added thereto the name of his mother’s family,
Simpson. Grant was the best horseman of his dais, and took
a respectable place in mathematics, but at his graduation in
1843 he only ranked twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In
September 1845 he went with his regiment to join the forces of
General Taylor in Mexico; there he took part in the battles of
Palo Alto.Resaca de la Palma and Monterey,and,after his transfer
to General Scott’s army, which he joined in March 1847, served
at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusoo, Molino del Rey and at
the Storming of Chapuitepec. He was breveted first lieutenant
for gallantry at Mouno del Rey and captain. for gallantry at
Chapuitepec. In August 1648, after the close of «e war, he
married Julia T. Dent (1826-1902), and was for a while stationed
m California and Oregon, but fn 1854 he resigned his commission.
His reputation in the service had suffered from allegations of
intemperate drinking, which, whether well founded nr pot.
GRANT, U. S.
35&
certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the next
six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty subsist¬
ence by farming and dealings in real estate. In i860 he removed
to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept
by his father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to
have exceeded $800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends
as a broken and disappointed man. He was living at Galena
at the outbreak of hostilities between the North and South.
[For the histoiy of the Civil War, and of Grant’s battles and
campaigns, the reader is referred to the article American Civil
War. To the “ call to arms ’’ of 1861 Grant promptly
responded. After some delay he was commissioned
cum" colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment and soon after¬
wards brigadier-general. He was shortly assigned to
n territorial command on the Mississippi, and first won distinction
by his energy in seizing, on his own responsibility, the important
point of Paducah, Kentucky, situated at the confluence ot
the two great waterways of the Tennessee and the Ohio (6th
Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his first
battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if
it failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him
to be a capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was en¬
trusted by General H. W. Halleck with the command of a large
force to clear the lower reaches of the Cumberland and the
Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be passed on the general
strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his able and
energetic work, thoroughly deserved the credit of his brilliant
success of Fort Donclson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced
to capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were pro¬
moted to the rank of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards,
hut Grant’s own fortunes suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a
disagreement with Halleck. When, after being virtually under
arrest, he rejoined his army, it was concentrated about Savannah
on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign towards Corinth,
Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on Grant’s
camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (q.v.). After two days’
desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the com¬
bined attack of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the
Army of the Ohio under Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee
had been on the verge of annihilation on the evening of the first
day, and Grant’s leadership throughout was by no means equal
to the emergency, though he displayed his usual personal
bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of Halleck’s
armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all important
duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole
force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace.
But Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and
Grant took command of his old army and of Rosecrans’ Army
of the Mississippi. Two victories (Iuka and Corinth) were won
in the autumn of 1862, but the credit of both fell to Rosecrans,
who commanded in the field, and the nadir of Grant’s military
fortunes was reached when the first advance on Vicksburg (?.».),
planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a series of
political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the
original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly
Springs and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862).
It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other
unsuccessful generals into retirement, had he not shown that,
whatever his mistakes or failures, and whether he was or was
not sober and temperate in his habits, he possessed the iron
determination and energy' which in the eyes of Lincoln and
Stanton, 1 and of the whole Northern people, was the first requisite
of their generais. He remained then with his army near Vicks-
1 President Lincoln was Grant’s most unwavering supporter.
Many amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations
wnicli waited upon him to ask for Grant's removal. On one occasion
he asked the critics to ascertain the brand Of whisky favoured by
Grant, so that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The
question of Grant's abstemiousness was and is of little importance.
The cause at stake over-rode every prejudice and the people of the
United States, since the war, have been in general content to leave
the question alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908,
when President Taft reopened It in a speech at Grant's tomb.
burg, trying one plan after another without result, until at last
after months of almost hopeless work' his perseverance was
crowned with success—a success directly consequent upon a
strange and bizarre campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring
and vigour were more conspicuous than ever before. On the
4th of July 1863 the great fortress surrendered with 39,491 men,
this being one of the most important victories won by the Union
arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made a major-general
in the regular army. A few months later the great reverse of
Chickamauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with
the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg
and Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga,
to decide the fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second
battle. Four armies were placed under his command, and
three of these concentrated at Chattanooga. On the 25th of
November 1863 a great three-days’ battle ended with the
crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day had no
foothold in the centre and west.
After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all
the Union forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and
the rank of lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864).
Giant’s headquarters henceforth accompanied the Army of the
Potomac, and the lieutenant-general directed the campaign in
Virginia. This, with Grant’s driving energy infused into the
best army that the Union possessed, resolved itself into a
series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible battles. Tactically the
Confederates were almost always victorious, strategically, Grant,
disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back Lee and the
Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and Peters¬
burg, while ubove all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of
“ attrition,” the Federal leader used his men with a merciless
energy that has few, if any, parallels in modem history. At
Cold Harbor six thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting
an hour, and after two months the Union armies lay before
Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but had lost no fewer than
72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his determination.
“ I purpose to. fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer,”
was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the
chief of staff at Washington. Through many weary months he
never relaxed his hold on Lee’s army, and, in spite of repeated
partial reverses, that would have been defeats for his predeces¬
sors, he gradually wore down his gallant adversary. The terrible
cost of these operations did not check him : only on one occasion
of grave peril were any troops sent from his lines to serve else¬
where, and he drew to himself the bulk of the men whom the
Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final
effort- Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely
supervised by Grant, preoccupied though he was with the
operations against his own adversary. At a critical moment
he actually left the Virginian armies to their own commanders,
and started to take personal command in a threatened quarter,
and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman and Thomas,
who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the centre.
That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command
of armies of a total strength of over one million men, operating
many thousands of miles apart from each other, while at the
same time he watched and manoeuvred against a great captain
and a veteran army in one field of the war, must be tha greatest
proof of Grant’s powers as a general. In the end complete success
rewarded the sacrifices and efforts of the Federate on every theatre
of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in personal control, the
merciless policy of attrition wore down Lee’s army until a mere
remnant was left for the final surrender.
Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was
universally regarded as the saviour of the Union. A careful
study of the history of the war thoroughly bears out the popular
view. There were soldiers more accomplished, as was McClellan,
more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and more exact, as was Buell,
but it would be difficult to prove that these generals, or indeed
any others in the servioe, could have accomplished the task
which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be sup¬
posed that Grant leanted little from three years’ campaigning
GRANT, U, S.
in high command. There is less in common than is often supposed
between the buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the
grim plodding determination that led him to Vicksburg and
to Appomattox. Shiloh revealed to Grant the intensity of the
struggle, and after that battle, appreciating to the full the
material and moral factors with which he had to deal,he gradually
trained his military character on those lines which alone could
conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose, and relent¬
less vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the qualities
necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing the
Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree
that he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical
finesse he was surpassed by many of his predecessors and his
subordinates, he had the most important qualities of a great
captain, courage that rose higher with each obstacle, and the
clear judgment to distinguish the essential from the minor
issues in war.—(C. P. A.) J
After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was
shown by his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with
the Confederate leaders, and it was understood that indictments
for treason were to be brought against General Lee and others.
Grant, however, insisted that the United States government
was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and his army at
Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his com¬
mission if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic
action on Grant’s part saved the United States from a foul
stain upon its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was
created, for the first time since the organization of the govern¬
ment, and Grant was promoted to that position. In the follow¬
ing year he became involved in the deadly quarrel between
President Johnson and Congress. To tic the president’s hands
Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act, forbidding the
president to remove any cabinet officer without the consent of
the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended
Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war ad
interim until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained.
Grant accepted the appointment under protest; and held it
until the following January, when the Senate refused to confirm
the president’s action, and Secretary Stanton resumed his
office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the readiness
with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a bitter
controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto
Grant had taken little part in politics. The only vote which
he had ever cast for a presidential candidate was in 1856 for
James Buchanan; and leading Democrats, so late as
dene" beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their can-
/smT’ didate in the election of that year : but the effect of
the controversy with President Johnson was to bring
Grant forward as the candidate of the Republican party. At the
convention in Chicago on the 20th of May 1868 he was unani¬
mously nominated on the first ballot. The Democratic party
nominated the one available Democrat who had the smallest
chance of beating him—Horatio Seymour, lately governor of
New York, an excellent statesman, hut at that time hopeless
as a candidate because of his attitude during the war. The
result of the contest was at no time in doubt; Grant received
3i4 electoral votes and Seymour 80.
The most important domestic event of Grant’s first term as
president was the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the
Constitution on the 30th of March 1870, providing that suffrage
throughout the United States should not be restricted on account
of race, colour or previous condition of servitude. The most
important event in foreign policy was the treaty with Great
Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as the Treaty
of Washington, whereby several controversies between the
United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions
as to damage inflicted upon the United States by the " Alabama ”
and other Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England,
were referred to arbitration. In 1869 the government of Santo
Domingo (or the Dominican Republic) expressed a wish for
annexation by the United States, and such a step was favoured
357
by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in view failed
to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In May
1873 something was dope towards alleviating the odious Recon¬
struction laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed
by Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The
Amnesty Bill restored civil rights to all persons in the South,
save from 300 to 500 who had held hign positions under the
Confederacy. As early as 1870 President Grant recommended
measures of civil service reform, and succeeded in obtaining an
act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service commission.
A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the
politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty
years since Crawford’s Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1830,
the country had been growing more and more familiar with the
spectacle of corruption in high places. The evil rdse to alarming
proportions during Grant’s presidency, partly because of the
immense extension of the civil service, partly because of the
growing tendency to alliance between spoilsmen and the persons
benefited by protective tariffs, and partly because the public
attention was still bo much absorbed in Southern affairs that little
energy was left for curbing rascality in the North. The scandals,
indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in close
relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping
with the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high in¬
tellectual powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of
nature charming in itself, but often calculated to render him
the easy prey of sharpers. He found it almost impossible to
believe that anything could be wrong in persons to whom he
had given his friendship, and on several occasions such friends
proved themselves unworthy of him. Tlie feeling was widely
prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure govern¬
ment in the United States demanded that President Grant should
not be elected to a second term. This feeling led a number of
high-minded gentlemen to form themselves into an organization
under the name of Liberal Republicans. They held a convention
at Cincinnati in May with the intention of nominating for the
presidency Charles Francis Adams, who had ably represented
the United States at the court of St James’s during the Civil
War. The Convention, was, however, captured by politicians
who converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating
Horace Greeley, editor of the Ane York Tribune, who represented
almost anything rather than the object for which the convention
had been called together. The Democrats had despaired of
electing a candidate of their own, and hoped to achieve success
by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove to be an
eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in
1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them
wisdom ; it was still in their power to make a gallant fight by
nominating a person for whom Republican reformers could
vote. But with almost incredible fatuity, they adopted Greeley
us their candidate. As a natural result Grant was re-elected
by an overwhelming majority.
The most important event of his second term was his veto
of the Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the
Resumption Act in the following year. The country
was still labouring under the curse of an inconvertible
paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act dney.
of 1862. There was a considerable party in favour of
debasing the currency indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with
that object was passed by Congress in April 1874. It was
promptly vetoed by President Grant, and two months later he
wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J, P. Jones of Nevada
advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of
the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his con¬
sistent advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high
credit as for his victories in the field. In spite of these great
services, popular dissatisfaction with the Republican party
rapidly increased during the years 1874-1876. The causes were
twofold : firstly, there was great dissatisfaction with the troubles
in the Southern states, owing to the harsh Reconstruction
laws and the robberies committed by the. carpet-bag govern¬
ments which those laws kept in power j secondly, the scandals at
GRANT—GRANTH
358
Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue,
awakened lively disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near
to President Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid
the suspicion that he was himself implicated, and never perhaps
was his hold upon popular favour so slight as in the summer
and autumn of 1876.
After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant
started on a journey round the world, accompanied by his wile
and one son. He was received with distinguished
honours in England and on the continent of Europe,
whence he made his way to India, China and Japan.
After his return to America in September 1880 he went back to
his old home in Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers
of the Republican party attempted to secure his nomination for
a third term as president, and in the convention at Chicago in
June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300 during 36 consecutive
ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such effective use ol
the popular prejudice against third terms that the scheme was
defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881
General Grant iwught a house in the city of New York. His
income was insufficient for the proper support of his family, and
accordingly he hud become partner in a banking house in which
one of his sons was interested along with other persons. The
name of the firm was Grant and Ward. The ex-president
invested in it all his available property, but paid no attention to
the management of the business. His facility in giving his con¬
fidence to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire
calamity, in 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was dis¬
covered that two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic
and gigantic frauds. This severe blow left General Grant
penniless, just at the time when he was beginning to suffer
acutely from the disease which finally caused his death. Down
to this time lie had never made any pretensions to literary skill
or talent, but on being approached by the Century Magazine
with a request for some articles he undertook the work in order
to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and
led to the writing of his Personal Memoirs, a frank, modest
and charming hook, which ranks among the best standard
military biographies. The soles earned for the general and his
family something like half a million dollars. The circumstances
in which it was written made it an act of heroism comparable
with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier. During most of
the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the throat, and
it was only four days before his death that he finished the manu¬
script. In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him
a general on the retired list; and m the summer he was removed
to a cottage at Mount M'Gregor, near Saratoga, where he passed
the last five weeks of his life, and where he died on the 13rd of
July 1883. His body was placed in a temporary tomb in
Riverside Drive, in New York city, overlooking the Hudson
river. 1
Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was
a charming side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times
almost like that of a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindli¬
ness and generosity, and if there was anything especially difficult
for him to endure, it was the sight of human suffering, as was
shown on the night at Shiloh, where he lay out of doors in the
icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room where the
surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as his
sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as
president, especially in his triumphant fight against the green¬
back monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings,
Grant was a massive, noble and lovable personality, well fit to
be remembered as one of the heroes of a great nation. (J. Fi.)
1 The permanent tomb is of white granite anti white marble anti
is 150 ft. high wfth a circular cupola topping a square building
00 ft. on the aide and 72 ft high; the sarcophagus, in the oentre
of the building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone
was laid by President Harrison in 1892, and the tomb was dedicated
on the 27th of April 1807 with a splendid parade and addresses by
President McKinley and General Horace Porter, president of the
1 Irant Monument Association, which from 90,000 contributions
raised tb* funds for the tomb.
General Grant’s son, Frederick Dent Grant (b. 1850).
graduated at the U.S. Military Academy in 1871, was aide-de-
camp to General Philip Sheridan in 1873-3 88a,and resigned from
the army in 1881, after having attained the rank of lieutenant-
colonel. He was U.S. minister to Austria in 1889-1893, and
police commissioner of New York city in 1894-1898. He served
as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American
War of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier-
general in the regular army in February 1901 and major-general
in February 190(1.
Bibliography. —Adam Badeau’s Military History of V. S. Grant
(3 vols.. New York, 1807-1881), sind Grant in Peace (Hartford,
1887), are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William
Conant Church’s Ulysses S. Grant anti the Period of National Pre¬
servation and Reconstruction (New York, 1897) is a good succinct
account. Hamlin Garland's Ulysses .S'. Grant, His Lift and Char¬
acter (New York, 1898) gives especial attention to the personal
traits of Grant and abounds in anecdote. See also Grant's Personal
Memoirs (2 vols., New York, iS8y 188b) ; J. G. Wilson’s Life and
Public Services of U. S. Grant (New York, 188b); J. K. Young's
Around the World with General Grant (New Y'ork, 1880); Horace
Porter's Campaigning with Grant (New York, 1897); James Ford
Rhodes’s History of the United States (vols. iii.-vii., New York, 1896-
t 9 °b); James K. Hosmer’s Appeal to Arms and Outcome of the Civil
War (New York, 1907); John Baton's Grant, Lincoln, and the
Freedmen (New York, 1907). and various works mentioned in the
articles American Civil War, Wilderness Campaign, &c.
GRANT from A.-Fr. graunter, 0 . Fr. greanter for creanter,
popular Lat. creaniare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to
believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the
gift of privileges, rights, &c., specifically in law, the transfer of
property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant.
According to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold
in corporeal hereditaments lay in livery (see Feoffment),
whereas incorporeal hereditaments, such as a reversion, re¬
mainder, advowson, &c., lay in grant, that is, passed by the
delivery of the deed of conveyance or grant without further
ceremony. The distinction between property lying in livery and
in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845 providing
that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be trans¬
ferable as well by grant as by livery (see Conveyancing). A
grant of personal property is properly termed an assignment or
bill of sale.
GRANTH, the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the
spiritual and moral teaching of Sikhism (q.v.). The book is called
the Adi Granth Sahib by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it
is lieiieved by them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title
is generally applied to the volume compiled by the fifth guru
Arjan, which contains the compositions of Guru Nanak, the
founder of the Sikh religion; of his successors. Guru Angad,
Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu bhagats or
saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir,
Rai Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna
and Dhanna Jat ; verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid ;
and panegyrics of the gurus by bards who either attended them or
admired their characters. The compositions of the ninth guru,
Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to the Adi Cranth by
Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred volume pre¬
served at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn com¬
posed by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The Adi Granth contains
passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original
copy is said to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the
chief copy in use is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple
at Amritsar, where it is daily read aloud by the attendant
Grdnthis or scripture readers.
There is also a second Granth which was compiled by the
Sikhs in 1734, and popularly known as the Granth of the tenth
Guru, but it has not the same authority as the Adi Granth. It
contains Guru Govind Singh’s Japji, the Akal Ustit or Praise of
the Creator, thirty-three samaias (quatrains containing some of
the main tenets of the guru and strong reprobation of idolatry
and hypocrisy), and the Vachitar Natak or wonderful drama, in
which the guru gives an account of his parentage, divine mission
and. the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three
abridged translations by different hands of the Devi Mahatamya,
GRANTHAM^ LORD
ao episode ia the Marhandtyc Pimm, in praise of Durga, the
goddess of war. Then follow the Gy an Parbodh or awakening of
knowledge, accounts of twenty-four incarnations of the deity,
selected because of their warlike character; the Hazart it
Shabd; the Shastar Nam Mala, which is a list of offensive and
defensive weapons used in the guru's time, with special reference
to the attributes of the Creator; the Tna Ckaritar or tales illus¬
trating the qualities, but principally the deceit of women; the
Kabit, compositions of a miscellaneous character; the Za/amama
containing the tenth guru’s epistle to the emperor Aurangzeb, and
several metrical tales in the Persian language. This Granth is
only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The greater
portion of it was written by bards in his employ.
The two volumes are written in several different languages
and dialects. The Adi Granth is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi,
but Prakrit, Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also
— represented. The Granth of the Tenth Guru is written
armmtb. ® the old and very difficult Hindi affected bv literary
men in the Patna district in the 16th century. In
neither of these sacred volumes is there any separation of words.
As there is no separation of words in Sanskrit, the gyanis or
interpreters of the guru’s hymns prefer to follow the ancient
practice of junction of words. This makes the reading of the Sikh
scriptures very difficult, and is one of the causes of the decline
of the Sikh Teligion.
The hymns in the Adi Granth are arranged not according to
the gurus or bhagats who compose them, but according to rags
or musical measures. There are thirty-one such measures in
the Adi Granth, and the hymns are arranged according to the
measures to which they are composed. The gurus who composed
hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and ninth
gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their
compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the
compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the com¬
positions of Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on.
After the hymns of the gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats
under their several musical measures. The Sikhs generally dis¬
like any arrangement of the Adi Granth by which the composi¬
tions of each guru or bhagat should be separately shown.
All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two
Granths and in compositions called Rah.it Nainas and Tanakkmah
Nomas, which are believed to have been the utterances
J** of the tenth guru. The cardinal principle of the sacred
t tc irlmtt. books is the unity of God, and starting from this
premiss the rejection of idolatry and superstition.
Thus Guru Govind Singh writes :
“ Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads:
Some suspend Ungaros from their necks ;
Some see the God in the South; some bow their heads to the
West.
Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with wor¬
shipping the dead.
The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found
God's secret."
Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His
sight, and so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak
says:
“ Caste bath no power in the next world ; there is a new ordej of
beings,
Those whose accounts are honoured are the good."
The concrcmation of widows, though practised in later times by
Hinduized Sikhs, is forbidden in the Granth. Guru Arjan
writes :
" She who consideretb her beloved as her God,
Is the blessed sati who shall be acceptable in God’s Court.”
It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine
and other intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak
wrote:
“ By drinking wine man comnuttetn many sin#."
Guru Arjan wrote.
" The foal who drieketh evil wind is involved in sin."
And in the Rahit Naina of Bhai Desa Singh there is the follow¬
ing:
359
" Let a Sikh take no intoxioant,' it maketh the body toy ; tt
diverteth men from their temporal and spiritual dutiea, end iocrtnth
them to evil deeds."
It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to
abstain from the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake,.arising
from the Sikh adoption of Hindu usages. The two Granths of
the Sikhs and all their canonical works are absolutely silent on
the subject. The Sikhs are not bound to abstain from any flesh,
except that which is obviously unfit for human food,'or what is
kilted in the Mahommedan fashion fay jagging an animal’s throat
with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of die mffln sources
of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly prohibited by
the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host as
follows:
" Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the
service of Sikhs and holy men. When the ,peof«e abandon the
degrading smoke and cultivate their lands, their wealth and pro -
sperity snail increase, and they shall want for nothing . . . Tmt
when they smoke the vile vegetable, they Shall grow pdtor and lose
their wealth."
Guru Govind Singh also said :
"Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco
destroyeth all generations."
In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most
of the positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to
rulers, a quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of
the British crown.
The Granth was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary,
on behalf oi the Punjab government in 1877, but his rendering is
in many respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the
Funjal* dialects. The Sikh Kelipon,Ac.,m 6 rota. (London, 1009) is
an authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with
tlio modern leaders of the Sikli sect. (M. M.)
GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON, istBa»ON<c. 1693-1770),
English diplomatist and politician, was a younger son of Sir
William Robinson, Bart. (1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire,
who was member of parliament for York from 1697 to 17**.
Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic
experience in Baris and then went to Vienna, where he was
English ambassador from 1730 to 174S. During *741 he sought
to make peace between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick
the Great, but in vain, and in 1748 he represented his country
at the congress of Aix-la-Cbapelle. Returning to England be
sat in parliament for Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754
Robinson was appointed a secretary of state and leader of the
House of Commons by the prime minister, the duke of Newcastle,
and it was on this occasion that Pitt made the famous remark
to Fox, “ the duke might as well have sent us his jackboot
to lead us.” In November 1755 he resigned, and in April »j6i
he was created Baron Grantham. He whs master of the wardrobe
from 1749 to 1754 and again from 1755 to i»6o,and waa joint
postmaster-general in 1765 and 1766. He died in London on the
30th of September 1770.
Grantham’s elder son, Thomas Robinson (1738-1786), who
became the ind baron, was bom at Vienna on the 30th of
November 1738. Educated at Westminster School and at Christ’s
College, Cambridge, he entered parliament as member for Christ¬
church in 1761, and succeeded to the peerage in 1770. In 1771 he
was sent as ambassador to Madrid and retained this post until
war broke out between England and Spain in 1779. From 1780
to 178s Grantham was first commissioner of the hoard Of trade
and foreign plantations, and from July 178a to April 1783
secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne.
He died on the aoth of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas
Philip, who became the 3rd baron, and Frederick John after¬
wards 1st earl of Ripon.
Thomas Psnur Robinson, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859),
in 1803 took the name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson.
In May 1833 he became Earl de Grey of Wrest oa the death tS
his maternal aunt, Amabell Hurae-Garopbell, Countess de Gray
(1751-1833), and he now took the name of de Grey. He was
first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Fed m 1834-1835,
3 6o GRANTHAM—GRANULITE
and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his death
without - male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robin¬
son, afterwards marquess of R-ipon (q.v.), succeeded as Earl de
Grey.
GRANTHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Lincolnshire, England; situated in a pleasant undulating
country on the river Witham. Pop. (190*) * 7 , 593 - I* ’ s an
important junction of the Great Northern railway. 105 m. N.
by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham, Lincoln
and Boston ; while there is communication with Nottingham
and the Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St
Wulfram is a splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles,
but mainly Early English and Decorated. The massive and
ornate western tower and spire, about 280 ft. in height, are of
early Decorated workmanship. There is a double Decorated
crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south porches are
fine examples of a later period of the same style. The delicately
carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the
16th and 17th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the
King Edward 'T. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received
part of his education. A bronze statue commemorates him.
The late Perpendicular building is picturesque, and the school was
greatly enlarged in 1904. The Angel Hotel is a hostelry of the
15th century, with a gateway of earlier date. A conduit dating
from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modem public
buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches
and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was
erected in 1902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the
manufacture of agricultural implements. Grantham returns one
member to parliament. The borough falls within the S. Kesteven
or Stamford division of the county. Grantham was created a
suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in 1905. The
municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Areu, 1726 acres.
Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation,
Grantham (Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its
situation on the Ermine Street, is supposed to have been a
Roman station. It was possibly a borough in the Saxon period,
and by the time of the Domesday Survey it was a royal borough
with in burgesses. Charters of liberties existing now only in
the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various kings.
From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed
by the lord of the manor, but by the end of the 14th century the
office of alderman had come into existence. Finally government
under a mayor and alderman was granted by Edward IV. in
1463, and Grantham became a corporate town. Among later
charters, that of James 11 ., given in 1685, changed the title to
that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but this was
afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham
was first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two
members ; but by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number
was reduced to one. Richard III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday
market and two fairs yearly, namely on the feast of St Nicholas
the Bishop, and the two following days, and on Passion Sunday
and the day following. At the present day the market is held
on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and
Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fair
on the nth of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October
and the 17th of December.
OBAHTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON, m Baron (1716-1789),
English politician, was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of
Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was born on the 23rd of June 1716.
He became a barrister in 1739, and, after a period of inactivity,
obtained a large and profitable practice, becoming a K.C. in
1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county palatine
of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for
Applebv ; he repreeented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was
appointed solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762.
He took part in the proceedings against John Wilkes, and,
having become attoritey-general in 1763, prosecuted the 5th
Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth, losing his
office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in
July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for
Guildford, Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice
in eyre of the forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen
Speaker of the House of Commons. In 1777, when presenting
the bill for the increase of the civil list to the king, he told
George III. that parliament has “ not only granted to your
majesty a large present supply, but also a very great additional
revenue ; great beyond example ; great beyond your majesty’s
highest expense." This speech aroused general attention and
caused some irritation ; but the Speaker was supported by Fox
and by the city of London, and received the thanks of the House
of Commons. George, however, did not forget these plain words,
and after the general election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord
North, and his followers declined to support the re-election of the
retiring Speaker, alleging that his health was not equal to the
duties of the office, and he was defeated when the voting took
place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baron Grantley of
Markenfield. He died in London on the 1st of January 1789.
He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William
(1742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as “a bold, able and
eloquent, but not a popular pleader,” and os Speaker he was
aggressive and indiscreet. Derided by satirists as “ Sir Bullface
Doublefee,” and described by Horace Walpde as one who “ rose
from obscure infamy to that infamous fame which will long stick
to him,” his character was also assailed by Junius, and the general
impression is that he was a hot-tempered, avaricious and un¬
principled man.
See H. Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George III., edited by
G. F. R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, Historical and Post¬
humous Memoirs, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A.
Manning, Lives of the Speakers (1850).
GRANTOWN, the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 23I m.
S. of Forres by the Highland railway, with a station on the Great
North of Scotland’s Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with
Boat of Garten. It was founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of
Grant, and became tho chief seat of that ancient family, who had
lived on their adjoining estate of Freuchie (Gaelic, fraochach,
“ heathery ”) since the beginning of the 15th century, and
hence were usually described as the lairds of Freuchie. The
public buildings include the town hall, court house and orphan
hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the
cattle trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey
granite, presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully
situated in the midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods
in Scotland, with pure air and a bracing climate, is an attractive
resort. Castle Grant, immediately to the north, is the principal
mansion of the earl of Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant.
In a cave, still called “ Lord Huntly’s Cave,” in a rocky glen in
the vicinity, George, marquess of Huntly, lay hid during
Montrose's campaign in 1644-45.
GRANULITE (Lat. granidum , a little grain), a name used by
petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. Accord¬
ing to the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite
in which both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and
corresponds to the German Granit, or to the English “ muscovite
bigtite granite.” This application has not been accepted
generally. To the German petrologists “ granulite ” means a
more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock, consisting
mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular crystals,
and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded
pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the
term is generally employed m this sense. The granulites are
very closely allied to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the
same minerals, but they are finer grained, have usually less
perfect foliation, are more frequently gametiferous, and have
some special features of microscopic structure. In the rocks of
this group the minerals, as seen in a microscopic slide, occur as
small rounded grains forming a mosaic closely fitted together.
The individual crystals have never perfect form, and indeed
rarely any traces of it. In some granulites they interlock, with
irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out and
GRANVELLA
361
flattened into tapering lentidea by crushing. In most cases they
are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger.
This is especially true of the quart* and felspar which ate the
predominant minerals; mica always appears as flat scales
(irregular or rounded but not hexagonal). Both muscovite and
biotite may be present and vary considerably in abundance;
very commonly they have their flat sides parallel and give the
rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be aggregated
into bands—in which case the granutites are indistinguishable
from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very generally
larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily visible
with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock.
They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals.
The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or crypto-
perthite; microclme, oligoclase and albite are also common.
Basic felspars occur only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in
addition to apatite, zircon, and iron oxides, the following may
be mentioned: hornblende (not common), riebeckite (rare),
epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene, andalusite, sillimanitc,
kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile, orthite and tourmaline.
Though occasionally we may find larger grains of felspar, quartz
or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks that all the
minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped
individuals.
On account of the minuteness with which it has been described,
and the important controversies on points of theoretical geology
which have arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony
(around Rosswein, Penig, &c.) may be considered the typical
region for rocks of this group. It should be remembered that
though granulites are probably the commonest rocks 'of this
country, they are mingled with granites, gneisses, gabbros,
amphibolites, mica schists and many other petrographical types.
All of these rocks show more or less metamoiphism either of a
thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The granites
pass into gneiss and granulite ; the gabbros into (laser gabbro and
amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite,
and show transitions to-mica schists. At one time these rocks
were regarded as Archean gneisses of a special type. Johannes
Georg Lehmann propounded the hypothesis that their present
state was due principally to crushing acting on them in a solid
condition, grinding them down and breaking up their minerals,
while the pressure to which they were subjected welded them
together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that
they are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks,
partly of Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may he
nearly massive or may have gneissose, flaser or granulitic
structures. These have been developed largely by the injection
of semi-consolidated highly viscous intrusions, and the varieties
of texture are original or were produced very shortly after the
crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however, I>ehmann’s
advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the
development of granulites lias been so successful that the terms
granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed
to indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks
at a period long after their solidification.
The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous
and correspond in composition to granites and porphyries.
There are, however, many granulites which, undoubtedly were
originally sediments (arkoses, grits and sandstones). A large part
of the highlands of Scotland consists .of paragranulites of this
kind, which have received the group name of “ Moine gneisses.”
Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in
Saxony, India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-
coloured basic granulites (“trap granulites”). There are
fine-grained rocks, not usually banded, nearly black in colour
with small red spots of garnet. Their essential minerals are
pyroxene, plagioclqse and garnet: chemically they resemble
the gabbros. (ireen augite and hypersthene form a considerable
part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite, hornblende and
quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial grouping of
small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a dear matrix of
felspar: these “ centric ” structures are frequent in granu¬
lites. The rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpen¬
tine, but the exact conditions under which they are formed
ami the significance of their structures is not very clearly
understood. O' s - F -)
ORAN VELLA, ANTOINE MRRRNOT, Cakdinal db . ( 1 5 1 7 ~
1586), one of the ablest and most influential of the princes of
the church during the great political and ecclesiastical movements
which immediately followed the appearance of Protestantism
in. Europe, was bom on the 20th of August 1517 at Besangon,
where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella (T484-T550),
who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under Charles V
was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicholas held an influential
position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death he
was one of the emperor’s most trusted advisers in German}’.
On the completion of his studies in law at Padua, and in divinity
at Louvain, Antoine held a canonry at BesanftJn, but he was
promoted to the bishopric of Arras when bare!}’ twenty-three
(1540). In his episcopal capnrity he attended several diets of
the empire, as well as the opening meetings of the council of
Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor, led to
his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of
public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare
talent for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate
acquaintance with most of the currents of European politics.
One of his specially noteworthy performances was the settlement
of the terms of peaceafterthe defeat of the league of Schtnalkalden
at Miihlberg in 1547, a settlement in which, to say the least,
some particularly sharp practice was exhibited. In 1550 he
succeeded his father in the office of secretary of state ; in this
capacity he attended Charles in the war with Maurice, elector
of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from Innsbruck, and
afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In the
following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage
of Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in IJ55,
on the abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services,
and by whom he was employed in the Netherlands. In April
1559 Granvella was one of the Spanish commissioners who
arranged the peace of Cateau Cambresis, and on Philip's with¬
drawal from the Netherlands in August of the same year he
was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma.
The policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued
during the next five years secured for him many tangible rewards,
in 1560 he was elevated to the archicpiscopal see of Malines,
and in 1561 he received the cardinal’s hat; hut the growing
hostility of a people whose religious convictions he had set
himself to trample under foot ultimately made it impossible
for him to continue in the Low Countries; and by the advice
of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to Franchc Comt6.
Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary character,
but it proved to lie final. The following six years were spent
in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to' Rome in
1565 ; but in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed
public life by accepting another mission to Rome. Here he
helped to arrange the alliance between the Papacy, Venice and
Spain against the Turks, an alliance which was responsible for
the victory of Lepanto. In the same year he became viceroy
of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger, which for five
years he occupied with ability and success. He was summoned
to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council
for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of
his later years were those of 1580, which had for their object
the ultimate union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and
those of 1584, which resulted in a check to .France by Ac marriage
of the Spanish infanta Catherine to Charles Emmanuel, dull* of
Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop of Besanfon,
but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering disease :
he wa* never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the atst of
September 1586. His body was removed to Beaanfon, where
his father had been buried. Granvella was a man of great
learning, which was equalled by his industry, and these qualities
made him almost indispensable both to Charles V. and to
Philip 11 .
xii. is a
362 GRANVILLE, EARLS
Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the
archives of Besanyon. These were to some extent made use of by
Prosper Lev&iue in his Mimoirfs pour servir (1753), as well as by
the Abbe Boisot in the Trisor At Granvella. A commission for
publishing the whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by
Guizot in 1834 , and the result has been the issue of nine volumes
of the Papiers d'Etat du cardinal de Granville, edited by C. Weiss
(Paris, 1841-1852). They form a part of the Collection de documents
in/dits sur Ihistoire de France, and were supplemented by the
Correspondance du cardinal Granville, /ebj-esHt S, edited by M. E.
Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12 vote., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also
the anonymous Histone du cardinal de Granville, attributed to
Courchetet D'F.snafis (Paris, 1761) ; J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch
Republic; M. Philippson, Ein Ministerium unter Philipp II. (Berlin,
1895); and the Cambridge Modern History (vol. iii. 1904).
GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER,
2ND Earl (1815-1891), English statesman, eldest son of the
1st Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his marriage with Lady
Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was bom in London
on the nth of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower,
was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess
«f Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife ; an elder son by the
second wife (a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became
the 2nd marquess of Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter
and heiress of the 17th earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland
in her own right) led to the merging of the Gower and Stafford
titles in that of the dukes of Sutherland (created 1833), who
represent the elder branch of the family. As Lord Granville
Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created viscount in
1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and was
ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-
1841). He was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of
tanning. The title of Earl Granville had been previously held
in the Carteret family.
After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord
Leveson went to Paris for a short time under his father, and in
1836 was returned to parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth.
For a short time he was under-secretary for foreign affairs in
Lord Melbourne’s ministry. In 1840 he married Lady Acton
(Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of Sir Richard Acton ;
see Acton and Dalbrrg). From 1841 till his father’s death
in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield.
In the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader,
and Lord John Russell made him master of the buckliounds
(1846). He proved a useful member of the party, and his
influence and amiable character were valuable in all matters
needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became vice-
president of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent
part in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter
year, having already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded
Palmerston at the foreign office until I.ord John Russell’s defeat
in 1852 ; and when Lord Aberdeen formed his government at
the end of the year, he became first president of the council,
and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1854). Under
Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council. His
interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led
to his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University,
a post he held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent
champion of the movement for the admission of women, and
also of the teaching of modern languages. From 1855 Lord
Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House, both in office,
and, after Palmerston’s resignation in 1858, in opposition.
He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar’s
coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed
by the rival ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him
to form a ministry, but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston
again became prime minister, with Lord John as foreign secretary
and Granville as president of the council. In i860 his wife
died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added that of his great
friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother (1862); but
he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his office
when, on Palmerston’s death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer)
became prime minister and took over the leadership in the
House of Lords., He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque
Ports, and in the same year married again, his second wife
being Miss Castaiia Campbell. From 1866 to 1868 he was in
opposition, but in December 1868 he became colonial secretary
in Gladstone's first ministry. His tact was invaluable to the
government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills through
the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord
Clarendon’s death, he was transferred to the foreign office.
Lord Granville’s name is mainly associated with his career as
foreign secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885) ; but the Liberal
foreign policy of that period was not distinguished by enterprise
or “ backbone.” Lord Granville personally was patient and
polite, but his courteous and pacific methods were somewhat
inadequate in dealing with the new situation then arising in
Europe and putside it; and foreign governments had little
scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and rely¬
ing on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong
measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within
a few days of Lord Granville’s quoting in the House of Lords
(nth of July) the curiously unprophetic opinion of the per¬
manent under-secretary (Mr Hammond) that “ he had never
known so great a lull in foreign affairs.” Russia took advantage
of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses of the treaty
of Paris, and Lord Granville’s protest was ineffectual. In 1871
an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan
was agreed on between him and Shuvalov ; but in 1873 Russia
took possession of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord
Granville had to accept the aggression. When the Conservatives
came into power in 1874, his part for the next six years was to
criticize Disraeli's “ spirited ” foreign policy, and to defend his
own more pliant methods. He returned to the foreign office in
1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing in German
polity which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders
were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed
to realize in time the importance of the Angra Pequenn question
in 1883-1884, and he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to
yield to Bismarck over it. Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan
or equatorial and south-west Africa, British foreign policy was
dominated by suavity rather than by the strength which com¬
mands respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home Rule
for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive
to new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave
way to Lord Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign
office; the Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground
in the country by Lord Granville’s occupancy of the post. He
went to the Colonial Office for six months, and in July 1886
retired from public life. He died in London on the 31st of March
i89ij being succeeded in the title by his son, born in 1872.
Lord'Granville was a man of much charm and many friendships,
and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like
a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no
place in history as a constructive statesman.
The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of
interesting material for the history of the period, but being written
by a Liberal, himself an under - secretary for foreign affairs, it
explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville's work in that depnrt-
(H. Ch.)
GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, Earl (1690-1763), English
statesman, commonly known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret,
born on the 22nd of April 1690, was the son of George, rst Lord
Carteret, by his marriage with Grace Granville, daughter of
Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and great grandson of
the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous for his
death in the “ Revenge.” The family of Carteret was settled
in the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John
Carteret was educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church,
Oxford. Swift says that “ with a singularity scarce to be
justified he carried away more Greek, Latin and philosophy
than properly became a person of his rank.” Throughout life
Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics, but a taste
for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures.
He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew
German. Harte, the author of the Life of Guslasus Adolphus,
acknowledged the aid which Carteret had given him. On the
GRANVILLE 3®3
17th of October 1710 he married at Longleat Lady Franoes
Worsley, grand-daughter of die first Viscount Weymouth,
He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of Hay 17x1. Though
his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of
Stuart, Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian
dynasty. He was a friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and
Sunderland, took a share in defeating the Jacobite conspiracy
of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen Anne, and supported the
passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret’s interests were however
in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His serious work in
public life began with his appointment, early in 1719, as
ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year
he was employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter
the Great, and in arranging the pacification of the north. His
efforts were finally successful. During this period of diplomatic
work he acquired an exceptional knowledge of the affairs of
Europe, and in particular of Germany, and displayed great tact
and temper in dealing with the Swedish senate, with Queen
Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick William I.
of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the
intrigues of court and parliament in London, Named secretary
of state for the southern department on his return home, he soon
became helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend
and Sir Robert Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every
able colleague, or subordinate, as an enemy to be removed,
Carteret was exceptionally odious. His capacity to speak
German with the king would alone have made Sir Robert detest
him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland against
Wood’s halfpence (see Swift, Jonathan) made it necessary
to replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was
sent to Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October
1724, and remained there till 1730. In the first months of his
tenure of office he had to deal with the furious opposition to
Wood’s halfpence, and to counteract the effect of Swift’s
Draper's Letters, The lord lieutenant had a strong personal
liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady Carteret’s family.
It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have reconciled
his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if government
had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage
on the Irish people. Wood’s patent was however withdrawn,
and Ireland settled down. Carteret was a profuse and
popular lord lieutenant who pleased both the “ English interest ”
and the native Irish. He was at all times addicted to lavish
hospitality, and according to the testimony of contemporaries
was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in
1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of
Commons, and as the trusted minister of King George II. He
had the full confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced
against Carteret. Till the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret
could take no share in public affairs except as a leader of opposi¬
tion in the Lords. His brilliant parts were somewhat obscured
by his rather erratic conduct, and a certain contempt, partly
aristocratic and partly intellectual, for commonplace men and
ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who loved
literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having
paid the expenses of the first handsome edition of Don Quixote
to please her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, flowed
himself to be entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between
Frederick, prince of Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline
was provoked into classing him and Bolingbroke, as “ the two
most worthless men of parts in the country.” Carteret took
the popular side in the outcry against Walpole for not making
war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession ap¬
proached, his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa—
mainly on the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would
dangerously increase the power of France, even if she gained
no accession of territory. These views made him welcome to
George II., who gladly accepted him as secretary of state in 1742.
In 1743 he accompanied the king to Germany, and was present
at the battle of Dettmgen on the 27th of June. He held the
secretaiyship tiU November 1744. He succeeded in promoting
an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He under¬
stood the relations of the European states, and the interests
of Great Britain among them. But the defects which had
rendered him unable to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him
equally unable to contend with the Pelhams. His support of
the king’s policy was denounced as subservience to Hanover.
Pitt called him “ an execrable, a sole minister who had renounced
the British nation." A few years later Pitt adopted an identical
policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt
from Carteret. On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became
Earl Granville on the death of his mother. His first wife died
in June 1743 at Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married
Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter of Lord Pomfret—a fashionable
beauty and “reigning toast” of London society, who was
younger than his daughters. “ The nuptials of our great
Quixote and the fair Sophia,” and Granville’s ostentatious
performance of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace
Walpole. The countess Granville died on the 7th of October
1745, leaving one daughter Sophia, who married Lord Shelburne,
1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may have done
something to increase Granville’s reputation for eccentricity.
In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the
intrigues of the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but
resigned in forty-eight hours. In June 1751 he became president
of the council, and was still liked and trusted by the king, but •
his share in government did not go beyond giving advice, and
endeavouring to forward ministerial arrangements. In 1756
he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister as the
alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood
why the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When
in October 1761 Pitt, who had information of the signing oi
the “ Family Compact ” wished to declare war on Spain, and
declared his intention to resign unless his advice was accepted,
Granville replied that “ the opinion of the majority (of the
Cabinet) must decide.” He spoke in complimentary terms of
Pitt, but resisted his claim to be considered as a “ sole minister ”
or, in the modem phrase, “a prime minister.” Whether he used
the words attributed to him in the Annual Register for 1761
is more than doubtful, but the minutes of council show that they
express his meaning. Granville remained in office as president
till his death. His last act was to listen while on his death-bed
to the reading of the preliminaries of the treaty of Paris. He
was so weak that the under-secretary, Robert Wood, author
of an essay on The Original Genius of Homer, would have post¬
poned the business, but Granville said that it “ could not pro¬
long his life to neglect his duty,” and quoted the speech of
Sarpedon from Iliad xii. 322-328, repeating the last word ■
(wfitv) “ with a calm and determined resignation.” He died
in his house in Arlington Street, London, on the 22nd of January
1763. The title of Granville descended to his son Robert, who
died without issue in 1776, when the eirldom of this creation
became extinct.
A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published is 1867, by
Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of Lord Carteret, a Political
Biography.
GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South
Wales, 13 m. by rail W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3094. It is
an important railway junction and manufacturing town, pro¬
ducing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes, tiles and bricks ;
there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene and meat
export works. It became a municipality in 1885.
GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north¬
western France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of
the Bosq, 85 m. S. by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906)
10,530. Granville consists of two quarters, the upper town
built on a promontory jutting into the sea and surrounded
by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below it.
The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building
of granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in
the upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two
floating basins and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part
in deep sea fishing, including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland,
and oyster-fishing is carried on. It has regular communication
3 G 4 GRANVIliLE^GRAPHITE
■with Guernsey and Jersey, and with the islands of St Pierre j
and Miquelon. The principal' exports are eggs, vegetables and
fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are imported. The
industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the manufacture
of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing, metal¬
founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical
manures. Among the public institutions are a tribunal and
a chamber of commerce. In the commune are included the
lies Chausey about 7i m. N.W. of Granville (see Channel
Islands). Granville, before an insignificant village, was fortified
by the English in 1437, taken by the French in 1441, bombarded
and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully besieged
by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by
the English in 1803.
GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in
the township of Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m.
E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. of the village (1900) 1425 ; of the
township (1900) 2399. Granville is served by the Toledo & Ohio
Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the latter reaching
Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg, Cincinnati,
Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore&Ohio railways),Columbus,
Dayton, Zanesville -and Springfield. Granville is the scat of
Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist
Education Society and opened as a manual labour school, called
the Granville Literary and Theological Institution. It was
renamed Granville College in 1845, and took its present name
in 1854 in honour of William S. lfenison of Adamsville, Ohio,
who had given f 10,000 to the college. The university comprised
in 1907-1908 five departments : Granville College (229 students),
the collegiate department for men; Shcpardson College (246
studunts, including 8a in the preparatory department), the col¬
legiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies'
Institute of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination
in 1887 by Dr Daniel Shcpardson, its principal and owner,
and closely affiliated for scholastic purposes, since 1900, with
the university, though legally it is still a distinct institution;
Doane Academy (137 students), the preparatory department
for boys, established in 1831, named Granville Academy in
1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of
Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music
(137 students); and a school of art (38 students).
In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding
year in Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land
in Ohio, including the site of Granville ; the town was laid out,
and in the last months of that year settlers from Granville, Mass.,
began to arrive. By January 1806 the colony numbered 234
persons ; the township was incorporated in 1806 and the village
was incorporated in 1831. There are several remarkable Indian
mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an alligator.
See Henry Hushntll, History 0/ 'Granville, Ohw (Columbus, O., iHHij).
GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (q.v.). The word is adopted
from the 0 . Fr. grape, mod. grappe, bunch or cluster of flowers
or fruit, grappts de raisin, bunch of grapes. The French word
meant properly a hook; cf. M.I 1 .G. krapfr. Eng. “grapnel,” and
“ cramp." The development of meaning seems to be vine-hook,
cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in English a single
grape of a duster. The projectile called “ grape " or “ grape-
shot,” formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name
from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted
of a number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the con¬
temporary musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron
plates, a bolt passing through the centre of the plates binding
the whole together. On being discharged the projectile delivered
the bullets in a s howe r somewhat after the fashion of case-shot.
GRAPHICAL METHODS, devices for representing by geometri¬
cal figures the numerical data which result from the quantitative
investigation of phenomena. The simplest application is met
with in the representation of tabular data such as occur in
Statistics. Such tables are usually of single entry, 1.«. to a certain
value of one variable there corresponds one, and only one, value
of the other variable. To construct the graph, as it is called,
«f such a table/Cartesian co-ordinates are usually employed.
Two lines or axes at right angles to each other an chosen, inter¬
secting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the
axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along
one, say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin
corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these
points perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates
distances are token corresponding to the related values of the
other variable. The curve drawn through these points is the
gTaph. A general inspection of the graph shows in bold relief
the essential characters of the table. For example, if the world’s
production of com over a number of years be plotted, a poor
yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a peak, a
uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on.
Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two
or more different phenomena, and the curves render apparent
at first sight similarities or differences which can be made out from
the tables only after close examination. In making graphs for
comparison, the scales chosen must give a similar range of
variation, otherwise the correspondence may not be discerned.
For example, the scales adopted for the average consumption of
tea and sugar must be ounces for the former and pounds for the
latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by automatic
recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph,
seismometer, 8tc. The method of polar co-ordinates is more
rarely used, being only specially applicable when one of the
variables is a direction or recorded as an angle. A simple case is
the representation of photometric data, i.e. the value of the
intensity of the light emitted in different directions from a
luminous sourre (see Lighting).
The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems
is usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems
in mechanics is treated in Mechanics, § j, (graphic Statics, and
Diagram. A special phase is presented in Vector Analysis.
GRAPHITE, a mineral species consisting of the element
carbon crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically,
it is thus identical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between
the two there are very wide differences in physical characters.
Graphite is black and opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and
transparent; it is one of the softest (II = i) of minerals, and
diamond the hardest of all; it is a good conductor of electricity,
whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The specific gravity is 2-2,
that of diamond is 3-5. Further, unJike diamond, it never
occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as imperfect
six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage parallel
to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are flexible
but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils
everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is
bright and metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus
strikingly similar to molybdenite (?■».).
The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from
the Greek ypdtfmv, “ to write,” because the mineral is used for
making pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plum¬
bago and black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these
names are singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. plumbum,
lead) was originally used for an artificial product obtained from
lead ore, and afterwards for the ore (galena) itself; it was con¬
fused both with graphite and with molybdenite. The true
chemical nature of graphite was determined by K. YV). Scheele
in 1779.
Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks—gneiss,
granulite, schist and crystalline limestone—and also sometimes in
granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks,
or os large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been
observed as a product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous
day-slates near their contact with granite, and where igneous
rocks have been intruded into beds of coal; in these cases the
mineral has clearly been derived from organic matter. The
graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as well as that
contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an origin.
As on artificial product, graphite is well known as dark lustrous
scales in grey pig-iron, and in the “ kish ” of iron furnaces:
it is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with
<SRAPTOOTES
carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite
-wins in the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to; metalli¬
ferous veins and the material derived from deep-seated sources ;
the decomposition of metalliccarbides by water and the reduction
of hydrocarbon vapours have been suggested as possible modes
of origin. Such veins often attain a thickness of several feet, and
sometimes possess a columnar structure perpendicular to the
enclosing walls ; they are met with in the crystalline limestones
and other Laurentian rocks of New York and Canada, in the
gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of Ceylon.
Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount
are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale
mine in Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico,
probably the richest deposits in the world, supply the American
lead pencil manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Penn¬
sylvania and Alabama is “ flake ” and unsuitable for this purpose.
Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants,
grate polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The
material as mined usually does not contain more than 20 to
50 % of graphite : the ore has therefore to be crushed and the
graphite floated off in water from the heavier impurities. Even
the purest forms contain a small percentage of volatile matter
and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially suitable
for pencils, contains about 12 % of impurities. (L. J. S.)
Artificial Manufacture. —The alteration of carbon at high
temperatures into a material resembling gniphite has long been
known. In 1803 Girard and Street patented a furnace and a
process by which this transformation could be effected. Carbon
powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed through a tube
in which it was subjected to the action of one or more electric
arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his
carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899
the International Achcson Graphite Co. was formed, employing
electric current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are
adopted: (i)graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitiza-
tion of anthracite cn masse. The former includes electrodes,
lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some other form of amorphous
carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the required article moulded
in a press or by a die. The articles arc stacked transversely in a
furnace, each being packed in granular coke and covered with
carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at 220 volts,
increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In graphi-
tizing en masse large lumps of anthracite are treated in the
electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating
carbon with ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the
so-called “ deflocculatcd ’’ variety when treated with gallo-
tannic acid. These two modifications are valuable lubricants.
The massive graphite is very easily machined and is widely used
for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead pencils and the like.
See " Graphite and its Uses," Bull. Imperial Institute,
p. 35j, (1907) p. 70; F. Cirkel, Graphite (Ottawa, i 9 ° 7 )- (W. G. M.)
GRAPTOLITES, an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose
skeletal remains are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally
in great abundance. They are usually preserved as branching
or unbranching carbonized bodies, tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in
shape, their edges regularly toothed or denticulated. Most
frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes of black
shales ; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of
sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their
original relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study.
Each Graptolite represents the common homy or chitinous
investment or supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each
tooth-like projection marking the position of the sheath or theca
of an individual zooid. Some of the branching forms have a
distinct outward resemblance to the polyparies of Sertularia and
Plumularia among tile recent Hydroida (Calyptoblastea); in
none of the unbrahehing forms, however, is the similarity by
any means close.
The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the
majority range from 1 in, to about 6 in. in length; few examples
have been met with having a length of more than 30 m.
Very different views have been held aa to the systematic
place and rank of, the Gmptoli(#g, (innaeus included them
in his group of false fossils (Grtiptalithium written stone). At
one time they were referred by some to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa),
and later, by almost general consent, to the Hydroida (Calypto¬
blastea) among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late years
an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as
constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own
(1 Graptolithina).
There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the Graptoloidea
or Graptolitcs proper, and the Dendroidea or tree-like Graptolites;
the former is typified by the unbranched genus Monograptus
and the latter bv the many-branched genus Dendrngraptus.
A Monograph^ makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like
body (the sicula ), which represent* the flattened covering of the
pnmary or embryonic zooid oi the colony. This sicula, which had
originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or
regions—an upper and smaller (apical or embryonic) portion, marked
by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tubular thread
(the nemo) proceeding from its apex; and a fewer (thecal of apcrtural)
portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the
direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms
the broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with
a perpendicular spine ( virgella) and occasionally with two shorter
lateral spines or lobes.
A but! is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its
length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial
theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of
the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the
mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that oi the first serial
theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about iSo"
with the direction of that of the sicula.
From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same
direction, and from the second a third, and so on, in a continuous linear
series until the jxilypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the one
immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is
effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of the
sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to grow
soon after the earliest lheca have been developed ; it remains
permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polyparv, of which it
lorms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third
or fourth theca.
A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or
virgula) becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall
of the polypaiy, and is sometimes continued distally as a naked
rod. It was formerly supposed that a virgula was present in
all the Graptoloidea; hence the term Rhabdophora sometimes
employed for the Graptoloidea in general, and rkabdosomt for the
individual polypary ; but while the virgula is present in many
(Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa).
The Graptoloidea are arranged in eight families, each named
after a characteristic genus : (1) Dichograptidae; (a) Lepto- ,
graptidae ; (3) Dicranograptidae ; (4) Diptograptidae; (5)
Glossograptidae (sub-family, Lasiograptidae); (6) Retiolitidae ;
(7) Dimorphograptidae ; (8) Monograptidae.
In ail these families the polypary originates as in Monograptus
from a nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards
and gives off only a single bud, such branching as may take
place occurring at subsequent stages in the growth of the poly-
par)'. In some species young examples have been met with in
which the nema ends above in a small membranous disk, which
has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the underside
of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young
polypary hung suspended.
Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance
in time in the order given above, and show a progressive, morpho¬
logical evolution along certain special lines. There is a tendency
for the branches to become reduced in number, and for the serial
thecae to become directed more and more upwards towards the
line of the nema. In the oldest family—Dichograptidae—in
which the branching polypary is bilaterally symmetrical and
the thecae uniserial (monoprionidian) —there is a gradation
from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with
only two ; and from species in which all the branches and their
thecae are directed downwards, through species, in which the
branches become bent back more and more outwards and
upwards, until in some tire terminal theca* open almost vertically.
In tiie genus Pkylbrgraptus the branches have become reduced
366 GRAPTOLITES
i\ 28 23 M
1, Diptograptus , young sicula. so, Climacograptus Scharenbergi.
2, Monograptus dubius, sicula 21 , Glossograptus Hincksii.
and first serial theca (partly 22, Lasiograptus costatus (after
restored). Elies and Wood).
3, Young form (all above after 23, Dictvonema (- graptus) flabetli-
Wiman). forme (-is).
4a, Older form. 24, Dictvonema (-dendron) pet
4b, Showing virgula (after Holm). tatum with base of attach-
3, Rastrites distans. ment.
6, Base of Diptograptus (after 25, />. crrvicorne, branches (after
Wiman). Holm).
7, I), calearatus. 2(1, 1J. rarum (section after
8, Dimorphograptus. Wimun).
9, Base of Dtdymograptus minu- 27, Dendrograptus Hallianus.
tus (after Holm). 28, Synrliabdosome of Dipt,’-
10, Young Dictyograptus, with graptus (after Huedemann).
primary disk. S, Sicula.
11, I Did. Diptograptus (after u, Upper or apical portion.
Ruedemann). I, Lower or aperturai.
12 a-6, Base and transverse sec- m, Mouth,
tion, Retiolites Geiniteianus N, Nema.
(after Holm). nn, Nemacaulusor virgular tube.
13, Bryograptus Kjeruip. V, Virgula.
14, Dickograptus octobrachiatus, m, Virgella.
with central disk. u, Septal strands.
13, THdymograptus Murchisoni. T, Theca.
■6, D. gibberulus. C, Common canal (in Retio-
17 a-b, Pbyllograptus and trana- tites).
verse section. G, Gonangium.
18 , Nemagraptus gracilis. r, Gonotheca.
• 9, Dicraungraptus rmmfosus. b, Budding theca.
to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls along the line of
the nema. and the sicula becomes embedded in the base of the
polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are
reduced to two; these also coalesce 1 similarly by their dorsal
walls, and the polypary thus becomes biserial (diprionidiati), and
the line of the nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure,
the nemacaulus or virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family,
the Monograptidac, the branches are theoretically reduced to
one, the polypary is uniserial throughout, and all the thecae
are directed outwards and upwards.
The thecae in the earliest family—Dichograptidae—are so similar in
form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a
colony of siculac; there is the greatest variation in shape in
those of the latest family—Monograptidae—in some species of which
the terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated ( Rastrites ) and
in some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the
families are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes:
the spines are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial
forms: in the Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a
marginal meshwork surrounding the polypary.
Histologically , the perisarc or test in the Graptoloidea appears
to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure,
and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity.
The central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth;
but in Glossograptus and Lasiograptus it is thinned down to a fine
membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres,
and in Retiolites tills membrane is reduced to a delicate network.
The groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to,
collectively, as the Retioloidea, and the structure as retioloid.
Jt is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each
graptolite polypary ( rhabdosome) developed from a single sicula
as an individual of the highest order. Certain American forms,
however, which are preserved as stellate groups, have been
interpreted as complex umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, indivi¬
duals of a still higher order (synrhabdosomes), composed of a
number of biserial polyparies (each having a sicula at its outer
extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a common centre of
origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming bladder and
a ring of capsules.
In the Dendroidea, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical
in shape and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous
branches irregularly disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or
short basal portion ending below in root-like fibres or in a mem¬
branous disk or sheet of attachment. An exception, however,
is constituted by the comprehensive genus Dictyonema, which
embraces species composed of a large number of divergent and
sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments into
a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes
some forms ( Dtctyograptus) which originate from a nema-bearing
sicula and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea.
Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea
little is known, but the more mature stages have been fully
worked out. In Dictyonema the branches show thecae of two
kinds : (1) the ordinary tubular thecae answering to those of
the Graptoloidea and occupied by the nourishing zooids; and
(2) the so-called bithecae, birdnest-like cups (regarded by their
discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately right and left
of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third set of
thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals.
In the genus Dendrograptus the gonothecae open within the walls
of the ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward
resemblance to those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in
striking contrast to what obtains among the Graptoloidea in
general, the budding orifices in the Dendroidea become closed,
and all the various cells shut off from each other.
The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory :
the families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera
Dendrograptus, Dictyonema, Inocaulis and Thamnograptus.
As regards the modes of reproduction among the Graptolites little is
known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae
were possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some
as nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular
appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked
upon as connected with the reproductive system ; and in the
umbrella-shaped synrhabdosomes already referred to, the common
centre is surrounded by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian
capsules. The theory of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies
in the Graptoloidea is, however, disputed by some authorities, and
it has been suggested that the sooid oi the sicula itself is not the
GRASLITZ—GRASS
product of the normal or sexual mode of propagation in the group,
but owes its origin to a peculiar type or budding or non-sexual
reproduction, in which, as temporary resting or protecting structures,
the vesicular bodies may have had a share.
As respects the mode of life of the GraptoUles there can be
little doubt that .the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions,
sessile or benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the
recent Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining
attached to the sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The
Graptoloidea have also been regarded by some as benthonic
organisms. A more prevalent view, however, is that the majority
were pseudo-planktonic or drifting colonies, hanging from the
underside of floating seaweeds ; their polyparies being each
suspended by the noma in the earliest stages of growth, and, in
later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others became
adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their
dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained
permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may
have become broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum,
at the mercy of the winds and currents, carrying the attached
Graptolites into all latitudes. The more complex umbrella¬
shaped colonies of colonies (synrhabdosomes) described as
provided with a common swimming bladder (pneumatophore ?)
may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming mode
of existence.
The range of the Graptolites in time extends from the Cambrian
to the Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have
this extended range, the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the
close of .Silurian time. Both groups make their first appearance
together near the end of the Cambrian ; but while in the succeed¬
ing Ordovician and Silurian the Dendroidea are comparatively
rare, the Graptoloidea become the most characteristic and,
locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems.
The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably
short range in geological time ; but the geographical distribution
of the group as u whole, and that of many of its species, is almost
world-wide. This combination of circumstances has given the
Graptoloidea a paramount stratigraphical importance as palaeon¬
tological indices of the detailed sequence and correlation of the
Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many Graptolile zones,
showing a constant uniformity of succession, paralleled in this
respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of the J urassic,
have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe, each
marked by a ch iracteristic species. Many British species and
associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding
horizons to those on which they are found in Britain, have been
met with in the graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations
of other parts of Europe, in America, Australia, New Zealand
and elsewhere.
Bihuography.—L innaeus, Systema naturae (12th ed. 1768);
Hall, Graptolites of the Quebec Group (1865) ; Barrande, Graptolites
de Bohfme (1850) ; Carruthers, Revision of the British Graptolites
(1868) ; H. A. Nicholson, Monograph of British Graptolites, pt. 1
(1872) ; id. and J. L. Mare, Phytogeny of the Graptolites (1895);
Hopkinson, On British Graptolites (1809); Allman, Monograph of
Gymnoblastic Hydroids (1872); Lapworth, An Improved Classification
of the Rhdbdophora (1873); The Geological Distribution of the Rhdbdo-
phora (1879, 1880) ; Walther, Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere
(1897); Tullberg, Shines Graploliter (1882, 1883); Tfirnquist,
Graptolites Scanian Rastntes Beds (1899); Wiman, Die Graptolithen
(1895); Holm, Gotlands Graploliter (1890); Pemer, Graptolites de
Bohime (1894-1899); R. Ruedemann, Development and Mode of Growth
of Diplograptus (1893-1896); Graptolites of New York, vol. i. (1904),
vol.ii. (1908); Freeh, Lethaea pataeoenca, Graptolithiden (1897); Elies
and Wood, Monograph of British Graptolites (1901-1909). (C. L.*)
GRASUTZ (Czech, Kraslice), a town of Bohemia, on the
Zwodau, 145 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803,
exclusively German. Graslitz is one of the most important
industrial towns of Bohemia, its specialities being the manu¬
facture of musical instruments, carried on both as a factory and
a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in importance are
cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing,
and the mother-of-pearl industry.
GRABHIBX, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart
of the English Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district
AND GRASSLAND 367
in 1901, 781) lies near the head of the lake, on the small river
Rothay and the Keswick-Ambleside road, 12} m. from Keswick
and 4 from Ambleside. The scenery is very beautiful; the valley
about the lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water is in great part
wooded, while on its eastern flank there rises boldly the range
of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and Seat Sandal,
and,' farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are Loughrigg
Fell and Silver Row. The village has become a favourite centre
for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered
appearance. In a house still standing William Wordsworth
lived from 1799 to 1808, and it was subsequently occupied by
Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley Coleridge. Wordsworth’s
tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the churchyard of the
ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial to
Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival
called the Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the
octave of St Oswald’s day (August 5th), when a holiday is
observed and the church decorated with rushes, heather and
flowers. The festival is of early origin, and has been derived by
some from the Roman Floralia, but appears also to have been
made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches, unpaved
in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which
forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories
are symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle
plays may be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, A Rambler’s Note-Book
at the English Lakes, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for
an athletic meeting in August.
The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has
an extreme breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from
north to south, and rises so high ns to form an island about the
middle. The greatest depth of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east
of this ridge.
GRASS AND GRASSLAND, in agriculture. The- natural
vegetable covering of the soil in most countries is “ grass ”
(for derivation see Grasses) of various kinds. Even where
dense forest or other growth exists, if a little daylight penetrates
to the ground grass of some sort or another will grow. On
ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried out,
the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either
be in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone,
after having been cultivated.
Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm,
but since the “ era of cheap corn ” set in its importance has
been increased, and much more attention has been given to the
study of the different species of grass, their characteristics, the
improvement of a pasture generally, and the “ laying down ” .
of arable land into grass where tillage farming has not paid.
Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their farms—
from a third to a half of the area—and even on wholly arable
farms there arc usually certain courses ih the rotation of crops
devoted to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation
is com, roots, com, clover; the Berwick 5-course is com, roots,
corn, grass, grass ; the Ulster 8-course, com, flax, roots, com,
flax, grass, grass, grass ; and so on, to the point where the grass
remains down for 5 years, or is left indefinitely.
Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed
as pasture pure and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the
latter case it is usually classed as “meadow” land, and often
forms an alluvial tract alongside a stream, but as grass is often
grazed and hayed in alternate years, the distinction is not a hard
and fast one.
There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent.
The latter again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass
natural to land that has never been cultivated, and the pasture
that has been laid down artificially on land previously arable
and allowed to remain and improve itself in the course of time.
The existence of ridge and farrow on many old pastures in
Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one time,
though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid
down pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality
about the fifth and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and
improve year by year afterwards. Hus is usually attributed
368 GRASS AND GRASSLAND
to the fact that the unsuitable varieties die out, and the “ natur¬
ally ” suitable varieties only come in gradually . This trouble
can be hugely prevented, however, by a judicious selection
of seed, and by subsequently manuring with phosphatic manures,
with farmyard or other bulky “ topdressings,” or by feeding
sheep with cake and corn over the field.
All the grasses proper belong to the natural order Gramincae
(see Grasses), to which order also belong all the “ com ” plants
cultivated throughout the world, also many others, such as
bamboo, sugar-cane, millet, rice, &c. &c., which yield food for
mankind. Of the grasses which constitute pastures and hay-
fields over a hundred species are classified by botanists in Great
Britain, with many varieties in addition, but the majority of
these, though often forming a part of natural pastures, are
worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The grasses of good
quality which should form a " sole ” in an old pasture and pro¬
vide the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass
areonly about a dozen in number (see below),und of these there are
only some six species of the veryfirst importance and indispensable
in a ‘‘prescription” of grass seeds intended for laying away land
in temporary or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a
botanical examination to be made of several of the most cele¬
brated pastures of England, and, contrary to expectation, found
that their chief constituents were ordinary perennial ryegrass and
white clover. Many other grasses and legumes were present, but
these two formed an overwhelming proportion of the plants.
In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, Sec., includes
many varieties of clover and other members of the natural order
Ltgwminosae as well us other “ herbs of the field,” which, though
not strictly, “ grasses,” are always found in a grass field, and
are included in mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows.
The following is a list of the most desirable or valuable agri¬
cultural grasses and clovers, which are either actually sown or, in
the case of old pastures, encouraged to grow by draining, liming,
manuring, and so on
drosses.
Alopecurus pratensis . .
Aathoxanthum odoratum
A vena elatior
A vena flavescens
Cynosurus cristatus . .
Dactylis glomerata .
Festuca duriuscula .
Festuca elatior .
Festuca ovina
Festuea pratensis
Loliusi italicum . . .
Phleum pratense.
Poa nemoralis
Poa pratensis
Poa trivialis ....
Meadow foxtail.
Sweet vernal grass.
Tall nat-grass.
Golden oat-grass.
Crestrd dogstail.
Cocksfoot.
Hard fescue.
Tall fescue.
Sheen’s fescue.
Meadow fescue.
Italian ryegrass.
Timothy or catstail.
Wood meadow-grass.
Smooth meadow-grass.
Rough meadow-grass.
Clovers, i.
Medicago lupulina
Mcdicago satlva .
Trifoliutn hybridum .
„ pratense .
.. pratense (
„ perenne J '
„ incamatuffi
,. procumbcns
.. repens
Achillea Millefolium.
Anthyllis vulneraria.
Lotus major . . .
Lotus comiculatus .
Carum petroseliuum
Plantago lanceolata .
Cichonum intybus .
Poterium officinale .
Trefoil or " Nonsuch."
Lucerne (Alfalfa).
Alsike clover.
Broad red clover.
Perennial clover.
Crimson clover or “ Trifolium, ”
Yellow Hop-trefoil.
White or Dutch clover.
Yarrow or Milfoil.
Kidney-vetch.
Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil.
Lesser „ „
Field parsley.
Plantain.
Chicory.
Burnet.
The predominance of any particular species is largely deter¬
mined by climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the
treatment it receives. In limestone regions sheep’s fescue has
been found to predominate; on wet clay soil the dog’s bent
(Apostil amino) is common ; continuous manuring with nitro¬
genous manures lriUs’out the leguminous plants and stimulates
such m*rez as cocksfoot; manuring with phosphate! stimulates
the clows and .other legumes; and so on. Manuring with
basic slag at the rate of from 5 to to cwt. per acre has been found
to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils. Basic
slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in a
soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phoSphate) which specially
stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes, and has
renovated many inferior pastures.
In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with
“ mineral manures ” (no nitrogen) on an old meadow has reduced
the grasses from 71 to 64 % of the whole, while at the same time
it has increased the Lcguminosac from 7% to 24%. On the
other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure in addition to
“ minerals ” has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and
reduced the legumes to less than 1 %.
As to the best kinds of grasses, &c., to sow in making a pasture
out of arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have
demonstrated that of the many varieties offered by seedsmen
only a very few are of any permanent value. A complex mixture
of tested seeds was sown, and after five years an examination of
the pasture showed that only a few varieties survived and made
the “ sole ” for either grazing or forage. These varieties in the
order of their importance were :—
Cocksfoot..
Perennial rye grass.,6
Meadow fescue.,3
Hard fescue.9
Crested dogstail.g
Timothy..
White clover.4
Meadow foxtail.a
The figures represent approximate percentages.
Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already
growing round the hedges and adjacent fields. An inspection of
this sort will show that the Cambridge experiments are very
conclusive, and that the above species are the only ones to be
depended on. Occasionally some other variety will be pro¬
minent, but if so there will be a special local reason for this.
On the other hand, many fanners when sowing down to grass
like to have a good bulk of forage for the first year or two, and
therefore include several of the clovers, lucerne, Italian ryegrass,
evergreen ryegrass, &c., knowing that these will die out in the
course of years and leave the ground to the more permanent
species.
There are also several mixtures of “ seeds ” (the technical
name given on the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted
with success in laying down permanent pasture in some localities.
I
1
.
Young. ;
De Latrae.
Leicester.
I
Cambridge j
average.
General
purpose
mixture.
| Cocksfoot ....
8
8
8
1 Perennial ryegrass .
2
6
IO
Meadow fescue .
6
2
..
Hard fescue
I
1
2
3
j Crested dogstail . .
3
2
I
3
Timothy ....
3
1
2
2
Meadow foxtail . . .
.
..
10
X
Tall fescue ....
..
3
1
3 i
2
Tall oat grass .
•
..
..
1
3
Italian ryegrass
•
2
5
Smooth meadow grass .
1
Rough meadow grass .
.
1
1
Golden oat grass . .
.
..
i
1
Sheep's fescue .
.
1
. .
Broad red clover . .
1
2
Perennial red clover .
X
>*
1
Alsike.
1
2
Lneerne (Alfalfa) . .
.
..
8
White clover . .
.
4
1
1
2
2
2
Kidney vetch
6
. •
ai
Sheep’s parsley . . .
Yarrow.
Burnet .
:
I
8
1
"k
1
1
8
Chicory .....
.
4
2$
Plantain ....
4
Total ft per acre .
•
3 °
40
17
40
30
GRASSE, COMTE DI—GRASSES 369
Arthur Young more than 100 yean ago made out one to suit
chalky hillsides ; Mr Faunae de Laune (Sussex) in our days was
the first to study grasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of
all kinds ; Lord Leicester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for
poor land with success ; Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many
deep-rooted “ herbs ” in his mixture with good results. Typical
examples of such mixtures are given on preceding page.
Temporary pastures are commonly resorted to for rotation
purposes, and in these the bulky fast-growing and short-lived
grasses and clovers are given the preference. Three examples of
temporary mixtures are given below.
1
1 One
Two
Three
or four |
! year.
years.
years, j
Italian ryegrass .
1 4
10
6
Cocksfoot ....
2
4
6
Timothy ....
..
2
3
Broad red clover .
S
5
3
Alsike ....
! 3
Trefoil.
1 .1
2
2
Perennial ryegrass
5
10
Meadow fescue
2
2
Perennial red clover .
2
2
White clover .
1
2
Meadow foxtail
1
-
Total It) per acre* .
3 °
36
Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red dover is
often grown, either alone or mixed with a little Italian rvegrass,
while other forage crops, like trefoil and trifolium, are often grown
alone.
In Great Britain a heavy day soil is usually preferred for
pasture, both because it takes most kindly to grass and because
the expense of cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land
when the price of corn is low. On light soil the plant frequently
suffers from drought in summer, the want of moisture preventing
it from obtaining proper root-hold. On such soil the use of a
heavy roller is advantageous, and indeed on any soil excepting
heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial to the grass, as it pro¬
motes the capillary action of the soil-particles and the consequent
ascension of ground-water.
In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture
from being wasted by the sun's heat.
The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are
similar to those enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found
certain grasses, such as Hungarian brome, which are suitable for
introduction into the British Isles. The grasses of the American
prairies also include many plants not met with in Great Britain.
Some half-dozen species are common to both countries: Kentucky
“ blue-grass ” is the British Poa pratensis ; couch grass {Triticuin
repens ) grows plentifully without its underground runners ;
bent (Agroslis vulgaris) forms the famous “ red-top,” and so on.
But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the
11 bunch ” grasses, “ squirrel-tail ” and many others which have
no equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the
prairie pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover
found on the prairies, though cultivated varieties can l>e intro¬
duced. (P. McC.)
GRASSE, FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL, Marquis de Grasse-
mLY, Comte de (1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar,
in the present department of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he
took service on the galleys of the order of Malta, and in 1740
entered the service of France, being promoted to chief of squadron
in 1779. He took part in the naval operations of the American
War of Independence, and distinguished himself in the battles of
Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago (1781). He
was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by Admiral
Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1783, he was defeated and
taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he re¬
turned to France, published a Memoirs justificatif, and was
acquitted by a courtTinartial (1784). He died at Paris in January
1788.
His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a Notice bMiograpUgne
sue remind comla da Grasse d'epris Us documents inidit* A.*840.
Set G. Lacour-Gayet, if Marine militairc de la i-rame sows la rtgne
de Louis XV (Paris, 190*).
GRASSE, a town in the French department of the Alpes
Maritimes (till i860 in that of the Var), isj m. by rail N. of Cannes.
Pop. (1906) town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a
picturesque situation, in the form of an amphitheatre and at a
height of 1066 ft. above the sea, on the southern slope of a hill,
facing the Mediterranean. In the older (eastern) part of the,tp_wn
the streets are narrow, steep and winding, but the new portion
(western) is laid out in accordance with modem French ideas.
It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious climate, and is
well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of the
factories comes from the fine spring of Foux. Hut the drinking
water used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of
a conduit, from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the
Loup. Grasse was from 1244 (when the see was transferred
hither from Antibes) to 1790 an episcopal see, but was then
included in the diocese of Frejus till i860, when politically as
well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to the newly-
formed department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a
12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an
ancient tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town
hall, which was formerly the bishop’s palace (13th century).
There is a good town library', containing the muniments of the
abbey of Larins, on the island of St Honorat opposite Cannes.
In the chapel of the old hospital arc three pictures by Rubens.
The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) was a native of Grasse,
and some of his best works were formerly to be seen here (now
in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its perfumery.
Oranges ami roses are, cultivated abundantly in the ncighlxnir-
hood. It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses (which
costs nearly £100 per 2 lb) requires alone nearly 7,000,000 roses
a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at
Grasse. (W. A. B. C.)
GRASSES , 1 a group of plants possessing certain diameters in
common and constituting a family (Gramineae) of the class
Monocotyledons. It is one of the largest and most widespread
and, from an economic point of view, the most important family
of flowering plants. No plant is correctly termed a grass which
is not a member of this family, but the word is in common
language also used, generally in combination, for many plants of
widely different affinities which possess some resemblance (often
slight) in foliage to true grasses ; e.g. knot-grass ( Polygonum
aviculare), cotton-grass ( Briophorum ), rib-grass ( Plantago),
scorpion-grass ( Myosotis ), blue-eyed grass (Stsyrinehium), sea-
grass ( Zostera). The grass-tree of Australia ( Xanthmhoea) is a
remarkable plant,allied to the rushes in the form of its flower,but
with a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palm-like trunk bearing a
crown of long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of
small, densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an
extended signification to include the various fodder-plants,
chiefly leguminous, often called “artificial grasses.” Indeed,
formerly grass (also spelt pm, gres, gyrs in the old herbals)
meant any green herbaceous plant of small size.
Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized
and separated a group of Gramina, and this, though bounded by
nothing more definite than habit and general appearance,
contained the Gramineae of modern botanists. The older group,
however, even with such systematists as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer
(1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in addition the Cyperaceae
> The word " gram ” (O. Eng. gars, gras) is common to Teutonic
languages, cf. Dutch Ger. Goth, eras, Dan. gras ; the root ia the
O. Teut gra-, gro-, to increase, whence " grow,” and " green," the
typical colour of growing vegetation. The Indo-European root is
seen in Lat. gramen. The O. Eng. grasian, formed from gras, gives
" to graze," of cattle feeding on growing herbage, also " gramor,"
one who grazes or feeds cattle for the market; " to graae," to
abrade, to touch lightly in passing, may be a development of this
from the idea of close cropping; if it is to be distinguished a possible
connexion may be, found Witt "glace " (Ft. glacer, glide, sap, Lat,
glades, ice), to glance off, the change in form being influenced Vf
“grate," to scrape, scratch (Fr. grafter, Ger. kratsan),
GRASSES
37 °
(Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and some other mono¬
cotyledons with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough, the
sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more dis¬
tinctly the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all
of the former then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst
the latter found themselves under his other classes and orders.
I. Structure.—' The general type of true grasses is familar in
the cultivated cereals of temperate climates—wheat, barley,
rye, oats, and in the smaller plants which make up pastures and
meadows and form a principal factor of the turf of natural
downs. Less familiar are the grains of warmer climates—rice,
maize, millet and sorgho, or the sugar-cane. Still farther re¬
moved are the bamboos of the tropics, the columnar stems of
which reach to the height of forest trees. All are, however,
formed on a common plan.
Root .—Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and
possessatuftof very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched
and of great length. The majority of the members of the family
are of longer duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer,
thicker and less branched. In such cases they are very generally
given off from just above each node (often in a circle) of the lower
part of the stem or rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In
some bamboos they are very numerous from the lower nodes of
the erect culms, and pass downwards to the soil, whilst those from
the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles of spiny fibres.
Stem .—The underground stem or rootstock (rhizome) of
perennial grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very
long creeping or subterranean rhizomes, with elongated inter¬
nodes and sheathing scales; the widely-creeping, slender
rhizomes in Marram-grass ( Psamma ), Agropyrum junceum,
Elymus arenarius, and other sand-loving plants render them
useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with the
nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic
of open situations in cool temperate climates, results from an
extensive production of short stolons, the branches and the
fibrous roots developed from their nodes forming the dense
“ sod.” The very large rhizome of the bamboos (fig. 1) is also
a striking example of 11 definite ” growth; it is much branched,
the short, thick, curved branches being given off below tile apex
of the older ones and at right angles to them, the whole forming
a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their ends, which
were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is always
solid, and has the usual internal structure of the monocotyle-
donous stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches
break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with
which they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards
through tne sheaths which thev ultimately Bplit from above,
and emerging as aerial shoots give a tufted' habit to the plant.
Good examples are the oat, cock’s-foot ( Dactylis ) and other
British passes. This mode of growth is the cause of the “ tiller¬
ing ” of creals, or the production of a large number of erect
growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem.
Isolated tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe—and
savannar-wegetation and open places generally in the warmer
parts of die earth. 1
The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic
feature of grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylin¬
drical (rarely flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident
nodes. The nodes are solid, a strong plate of tissue passing
across the stem, bu t the intemodes are commonly hollow, although
examples of completely solid stems are not uncommon (e.g. maize,
many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The swollen nodes are a
characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of the
British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm,
but of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes
is to raise again culms which have become bent down; they are
composed of highly turgeseent tissue, the cells of which elongate
on the side next the earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal
or oblique position, and thus raise the culm again to an erect
position. The intemodes continue to grow in length, especially
the upper ones, for some time; the increase takes place in a zone
at the extreme buse, just above the node. The exterior of the
culms is more or less concealed by the leal-sheaths ; it is usually
smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells containing
an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a distinct
skeleton of their structure. Tahasheer is a white substance
mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos.
A few of the lower intemodes may become enlarged and sub-
globular, forming nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized
art termed “ bulbous ” ( Arrhenatherum , Poa bulbosa, &c.). In
internal structure grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform
to that usual in monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run
parallel in the intemodes, but a horizontal interlacement occurs
at the nodes. In grasses of temperate climates branching is
rare at the upper nodes df the culm, but it is characteristic of
the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches are
strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spread¬
ing or drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are
reduced to hooked spines. One genus ( Pinochloa , a native
of the Malay archipelago) is scandent, and climbs over trees
too ft. or more in height. Olvra latifolia, a widely-spread
tropical species, is also a climber on a humbler scale.
Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly
seen in bamboos, where a height of over too ft. is attained in
from two to three months, and many species grow two, three or
even more feet in twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not
begin till the full height is nearly attained. The largest bamboo
recorded is 170 ft., anil the diameter is usually reckoned at about
4 in, to each 50 ft.
Leaves .—These present special characters usually sufficient
for ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and
arranged in two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal
tuft. They consist of two distinct portions, the sheath and the
blade. The sheath is often of great length, and generally com¬
pletely surrounds the culm, forming a firm protection for the
intemode, the younger basal portion of which, including the
zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it is
split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae
which is almost invariably (Eriospora is an exception) a complete
tube j in some grasses, however (species of Poa, Bromus and
others), the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated
in Alopecurus vaginatus and in a species of PotamoMoa, in the
latter, an East Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the
summit of the sheath, above the origin of the blade, is the
ligule, a usually membranous process of small size (occasionally
reaching 1 in. in length) erect and pressed around the culm.
It is rarely quite absent, but may be represented by a tuft of
hairs (very conspicuous in Pariana). It serves to prevent
rain-water, which has run down the blade, from entering the
sheath. Mdica uniflora has in addition to the ligule, a green
erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges
of the sheath.
The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect in
the basal leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to rite sheath
at an angle. TTie usual form is familiar—sessile, more or less
ribbon-shaped, tapering to a point, and entire at rite edge.
The chief modifications are the articulation of the deciduous
GRASSES
37 *
blade on to the sheath, which occurs in all the Bambuseae
(except Planotia) and in Spartina stricta ; and the interposition
of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in bamboos,
Leptaspis, Phams, Pariana, Lophatherum and others. In the
latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate
or sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also
( Olyra , Pantcum). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib
usually strong, and the other ribs more slender. In AnomacUoa
there are several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved
grasses ( Bambuseae , Pharus, Leptaspis) the venation becomes
tesselated by transverse
connecting veins. The
tissue is often raised
above the veins, form¬
ing longitudinal ridges,
generally on the upper
rubra. The dark portions represent [? ce > ,^ e j> tor nata are . ®
supporting and conducting tissue; the toes m the intervening
upper face bears furrows, at the bottom furrows. The thick pro¬
of each of which are seen the motor m j nen t veins in Agro-
ct,,ls pyrum occupy the whole
upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal appendages are rare,
the most frequent being marginal, saw-like, cartilaginous
teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (Danthania scabra,
Panicum serratum) so large as to give the margin a serrate
appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in Alopecurus
lanatus and one or two Panicum. The blade is often twisted,
frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become
reversed. In dry-country grasses the blades are often folded
on the midrib, or rolled up. The rolling is effected by bands of
large wedge-shaped cells—motor-cells—between the nerves,
the loss of turgescence by which, as the air dries, causes the
blade to curl towards the face on which they occur. The rolling
up acts as a protection from too great loss of water, the exposed
surface being specially protected to this end by a strong cuticle,
the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the protected
surface. The stiffness of the blude, which becomes very marked
in dry-country grasses, is due to the development of girders of
thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all
or the principal veins (fig. 2).
Inflorescence .—This possesses an exceptional importance in
grasses, since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the
sexual organs of very great uniformity, the characters employed
for classification are mainly derived from the arrangement ol
the flowers and their investing bracts. Various interpretations
have been given to these glumaceous organs and different terms
employed for them by various writers. It may, however, be
Fig. 2 .—Magnified transverse section
of one-half of a leaf-blade of Festuca
Fig. 3.—One-flowered Fig. 4.—Two-flowered spikelet
spikelet of Agrostis. of Aira.
b. Barren glumes; /, flowering glumes. (Both enlarged.)
considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as
glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to
the flower, form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the
nature of bracts. These are arranged so as to form spikelels
(locustae), and each spikelet may contain one, as in Agrostis
(fig. 3) two, as in Aira (fig. 4) three, or a greater number of
flowers, as in Briwa (fig. 5) Triticum (fig. <$); in some species of
Etapostis there are nearly 60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed
laterally on the axis ( rackflia ) of the spikelet, but in one-flowered
spikelet* they appear to be terminal, and are probably really
so in Anthoxanthtm (fig. 7) and in two anomalous genera,
AnomocUoa and Streptochaeta.
In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely
concealing it, is the palea or pale <" upper pale ” of most syste¬
matic agrostologies). This organ (fig. 13,1) is peculiar to.grasses
Fig. 5.—Spikelet of lirua. Fig. 6,—Spikelet at Triticum.
(Both enlarged.)
Fig. 7.—Spikelet of Antho-
xanihum (enlarged) without the
two lower barren glumes, show¬
ing the two upper awned barren
glumes (g) ana the flower.
among Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families
Gramineae and Cyperaceae), and i- almost always present,
certain Oryzeae and Phalarideae
being the only exceptions. It is
of thin membranous consistence,
usually obtuse, often bifid, and
possesses no central rib or nerve,
but has two lateral ones, one on
either side ; the margins are fre¬
quently folded in at the ribs,
which thus become placed at the
sharp angles. This structure was
formerly regarded as pointing to
the fusion of two organs, and
the pale was considered by
Robert Brown to represent two
portions soldered together of a
trimerous perianth - whorl, the
third portion being the “ lower
pale.” The pale is now gener¬
ally considered to represent the
single bracteole, characteristic
of Monocotyledons, the bmerved
structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the
spikelet during the development of the pale, as in Iris and others.
The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axil of
another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed
to it, though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract
or flowering glume which has been generally called by systemat-
ists the “ lower pale,” and with the “ upper pule ” was formerly
considered to form an outer floral envelope (“ calyx,” Jussieu ;
“ perianthium,” Brown). The two bracts are, however, on
different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot therefore
be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike
one another, but in some genera (e.g. most Festuctae) are very
similar in shape and appearance.
The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped
form, is of firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central
midrib and frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a
large proportion of genera extends into an appendage termed
the awn (fig. 4), and the lateral veins more rarely extend beyond
the glume as sharp points (e.g. Pappophomm). The form of the
flowering glume is very various, this organ being plastic and
extensively modified in different genera. It frequently extends
downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the. latter a
swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a
furrow. In Leptaspis it is formed info a dosed cavity by the
union of its edges, and endoses the flower, the styles projecting
through the pervious summit. Valuable characters for dis¬
tinguishing genera are obtained from the awn. This presents
itself variously developed from a mere subulate point to an
organ several inches in length, and when complete (as in Andn-
pogoneae, Aveneae and Stipeae) consists of two well-marked
portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight portion,
372
GRASSES
usually get. in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid and
occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8), The lower part is most
often suppressed, and in the large group of the Paniceae awns
of any sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal
or may come off from the back of the flowering glume, and
Duval Jouve’s observations have shown that it represents the
blade of the leaf of which the portion of the
flowering glume below its origin is the sheath;
the twisted part (so.often suppressed) corre¬
sponds with the petiole, and the portion of
the glume extending beyond the origin of
the awn (very long in some species, e.g. of
Danthonia) with the ligule of the developed
foliage-leal. When terminal the awn has
three fibro-vascular bundles, when dorsal
only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing
epidermis.
Die flower with its palea is thus sessile in
die axil of a floriferous glume, and in a few
grasses (IPersia (fig. 9), Coleanthus, Nardus)
the spikelet consists of nothing more, but
usually (even in uniflorous spikelcts) other
glumes are present. Of these the two placed
distichously opposite each other at the base
of the spikelet never bear any flower in their
axils, and are called the empty or barren
glumes (figs. 3, 8). They are the “ glumes ”
of most writers, and together form what
was called the “ gluma ” by R. Brown.
They rarely differ much from one another,
but one may be smaller or quite
absent (Panirum, Setaria (fig. 10), Pas-
palum, Lolium), or both be altogether
suppressed, as above noticed. They are
commonly firm and strong, often enclose
the spikelet, and are rarely provided with
long points or imperfect awns. Gener¬
ally speaking they do not share in the
special modifications of the flowering
glumes, and rarely themselves undergo
modification, chiefly in hardening of
portions ( Sclrrachne , Manisuris, Anthe-
About ] n&t. size.
ing glume; p, pale.
formed in various ways. Thus in Setaria (fig. 10), Petmisetum,
See., the one or more circles of simple or leathery hairs represent
abortive branches of the inflorescence; in Cenckrus (fig. is)
these, became consolidated, and the inner ones flattened so as
to form a very hard globular spiny case to the spikeiets. The
cup-shaped involucre of Cornucopia
is a dilatation of the axis into
a hollow receptacle with a raised
border. In Cynosurus (Dog’s tail)
the pectinate involucre which con¬
ceals the spikelet is a barren or
abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more
general charactersubtending branches
of the inflorescence are singularly
rare in Gramineae, in marked con¬
trast with Cypcraceae, where they are
so conspicuous. They however occur Pi Gi u._Spikelet of
in a whole section of Andropogon, in Reed (Phraemites com-
Anamaddua, and at the base of the «•«•«*) opened out.
spike in Sesleria. The remarkable a ’ b ’ Barren glumes,
ovoid involucre of Coix, which be¬
comes of stony hardness, white and
polished (then known as “ Tob’s
tears,’’ ipso.), is also a modified bract
or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at
the apex, and contains the female
spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles
emerging through the small apical orifice.
Any number of spikeiets may compose the inflorescence, and
their arrangement is very various. In the spicate forms, with
sessile spikeiets on the mam axis, the latier is often dilated and
flattened (Paspalum), or is more or less
thickened and hollowed out ( Stcnotaphrum ,
Rottboellia, Tripsacum), when the spikeiets
are sunk and buried within the cavities.
Every variety of racemose and paniculate
inflorescence obtains, and the number of
spikelcts composing those of the large kinds
is often immense. Rarely the inflorescence
consists of very few flowers ; thus Lygeum
Spartum, the most anomalous of European of Cenchrus echinatus
grasses, has but two or three large uni- a bnsUy
florous spikeiets, which are fused together
at the base, and have no basal glumes, but are enveloped in a
large, hooded, spathe-like bract.
Flower .—This is characterized by remarkable uniformity.
The perianth is represented by very rudimentary, small, fleshy
scales arising below the ovary, called lodirulrs ; they are elongated
c, c, Fertile glumes, each
enclosing one
flower with its
pale d.
Note the zigzag axis
(: rhachilla) bearing
long silky hairs.
Fra. 14.—Spikelet
Fio. 8.—Spikelet ol
Stipa pennata. The pair
of barren glumes (8)
are separated from the
flowering glume, which Fig. a. — Fig. to. — Spikelet of
bears a long awn, Spikelet of Leer- Setaria, with an abortive
twisted below the knee sta. /, Flower- branch ( h) beneath it. h,
and feathery above, ing glume; p, Barrenjlumes; /, flower-
phora, Peliophorum), 10 as to afford greater protection to the
flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the basal glumes,
a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or more-flowered
spikeiets (see Triticum, fig. 6) at the top of the rhachilla (numer¬
ous in Lopkatkerum), or in uraflorous ones (fig. 10) below and
interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair.
The axis of the spikelet it frequently jointed and breaks up
into articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs
am frequently present (Calamapostis, Phragmites, Andropogon),
and are often so long ns to surround and conceal the flowers
(fig/ti). The axis is often continued beyond the last flower or
gtaae a* a bristle pr stafle.
Immhurts or organs outside the spikeiets also occur, and are
Fig. 13.—Flowers of Grasses (enlarged), i, Piptatherum, with the
palea p ; 2, Poa; 3, Orysa ; 1 , Loaicule.
or truncate, sometimes fringed with hairs, and are in contact
with the ovary. Their usual number is two, and they are placed
collaterally at the anterior side of the flower (fig, 13), that is,
within the flowering glume. They are generally considered to
represent the inner whorl of the ordinary monocotyiedonous
GRASSES
373
(liliaceous) perianth, the outer whorl of these being suppressed
as well as the posterior member of the inner whori. This latter
is present almost constantly m Stipeae and Bambuseae, which
have three lodicules, and in the latter group they are occasionally
more numerous. In AnontocMoa they are represented by hairs.
In Streptochaela there are six lodicules, alternately arranged
in two whorls. Sometimes, as in Anthoxanthum, they are
absent. In Milica there is one large anterior lodicule resulting
presumably from the union of the two which are present in allied
genera. Professor E. Hackel, however, regards this as an
undivided second pale, which in the majority of the grasses is
split in halves, and the posterior lodicule, when present, as a
third pale. On this view the grass-flower has no perianth.
The function of the lodicules is the separation of the pale and
glume to allow the protrusion of stamens and stigmas; they
effect this by swelling and thus exerting pressure on the base of
these two structures. Where, as in Anthoxanthum, there are no
lodicules, pale and glume do not become laterally separated,
and the stamens and stigmas protrude only at the apex of the
floret (fig. 7). Grass-flowers are usually hermaphrodite, but
there are very many exceptions. Thus it is common to find one
or more imperfect (usually male) flowers in the same spikelet
with bisexual ones, and their relative position is important
in classification. Holcus and Arrhenathrrum are examples in
English grasses ; and as a rule in species of temperate regions
separation of the sexes is not carried further. In warmer
countries monoecious and dioecious grasses are more frequent.
In such cases the male and female spikelets und inflorescence
may be very dissimilar, as in maize. Job's tears, Ewjdaena,
Spinijex, See.; and in some dioecious species this dissimilarity
has led to the two sexes being referred to different genera (e.g.
Anthephora axilliftora is the female of Buchloc daciylaides,
and Neuraehne paradoxa of a species of Spinijex). In other
grasses, however, with the sexes in different plants («.g. Briio-
pyrum, Distiehlis, Eragrostis eapitata, Gynerium), no such
dimorphism' obtains. Atnpkicarpum is remarkable in having
cleistogamic flowers home on long radical subterranean peduncles
which are fertile, whilst the conspicuous upper paniculate ones,
though apparently perfect, never produce fruit. Something
similar occurs in Leersia oryzoides, where the fertile spikelets
are concealed within the leaf-sheaths.
Androerium. —In the vast majority there are three stamens
alternating with the lodicules, and therefore one anterior, i.e.
opposite the flowering glume, the other two being posterior and
in contact with the palca (fig. 13, 1 and 2). They are hypo-
gynous, and have long and very delicate filaments, and large,
linear or oblong two-celled anthers, dorsifixed and ultimately
very versatile, deeply indented at each end, and commonly
exserted and pendulous. Suppression of the anterior stamen
sometimes occurs (e.g. Anthoxanthum, fig. 7), or the two posterior
ones may be absent ( Uniola , China, Phippsia, Festuca bromotdes).
There is in some genera (Oryza, most Bambuseae) another row of
three stamens, making six in all (fig. 13, 3); and Anomochloa and
Tetrarrhena possess four. The stamens become numerous (ten
to forty) in the male flowers of a few monoecious genera (Pariana,
Luziola). In Ochlandra they vary from seven to thirty, and in
Gigantochloa they are monadelphous.
Gynoecium.— The pistil consists of a single carpel, opposite the
pale in the median plane of the spikelet. The ovary is small,
rounded to elliptical, and one-celled, and contains a single
slightly bent ovule sessile on the ventral suture (that is, springing
from the back of the ovary); the micropyle points downwards.
It bears usually two lateral styles which are quite distinct or
connate at the base, sometimes for a greater length (fig. 14,1),
each ends in a densely hairy or feathery stigma (fig. 14). Occa¬
sionally there is but a single style, as in Nonius ( fig. 14,7), which
corresponds to the midrib of the carpel. The very long and
apparently simple stigma of maize arises from the union of two.
Many of the bamboos have a third, anterior, style.
Comparing the flower of Gramineae with the general mono¬
cotyledon ous plan a» represented by Lilioceae and other families
(fig. 15), it will be seen to differ in the absence of the outer row and
the posterior member of the inner row of the perianth-leaves, of
the whole inner tow of stamens, and of rite two lateral carpels,
Fig. 14.—Pistils of Grasses (much enlarged), i, A lopecurus ; 2,
Rromus: 3, Arrhenatherum ; 4, Glycerin ; 5 , Meltca ; 6, M thorn ;
7, Sard us.
Fit;. 13.-
1, Actual condition;
2, Theoretical, with
the suppressed
organs supplied,
a, Axis.
L, Flowering glume.
c, Palca.
Diagrams of the ordinary Grass-
flower.
d, Outer row of peri¬
anth leaves.
», Inner row.
/, Outer row
stamens.
c. Inner row.
V Pistil.
of
whilst the remaining members of the perianth are in a rudiment¬
ary condition. But each or any of the usually missing organs
are to be found a
normally in differ- ^ O
ent genera, or as
occasional develop¬
ments.
Pollination .—
Grasses are gener¬
ally wind - pollin¬
ated, though self-
fertilization some¬
times occurs. A few
species, as we have
seen, are mono¬
ecious or dioecious,
while many are
polygamous(having
unisexual as well
as bisexual flowers
as in many members of the tribes Andropogoneae, fig.
and Paniceae), and in these the male flower of a spikelet
always blooms later than the hermaphrodite, so that its
pollen can only effect cross-fertilization upon other spikelets
in the same or another plant. Of those with only bisexual
flowers, many are strongly protogynous (the stigmas protrud¬
ing before the anthers are ripe), such as Aiopeeurus and
Anthoxanthum (fig. 7), but generally thf anthers protrude first
and discharge the greater part of their pollen before the stigmas
appear. The filaments elongate rapidly at flowering-time, and
the lightly versatile anthers empty an abundance of finely
granular smooth pollen through a longitudinal slit. Some
flowers, such as rye, have lost the power of effective self-fertiliza¬
tion, but in most cases both forms, self- and cross-fertilization,
seem to be possible. Thus the species of wheat ore usually self-
fertilized, but cross-fertilization is possible since the glumes are
open above, the stigmas project laterally, and the anthers empty
only about one-third of their pollen in their own flower and
the rest into the air. In some cultivated races of barley, cross-
fertilization is precluded, as Hie flowers never open. Reference
has already been made to cleistogamic species which occur in
18,
several genera.
Fruit and Seed.—The ovary ripens into a usually small ovoid
or rounded fruit, which is entirely occupied by the single large
seed, from which it is not to be distinguished, the thin pericarp
being completely united to its surface. To this peculiar
fruit the term caryoptis has been applied (more familiarly
“ grain ’’); it is commonly furrowed longitudinally, down one
side (usually the inner, but in Coix and its allies, the outer), end
an additional covering is not unfreqoently provided by the
adherence of the persistent palea, or even also of the flowering
374
GRASSES
glume (“ chaff ” of cereal*). From thia type are a few deviation*;
thu* In Sporobolus, &c. (fig. 16), the pericarp is not united with
the seed but is quite distinct, dehisces, and allows the loose seed to
escape. Sometimes the pericarp is membranous, sometimes hard,
forming a nut, as in some genera of Bambuseae, while in other
Bambuseae it becomes thick and fleshy, forming a berry often as
• large as an apple. In Melocanna the berry forms
an edible fruit 3 or 4 in. long, with a pointed
beak of 2 in. more; it is indehiscent, and the
small' seed germinates whilst the fruit is still
attached to the tree, putting out a tuft of roots
and a shoot, and not falling till the latter is 6 in.
long. The position of the embryo is plainly
visible on the front side at the base of the grain.
On the other, posterior, side of the grain is a
more or less evident, sometimes punctiform,
sometimes elongated or linear mark, the hilum,
the place where the ovule was fastened to the wall of the ovary.
The form of the hilum is constant throughout a genus, and
Fig. 16.
Fruit of Sporo¬
bolus, Bhowing
the dehiscent
pericarp and
seed.
sometimes also in whole tribes.
The testa is thm and membranous but occasionally coloured,
and the embryo small, the great bulk of the seed being occupied
by the hard farinaceous endosperm (albumen) on which the
nutritive value of the grain depends. The outermost layer of
endosperm, the aleuron-layer, consists of regular cells filled with
small proteid grantdes; the rest is made up of large polygonal
cells containing numerous starch-grains in a matrix of proteid
which may be continuous (horny endosperm) or granular (mealy
endosperm). The embryo presents many points of interest. Its
position is remarkable, closely applied to the surface of the
endosperm at the base of its outer side. This character is
absolute for the whole order, and effectually separates Gramineae
from Cyperaceae. The part in contact with the endosperm is
plate-like, and is known as the scuteUum ; the surface in contact
with the endosperm forms an absorptive epithelium. In some
grasses there is a small scale-like appendage opposite the scutel-
lum, the epiblast. There is some difference of opinion as to which
structure or structures represent the cotyledon. Three must be
considered: (1) the scuteUum, connected by vascular tissue
with the vascular cylinder of the main axis of the embryo which
it more or less envelops; it never leaves the seed, serving
merely to prepare and absorb the food-stuff in the endosperm ;
(2) the cellular outgrowth of the axis, the epiblast, small and
inconspicuous as in wheat, or larger as in Stipa ; (3) the pileole
or germ-sheath, arising on the same side of the axis and above the
scuteUum, enveloping the plumule in the seed and appearing
above ground as a generally colourless sheath from the apex of
which the plumule ultimately breaks (fig. 17,4, b). The develop¬
ment of these structures(which was investigated by van Tieghem),
FtO. *7.—A Grain of Wheat. 1, back, and 2, front view; 3,
vertical lection, showing (6) the endosperm, and (a) embryo; 4,
beginning of germination, showing ( b ) the pileole and (c) the radicle
and secondary rootlets surrounded by their colcorrhizae.
especially in relation to the origin of the vascular bundles which
supply them, favour* the view that the scuteUum and pileole are
highly differentiated parts of a single cotyledon, and this view is in
accord with a comparative study of the seedling of grasses and
of other monocotyledons. The epiblast has been regarded as
representing a second /cotyledon, but this is a very doubtful
interpretation.
(krmmbtion. —In germination the coleorhiza lengthens,
rupture* the pericarp, and .fixes the grain to the ground by
developing numerous hairs. The radicle then breaks through
the coleorhiza, as do also the secondary rootlets where, as in
the case of many cereals, these have been formed in the embryo
(fig. 17, 4). The germ-sheath grows verticaUy upwards, its
stiff apex pushing through the soil, while the plumule is hidden
in its hollow interior. Finally the plumule escapes, its leaves
successively breaking through at the tip of the germ-sheath.
The scuteUum meanwhile feeds the developing embryo from
the endosperm. The growth of the primary root is limited;
sooner or later adventitious roots develop from the axis above
the radicle which they ultimately exceed in growth.
Means oj Distribution. —Various methods of scattering the
grain have been adopted, in which parts of the spikelet or in¬
florescence are concerned. Short spikes may faU from the
culm as a whole; or the axis of a spike or raceme is jointed so
that one spikelet falls with each joint as in many Andropogoneae
and Hordeae. In many-flowered spikelets the rachiUa is often
jointed and breaks into as many pieces as there are fruits, each
piece bearing a glume and pale. One-flowered spikelets may
fall as a whole (as in the tribes Panieeae and Andropogoneae),
or the axis is jointed above the barren glumes so that only the
flowering glume and pale fall with the fruit. These arrange¬
ments are, with few exceptions, lacking in cultivated cereals
though present in their wild forms, so for as these are known.
Sucli arrangements are disadvantageous for the complete gather¬
ing of the fruit, and therefore varieties in which they are not
present would be preferred for cultivation. The persistent
bracts (glume and pale) afford an additional protection to the
fruit; they protect the embryo, which is near the surface, from
too rapid wetting and, when once soaked, from drying up again.
They also decrease the specific gravity, so that the grain is more
readily carried by the wind, especially when, as in Briza, the glume
has a large surface compared with the size of the grain, or when,
us in Holcus, empty glumes also take part; in Canary grass
(Pkalaris) the large empty glumes bear a membranous wing
on the keel. In the sugar-cane ( Saccharum ) and several allied
genera the separating joints of the axis bear long hairs below
the spikelets ; in others, as in Arundo (a reed-grass), the flowering
glumes are enveloped in long hairs. The awn which is frequently
borne on the flowering glume is also a very efficient means of
distribution, catching into fur of animals or plumage of birds,
or as often in Stipa (fig. 8) forming a long feather for wind-
carriage. In Tragus the glumes bear numerous short hooked
bristles. The fleshy berries of some Bambuseae favour distribu¬
tion by animals.
The awn is also of use in burying the fruit in the soil. Thus
in Stipa, .species of Avena, Heteropogon and others the base of
the glume forms a sharp point which will easily penetrate the
ground ; above the point are short stiff upwardly pointing hairs
which oppose its withdrawal. The long awn, which is bent and
closely twisted below the bend, acts as a driving organ; it is
very hygroscopic, the coils untwisting when damp and twisting
up when dry. The repeated twisting and untwisting, especi¬
ally when the upper part of the awn has become fixed in the
earth or caught in surrounding vegetation, drives the point
deeper and deeper into the ground. Such grasses often cause
harm to sheep by catching in the wool and boring through
the skin.
A peculiar method of distribution occurs in some alpine and
arctic grasses, which grow under conditions where ripening of
the fruit is often uncertain. The entire spikelet, or single
flowers, are transformed into small-leaved shoots which fall
from the axes and readily root in the ground. Some species,
such as Poa stricta, are known only in this viviparous
condition; others, like our British species Festuca ovina
and Poa alpina, become viviparous under the special climatic
conditions.
II. Classification. —Gramineae are sharply defined from
all other plants, and there are no genera as to which it is possible
to feel a doubt whether they should be referred *to it or not.
The only family closely allied is Cyperaceae, and the points of
difference between the two may be here brought together. The
GRASSES
37S
best distinctions are found in the position of the embryo in
relation to the endosperm—lateral in grasses, basal in Cyperaceae
—and in the possession by Gramineae of the a-nerved palea
below each flower. Less absolute characters, but generally
trustworthy and more easily observed, are the feathery stigmas,
the always distichous arrangement of the glumes, the usual
absence of more general bracts in the inflorescence, the split
leaf-sheaths, and the hollow, cylindrical, jointed culms—some
# or all of which are wanting in all Cyperaceae. The same char-
*acters will distinguish passes from lire other glumifcrous orders,
Restiaceae, and Eriocaulonaceae, which are besides further
removed by their capsular fruit and pendulous ovules. To other
monocotyledonous families the resemblances are merely of
adaptive or vegetative characters. Some Commelinaceae and
Maruntaceae approach grasses in foliage; the leaves of Allium,
&c., possess a ligule; the habit of some palms reminds one of
the bamboos; and Juncaceae and a few Liliaceae possess an
inconspicuous scarious perianth. There are about 300 genera
containing about 3500 well-defined species.
The great uniformity among the very numerous species of this
vast family renders its classification very difficult. The difficulty
has been increased by the confusion resulting from the multiplica¬
tion of genera founded on slight characters, and from the descrip¬
tion (in consequence of their wide distribution) of identical
plants under several different genera.
No characters for main divisions cun be obtained from the
flower proper or fruit (with the exception of the character of
the hilum), and it has therefore been found necessary to trust
to characters derived from the usually less important, inflor¬
escence and bracts.
Robert Brown suggested two primary divisions—Paniccae
and Poaceae, according to the position of the most perfect
flower in the spikelet; this is the upper (apparently) terminal
one in the first, whilst in the second it occupies the lower position,
the more imperfect ones (if any) being above it. Munro supple¬
mented this by another character easier of verification, and of
even greater constancy, in the articulation of the pedicel in the
Paniceae immediately below the glumes; whilst in Poaceae
this does not occur, but the axis of the spikelet frequently
articulates above the pair of empty basal glumes. Neither of
these great divisions will well accommodate certain genera
allied to Phalaris, for which Brown proposed tentatively a
third group (since named Phalarideae) ; this, or at least the
greater part of it, is placed by Bentham under the Poaceae.
The following arrangement has been proposed by Professor
Eduard Hackel in his recent monograph on the order.
A. Spikelets one-flowered, rarely two-flowered as in Zea, lolling
from the pedicel entire or with certain joints of the rachis at maturity,
ltachilla not produced beyond the flowers.
a. Hilum a point; spikelets not laterally compressed.
a Fertile glume and pale hyaline; empty glumes thick,
membranous to coriaceous or cartilaginous, the lowest
the largest. Kachis generally jointed and breaking up
when mature.
1. Spikelets unisexual, male and female in soparate
inflorescences or on different parts of the same
inflorescence. 1 . Maydeae.
a. Spikelets bisexual, or male and bisexual, each male
standing close to a bisexual. 2. Andropogoneae.
g Fertile glume and pale cartilaginous, coriaceous or papery ;
empty glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the
lowest usually smallest. Spikelets falling singly from the
unjointed rachis of the spike or the ultimate branches of
the panicle. 3. Paniceae.
b. Hilum a line ; spikelets laterally compressed.
4. Oryteae.
B. Spikelets one- to indefinite-flowered ; in the one-flowered the
rachilfa frequently produced beyond the flower; rachilla generally
jointed above the empty glumes, which remain after the fruiting
glumes have fallen, when more than one-flowered, distinct inter¬
nodes are developed- between the flowers.
a. Culm herbaceous, annual; leaf-blade sessile, and not jointed
to the sheath.
a Spikelets upon distinct pedicels and arranged in panicles or
racemes.
1 . Spikelets one-flowered.
i. Empty glumes 4. 5 - Phalarideae,
11 . Empty glumes 2. (1. Agrostideae.
II. Spikelets more than one-flowered.
i. Fertile glumes generally shorter than the empty
glumes, usually with a bent awn on the back.
7. Aveneae.
ii. Fertile glumes generally longer than the empty, un-
awned or with a straight, terminal awn.
9. Festucti m.
0 Spikelets crowded in two dose rows, forming a one-sided
spike or raceme with a continuous (not jointed) rachis.
8. Chlorideae.
y Spikelets in two opposite rows forming an equal-sided spike.
10. Hordeae.
b. Culm woody, at any rate at the base, leaf-blade jointed to the
sheath, often with a short, slender petiole.
11. Bambuseae.
Tribe 1. Maydeae (7 genera in the warmer parts ol the earth).
Zea Mays (maire, q.v., or Indian com) (q.v.). Trips acum, 2 or 3 species
in subtropical America north of the equator; Tr. daetyloides (gama
grass) extends northwards to Illinois and Connecticut; it is used for
fodder and as an ornamental plant. Coin Lacryma-Jobi (Job’s
tears) q.v.
Tribe 2. Andropogoneae (25 genera, mainly tropical). The
spikelets are arranged in spike-like racemes, generally in pairs con¬
stating oi a sessile and stalked spikelet at each joint of the rachis
(fig. 18). Many are savanna grasses, in various parts of the tropics,
for instance the large genus Andropogon, Eltonurus and others.
Saccharum officinarum (sugar-cane) (q.v.). Sorghum, an important
tropical cereal known as black millet or durra (q.v )- Mtscanthus and
Enanthus, nearly allied to Saccharum, are tall reed-like grasses,
with large silky flower-panicles, which are
grown tor ornament. Imperata, another
ally, is a widspread tropical genus; one
species I. arundinacea is the principal grass
of the afang-alang fields in the Malay Archi¬
pelago ; it is used for thatch. Vossia, an
aquatic grass, often floating, is found in
western India and tropical Africa. In the
swampy lands of the upper Nile it forms,
along with a species of Saccharum, huge
floating grass barriers. Elionurus, a wide¬
spread savanna grass in tropical and sub¬
tropical America, and also in the tropics of
the old world, is rejected by cattle probably
on account of its aromatic character, the
spikelets having a strong balsam-like smell.
Other aromatic members are Andropogon
Nardus, a native of India, bnt also cultivated,
the rhfaome, leaves and especially the spike¬
lets of which contain a volatile oil, which on
distillation yieldB the citronella oil of com¬
merce. A closely allied species, A. Schoen-
anthus (lemon-grass), yields lemon-grass oil;
a variety is used by the negroes in western
Africa for haemorrhage. Other species of
the same genus are used as stimulants and
cosmetics in various parts of the tropics. The species of Hetero-
pogon, a cosmopolitan genus in the warmer parts of the world, have •
strongly awned spikelets. T hemeda Forshalti, which occurs from the
Mediterranean region to South Africa and Tasmania, is the kangaroo
grass of Australia, where, as in South Africa, it often coven wide
Fio. 18.—A pair of
spikelets Of Andro¬
pogon.
tracts
Tribe 3. Paniceae (about 25 genera, tropical to subtropical;
a few temperate), a second flower, generally male, rarely herma¬
phrodite, is often present below the fertile flower. Paspalum, is a
large tropical genus, most abundant in America, especially on the
pampas and campos; many species are good forage plants, and the
grain is sometimes used for food. A mphicarpum, native in the south¬
eastern United States, has fertile cleistogamous spikelets on. filiform
runners at the base of the culm, those on the terminal panicle are
sterile. Panicum, a very polymorphic genus, and one of the largest
in the order, is widely spread in all warm countries; together with
species of Paspalum they form good forage grasses in the South
American savannas and campos. Panicum Crus-galli is a poly¬
morphic cosmopolitan grass, which is often grown for fodder; in one
form ( P. frumsntaceum) it is cultivated in India for its gridn. P.
plicatum, with broad folded leaves, is an ornamental greenhouse grata.
P. miliaceum is millet (q.v.), and P. aItissimum, Guinea grass. In
the closely allied genus Digitaria, which is sometimes regarded as
a section of Panicum, the lowest barren glume is reduced to a paint;
D. sanguinalis is a very widespread grass, in Bohemia it is cultivated
as a food-grain; it is also toe crab-grass of toe southern United States,
where it is used for fodder.
In Ssiaria end allied genera toe spikelet is subtended by an
involucre of bristles or spines which represent sterile branches of the
inflorescence. Setaria italica, Hungarian grass, is extensively grown
as a food-grain both in China end Japan, parts of India end western
Asia, as well as in Europe, where its culture dates from prehistoric
times; it is found in considerable quantity in the lake dwellings of
the Stone age.
In Cenchrus toe bristles unite to form a tough spiny cs p e n le
37&
GRASSES
I II.. Ui.—Phalaridtae. Spike-
let of Iherochloc.
fig. 12) ; C. tribuloides (bur-gran) and other species are troublesome
weeds in North and South America, as the involucre clings to the
wool of sheep and is removed with great difficulty. Pcnnisetum
typhoideum is widely cultivated as a grain in tropical Africa. Spini-
jan, a dioecious grass, is widespread on the coasts of Australia and
eastern Asia, forming an important sand-binder. The female heads
are spinose with long pungent bracts, fall entire when ripe and are
carried away by wind or sea, becoming finally anchored in the sand
and falling to pieces.
Tribe 4. Orysaaa (if. genera, mainly tropical and subtropical).
The spikelfts are sometimes unisexual, and there are often six
stamens. Laarsia is a genus of swamp grasses, one of which 1..
oryzoidss occurs in the north temperate rone of both old and new
worlds, and is a rare gTass in Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire. Zizania
aquatica (Tuscarora or Indian rice) is a reed-like grass growing over
largeareas on banks ol stream , and lakes in North America and north¬
east Asia. The Indians collect the grain for food. Oryza saliva
(rice) (q.v.). Lygeum Sparlum, with a creeping stem and stiff rush-
like leaves, is common on rocky soil on the high plains bordering the
western Mediterranean, and is one of the sources of esparto.
'Tribe 5. i’halarideae (0 genera,
three of which are South African
and Australasian ; the others are
more widely distributed, and re¬
presented in our llora). Phalatis
arundinacea, is a reetl-grass found
on the banks ot British rivers and
lakes; a variety with striped leaves
known as ribbon grass is grown for
ornament. P. canartensis (Canary
grass, a native of southern Europe
and the Mediterranean area) is
grown for bird-food and some¬
times as a cereal. Anthoxanthum
adoratum, the sweet vernal grass of
our flora, owes its scent to the
presence of couinarin, which is also present in the closely allied
genus IJiernchlnr (fig. 1 O' , which occurs throughout tho temperate
and frigid zones.
Tribe 0. AgrvMidrar (about 35 genera, occurring in all parts of
the world ; eleven are British). Anstida and Slipa are large and
widely distributed genera, occurring e«]>ecially on open plains and
steppes ; the conspicuously awned persistent flowering glume forms
an efficient means ol chsficrsing the giain. Slipa pennata is a char¬
acteristic species of the Bosnian .steppes. Si sparlea (porcupine
grass) and other species arc plentiful on the North American prairies.
St. tmaeissima is the Spanish esparto grass (</.».), known in North
Africa os Haifa or alfa. Phtsum has a cylindrical spike-like mfiores-
ccnce; P. pratrnse (timothy) is a valuable fodder grass, as also is
Alapecuruz pratansis (foxtail). Sporobolus , a large genus in the
warmer parts of both hemispheres, but chiefly America, derives its
name from the fact that the seed is ultimately expelled from the
fruit. Agrvstis is a large world wide genus, but especially developed
in the north tcin|>erute zone, where it includes important meadow-
grasses. Catamagrostis and Iitstuxiu air tall, often reed-like grasses,
occurring throughout the temperate and arctic zones and upon high
mountains in tho trojiics. Ammopkila arundinacaa (or Psamma
aranana) (Marram grass) with its long creeping stems forms a useful
sand-binder on the coasts of h urope. North Africa and the Atlantic
states of America.
Tribe 7. Avnuat) (about 24 genera, seven of which are British).
Holcu ■ lanatus (Yorkshire fog, soft grass) is a common meadow and
wayside grass with woolly or downy leaves. Air a iR a genus of
delicate annuals with slender hatr-iike branches of the panicle.
Uaukampsia and Tnsatum occur in temperate and cold regions or on
high mountains in the tropica; T. pratanso (.1 vena flaitscsns) with
a loose panicle and yellow shining spikelets in a valuable fodder-
grass. Auena fatua is the wild oat and A. saliva the cultivated oat
(?•*•)■. Arrheuatkerum avanaeeum, a perennial field grass, native in
Britain and central and southern Europe, is cultivated in North
America.
Tribe 8. Cktorideat (about 30 genera, chiefly in warm countries).
The only British representative is Cynodun Daciylou (dog's tooth,
Bermuda grass) found on sandy shores in the south-west of England ;
it is a cosmopolitan, covering the ground in sandy soils, and forming
an important forage grass in many dry climates (Bermuda grass oi
the southern United States, and known as durha, dub and other
names in India). Species of Chloris are grown as ornamental grasses.
Boutatoua with numerous species (mesquite grass, grama gross) oa
the plains of the south-western United Statist, afford good grazing.
Elaimne indica is • common tropical weed; the nearly allied species
if. Corarana is a cultivated grain in the warmer parts of Asia and
throughout Africa. Bueklae dacivlaidas is the buffalo grass of the
North American prairies, a valuable fodder.
Tribe p. Fastucsaa (about 83 genera, including tropical, temperate,
erotic and alpine forms* many are important meadow-grasses ; 15
are British. Gy atrium argantsum (pampas grass) is a native of
smfthern Brazil and Argentina. A ruitdc and Pkragmitas are tall
reed-grasses (see Kami). Several species of Triodia cover large areas
of the interior of Australia, ^dfrom their stiff, sharply pointed leaves
arc very troublesome. Eragrnstis, one of the larger genera of the
order, is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the earth; many
species are grown for ornament and E. abyssinica is an important
rood-plant in Abyssinia. .
fT.
§1 4
Koalaria cristatu is
fodder-grass. Bnta
madia (quaking grass)
is a useful meadow-
grass DactyUs glo-
marata (cnck's-foot), a
perennial grass with a
dense panicle, common
in pastures and waste
places is a useful
meadow-grass. It has
become naturalized in
North America, where
it is known as orchard
grass, as it will grow
in shade Cynosusus
cristalus (dog's tail) is
a common pasture-
grass. Poa, a large
genus w idely distri¬
buted in temperate and
cold countries, includes
many meadow and
alpine grasses; eight
specie:, are British; P.
annua (fig. 20) is the
very common weed in
paths and waste places;
P. pratansis and P. Iri-
viaiis are also common
grasses of meadows,
lianks and pastures, the
former is the "June
grass " or " Kentucky
blue grass " of North
America ; P. alpwa
is a mountain grass of
the northern hemi¬
sphere and found also
in the Arctic region
The largest species of
the genus is Poa flabel-
lala which forms great
tufts b-7 ft high with leaves arranged like a fan ; it is a native
of the Falkland and certain antarctic islands where it is known as
tussock grass. Glvcaria fluitans, manna-grass, so-
called from the sweet grain, is one of the best fodder
grasses for swampy meadows: the grain is an article
of food in central Europe. Festuca (fescue) is also
a large and widely distributed genus, but found
especially in the temperate and cold zones; it
includes valuable pasture grasses, such as ]•. ovina
(sheep’s fescue), F, rubra ; nine species are British.
The closely allied genus Bromus (brome grass) is
also widely distributed but most abundant in the
north temperate zone; B. erectus is a useful forage
grass 1111 dry chalky soil,
Tribe 10. Hordaat (about ig genera, widely
distributed : six are British). Naraus stncla (mat-
weed) , found on heaths and dry pastures, is a s mall
perennial with slender rigid stem and leaves, it is
a useless grass, crowding out better sorts, Loliuni
perenne, ray- (or lit’ corruption rye-) grass, is
common in waste places and a valuable pasture-
grass ; L. italicum is the Italian ray-grass;
lemuhmtum (darnel) contains a narcotic principle
in the gram. Steals certale, rye (0.1/.), is cultivated
mainly in northern Europe. Agropyrum repans
(couch grass) has a long creeping underground stem,
and is a troublesome weed in cultivated land ; the
widely creeping stem of A. junceum, found on
sandy sea-shores, renders it a useful sand-hinder.
Tntuum sativum is wheat (q.v.) (fig. 21), and Hor-
deum sativum, barley (q.v.). H. nmnnum, wild
barley, is a common grass in waste places. Elymus
nranarius (Ivme grass) occurs on sandy sea-shores in
the north temperate zone and is a useful sand-binder. ^ ^ ^ _
Tribe 11. Bambussae. Contains 23 genera, mainly SpikVof Wheat
tropical. See Bamhoo \fritiaim sati-
III. Distribution. —Grasses are the most 5
universally diffused of all flowering plants. 1 ‘ l ’
There is no district in which they do not occur, find in nearly
all they are a leading feature of the flora. In numlier of
species Gramineae comes considerably after Campositae and
Fir,. 20 ,—Poa annua, Plant in Flower;
about I nat. size. 1, one spikelet.
Fic. 21.-
GRASSHOPPER
Leguminosae, the two most numerous orders of phanerogams,
but in number of individual plants it probably far exceeds
either; whilst from the wide extension of many of its
species, the proportion of Gramineae to other orders in the
various floras of the world is much higher than its number of
species would lead one to expect. In tropical regions, where
Leguminosae is the leading order, grasses closely follow as the
second, whilst in the warm and temperate regions of the northern
hemisphere, in which Compositae takes the lead, Gramineae
'again occupies the second position.
While the greatest number of species is found in the tropical
zone, the number of individuals is greater in the temperate
zones, where they form extended areas of turf. Turf- or meadow-
formation depends upon uniform rainfall. Grasses also char¬
acterize steppes and savannas, where they form scattered tufts.
The bamboos are a feature of tropical forest vegetation, especially
in the monsoon region. As the colder latitudes are entered the
grasses become relatively more numerous, and are the leading
family in Arctic and Antarctic regions. The only countries
where the order plays a distinctly subordinate part are some
extra-tropical regions of the southern hemisphere, Australia,
the Cape, Chili, &c. The proportion of graminaceous species
to the whole phanerogamic flora in different countries is found
to vary from nearly fth in the Arctic regions to about j jth at
the Cape ; in the British Isles it is about 1 ' i! th.
The principal climatic cause influencing the number of gramin¬
aceous species appears to be amount of moisture. A remarkable
feature of the distribution of grasses is its uniformity; there are
no great centres for the order, as in Compositae, where a marked
preponderance of endemic species exists; and the genera,
except some of the smallest or monotypic ones, have usually
a wide distribution.
The distribution of the tropical tribe Bambuseae is interesting.
The species are about equally divided between the Indo-Malayan
region and tropical America, only one species being common
to both. The tribe is very poorly represented in tropical Africa;
one species Oxytenanthera abyssinica has a wide range, and three
monotypic genera are endemic in western tropical Africa. None
is recorded for Australia, though species may perhaps occur
on the northern coast. One species of Arundinaria reaches
northwards as far as Virginia, and the elevation attained in the
Andes by some species of Chusquea is very remarkable,—one,
C. aristata, being abundant from 15,000 ft. up to nearly the level
of perpetual snow.
Many grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common
reed, Phragmites communis ; and many range throughout the
warm regions of the globe, e.g. Cynodon Dactylon, Eleusine
indica , Imperata arundinacca, Sporobolus indicus, &c., and such
weeds of cultivation as species of Setaria, Echinochloa. Several
species of the north temperate zone, such as Poa nemoralis,
P. pratensis, Festuca ovina, F. rubra and others, are absent in
the tropics but reappear in the antarctic regions; others (c.g.
Phlcum alpinum) appear in isolated positions cm high mountains
in the intervening tropics. No tribe is confined to one hemisphere
and no large genus to any one floral region ; facts which indicate
that the separation of the tribes goes back to very ancient times.
The revision of the Australian species by Bentham well exhibits
the wide range of the genera of the order in a flora generally so
peculiar and restricted as that of Australia. Thus of the 90
indigenous genera (many monotypic or very small) only 14 arc
endemic, 1 extends to South Africa, 3 are common to Australia
and New Zealand, 18 extend also into Asia, whilst no fewer than
54 are found in both the Old and New Worlds, 26 being chiefly
tropical and 28 chiefly extra-tropical.
Of specially' remarkable species Lygeum is found on the
sea-sand of the eastern half of the Mediterranean basis, and the
minute Coleanthus occurs in three or four isolated spots in
Europe (Norway, Bohemia, Austria, Normandy), in North-east
Asia (Amur) and on the Pacific coast of North America (Oregon,
Washington). Many remarkable endemic genera occur in
tropical America, including Anomochloa of Brazil, and most of
the large aquatic species with separated sexee are found in this
377
region. The only genus of flowering plants peculiar to the arctic
regions is the beautiful and rare grass Pleuropogon Sabtmi, of
Melville Island.
Fossil Grasses. —While numerous remains of grass-like leaves
are a proof that grasses were widespread and abundantly
developed in past geological ages, especially in the Tertiary
period, the fossil remains are in most cases too fragmentary and
badly preserved for the determination of genera, and conclusions
based thereon in explanation of existing geographical distribution
are most unsatisfactory. There is, however, justification for
referring some specimens to Arundo, Phragmites , and to the
Bambuseae.
Bibliography.—E. Hackel, The True Grasses (translated from
Engler and Prantl, Die natiirhehen Fflantenfamilien, by F. Lam son
Scribner and E. A. Southworth); and Andropogoneae Sh de Candolle’s
Monographiae phaneregamarum (Paris, 1889); K. S. Kunth,
Revision des graminies (Paris, 1829-1835) and Agroslographia
(Stuttgart, 1833); J. C. Dfillin Martiusand Eicjiler, FloraBrasiliensis,
ii. Pts. II. and III. (Munich, 1871-1883) ; A. W. Eichler, BliUhen-
dtagramme i. 119 (Leipzig, 1875); Bentham and Hooker, Genera
plantar um, iii. 107^ (London, 1883); H. Bullion, Hisloire des
Plantes, xii. 136 (Paris, 1893) ; J. S. Gamble, " Bambuseae of British
India” in Annals Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, vii. (1896);
John Percival, Agricultural Botany (chapters on ” Grasses,” 2nd ed.,
London, 1902). See also accounts of the family in the various great
floras,such as Ascherson and Graebner, Synopsisder mitteleuropdischen
Flora ; N. L. Britton and A. Brown, Illustrated Flora of the Northern
United Stales and Canada (New York, 189b); Hooker’s Flora of
British India: Flora Capensis (edited by W. Thiselton-Dycr) j
Boissier, Flora onentahs. See. Ac.
GRASSHOPPER (Fr. sauterelle, Jtal. grillo, Ger. Grashupfer,
Heuschrecke, Swed. Grdshoppa), names applied to orthopterous
insects belonging to the families Locustidae and Acridiidae.
They are especially remarkable for their saltatory powers, due
to the great development of the hind legs, which arc much longer
than the others and have stout and powerful thighs, and also for
their stridulation, which is not always an attribute of the male
only. The distinctions between the two families may be briefly
stated as follows :—The Locustidae have very long thread-like
antennae, four-jointed tarsi, a long ovipositor, the auditory
organs on the tibiae of the first leg and the stridulatory organ
in the wings ; the Acridiidae have short stout antennae, three-
jointed tarsi, a short ovipositor, the auditory organs on the first
abdominal segment, and the stridulatory organ between the
posterior leg and the wing. The term “ grasshopper ” is almost
synonymous with Locust (q.v,). Under both “ grasshopper ”
and “ locust ” are included members of both families above
noticed, but the majority belong to the Acridiidae in both cases.
In Britain the term is chiefly applicable to the large green
grasshopper ( Locusla or Pkasgonura viridissima) common in
most parts of tbs south of England, and to smaller and much
better-known species of the genera Steyobothrus, Gomphocerus
and Tettix, the latter remarkable for the great extension of the
pronotum, which often reaches beyond the extremity of the body.
All are vegetable feeders, and, as in all orthopterous insects,
have an incomplete metamorphosis, so that their destructive
powers are continuous from the moment of emergence from
the egg till death. The migratory locust (Pachytylus cinerascene)
may be considered only an exaggerated grasshopper, and the
Rocky Mountain locust ( Caloptenus spretus ) is still more entitled
to the name. In Britain the species are not of sufficient size,
nor of sufficient numerical importance, to do any great damage.
The colours of many of them assimilate greatly to those of their
habitats; the green of the Locusla viridissima is wonderfully
similar to that of the herbage amongst which it lives, and those
species that frequent more arid spots are protected in the same
manner. Yet many species have brilliantly coloured under-wings
(though scarcely so in English forms), and during flight are almost
as conspicuous as butterflies. Those that belong to the Acridiidae
mostly lay their eggs in more or less cylindrical masses, sur¬
rounded by a glutinous secretion, in the ground. Some of the
Locustidae also lay their eggs in the ground, but Others deposit
them in fissures in trees and low plants, in which the female is
aided by a long flattened ovipositor, or process at the extremity
of the abdomen, whereas in the Acridiidae there is only so
378 GRASS OF PARNAS8G&— GRATIANUS
apparatus of valves. The striduktion or “ song ” in the latter
ia produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the
wings or wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible
to wtinguish the “ song ” of even closely allied species, and some
are said to produce a sound differing by day and night,
CULMS OF FABIAMVI, in botany, a small herbaceous plant
known as Pamaitia palustris (natural order Saxifragaceae),
found on wet moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the
south. The white regular flower is rendered very attractive
Grass of Parnassus (Pamassia palustris) half nat. size, i, One of
the gland-beanng scales enlarged.
by a circlet of scales, opposite the petals, each of which bears a
fringe of delicate filaments ending in a yellow knob. These
glisten in the sunshine and look like a drop of honey. Honey is
secreted by the base of each of the scales.
61IATK (from Lat. crates, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle
for a domestic fire. When coal replaced logs andirons were found
to be unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and
for this reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of
coal it became necessary to confine the area of the fire. Titus a
basket or cage came into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific
principles of heating increased, was succeeded by the small
grate of iron and fire-brick set close into the wall which has since
been in ordinary use in England. In the early part of the 19th
century polished steel grates were extensively used, but the
labour and difficulty of keeping them bright were considerable,
and they were gradually replaced by grates with a polished blade
surface which could be quickly renewed by an application of
Made-lead. The most* frequent form of the 18th-century grate
wq* rattier high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side.
The brothers Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates
in the shape of movable baskets ornamented with the paterae
• *
and acanthus leaves, the swagB and festoons characteristic <jf
their manner. The modern dog-gratei* a somewhat similar
basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or movable.
In the dosing years of the 19th century a “ well-grate ” was
invented, in which the fire bums upon the hearth, combustion
being aided by an air-chamber below.
GRATIAN (Flavius Gratiahus Augustus), Roman emperor
375 ~ 3 8 3 > son of Valentinian I. by Severn, was bom at Sirmium
in Pannonia, on the 18th of April (or 93rd of May) 359. Qn the
24th of August 367 he received from his father the tide of
Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (17th of November 375)
the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a second
wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (4.0.).
Gratian acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the
administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy,
Illyria and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their
residence at Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal,
and the real authority remained in the hands of Gratian. The
eastern portion of the empire was under the rule of his uncle
Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely defeated the Lentienses,
the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at Argentaria, near
the site of the modem Colmar. When Valens met his death
fighting against the Goths near Adrianopie on the 9th of August
in the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved
upon Gratiun, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the
incursions of the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January
379). With Theodosius he cleared the Balkans of barbarians.
For some years Gratian governed the empire with energy and
success, but gradually he sank into indolence, occupied himself
chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and became a tool in the
hands of the Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose.
By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and appearing
in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the
contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named
Maximus took advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of
revolt in Britain and invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which
Gratian, who was then in Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled
to Lyons, where, through the treachery of the governor, he was
delivered over to one of the rebel generals and assassinated on
the 25th of August 383.
The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical
history, since during that period orthodox Christianity for the
first time became dominant throughout the empire. In dealing
with pagans and heretics Gratian, who during his later years was
greatly influenced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, exhibited
severity and injustice at variance with his usual character. He
prohibited heathen worship at Rome ; refused to wear the
insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian;
removed the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome,
in spite of the remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate,
and confiscated its revenues ; forbade legacies of real property
to the Vestals ; and abolished other privileges belonging to them
and to the pontiffs. For his treatment of heretics see the church
histories of the period.
Authorities'— Ammianus Marc •■Hums xxvii.-xxxi.; Aurelius
Victor, is pit. 47; Zosimus iv. vi.; Ausonius (Gralian’s tutor),
especially the Gratiarum actio pro consulatu ; Svmmachus x. epp.
2 and 61 ; Ambrose, De fide, prolegomena to Epistolae 11, 17, 21,
Consolatio dr obitu Valentiniant ; H. Richter, Das westrdmische
Reich, besonders unter den Kaisem Gratian, Valentinian II. uni
Maximus (1865) ; A. de Broglie, L'&glise el l'empire remain au IV•
sitete (4U1 ed., 1882); H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserseit,
iii., iv. 31-33 ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch 27 ; R, Gumpoltsberger,
Kaiser Gratian {Vienna, 1870); T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders
(Oxford, t Hi,2), vol. i.; Tillemont, Hist. Ass empereurs, v.; J. Words¬
worth m Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography. (J. H. F.)
GRATIANUS, FRANCISCOS, compiler of the Concordia dis-
cordantium canonum or Deeretum Gratumi, and founder of the
science of canon law, was bom about the end of the nth century
at C'niusi in Tuscany or, according to another account, at Canaria
near Orvieto. In early life he appears to have been received into
the Camaldulian monastery of Clas&e near Ravenna, whence he
afterwards removed to that of San Felice in Bologna,' where he
spent many yean in the preparation-of the Concordia. The
GRATRYi-^RATTAN 3^
precise data of this work cannot be ascertained, but it contains
references to the decisions of the Lateral council of 1x39, and
there is fair authority for believing that it was completed while
Pope Alexander III. was still simply professor of theology at
Bologna,—in other words, prior to 1150. The labours of Gratian
are said to have been rewarded with the bishopric of -Chiusi, but
if so he appears never to have been consecrated ; at least his
name is not in any authentic list of those who have occupied
that see. The year of his death is unknown.
For some account of the Decretum Gratiani and its history see
Canon Law. The best edition is that of Friedberg (Carpus juris
cauonici, Leipzig, 1879). Compare Schnltze, Zur Geschichte ier
Litttratur dbtr das Dscrtt Grattans (1870), Die G/osse sum Decret
Grattans (1872), and Geschichte tier Qutllen uni Litttratur its ktmo-
nischm Rechts (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1873).
GBATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE (1805-1872),
French author and theologian, was born at Lille on the 10th of
March 1805. He was educated at the ficole Polytechnique,
Paris, and, after a period of mental struggle which he has
described in Souvenirs de ma jeuncsst, he was ordained priest
in 1832. After a stay at Strassburg as professor of the Petit
Sdminaire, lie was appointed director of the College Stanislas
in Paris in 1842 and, in 1847, chaplain of the £xole Normale
Superieure. He became vicar-general of Orleans in 1861,
professor of ethics at the Sorbonnc in 1862, and, on the death of
Barante, a member of the French Academy in 1867, where he
occupied the seat formerly held by Voltaire. Together with M.
Petetot, cure of Saint Roch, he reconstituted the Oratory of the
Immaculate Conception, a society of priests mainly devoted to
education. Gratry was one of the principal opponents of the
definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, but in this respect
he submitted to the authority of the Vatican Council. He died
at Montreux in Switzerland on the 6th of February 1872.
His chief works arc: De la connaissance de. Dieu, opposing
Positivism (1855); La Logique (1856) ; Lr.s Sources, ronseils pour
la conduite de I'esprit (1861-1862); La Philosophic, du credo (1861);
Commeutaire sur I’tvangile de Saint Matihieu (1863); Jtsus-Chnst,
lettres d M. Renan (1864) ; Las Sophtsles cl la critique (in controversy
with F.. Vaclierot) (1864); La Morale el la loi ae Vhistoire, setting
forth his social views (1868); Mgr. I'Mquc d’Orltans et Mgr.
i archeveque de Malines (1869), containing a clear exposition of the
historical arguments against the doctrine of papal infallibility.
There is a selection of Gratry’s writings and appreciation of his style
by the AMic Pichot, in Pages choisies des Grands Rcrivains series,
published by Armand-Colin (1897). Sec also the critical study by
the oratorian A. Chauvin, L’Abhi Gratry (1901) ; Le Pbe Gratry
(1900), and Les Derniers Jours iu Phe Gratry et son testament spiritual,
(1872), by Cardinal Adolphe Perraud, Gratry's friend and disciple.
GRATTAN, HENRY (1746-1820), Irish statesman, son of
James Grattan, for many years recorder of Dublin, was bom
in Dublin on the 3rd of July 1746. lie early gave evidence
of exceptional gifts both of intellect and character. At
Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a distinguished career, he
began a lifelong devotion to classical literature and especially
to the great orators of antiquity. He was called to the Irish
bar in 1772, but never seriously practised the law. Like Flood,
with whom he was on terms of friendship, he cultivated his
natural genius for eloquence by study of good models, including
Bolingbroke and Junius. A visit to the English House of Lords
excited boundless admiration for Lord Chatham, of whose style
of oratory Grattan contributed an interesting description to
Baratariana (sec Flood, Henrv). The influence of Flood, did
much to give direction to Grattan’s political aims; and it was
through no design on Grattan’s part that when Lord Charlemont
brought him into the Irish parliament in 1775, in the very session
in Which Flood damaged his popularity by accepting office,
Grattan quickly superseded his friend in the leadership of the
national party. Grattan was well qualified for it His oratorical
powers were unsurpassed among his contemporaries. He
conspicuously lacked, indeed, the grace of gesture which he so
much admired in Chatham ; he had not the sustained dignity
of Fitt; his powers of close reasoning were inferior to those of
Fox and Flood. But his speeches were packed with epigram,
and expressed with rare felicity of phrase; his terse ana telling
sentences were richer in proforma aphorisms and maxims of
political philosophy than those of any other statesman save j
Suite; he possessed the orator's incomparable gift of conveying
his.own enthnaiaam to his audience and convincing them of the
loftiness of his aims.
The principal object of the national party was to set the Irish
parliament free from constitutional bondage to the English
privy council By virtue of Poyning’s Act, a celebrated statute
of Henry VII., all proposed Irish legislation had to be submitted
to the English privy council for its approval under the graft
seal of England before being passed by the Irish parliament.
A bill so approved might be accepted or rejected, but not
amended. More recent English acts had further emphasized
the complete dependence of the Irish parliament, and the
appellate jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords had also been
annulled. Moreover, the English Houses claimed and exercised
the power to legislate directly for Ireland without even the
nominal concurrence of the parliament in Dublin. This was
the constitution which Molyneux and Swift had denounced,
which Flood had attacked, and which Grattan was to destroy.
The menacing attitude of the Volunteer Convention at Dungannon
greatly influenced the decision of the government in 178* to
resist the agitation no longer. It was through ranks of volunteers
drawn up outside the parliament house in Dublin that Grattan
passed on the 16th of April 1782, amidst unparalleled popular
enthusiasm, to move a declaration of the independence of the
Irish parliament. “I found Ireland on her knees,” Grattan
exclaimed, “ I watched over her with a paternal solicitude;
I have traced her progress from injuries to arms, and from arms
to liberty. Spirit of Swift, spirit of Molyneux, your genius has
prevailed I Ireland is now a nation ! ” After a month of
negotiation the claims of Ireland were conceded. The gratitude
of his countrymen to Grattan found expression in a parliamentary
gTant of £100,000 , which had to be reduced by one half before
he would consent to accept it.
One of the first acts of “ Grattan's parliament ’’ was to prove
its loyalty to England by passing a vote for the support of
20,000 sailors for the navy. Grattan himself never failed in
loyalty to the crown and the English connexion. He was,
however, anxious for moderate parliamentary reform, and,
unlike Flood, he favoured Catholic emancipation. It was,
indeed, evident that without reform the Irish House of Commons
would not be able tomakemuch use of its newly won independence.
Though now free from constitutional control it was no less subject
than before to the influence of corruption, which the English
government had wielded through the Irish borough owners,
known as the “ undertakers,” or more directly through the gnat
executive officers. “ Grattan’s parliament ” had no control
over the Irish executive. The lord lieutenant and his chief
secretary continued to be appointed by the English ministers;
their tenure of office depended on the vyrissitudes of English,
not Irish, party politics ; the royal prerogative was exercised
in Ireland on the advice of English ministers. The Home of
Commons was in no sense representative of the Irish people.
The great majority of the people were excluded as Homan
Catholics from the franchise; two-thirds of the members of
the House of Commons were returned by small boroughs at the
absolute disposal of single patrons, whose support was bought
by a lavish distribution of peerages and pensions. It was to
give stability and true independence to the new constitution
that Grattan pressed for reform. Having quarrelled with Flood
over “ simple repeal ” Grattan also differed from him on the
question of maintaining the Volunteer Convention. He opposed
the policy of protective duties, but supported Pitt’s famous
commercial propositions in 1785 for establishing free trade
between Great Britain and Ireland, which, however, had to be
abandoned owing to the hostility of the English mercantile
classes. In general Grattan supported the government far a
time after 1782, and in particular spoke and voted for the
stringent coercive legislation rendered necessary by the Whitsboy
outrages in 1785; but as the yean passed without Pitt's
personal favour towards parliamentary reform bearing fruit
m legislation, he gravitated towards the opposition, agitated
for commutation of tithes in Ireland, and supported the Whigs
378 GRASS OF PARNAS 8 G&— GRATIANUS
apparatus of valves. The striduktion or “ song ” in the latter
ia produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the
wings or wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible
to wtinguish the “ song ” of even closely allied species, and some
are said to produce a sound differing by day and night,
CULMS OF FABIAMVI, in botany, a small herbaceous plant
known as Pamaitia palustris (natural order Saxifragaceae),
found on wet moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the
south. The white regular flower is rendered very attractive
Grass of Parnassus (Pamassia palustris) half nat. size, i, One of
the gland-beanng scales enlarged.
by a circlet of scales, opposite the petals, each of which bears a
fringe of delicate filaments ending in a yellow knob. These
glisten in the sunshine and look like a drop of honey. Honey is
secreted by the base of each of the scales.
61IATK (from Lat. crates, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle
for a domestic fire. When coal replaced logs andirons were found
to be unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and
for this reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of
coal it became necessary to confine the area of the fire. Titus a
basket or cage came into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific
principles of heating increased, was succeeded by the small
grate of iron and fire-brick set close into the wall which has since
been in ordinary use in England. In the early part of the 19th
century polished steel grates were extensively used, but the
labour and difficulty of keeping them bright were considerable,
and they were gradually replaced by grates with a polished blade
surface which could be quickly renewed by an application of
Made-lead. The most* frequent form of the 18th-century grate
wq* rattier high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side.
The brothers Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates
in the shape of movable baskets ornamented with the paterae
• *
and acanthus leaves, the swagB and festoons characteristic <jf
their manner. The modern dog-gratei* a somewhat similar
basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or movable.
In the dosing years of the 19th century a “ well-grate ” was
invented, in which the fire bums upon the hearth, combustion
being aided by an air-chamber below.
GRATIAN (Flavius Gratiahus Augustus), Roman emperor
375 ~ 3 8 3 > son of Valentinian I. by Severn, was bom at Sirmium
in Pannonia, on the 18th of April (or 93rd of May) 359. Qn the
24th of August 367 he received from his father the tide of
Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (17th of November 375)
the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a second
wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (4.0.).
Gratian acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the
administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy,
Illyria and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their
residence at Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal,
and the real authority remained in the hands of Gratian. The
eastern portion of the empire was under the rule of his uncle
Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely defeated the Lentienses,
the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at Argentaria, near
the site of the modem Colmar. When Valens met his death
fighting against the Goths near Adrianopie on the 9th of August
in the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved
upon Gratiun, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the
incursions of the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January
379). With Theodosius he cleared the Balkans of barbarians.
For some years Gratian governed the empire with energy and
success, but gradually he sank into indolence, occupied himself
chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and became a tool in the
hands of the Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose.
By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and appearing
in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the
contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named
Maximus took advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of
revolt in Britain and invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which
Gratian, who was then in Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled
to Lyons, where, through the treachery of the governor, he was
delivered over to one of the rebel generals and assassinated on
the 25th of August 383.
The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical
history, since during that period orthodox Christianity for the
first time became dominant throughout the empire. In dealing
with pagans and heretics Gratian, who during his later years was
greatly influenced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, exhibited
severity and injustice at variance with his usual character. He
prohibited heathen worship at Rome ; refused to wear the
insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian;
removed the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome,
in spite of the remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate,
and confiscated its revenues ; forbade legacies of real property
to the Vestals ; and abolished other privileges belonging to them
and to the pontiffs. For his treatment of heretics see the church
histories of the period.
Authorities'— Ammianus Marc •■Hums xxvii.-xxxi.; Aurelius
Victor, is pit. 47; Zosimus iv. vi.; Ausonius (Gralian’s tutor),
especially the Gratiarum actio pro consulatu ; Svmmachus x. epp.
2 and 61 ; Ambrose, De fide, prolegomena to Epistolae 11, 17, 21,
Consolatio dr obitu Valentiniant ; H. Richter, Das westrdmische
Reich, besonders unter den Kaisem Gratian, Valentinian II. uni
Maximus (1865) ; A. de Broglie, L'&glise el l'empire remain au IV•
sitete (4U1 ed., 1882); H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserseit,
iii., iv. 31-33 ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch 27 ; R, Gumpoltsberger,
Kaiser Gratian {Vienna, 1870); T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders
(Oxford, t Hi,2), vol. i.; Tillemont, Hist. Ass empereurs, v.; J. Words¬
worth m Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography. (J. H. F.)
GRATIANUS, FRANCISCOS, compiler of the Concordia dis-
cordantium canonum or Deeretum Gratumi, and founder of the
science of canon law, was bom about the end of the nth century
at C'niusi in Tuscany or, according to another account, at Canaria
near Orvieto. In early life he appears to have been received into
the Camaldulian monastery of Clas&e near Ravenna, whence he
afterwards removed to that of San Felice in Bologna,' where he
spent many yean in the preparation-of the Concordia. The
GRATTIUS—GRAUN 381
accept, an office in the government. In the following year he
showed the strength of his judgment and character by supporting,
in spite of consequent unpopularity in Ireland, a measure for
increasing the powers of the executive to deal with Irish disorder.
Roman Catholic emancipation, which he continued to advocate
with unflagging energy though now advanced in age, became
complicated after 1808 by the question whether a veto on the
appointment of Roman Catholic bishops should rest with the
crown. Grattan supported the veto, but a more extreme Catholic
party was now arising in Ireland under the leadership of Daniel
O’Connell, and Grattan’s influence gradually declined. He
seldom spoke in parliament after 1810, the most notable excep¬
tion being in 1815, when he separated himself from the Whigs
and supported the final struggle against Napoleon. His last
speech of all, in 1819, contained a passage referring to the union
he had so passionately resisted, which exhibits the statesmanship
and at the same time the equable quality of Grattan’s character.
His sentiments with regard to the policy of the union remained,
he said, unchanged; but “ the marriage having taken place it is
now the duty, as it ought to be the inclination, of every individual
to render it as fruitful, as profitable and as advantageous as
possible.” In the following summer, after crossing from Ireland
to London when out of health to bring forward the Catholic
question once more, he became seriously ill. On his death-bed
he spoke generously of Castlereagh, and with warm eulogy of
his former rival, Flood. He died on the 6th of June 1820, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey close to the tombs of Pitt and
Fox. His statue is in the outer lobby of the Houses of Parliament
at Westminster. Grattan had married in 1782 Henrietta,Fitz¬
gerald, a lady descended from the ancient family of Desmond,
by whom he had two sons and two daughters.
The most searching scrutiny of his private life only increases the
respect due to the memory of Grattan as a statesman and the
greatest of Irish orators. His patriotism was untainted by self-
seeking ; he was courageous in risking his popularity for what his
sound judgment showed him to be the right course. As Sydney
Smith said with truth of Grattan soon after his death: “ No
government ever dismayed him. The world could not bribe
him. He thought only of Ireland ; lived for no other object j
dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly
courage, and all the splendour of his astonishing eloquence.” 1
Bibliography. —Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the Life and Times of
the Right Hon. H. Grattan (5 vols., London, 1850-1846); Grattan's
Speeches (ed. by H. Grattan, junr., 1822) ; Irish Pari. Debates ;
W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century (8 vols.,
Loudon, 1878-1890) and Leaders of Publii Opinion in Ireland
(enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). For the controversy concerning the
recall of Lord Fitiwilliam see, in addition to the foregoing, Lord
Rosebery, Pitt (London, 1891) ; Lord Ashbourne, Pitt: Some
Chapters of his Life (London, 1898); The Pelham Papers {Brit. Mus.
Add. MSS., 33118) ; Carlisle Correspondence; Beresford Correspond¬
ence : Stanhope Miscellanies', tor the Catholic question, W. J.
Amhurst, History of Catholic Emancipation (2 vols., London, 1886);
Sir Thomas Wyse, Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association
of Ireland (London, 1829); W. J. MacNevcn, Pieces of Irish History
(New York, 1807) containing an account of the United Irishmen;
for the volunteer movement Thomas MacNevin, History of the
Volunteers of 1783 (Dublin, 1843) ; Proceedings of the Volunteer
Delegates of Ireland 1784 (Anon. Pamph. Brit. Mus.). See also F.
Hardy, Memoirs of Lord Charlemont (London, 1812); Warden
Flood, Memoirs of Henry Flood (London, 1838); Francis Plowden,
Historical Review of the Stale of Ireland (London, 1803); Alfred
Webb, Compendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878); Sir Jonah
Barrington, Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation (London, 1833); W. J.
O'Neill Daunt, Ireland and her Agitators ; Lord Mountmorres,
History of the Irish Parliament (2 vols., London, 1792); Horace
Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George III. (4 vols., London, 1845
and 1894); txjrd Stanhope, Life of william Pitt (4 vols., London,
1861); Thomas Davis, Life of J. P. Curran (Dublin, 1846)—this
contains a memoir of Grattan by D. O. Madden, and Grattan's reply
to Lord Clare on the question of the Union ; Charles Phillips, Recollec¬
tions of Curran and some of his Contemporaries (London, 1822);
I. A, Froude, The English in Ireland (London, 18B1); J. G. McCarthy,
Henry Grattan : an Historical Study (London, 1886J ; Lord Mahon's
History of England, vol, vii. (1838). With special reference to the
Union see Castlereagh Correspondence: Cornwallis Correspondence ;
Westmorland Papers (Irish State Paper Office). (R. J. M.)
1 Sydney Smith's Works, ii. 166-167.
GRATTIUS [FALBOUB], Roman poet, of the *ge«f Auguitu,
author of a poem on hunting ( Cynsgstica ), of which 541 hexa¬
meters remain. He was possibly a native of Falerii. The only
reference to him in any ancient writer is incidental (Ovid, Ex
Panto, iv. 16.33). He describes various kinds of game, methods
of hunting, the best breeds of horses and dogs.
There are editions by R. Stem (1832) ; E. Bihxens in Pottos
Latini Minores (i., 1879) and G. G. Curcio in Posti Latini Minori (L,
1902), with bibliography; see also H. Schenkl, Zut KriEh dfs G.
(1898). There is a translation by Christopher Wase (1634).
GRAUDENZ (Polish Grudsiads), a town in the kingdom of
Prussia, province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the
Vistula, 18 m. S.S.W. of Marienwerder and 37 m. by rail N.N.E.
of Thorn. Pop. (1885) 17,336, (1905) 35,988- It has two Pro¬
testant and three Roman Catholic churches, and a synagogue.
It is a place of considerable manufacturing activity. The town
possesses a museum and a monument to Guillaume Ren6 Cour-
bi 4 re (1733-1811), the defender of the town in 1807: It has
fine promenades along the bank of the Vistula. Graudenz is
an important place in the German system of fortifications, and
has a garrison of considerable size.
Graudenz was founded about 1250, and received civic rights in
1291. At the peace of Thom in 1466 it came under the lordship
of Poland. From 1665 to 1759 it was held by Sweden, and in
1772 it came into the possession of Prussia. The fortress of
Graudenz, which since 1873 has been used as a barracks and
a military depot and prison, is situated on a steep eminence about
1J m. north of the town and outside its limits. It was completed
by Frederick the Great in 1776, and was rendered famous
through its defence by Courbtere against the French in 1807.
GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH (1701-1759), German musical
composer, the youngest of three brothers, all more or less musical,
was born on the 7th of May 1701 at Wahrenbriick in Saxony.
His father held a small government post and he gave his children
a careful education. Graun’s beautiful soprano voice secured
him an appointment in the choir at Dresden. At an early age he
composed a number of sacred cantatas and other pieces for the
church service. He completed his studies under Tohann Christoph
Schmidt (1664-1728), and profited much by the Italian operas
which were performed at Dresden under the composer Lotti.
After his voice had changed to a tenor, he made his d£but at
the opera of Brunswick, in a work by Schumann, an inferior
composer of the day; but not being satisfied with the arias assigned
him he re-wrote them, so much to the satisfaction of the court
that he was commissioned to write an opera for the next season.
This work, Polydorus (1726), and five other operas written for
Brunswick, spread his fame all over Germany. Other works,
mostly of a sacred character, including two settings of the
Passion, also belong to the Brunswick period. Frederick the
Great, at that time crown prince of Prussia, heard the singer in
Brunswick in 1735, and immediately engaged him for his private
el at Rheinsberg. There Graun remained for five years,
wrote a number of cantatas, mostly to words written by
Frederick himself in French, and translated into Italian by
Boltarelli. On his accession to the throne in 1740, Frederick
sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera to be
established at Berlin. Graun remained a year on his travels,
earning universal applause as a singer in the chief cities of Italy.
After his return to Berlin he was appointed conductor of th
royal orchestra ( Kapellmeister) with a salary of 2000 tha’
(£300). In this capacity he wrote twenty-eight operas, r
Italian words, of which the last, Metope (1756), is perb'
most perfect. It is probable that Graun was subjecte-'
siderable humiliation from the arbitrary caprices p'
master, who was never tired of praising the operas
abusing those of his Kapellmeister. In his oraV
of Jesus Graun shows his skill as a contrapuntir 4
aiity of melodious invention. In the Italian ^
the florid style of his time, but even in '
occasionally show considerable dramati Mibk
on the 8th of August 1759, at Berlin, in &
thirty-two years later, Meyerbeer was ’ ^^riow
3 82 GRAVAMEN—GRAVELINES
mm AMEN (from Lat. graoare, to weigh down,’ « *mis,
heavy), a complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action,
and particularly the more serious part of a charge against an
accused person. In English the term is used chiefly in ecclesi¬
astical cases, being the technical designation of a memorial
presented from the Lower to the Upper House of Convocation,
setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling attention to
breaches in church discipline.
GRAVE, (i.) (From a common Teutonic verb, meaning “ to
dig ”; in 0 . Eng. grafan ; cf. Dutch graven, Ger. graben), a place
dug out of the earth in which a dead body is laid for burial, and
hence any place of burial, not necessarily an excavation (see
Funeral Rites and BuriaiA The verb “ to grave," meaning
properly to dig, is particularly used of the making of incisions
in a hard surface (see Engraving). (2) A title, now obsolete,
of a local administrative official for a township in certain parts
of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire ; it also sometimes appears in the
form “ grieve," which in Scotland and Northumberland is used
for sheriff (q.v.), and also for a bailiff or under-steward. The
origin of the word it obscure, but it is probably connected with
the German graj, count, and thus appears as the second part of
many Teutonic titles, such as landgrave, burgrave and margrave.
“ Grieve,” on the other hand, seems to be the northern repre¬
sentative of O.E. gerrfa, reeve; cf. “ sheriff ” and “ count.”
(3) (From the Lat. gravis, heavy), weighty, serious, particularly
With the idea of dangerous, as applied to diseases and the like,
of character or temperament as opposed to gay. It is also applied
to sound, low or deep, and is thus opposed to “ acute.” In
music the term is adopted from the French and Italian, and
applied to a movement which is solemn or slow. (4) To clean a
ship's bottom in a specially constructed dock, called a “ graving
dock.” The origin of the word is obscure ; according to the
New English Dictionary there is no foundation for the connexion
with “ greaves ’’ or “ graves,” the refuse of tallow, in candle or
soap-milking, supposed to be used in “ graving ” a ship. It may
be connected with an 0 . Fr. grow,,mod. grhe, shore.
GRAVEL, or Pebbi.e Beds, the. name given to deposits of
rounded, subangular, water-worn stones, mingled with finer
material such as sand and clay. The word “ gravel ” ii adapted
from the 0 . Fr. gravele, mod. gravellc, dim. of grave, coarse sand,
sea-shore, Mod. Fr. grhe. The deposits are produced by the
attrition of rock fragments by moving water, the waves and
tides of the sea and the flow of rivers. Extensive beds of gravel
are forming at the present time on many parts of the British
coasts where suitable rocks are exposed to the attack of the
atmosphere and of the sea waves during storms. The flint
gravels of the coast of the Channel, Norfolk, &c., are excellent
examples. When the sea is rough the lesser stones are washed up
and down the beach by each wave, and in this way are rounded,
worn down and finally reduced to sand. These gravels are
constantly in movement, being urged forward by the shore
currents especially during storms. Large banks of gravel may
be swept away in a single night, and in this way the coast is laid
bare to the erosive action of the sea. Moreover, the movement
of the gravel itself wears down the subjacent rocks. Hence in
many places barriers have been erected to prevent the drift of
the pebbles and preserve the land, while often it has been found
necessary to protect the shores by masonry or cement work.
Where the pebbles are swept along to a projecting cape they may
be carried onwards and form a long spit or submarine bank,
which is constantly reduced in size by the currents and tides
which flow across it (r.g. Spurn Head at the mouth of the
Humber). The Chesil Bank is the best instance in Britain of
a great accumulation of pebbles constantly urged forward by
storms in a definite direction. In the shallower parts of the North
Sea considerable areas are covered with coarse sand and pebbles.
Its deeper water, however, as in the Atlantic, beyond the too
fathom line pebbles are very rare, and those which are found
art. mostly erratics'tarried southward by floating icebergs, or
voldanic rocks ejected by submarine volcanoes.
Id fnany parts of Bntain, Scandinavia and North America
there are marine gravely in every essential resembling those of
the sea-shore, at levels considerably above high ride. These
gravels often lie in fiat-topped terraces which may be traced
for great distances along the coast They are indications that
the sea at one time stood higher than it does >st present, and
are known to geologists as “ raised beaches.” In Scotland such
beaches are known 25, 50 and 100 ft above the present shores.
In exposed situations they have old shore cliffs behind them;
although their deposits are mainly gravelly there is much fine
sand and silt in the raised beaches of sheltered estuaries and near
river mouths.
River gravels occur most commonly in the middle and upper
parts of streams where the currents in times of flood are strong
enough to transport fairly large stones. In deltas and the lower
portions of large rivers gravel deposits are comparatively rare
and indicate periods when the volume of the stream was tem¬
porarily greatly increased. In the higher torrents also, gravels
are rare because transport is so effective that no considerable
accumulations can form. In most countries where the drainage
is of a mature type, river gravels occur in the lower parts of toe
courses of the rivers as banks or terraces which lie some distance
above the stream level. Individual terraces usually do not
persist for a long space but are represented by a series of benches
at about the same altitude. These were once continuous, and
have been separated by the stream cutting away the intervening
portions as it deepened and broadened its channel. Terraces
of this kind often occur in successive series at different heights,
and the highest are the oldest because they were laid down at
a time when the stream flowed at their level and mark the
various stages by which the valley has been eroded. While
marine terraces are nearly always horizontal, stream terraces
slope downwards along the course of the river.
The extensive deposits of river gravels in many parts of
England, France, Switzerland, North America, 81c., would
indicate that at some former time the rivers flowed in greater
volume than at the present day. This is believed to be connected
with the glacial epoch and the augmentation of toe streams
during those periods when toe ice was melting away. Many
changes in drainage have taken place since then ; consequently
wide sheets of glacial and fluvio-gkeial gravel lie spread out
where at present there is no stream. Often they are commingled
with sand, and where there were temporary post-glacial lakes
deposits of silt, brick clay and mud have been formed. These
may be compared to the simikr deposits now forming in Green¬
land, Spitzbergen and other countries which are at present in a
glacial condition.
As a rule gravels consist mainly of the harder kinds of stone
because these alone can resist attrition. Thus toe gravels formed
from chalk consist almost entirely of flint, which is so hard that
the chalk Is ground to powder and washed away, while the flint
remains little affected. Other hard rocks such as chert, quartzite,
felsite, granite, sandstone and volcanic rocks very frequently
are largely represented in gravels, while coal, limestone and
shale are far less common. The size of the pebbles varies from a
fraction of an inch to several feet; it depends partly on the
fissility of the original rocks and partly on the strength of the
currents of water ; coarse gravels indicate the action of powerful
eroding ugents. In the Tertiary systems gravels occur on many
horizons, e.g. the Woolwich and Reading beds, Oldhaven beds
and Bagshnl beds of the Eocene of the London basin. They do
not essentially differ from recent gravel deposits. But in course
of time the action of percolating water assisted by pressure tends
to convert gravels into firm masses of conglomerate by depositing
carbonate of lime, silica and other substances in their interstices.
Gravels arc not usually so fossiliferous as finer deposits of the
same age, partly because their porous texture enables organic
remains to be dissolved away by water, and partly because
shells and other fossils are comparatively fragile and would be
broken up during the accumulation of the pebbles. The rock
fragments in conglomerates, however, sometimes contain fossils
which have not been found elsewhere. (J. S. F.)
GRAVELINES (Flem. Gravelinghe), a fortified seaport town of
northern France, in the department of Nord and arrondissement
GRA¥ELOTO^GRAVINA 383
of Dunkirk, 15 m. S.W. of Dunkirk oh the railway to
Calais. Pop. (1906) town, 1858; ootnnrane, €084. Gravelines
is situated on die Aa, if m. from its mouth in the North Sea.
It is surrounded by a double circuit of ramparts and by a tidal
moat. The river is canalized and opera out beneath the fortifica¬
tions into a floating basin. The situation of the port is one of
the best in France on the North Sea, though its trade has suffered
owing to the nearness of Calais and Dunkirk and the silting up
of the channel to the sea. It is a centre for the cod and herring
fisheries. Imports consist chiefly of timber from Northern
Europe and coal from England, to which eggs and fruit are
exported. Gravelines has paper-manufactories, sugar-works,
fish-curing works, salt-refineries, chicory-roasting factories, a
cannery for preserved peas and other vegetables and an important
timber-yard. The harbour is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft.
at high tides. The greater part of the population of the commune
of Gravelines dwells in the maritime quarter of Petit-Fort-
Philippe at the mouth of the Aa, and in the village of Les Huttes
(to die east of the town), which is inhabited by the fisher-folk.
The canalization of the Aa by a count of Flanders about the
middle of the 12th century led to the foundation of Gravelines
(grave-linghe, meaning “ count’s canul ’’). In 1558 it was the
scene of the signal victory of the Spaniards under the fount of
Egmont over the French. It finally passed from the Spaniards
to the French by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659.
GRAVELOTTE, a village of Lorraine between Metz and the
French frontier, famous as the scene of the battle of the 18th
of August 1870 between the Germans under King William of
Prussia and the French under Marshal Bazainc (see Metz and
Franco-German War). The battlefield extends from the
woods which border the Moselle above Metz to Roncourt, near
the river Omc. Other villages which played an important part
in the battie of Gravelotte were Saint Privat, Amanweiler or
Amanvillers and Sainte-Marie-aux-Chenes, all lying to the N.
of Gravelotte.
GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846- ), Irish writer,
was born in Dublin, the son of the bishop of Limerick. He was
educated at Windermere College, and took high honours at
Dublin University. In 1869 he entered the Civil Service as
clerk in the Home Office, where he remained until he became in
1874 an inspector of schools. He was a constant contributor of
prose and verse to the Spectator, The Athenaeum, John Bull, and
Punch, and took a leading part in the revival of Irish letters.
He was for several years president of the Irish Literary Society,
and is the author of the famous ballad of “ Father O’Flynn ”
and many other songs and ballads. In collaboration with Sir
C. V. Stanford he published Songs of Old Ireland (1882), Irish
Songs and Ballads (1893), the airs of which are taken from the
PetrieMSS. ; theairsof his Irish Folk-Songs (1897) were arranged
by Charles Wood, with whom he also collaborated in Songs of
Erin (1901).
His brother, Charles L. Graves (b. 1856), educated at Marl¬
borough and at Christ Church, Oxford, also became well known
as a journalist, author of two volumes of parodies, The Hcewarden
Horace (1894) and More Hawarden Horace (1896), and of skits
in prose and verse. An admirable musical critic, his Life and
Letters of Sir George Grove (1903) is a model biography.
GRAVESEND, a municipal and parliamentary borough,
river-port and market town of Kent, England, on the right bank
of the Thames opposite Tilbury Fort, 2a m. E. by S. of London
by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) *7,196.
It extends about 2 m. along the river bank, occupying a slight
acclivity which reaches its summit at Windmill Hill, whence
extensive views are obtained of the river, with its windings and
shipping. The older and lower part of the town is irregularly
bmlt, with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and
newer portion contains several handsome streets and terraces.
Among several piers are the town pier, erected in 1832, and the
terrace pier, built in ¥845, at a time when local river-traffic by
steamboat was specially prosperous. Gravesend is a favourite
resort of due inhabitants of London, both for excursions, and as
a summer residence; it is also a favourite yachting centre.
Hie principal buildings are die town-ball, the parish church of
Gravesend, erected on the site of an ancient building destroyed
by fire in 1727; Milton parish church, a Decorated and Perpen¬
dicular building erected in the time of Edward IL; and the
county courts. Milton Mount College is a huge institution for
the daughters of Congregational ministers. East of the town
are the earthworks designed to assist Tilbury Fort in obstructing
the passage up river of an enemy's force. They were originally
constructed on Vau ban’s system in the reign of Charles II.
Rosherville Gardens, a popular resort, are in the western suburb
of Rosherville, a residential quarter named after James Rosher,
an owner of lime works. They were founded in 1843 by George (
Jones. Gravesend, which is within the Port of London, has some
import trade in coal and timber, and fishing,, especially of
shrimps, is carried on extensively. The principal other industries
are boat-building, ironfounding, brewing and suap-boiling.
Fruit and vegetables are largely grown in the neighbourhood
for the London market Since 1867 Gravesend has returned a
member to parliament, the borough including Northflect to the
west. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors. Area, 1259 acres.
In the Domesday Survey “ Gravesham ” is entered among the
bishop of Bayeux’s lands, and a “ hvthe ” or landing-place is
mentioned. In 1401 Henry IV. granted the men of Gravesend
the sole right of conveying in their own vessels all persons
travelling between London and Gravesend, and this right was
confirmed by Edward IV. in 1462. In 1562 the town was
granted a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth, which vested
the government in 2 portreeves and 12 jurats, but by a later
charter of 1568 one portreeve was substituted for the two.
Charles I. incorporated the town anew under the title of the
mayor, jurats and inhabitants of Gravesend, and a further
charter of liberties was granted by James II. in 1687. A
Thursday market and fair on the 13th of October were granted
to the men of Gravesend by Edward III. in 1367 ; Elizabeth’s
charters gave them a Wednesday market and fairs on the 24th
of June and the 13th of October, with a court of pie-powder;
by the charter of Charles 1 . Thursday and Saturday were made
the market days, and these were changed again to Wednesday
and Saturday by a charter of 1694, which also granted a fair
on the 23rd of April; the fairs on these dates have died out, but
the Saturday market is still held.
From the beginning of the 17th century Gravesend was the
chief station for East Indiamen; most of the ships outward
bound from London stopped here to victual. A Customs house
was built in 1782. Queen Elizabeth established Gravesend as
the point where the corporation of London should welcome in
state eminent foreign visitors arriving by water. State proces¬
sions by water from Gravesend to 1 -ondoo had previously taken
place, as in 1522, when Henry VIII. escorted the emperor
Charles V. A similar practice was maintained until modern
times ; as when, on the 7 th of March 1863, the princess Alexandra
was received here by the prince of Wales (King Edward VII.)
three days before their marriage. Gravesend parish church
contains memorials to “ Princess ” Pocahontas, who died when
preparing to return home from a visit to England in 1617, and
was buried in the old church. A memorial pulpit from the state
of Indiana, U.S.A., made of Virginian wood, was provided in
1904, and u fund was raised for a stained-glass window fay ladies
of the state of Virginia.
GBAVINA, GIOVANNI VINGENZO (1664-1718), Italian
litterateur and jurisconsult, was bom at Roggiano, a small town
near Cosenza, in Calabria, on the 20th of January 1664. He was
descended from a distinguished family, and under the direction
of his maternal unde, Gregorio Calopreee, who possessed tome
reputation as a poet and philosopher, received a learned educa¬
tion, after which he studied at Naples civil and canon law. In
1689 he came to Rome, where in 1695 he united with several
others of literary tastes in forming the Academy of Arcadians.
A schism occurred in the academy in 1711, and Gmvina and his
followers founded in opposition to it the Academy of Quirina.
From Innocent XII: Graviaa "received the offer of various
384 GRA VINA—GRAVITATION
ecclesiastical honours, but declined them from a diiinclination
to enter the clerical profession. In 1690 he was appointed to
the chair of civil law in the college of La Sapienza, and in 1703
he was transferred to the chair of canon law. He died at Rome
on the 6th of January 1718. He was the adoptive father of
Metastasio.
Gravlna is the author of a number of works of great erudition, the
principal being his Origins* juris civilis, completed in 3 volfl. (1713)
and his Ot Romano imperio (1712). A French translation of the
former appeared in 1775, of which a second edition was published
in 1822. His collected works were published at Leipzig in 1737,
and at Naples, with notes by Mascovius, in 1736.
GRAVINA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the
province of Bari, from which it is 63 m. S.W. by rail (29 m. direct),
1148 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,197. The town is
probably of medieval origin, though some conjecture that it
occupies the site of the ancient Blera, a post station on the Via
Appia. The cathedral is a basilica of the 15th century. The
town is surrounded with walls and towers, and a castle of the
emperor Frederick II. rises above the town, which later belonged
to the Orsini, dukes of Gravina; just outside it are dwellings
and a church (S. Hichele) all hewn in the rock, and now
abandoned.
Prehistoric remains in the district (remains of ancient settlements,
tumuli, &c.) are described by V. di Cicco in Notiiie degli scavi
(1001), p. 217.
GRAVITATION (from Lat. gravis, heavy), in physical science,
that mutual action between masses of matter by virtue oi which
every such mass tends toward every other with a force varying
directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square
of their distances apart. Although the law was first clearly and
rigorously formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, the fact of the
action indicated by it was more or less clearly seen by others.
Even Ptolemy had a vague conception of a force tending toward
the centre of the earth whicli not only kept bodies upon its
surface, hut in some way upheld the order of the universe. John
Kepler inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some
influence or force exerted by the sun ; but the laws of motion
were not then sufficiently developed, nor were Kepler’s ideas of
force sufficiently clear, to admit of a precise statement of the
nature of the force. C. Huygens and R. Hooke, contemporaries
of Newton, saw that Kepler’s third law implied a force tending
toward the sun which, acting on the several planets, varied
inversely as the square of the distance. But two requirements
necessary to generalize the theory were still wanting. One was
to show that the law of the inverse square not only represented
Kepler’s third law, but his first two laws also. The other was to
show that the gravitation of the earth, following one and the
same law with that of the sun, extended to the moon. Newton’s
researches showed that the attraction of the earth on the moon
was the same as that for bodies at the earth's surface, only
reduced in the inverse square of the moon’s distance from the
earth s centre. He also showed that the total gravitation of
the earth, assumed as spherical, on external bodies, would be
the same as if the earth’s mass were concentrated in the centre.
This led at once to the statement of the law in its most general
form.
The law of gravitation is unique among the laws of nature,
not only in its wide generality, taking the whole universe in its
scope, but in the fact that, so far as yet known, it is absolutely
unmodified by any condition or cause whatever. All other forms
of action between masses of matter, vary with circumstances.
The mutual action of electrified bodies, for example, is affected
by their relative or absolute motion. But no conditions to
which matter has ever been subjected, or under which it has
ever been observed, have been found to influence its gravitation
in the slightest degree. We might conceive the rapid motions
of the heavenly bodies to result in'some change either in the
direction or amount of their gravitation towards each other at
each moment f but sdeh is not the case, even in the most rapidly
moving bodies of the solar system. The question has also been
raised whether the action of gravitation is absolutely instant¬
aneous. If not, the ac^pa would not be exactly in the line
adjoining the two bodies at the instant, but would be aieotod
by the motion of the line joining them timing the time required
by the force to pass from one body to the other. The result of
this would be seen in the motions of toe planets around toe sun •
but the most refined observations show no such effect. It is
also conceivable that bodies might gravitate differently at
different temperatures. But the most careful researches have
failed to show any apparent modification produced in this way
except what might be attributed to the surrounding conditions.
The most recent and exhaustive experiment was that of T H
Poynting and P. Phillips (Pros. Roy. Soc., 76A, p. 445). The
result was that, the change, if any, was less than ^ of toe force
for one degree, change of temperature, a result too minute to be
established by any measures.
Another cause which might be supposed to modify the action
of gravitation between two bodies would be the interposition of
masses of matter between them, a cause which materially
modifies the action of electrified bodies. The question whether
this cause modifies gravitation admits of an easy test from
observation. If it did, then a portion of the earth’s mass or of
that of any other planet turned away from the sun would not be
subjected to the same action of the sun as if directly exposed to
that action. Great masses, as those of the great planets, would
not be attracted with a force proportional to the mass because
of the hindrance or other effect of the interposed portions.
But not the slightest modification due to this cause is shown.
The general conclusion from everything we see is that: a mass of
matter, in Australia attracts a mass in London precisely as it
would if the earth were not interposed between the two masses.
We must therefore regard the law in question as the broadest
and most fundamental one which nature makes known to us.
It is not yet experimentally proved that variation as the
inverse square is absolutely true at all distances. Astronomical
observations extend over too brief a period of time to show any
attraction between different stars except those in each other’s
neighbourhood. But this proves nothing because, in the case
of distances so great, centuries or even thousands of years of
accurate observation will be required to show any action. On
the other hand the enigmatical motion of the perihelion of
Mercury has not yet found any plausible explanation except on
the hypothesis that the gravitation of the sun diminishes at
a rate slightly greater than that of the inverse square—the most
simple modification being to suppose that instead of the exponent
of the distance being exactly -- 2, it is - 2 -ooo 000 161 2.
The argument is extremely simple in form. It is certain that,
in the general average, year after year, the force with which
Mercury is drawn toward the sun does vary from the exact
inverse square of its distance from the sun. The most plausible
explanation of this is that one or more masses of matter move
around the sun, whose action, whether they are inside or outside
the orbit of Mercury, would produce the required modification in
the force. From an investigation of all the observations upon
Mercury and the other three interior planets, Simon Newcomb
found it almost out of the question that any such mass of matter
could exist without changing either the figure of the sun itself
or the motion of the planes of the orbits of either Mercury or
Venus. The qualification “almost” is necessary because so
complex a system of actions comes into play, and accurate
observations have extended through so short a period, that the
proof cannot be regarded as absolute. But the fact that careful
and repeated search for a mass of matter sufficient to produce
the desired effect has been in vain, affords additional evidence of
its non-existence. The most obvious test of the reality of the
required modifications would be afforded by two other bodies,
the motions of whose pericentres should be similarly affected.
These are Mars and the moon. Newcomb found an excess of
motions in the perihelion of Mars amounting to about 3' per
century. But the combination of observations and theory on
which this is based is not sufficient fully to establish so slight a
motion. In the case of the motion of the moon around the earth,
assuming the gravitation of the latter to be subject to the
modification in question, the annual motion of the moon’s
GRAVITATION
perigee should be greater by i -s' than the theoretical motion.
£ W Brown is the first investigator to determine the theoretical
motions with this degree of precision ; and he finds that there
is no such divergence between the actual'and the computed
motion. There is therefore as yet no ground for regarding any
deviation from the law of inverse square as more than a possi¬
bility. (s- N ->
Gravitation Constant and Mean Density or the Earth
The law of gravitation states that two masses M, and M a ,
distant i from each other, are pulled together each with a force
G.M.MJi 3 , where G is a constant for all kinds of matter—the
gravitation constant. The acceleration of M a towards M a or the
force exerted on it by M, per unit of its mass is therefore GMJiP.
Astronomical observations of the accelerations of different
planets towards the sun, or of different satellites towards the
same primary, give us the most accurate confirmation of the
distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations towards
different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those
different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we
obtain confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the
ratios of the masses to the mass of some one member of the
system, say the earth. We do not find the mass in terms of
grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy gives us the product
GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the acceleration of the
earth towards the sun is about o-6 cm/sec.. 2 at a distance from
it about 15 x 10 12 cm. The acceleration of the moon towards
the earth is about 0-17 cm/sec. s at a distance from it about
4 x io 10 cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the
earth we have o-6 = GS/ (i5xio la ) s and 0-27 = GE/ (4 x i° 10 ) 2
giving us GS and GE, and the ratio S/E = 300,000 roughly;
but we do not obtain either S or E in grammes, and we do not
find G.
The aim of the experiments to be described here may be
regarded either as the determination of the mass of the earth
in grammes, most conveniently expressed by its mass-f its
volume, that is by its “ mean density ” A, or the determination
of the “ gravitation constant ” G. Corresponding to these two
aspects of the problem there are two modes of attack. Suppose
that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth’s surface where
it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the earth—its
weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a
measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measur¬
able part of the earth’s surface layers, or an artificially prepared
muss brought near nt, and let the pull of M be the same as if
it were concentrated at a distance d. The earth pull may be
regarded as the same as if the earth were all concentrated at its
centre, distant R.
Then w - G.^tsmjW = G. (ttRAik, .... (1)
and
p=GMm/(f.(2)
By division
3M w
' p
If then we can arrange to observe wfp we obtain A, the mean
density of the earth.
But the same observations give us G also. For, putting
m=w/g in (2), we get
G=f. £. e .
u M w B
In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially
prepared measured masses M„ M a is determined when they are
a distance d apart, and since p^-GMJAJiP we get at once
G-pd 2 /MjM s . .But we can also deduce A. For putting w=mg
in (1) we get
Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass
is compared with the pull of the earth may be termed experiments
on the mean density of the earth, while experiments of the
second class in which the pull between two known masses is
directly measured may be termed experiments on the gravitation
constant. ....
We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification
for the purpose of describing methods of experiment, via:—
1. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural
. mass as in the Schiehallion experiment.
2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masaes
as in Cavendish's experiment
3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an
artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance.
It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation
experiments of this kind was first considered by Newton, anq
in both of the forms (1) and (a). In the System of the World
(3rd ed., 1737, p. 40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemi¬
spherical mountain, of the earth’s density and with radius 3 m.,
on a plumb-line at its side will be less than 2 minutes. He also
calculates (though with an error in his arithmetic) 1 the accelera¬
tion towards each other of two spheres each a foot in diameter
and of the earth's density, and comes to the conclusion that in
either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the
Principia, bk. iii., prop, x, he makes a celebrated estimate
that the earth’s mean density is five or six times that of water.
Adopting this estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain
or the attraction of two terrestrial spheres would be of the orders
calculated, and regarded by Newton as immeasurably small.
Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very
minute. This may be realized if we here anticipate the results
of the experiments, which show that in round numhers A=5'5
and G~ 1/15,000,000 when the masses are in grammes and the
distances in centimetres.
Newton’s mountain, which would probably have density about
A/2 would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a
minute. Two spheres 30 cm. in diameter (about 1 ft.) and of
density 11 (about that of lead) just not touching would pull^
each other with a force rather less than 3 dynes, and their
acceleration would be such that they would move into contact
if starting 1 cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds.
From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation
experiments extraordinary precautions must be adopted to
eliminate disturbing forces which may easily rise to be com¬
parable with the forces to be measured. We shall not attempt
to give an account of these precautions, but only seek, to set
forth the general principles of the different experiments which
have been made,
I. Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass.
Bouguer’s Experiments.— The earliest experiments were made ,
by Pierre Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his
Figure de la tern (1749). They were of two kinds. In the first
he determined the length of the seconds pendulum, and thence
g at different levels. Thus at Quito, which may be regarded
as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about 6-4 ft.) above
sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than on the
Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter shove the
sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less
by 1/1118 at the higher level. The value of g then at the higher
level was greater than could be accounted for by the attraction
of an earth ending at sea-level by the difference 1/1118 -1/1331 *
1/6983, and this was put down to the attraction of the plateau
1466 toises high; or the attraction of the whole earth was
6983 times the attraction of the plateau. Using the rule, now
known as “ Young’s rule,” for the attraction of the plateau,
Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4-7 times that
of the plateau, a result certainly much too large.
In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure
the horizontal pull of Chimborazo, a mountain about 20,000 ft.
high, by the deflection of a plumb-line at a station on its south
side. Fig. 1 shows the principle of the method- Suppose that
two stations are fixed, one on the side of the mountain due south
of the summit, and the other on the same latitude but some
distance westward, away from the influence of the mountain.
Suppose that at the second station a star is observed to pass the
mendian, for simplicity we will say directly overhead, then a
*n. 13
GRAVITATION
plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing
telescope. If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel
to the telescope at the first station when directed to the same
star. But the mountain pulls the plumb-line towards it and
the star appears to the north of the zenith and -evidently
mountain pull/earth pull tan¬
gent of angle of displacement
of zenith.
Bouguer observed the-meridian
attitude of several stars at the
two stations. There was still
some deflection at the second
station, a deflection which he
estimated as 1/14 that at the
first station, and he found on
allowing for this that his observa¬
tions gave a-deflectionof 8 seconds
at the first station. From the
form and size of the mountain he
found that if its density were that
of the earth the deflection should
he 103 seconds, or the earth was
nearly 13 times as dense as the
mountain, a result several times
too large. But the work was
carried on under enormous diffi¬
culties owing to the severity -of the weather, and no exactness
could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its
proof that the method was possible.
Maskelyne’s Experiment. —In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (Phil.
Trans., 1 775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the
plumb-line by Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has
«a short ridge nearly east and west, and sides sloping steeply on
the north and south. He selected two stations on the same
meridian, one on the north, the other on the south slope, and by
means of a zenith sector, a telescope provided with a plumb-bob,
he determined at each station the meridian zenith distances of
a number of stars. From a survey of the district made in the
years 1774-1776 the geographical difference latitude between
the two stations was found to be 42-94 seconds, and this would
have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the
same star at the two stations had the mountain been uway.
But at the north station the plumt>-bob was pulled south and the
zenith was deflected northwards, while at the south station the
effect was reversed. Hence the angle between the zeniths, or the
angle between the zenith distances of the same star at the two
stations was greater than the geographical 42 -94 seconds. The
mean of the observations gave a difference of 54-2 seconds, or
the double deflection of the plumb-line was 54-2-42-94, say
11-26 seconds.
Kir.. 1. — Bouguer's Plumb-
line Experiment on the at¬
traction of Chimborazo.
The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the
supposition that its density was that of the earth was made by
Charles Hutton from the results of the survey (Phil. Trans.,
1778, p. 689), a computation carried out by ingenious and
important methods. He found that the deflection should have
been greater in the ratio 17804:9933 say 9:5, whence the
density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain.
Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2-5, giving the mean
density of the earth 4-5. A revision of the density of the moun¬
tain from a careful survey of the rocks composing it was made
by John Playfair many years later (Phil. Trans., 1811, p. 347),
and the density of the earth was given as lying between 4-5588
and 4--‘\67.
Other experiments have been made on the attraction of
mountains by Francesco CaHini ( Milano Effem. Ast., 1824,
p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in 1821, using the pendulum method after
the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel Sir-Henry James and Captain
A. R. Clarke (Phil. Trans., 1856, p. 591), using the plumb-line
deflection at Arthur's Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall (Amer. Jour, of
Set. Tad. p. 99k using the pendulum method on Fujiyama m
Japan, and by E. D. Preston (U.S. Coast and Geoi. Survey Rep.,
1893, p. 5x3) in Hawaii, using both methods.
Airy's Experiment. —In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (Phil, Iraus.,
1856, p. 097) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an
experiment which he had attempted many years before in cun-
junction with W. Whewell and R. Sheepshanks at Dolcoath.
This consisted in comparing gravity at the top and at the bottom
of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and thence finding
the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the pull of the
whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood
by assuming that the earth consists -of concentric spherical shells
each homogeneous, the lust of thickness h equal to the depth
of the mine. Let the radius -of the earth to the bottom of the
mine be R, and the mean density up to that point be A. This
will not differ appreciably from the mean density of the whole.
Let the density of the strata of depth h be 8. Denoting the
values of gravity above and below by g® and g* we have
a-nd
S'^i0W +CArh *
(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is
G. 4 v(R+ hfh&K R+A) ! « G .4irkS).
Therefore
whence
and
g„=G.4»Ra^i-^-K^ | ■) nearly,
4 yh
» = R
+ A-
?/(-?*£)
Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit
bank, another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a “ com¬
parison ” clock was fixed at each station. A third clock was
placed at the upper station connected by an electric circuit to
the lower station. It gave an electric signal every 15 seconds
by which the rates of the two comparison clocks could be accur¬
ately compared. Two “ invariable ” seconds pendulums were
swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front of the
lower comparison clock after the manner of Rater, and these
invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous
observations extending over three weeks and after applying
various corrections Airy obtained gj/g®**- 1-00005185. Making
corrections for tbe irregularity of the neighbouring strata lie
found A/S= 2 -6266. W. H. Miller made a careful determination
of 4 from specimens of the strata, finding it 2 -5. The final
result taking into account the ellipticity and rotation of the earth
is A=6-565.
Von Sterneck's Experiments. — (Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog.
Inst, zu Wien, ii., 1882, p. 77 ; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97).
R. von Sterneck repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883
at the Adalbert shaft at Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the
Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He used two invariable half-
seconds pendulums, one swung at the surface, the oilier below
at the same time. The two were at intervals interchanged.
Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by
comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock
which by an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each
second. This eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it
is not necessary to give the details here, began a new era in the
determinations of local variations of gravity. The values which
von Sterneck obtained for A were not consistent, but increased
with the depth of the second station. This was probably due
to local irregularities in the strata which could not be directly
detected.
All the experiments to -determine A by the attraction of
natural masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot
determine the distribution of density in the neighbourhood
with any approach to accuracy. The experiments with artificial
masses next to be described give much more consistent results,
and the experiments with natural masses ore now only of use
GRAVITATION
387
in showing the existence of irregularities in the earth’s superficial
strata when they give results deviating largely from the accepted
value.
II. Determination oj the Attraction between two Artificial Masses.
Cavendish’s Experiment (Phil. Trans., 1798, p. 469).—This
celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Mitchell.
He completed an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work
with it. After Mitchell’s death the apparatus came into the
possession of Henry Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it,
but still adhered to Mitchell’s {Jan, and in 1797^798 he carried
out the experiment. The essential feature of it consisted in the
determination of the attraction of a lead sphere is in. in diameter
on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the distance between
the centres being about 9 in., by means of a torsion balance.
Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion
rod hh 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece mg, was
Fig. 2. —Cavendish's Apparatus.
hh, torsion rod bung by wire tg ; *,*, attracted balls hung from
its ends; WW, attracting masses.
hung by a wire Ig. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each
1 in. in diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a
scale fixed near the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a
vernier moving along the scale. This was lighted by a lamp and
viewed by a telescope T from the outside of the room containing
the apparatus. The torsion bulance was enclosed in a case
and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in diameter
hung from an arm which could turn round an axis P p in the line
of gl. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is
just in front of the right-hand ball x and the other is just behind
the left-hand ball x. The two will conspire to pull the balls so
that the right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big
spheres be moved round so that one is in front of the left ball
and the other behind the right ball. The pulls are reversed
and tlie right end moves backward. The angle between its two
positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of right sphere on
left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as great as the
deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one ball.
The principlo of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 2s
be the length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of
a large sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same
on each Side. Let t be the angle through which the rod moves round
when the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the
positions described above. Let be the conple required to twist
the rod through 1 radian. Then id) - ^GMma/iP, But p can be
found from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we
know its moment' of inertia I, and this Can be determined. If T
is the period whence G ■* or putting the
result in terms of the mean density of the earth A it is easy to show
that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put for g/w>, and C
for 2 tR, the earth's circumference, then
„L Mu T*
IPt T
The original account by Cavendish is still well worth studying
on account of rise excellence of his methods. His work was
undoubtedly very accurate for a pioneer experiment and has
only really been improved upon within the last generation.
Making various corrections of which it is not necessary to give
a description, the result obtained (after correcting a mistake
first pointed out by F. Baily) is A— 5-448. In seeking the origin
of the disturbed motion of the torsion rod Cavendish made a very
important observation. He found that when the masses were
left in one position for a time the attracted balls crept now in
one direction, now in another, as if the attraction were varying.
Ultimately he found that this was due to convection currents
in the case containing the torsion rod, currents produced by
temperature inequalities. When a large sphere was heated the
ball near it tended to approach and when it was cooled the ball
tended to recede. Convection currents constitute the chief
disturbance and the chief source of error in all attempts to
measure small forces in air at ordinay pressure.
Reich’s Experiments (Versuche iiber der mittlere Dichtigkeit
Her Erie mitteUt der Drehaage, Freiberg, 1838; “ Neue
Versuche mit der Drehwage," Ltiptig Abh. Math. Phys. i.,
1852, p. 383).—In 1838 F. Reich published an account of a
repetition of the Cavendish experiment carried out on the
same general lines, though with somewhat smaller apparatus.
The chief differences consisted in the methods of measuring
the times of vibration and the deflection, and the changes
were hardly improvements. His result after revision was
A =. s’49. In 1852 he published an account of further work
giving as result A=5'j8. It is noteworthy that in his
second paper he gives an account of experiments suggested
by J. D. Forbes in which the deflection was not observed
directly, but was deduced from observations of the time
of vibration when the attracting masses were in different
positions.
Let T, be the time of vibration when the masses are in one
of the usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between
the centres of attracting mass and attracted ball, and t the
distance through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length
of the torsion rod and 0 the deflection, S-aO. Now let the
attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod
with thoir centres'in the line through the centres of the balls
and d from them, and let T, be the time of vibration. Then
it is easy to show that
S/d= aO/d = (T, - Tj)/(T, + Tj).
This gives a value of 6 which may be used in the formula. The
experiments by this method were not consistent, Slid the mean
result was A *6-25.
Baily’s Experiment (Memoirs 0) the Royal Astron. Soc. xiv.).—
In 1841-1842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations
by Cavendish’s method and with apparatus nearly of the same
dimensions. The attracting masses were^ 12-in. lead spheres
and as attracted balls he used various masses, lead, zinc, glass,
ivory, platinum, hollow brass, and finally the torsion rod alone
without balls. The suspension was also varied, sometimes
consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar. There were
systematic errors running through Baily’s work, which it is
impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting
value of A show a variation with the nature of the attracted
masses and a variation with the temperature. His final result
A =* 5-6747 is not of value compared with later results.
Cornu and Bailie’s Experiment (Comptes rertdus, lxxvi.,
1873, p. 954; Ixxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, iooi j xevi., 1883,
p. 1493).—* n I ® 7 ° MM. A. Cornu and J. Bailie Commenced
an experiment by the Cavendish method which was never
definitely completed, though valuable studies of the behaviour
of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed
from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of
copper about too gm. each, tiie rod was jo cm. long, and the
suspending wire was 4 metres long. On each side of each ball
was a hollow iron sphere. Two of these were filled with mercury
weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of mercury constituting the
attracting masses. When the position of a mask was to be
changed the mercury wae pumped from the sphere on one side
to that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time a
GRAVITATION
plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing
telescope. If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel
to the telescope at the first station when directed to the same
star. But the mountain pulls the plumb-line towards it and
the star appears to the north of the zenith and -evidently
mountain pull/earth pull tan¬
gent of angle of displacement
of zenith.
Bouguer observed the-meridian
attitude of several stars at the
two stations. There was still
some deflection at the second
station, a deflection which he
estimated as 1/14 that at the
first station, and he found on
allowing for this that his observa¬
tions gave a-deflectionof 8 seconds
at the first station. From the
form and size of the mountain he
found that if its density were that
of the earth the deflection should
he 103 seconds, or the earth was
nearly 13 times as dense as the
mountain, a result several times
too large. But the work was
carried on under enormous diffi¬
culties owing to the severity -of the weather, and no exactness
could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its
proof that the method was possible.
Maskelyne’s Experiment. —In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (Phil.
Trans., 1 775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the
plumb-line by Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has
«a short ridge nearly east and west, and sides sloping steeply on
the north and south. He selected two stations on the same
meridian, one on the north, the other on the south slope, and by
means of a zenith sector, a telescope provided with a plumb-bob,
he determined at each station the meridian zenith distances of
a number of stars. From a survey of the district made in the
years 1774-1776 the geographical difference latitude between
the two stations was found to be 42-94 seconds, and this would
have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the
same star at the two stations had the mountain been uway.
But at the north station the plumt>-bob was pulled south and the
zenith was deflected northwards, while at the south station the
effect was reversed. Hence the angle between the zeniths, or the
angle between the zenith distances of the same star at the two
stations was greater than the geographical 42 -94 seconds. The
mean of the observations gave a difference of 54-2 seconds, or
the double deflection of the plumb-line was 54-2-42-94, say
11-26 seconds.
Kir.. 1. — Bouguer's Plumb-
line Experiment on the at¬
traction of Chimborazo.
The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the
supposition that its density was that of the earth was made by
Charles Hutton from the results of the survey (Phil. Trans.,
1778, p. 689), a computation carried out by ingenious and
important methods. He found that the deflection should have
been greater in the ratio 17804:9933 say 9:5, whence the
density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain.
Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2-5, giving the mean
density of the earth 4-5. A revision of the density of the moun¬
tain from a careful survey of the rocks composing it was made
by John Playfair many years later (Phil. Trans., 1811, p. 347),
and the density of the earth was given as lying between 4-5588
and 4--‘\67.
Other experiments have been made on the attraction of
mountains by Francesco CaHini ( Milano Effem. Ast., 1824,
p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in 1821, using the pendulum method after
the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel Sir-Henry James and Captain
A. R. Clarke (Phil. Trans., 1856, p. 591), using the plumb-line
deflection at Arthur's Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall (Amer. Jour, of
Set. Tad. p. 99k using the pendulum method on Fujiyama m
Japan, and by E. D. Preston (U.S. Coast and Geoi. Survey Rep.,
1893, p. 5x3) in Hawaii, using both methods.
Airy's Experiment. —In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (Phil, Iraus.,
1856, p. 097) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an
experiment which he had attempted many years before in cun-
junction with W. Whewell and R. Sheepshanks at Dolcoath.
This consisted in comparing gravity at the top and at the bottom
of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and thence finding
the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the pull of the
whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood
by assuming that the earth consists -of concentric spherical shells
each homogeneous, the lust of thickness h equal to the depth
of the mine. Let the radius -of the earth to the bottom of the
mine be R, and the mean density up to that point be A. This
will not differ appreciably from the mean density of the whole.
Let the density of the strata of depth h be 8. Denoting the
values of gravity above and below by g® and g* we have
a-nd
S'^i0W +CArh *
(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is
G. 4 v(R+ hfh&K R+A) ! « G .4irkS).
Therefore
whence
and
g„=G.4»Ra^i-^-K^ | ■) nearly,
4 yh
» = R
+ A-
?/(-?*£)
Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit
bank, another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a “ com¬
parison ” clock was fixed at each station. A third clock was
placed at the upper station connected by an electric circuit to
the lower station. It gave an electric signal every 15 seconds
by which the rates of the two comparison clocks could be accur¬
ately compared. Two “ invariable ” seconds pendulums were
swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front of the
lower comparison clock after the manner of Rater, and these
invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous
observations extending over three weeks and after applying
various corrections Airy obtained gj/g®**- 1-00005185. Making
corrections for tbe irregularity of the neighbouring strata lie
found A/S= 2 -6266. W. H. Miller made a careful determination
of 4 from specimens of the strata, finding it 2 -5. The final
result taking into account the ellipticity and rotation of the earth
is A=6-565.
Von Sterneck's Experiments. — (Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog.
Inst, zu Wien, ii., 1882, p. 77 ; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97).
R. von Sterneck repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883
at the Adalbert shaft at Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the
Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He used two invariable half-
seconds pendulums, one swung at the surface, the oilier below
at the same time. The two were at intervals interchanged.
Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by
comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock
which by an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each
second. This eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it
is not necessary to give the details here, began a new era in the
determinations of local variations of gravity. The values which
von Sterneck obtained for A were not consistent, but increased
with the depth of the second station. This was probably due
to local irregularities in the strata which could not be directly
detected.
All the experiments to -determine A by the attraction of
natural masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot
determine the distribution of density in the neighbourhood
with any approach to accuracy. The experiments with artificial
masses next to be described give much more consistent results,
and the experiments with natural masses ore now only of use
GRAVY 389
observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum
first as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small
weight was removed from the upper end a known distance from
the knife edge, the restoring couple per radian deflection could
be found. The final result gave A- 5-579.
J. Joly’s suggested Experiment (Nature xli., 1890, p. 356).—
Joly has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a
simple pendulum in a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case
two massive pendulums each with the same time of swing as the
simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would be. set swinging
by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a known
number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found.
III. Comparison of the Earth Pull on a body with the Pull of an
Artificial Mass by Means oj the Common Balance.
The principle of the method is as followsSuppose a sphere
of mass m and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of
a balance. Let the mass of the earth be E and its radius be R.
Then te=GE>»/R 2 . Now introduce beneath m a sphere of
mass M and let d be the distance of its centre from that of m.
Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say by Sw. Then
ow = GUmfd i . Dividing we obtain &»/«<’“ MR S /E<P, whence
E= MR a a)/(f i <iu); and since g=GE/R s , G can be found when E is
known.
Von Jolly’s Experiment (Abhand. der k. bayer. Akad. der Wiss.
2 Cl. xiii. Bd. 1 Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3).—In the
first of these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in
which he sought to determine the decrease in weight with increase
of height from the earth’s surface, an experiment suggested by
Bacon (Nov. Org. Bk. 2, §36), in the form of comparison of rates
of two clocks at different levels, one driven by a spring, the other
by weights. The experiment in the form carried out by von
jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke, and others in the
early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, The Laws of Gravita¬
tion). Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory and
from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres
below. Two 1 -kgm. weights were first balanced in the upper pans
and then one was moved from on upper to the lower pan on the
same side. A gain of 1-5 mgm. was observed after correction
for greater weight of uir displaced at the lower level. The inverse
square law would give a slightly greater gain and the deficiency
was ascribed to the configuration of the land near the laboratory,
in the second paper a second experiment was described in which
a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and provided as before
with one pair of pans just below the arms and a second pair
hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes
were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were
filled each with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up.
The two heavy globes were then placed in the upper pans and
the two light ones in the lower. The two on one side were now
interchanged and a gain in weight of about 31-7 mgm. was
observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of the
globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about 1 metre radius
was built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the
experiment was repeated. Through the attraction of the lead
sphere on the mass of mercury when below the gain was greater
by 0-589 mgm. This result gave A =-5-692.
Experiment of Richan and Krigar-Menzel (Anhang zu den
Abhand. der k. preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1898).—In
1884 A. Konig and F. Richarz proposed a similar experiment
which was ultimately carried out by Richarz and 0 . Kngar-
Menzel. In this experiment a balance was supported somewhat
more than 2 metres above the floor and with scale pans above
and below as in von Jolly’s experiment. Weights each 1 kgm.
were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan.
Then they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the
result being, after corrections for change in density of air dis¬
placed through pressure and temperature changes, a gain in
weight of 1-2453 mgm. on the right due to change in level of
2-3628 metres. Then a rectangular column of lead 210 cm.
square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under the
balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforated
with two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting
the lower pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a
decrease on the right when a kgm. was moved on that side from
top to bottom while another was moved mi the left from bottom
to top. This decrease Was o-ian mgm. showing a total change
due to the lead mass of i-2453+o-r2ii« 1-3664 mgm. and tins
is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on one
kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made
automatically. The results gave A=5-05 and G =6-685 x I0 ~ 8 -
Poynitng’s Experiment (Phil. Trans., vol. 18a, A, 1891,
p. 565V—In 1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a
preliminary experiment which he had made to show that the
common balance was available for gravitational work. The
experiment was on the same lines as that of von Jolly but on a
much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the full
experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much
greater care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans
were removed, and from the two arms were hung lead spheres
each weighing about 30 kgm. at a level about iso cm. below the
beam. The balance was supported in a.case above a horizontal
turn-table with axis vertically below the central knife edge, and
on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing 150 kgm.—the
attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm. below the
level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table
could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was
first immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then
immediately under that on the other side. On the same turn¬
table but at double the distance from the centre was a second
sphere of half the weight introduced merely to balance the
larger sphere and keep the centre of gravity at the centre of the
turn-table. Before the introduction of this sphere errors were
introduced through the tilting of the floor of the balance room
when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had
to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal
of the large mass from left to right made an increase in weight
on that side of abdut 1 mgm. determined by riders in a special
way described in the paper. To eliminate the attraction on the
beam and the rods supporting the hanging weights another
experiment was made in which these weights were moved up
the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting
sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about
J mgm. The difference, \ mgm., was due entirely to change in
distance of the attracted masses. After all corrections the results
gave A=5'493 and G=6-698 x io~*.
Final Remarks.—Vat earlier methods in which natural masses
were used have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which
render them now quite valueless. Of later methods the
Cavendish appears to possess advantages over the common
balance method in that it is more easy tc^ ward off temperature
variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably more
easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For
the present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be
accepted as having the greatest weight and we therefore take
Mean density of the earth A= 5-537
Constant of gravitation G-6-6s8 x 10"*.
Probably A=5’53 and G=6-66 x 10"* are correct to 1 in 500.
Authorities.— J. H. Poynting, The Mean Density of the Earth
(1894), gives an account of all work up to the date of publication
with a bibliography; A. Stanley Mackenzie, The Laois of Gravita¬
tion (1899), gives annotated extracts from various papers, some-
historical notes and a bibliography. A Bibliography of Geodesy,
Appendix S, Report for iqoe of the U.S. Coast ana Geodetic Survey in¬
cludes a very complete bibliography of gravitational work. (J-. H. P.)
GRAVY, a word usually confined to the natural juices which
come from meat during cooking. In early uses (in the New
English Dictionary the quotations date from the end of the 14th
to the beginning of the r6th centuries) it meant a sauce of broth
flavoured with spices and almonds. The more modem usage
seems to date from the end of the 16th century. TBe word is
obscure in origin. It has been connected with "graves" or
“ greaves,” the refuse of tallow in the manufacture of soap or
candles. The more probable derivation is from the French.
In Old French the word is almost certainly grand, and is derived
GRAY, A.—GRAY, E.
390
from groin, “ something used in cooking.” The word was early
read and spelled with a » or v instead of n, and the corruption
was adopted in English.
GRAY, ASA (1810-1888), American botanist, was bom at
Paris, Oneida county, N.Y., on the 18th of November 1810.
He was the son of a farmer, and received no formal education
except at the Fairfield (N.Y.) academy and the Fairfield medical
school. From Dr James Hadley, the professor of chemistry and
materia medico he obtained his first instruction in science (1825-
1826). In the spring of 1827 he first began to collect smd identify
plants. His formal education, such as it was, ended in February
1831, when he took the degree of M.D. His first contribution to
descriptive botany appeared in 1835, and thereafter an un¬
interrupted series of contributions to systematic botany flowed
from his pen for fifty-three years. In 1836 his first botanical
text-book appeared under the title Elements of Botany, followed
in 1839 by his Botanical Text-Book for Colleges, Schools, and
Private Students which developed into his Structural Botany.
He published later First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Pkysi-
ology (1857); How Plants Grow (1&5&); Field, Forest,and Garden
Botany (1869); Horn Plants Behave (1872). These books served
the purpose of developing popular interest in botanical studies.
His most important work, however, was his Manual of the Botany
of the Northern United States, the first edition of which appeared
in 1S47. This manual has passed through a large number of
editions, is clear, accurate and compact to an extraordinary
degree, and within its geographical limits is an indispensable
book for the student of American botany.
Throughout his life Gray was a diligent writer of reviews of
books on natural history subjects. Often these reviews were
elaborate essays, for which the books served merely as texts;
often they were dear and just summaries of extensive works;
sometimes they were sharply critical, though never ill-natured
or unfair; always they were interesting, lively and of literary as
well as scientific excellence. The greater part of Gray’s strictly
scientific labour was devoted to a Flora of North America, the
plan of which originated with his early teacher and associate,
John Torrey of New York. The second volume of Torrey and
Gray’s Flora was completed in 1843; but for forty years there¬
after Gray gave up a large part of his time to the preparation of
hie Synoptical Flora (1878). He lived at the period when the flora
of North America was being discovered, described and systemat¬
ized ; and his enthusiastic labours in this fresh field placed
him at the head of American botanists and on a level with the
most famous botanists of the world. In 1856 he published a
paper on the distribution of plants under the title Statistics of
the Flora of the Northern United States; and this paper was
followed in 1859 by a memoir on the botany of Japan and its
relations to that of North America, a paper of which Sir J. D.
Hooker said that “ in point of originality and far-reaching results
[it] was its author’s opus magnum." It was Gray’s study of
plant distribution which led to his intimate correspondence with
Charles Darwin during the years in which Darwin was elaborating
the doctrines that later became known as Darwinism. From
1855 to 1875 Gray was both a keen critic and a sympathetic
exponent of the Darwinian principles. His religious views were
those of the Evangelical bodies in the Protestant Church; so
that, when Darwinism was attacked as equivalent to atheism,
he was in position to answer effectively the unfounded allegation
that it was fatal to die doctrine of design. He taught that “ the
most puzzling things of all to the old-school teleolagists are the
principia of the Darwinian.” He openly avowed his conviction
that the present species are not special creations, but rather
derived from previously existing species; and he made his
avowal with frank courage, when this truth was scarcely recog¬
nized by any naturalists, and when to the clerical mind evolution
meant atheism.
In 1842 Gray accepted the Fisher professorship of natural
history in Harvard University. On his accession to this chair
the university had no herbarium, no botanical library, few plants
of any value, and but a small garden, which for lack of money
had never been well stocked or well arranged. He soon brought
together, chiefly by widespread exchanges, a valuable herbarium
ami library, and arranged the garden; and thereafter the
development of these botanical resources was part of his regular
labours. The herbarium soon became the largest and most
valuable in America, and on acoount of the numerous type
specimens it contains it is likely to remain a collection of national
importance. Nothing of what Gray did for the botanical
department of the university has been lost; on the contrary,
his labours were bo well directed that everything he originated
and developed has been enlarged, improved and placed on stable
foundations. He himself made large contributions to the
establishment by giving it all his own specimens, many books
and no little money, and by his will he gave it the royalties on
his books. During his long connexion with the university he
brought up two generations of botanists and he always took a
strong personal interest in the researches and the personal
prospects of the young men who had studied under him. His
scientific life was mainly spent in the herbarium and garden in
Cambridge; but his labours there were relieved by numerous
journeys to different parts of the United States and to Europe,
all of which contributed to his work on the Synoptical Flora.
He lived to a good age-long enough, indeed, to receive from
learned societies at home and abroad abundant evidence of their
profound respect for his attainments and services. He died
at Cambridge, Mass., on the 30th of January 1888.
His Letters (1893) were edited by his wife; and his Scientific
Papers (1888) by C. S. Sargent. (C. W. E.)
GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861), Scottish poet, the son of a hand-
loom weaver, was bom at Merkland, near Glasgow, on the 29th
of January 1838. His parents resolved to educate him for the
church, and through their self-denial and his own exertions as a
pupil teacher and private tutor he was able to complete a course
of four sessions at the university of Glasgow. He began to write
poetry for The Glasgow Cititen and began his idyll on the Luggie,
the little stream that ran through Merkland. His most intimate
companion at this time was Robert Buchanan, the poet; and in
May i860 the two agreed to proceed to London, with the idea
of finding literary employment. Shortly after his arrival in
London Gray introduced himself to Monckton Milnes, after¬
wards Lord Houghton, with whom he had previously corre¬
sponded. Lord Houghton tried to persuade him to return to
Scotland, but Gray insisted on staying in London. He was
unsuccessful in his efforts to place Gray's poem, “The Luggie,"
in The Comhill Magazine, but gave him some light literary work.
He also showed him great kindness when a cold which had seized
him assumed the serious form of consumption, and sent him to
Torquay ; but as the disease made rapid progress, an irresistible
longing"seized Gray to return to Merkland, where he arrived in
January 1861, and died on the 3rd of December following, having
the day before had the gratification of seeing a printed specimen
copy of his poem “ The Luggie,” published eventually by the
exertions of Sydney Dobell. He was buried in the Auld Aisle
Churchyard, Kirkintilloch, where in 1865 a monument was
erected by “ friends far and near ” to his memory.
“ The Luggie,” the principal poem of Gray, is a kind of reverie
in which the scenes and events of his childhood and his early
aspirations are mingled with the music of the stream which
he celebrates. The series of sonnets, “ In the Shadows,” was
composed during the latter part of his illness. Most of his poems
necessarily bear traces of immaturity, and lines may frequently
be found in them which are mere echoes from Thomson, Words¬
worth or Tennyson, but they possess, nevertheless, distinct
individuality, and show a real appreciation of natural beauty.
The Luggie and other Poems, with an introduction by R. Monckton
Milnes, and a brief memoir by James Hedderwick, was published
in 1862 ; and a new and enlarged edition of Gray's Poetical Works,
edited by Henry Glaasford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also Dmnd
dray and other Essays, by Robert Huchanan (1868), and the same
writer’s poem on David Gray, in Idyls and Legends 0/ Inverburn.
GRAY, EUSHA (1835-1901), American electrician, was bom
in BarnesviUe, Belmont county, Ohio, on the and of August
1835, He worked as a carpenter and in a machine shop, reading
GRAY* H. P.-^GRAY, LORD 39!
in. physical science at the same timev and foils* years Studied
at Ototrhn College, where he taught for a time. He then in¬
vestigated the subject of telegraphy, and in 1867 patented a
telegraphic switch and annunciator. Experimenting in the
transmittal of electro-tones and of musical tones by wire, he
utilized in 1874 animal tissues in his receivers, and filed, on
the 14th of February 1876, a caveat for Hie invention of a
telephone, only a few hours after the filing of an application for a
patent by Alexander Graham Bell. (See Tksjephone.) The caveat
was disregarded; letters patent No. 17446$ were granted to Bell,
whose priority of invention. was upheld in 1888 by the United
States Supreme Court (see Molecular Telephone Co. v. American
BeU Telephone Co., 126 U.S. 1). Gray’s experiments won for him
high praise and the decoration of the Legion of Honour at the
Paris F.vposifmn of 1878. He was for a time a manufacturer of
electrical apparatus, particularly of his own inventions; and
was chief electrical expert of the Western Electric Company of
Chicago. At the Columbian Exposition of 1893 Gray was chair¬
man of the International Congress of Electricians. He died at
Newtonville, Massachusetts, on the 11st of January 1901.
Among his later inventions were appliances for multiplex
telegraphy and the telautograph, a machine for the electric
transmission of handwriting. He experimented in the submarine
use of electric bells for signalling.
Gray wrote, besides scientific addresses and many monographs,
Telegraphy and Telephony (1878) aod Electricity and Magnetism
(lpoo).
GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-1877), American portrait
and genre painter, was born in New York on the 33rd of June
1819. He was a pupil of Daniel Huntington there, and sub¬
sequently studied in Rome and Florence. Elected a member of
the National Academy of Design in 1843, he succeeded
Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 1871.
The later years of his life were devoted to portrait work. He
was strongly influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in
mellow colour with a classical tendency. Ode of his notable
canvases was an allegorical composition called “ The Birth of
our Flag ” (1875). He died in New York City on the 12th of
November 1877.
GRAY, HORACE (1838-1902), American jurist, was bom in
Boston, Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1828. Hegraduated
at Harvard in 1845; was admitted to the bar in 1851, and in
1854-1861 was reporter to the Supreme Court of Massachusetts.
He practised law, first in partnership with Ebenezer Rockwood
Hoar, and later with Wilder Dwight (1823-1862) and Charles F.
Blake; was appointed associate justice of the state Supreme
Court on the 33rd of August 1864, tiecoming chief-justice on the
5th of September 1873; and was associate justice of the Supreme
Court of the United States from December 1881 to August 1903,
resigning only a few weeks before his death at Nahant, Mass.,
on the 15th of September 190a. Gray had a fine sense of the
dignity of the bench, and a taste for historical study. His
judgments were unmistakably clear and contained the essence
of earlier opinions. A great case lawyer, he was a much greater
judge, the variety of his knowledge and hh contributions to
admiralty and prize law and to testamentary law being particu¬
larly striking.; in constitutional law he was a “ loose ” rather
than a “ strict ” constructionist.
See Francis C. Lowell, “ Horace Gray," in Proceedings of the
American Academy, voL 39, pp. 627-637 (Boston, 1904}.
GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214); bishop of Norwich, entered
prince John’s service, and at his accession (1199) was rapidly
promoted in the church t 21 he became bishop of Norwich in
September 1200. King John’s attempt to force him into the
primacy in 1205 started the king’s long and fatal quarrel with
Pope Innocent III. De Gray was a hard-working royal oflkial,
m finance, in justice, in action, using his position to enrich himself
and his family. In 1209 he went to Ireland to govern it as
justiciar. He adopted a forward policy, attempting to extend
the English frontier northward and westward, and fought a
number ot campaigns cm the Shannon and in Fermanagh. But
in flu he suffered a great defeat. He assimilated the coinage of
Inland to that bf Eu#ands«nS<trkd to effect», rim iter raforo
in Irish law. Do Gray was a good financier,**! oouW ^ay*
raise money; thisprobsbly explains the farou® he ttyoyod {ram
King John. In m j he is found with 500 knights at the grant
muster at Barham Downs, when Philip Augustus was threatening
to invade England. After John’s reconciliation with Innocent
he was one of those exempted from the general pardon* gad was
forced to go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome ha so
completely gained over Innocent that the .pope sent him back
with papal tetters recommending his election to the bnhoprk of
Durham (1213); but he died at St jeanid’Audeiy in Poitou
on his homeward journey (October 1214)1
GRAY, JOHN' EDWARD (1800-1875), English naturalist,
bom at Walsall, Staffordshire, in 1800, was the eldest of the
three sons of S. F. Gray, of that town, druggiat and writer on
botany, and author of the Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia, &c.,
his grandfather being S. F. Gray, who translated the Phiiosophia
Botanies of Linnaeus for the Introduction to Botany of James
Lee (1715-1795). Gray studied at St Bartholomew’s and other
hospitals for the medical profession, but at an early age was
attracted to the pursuit of botany. He assisted his father by
collector notes on botany and comparative anatomy and
zoology in Sir Joseph Banks’s library at the British Museum,
aided by Dr W. E. Leach, assistant keeper, and the systematic
synopsis of the Natural Arrangement of British Plants, a vols.,
1821, was prepared by him, his father writing the preface and
introduction only. In consequence of hisapplication for member¬
ship of the Lmnaean Society being rejected m >Ma, he turned
to the study of zoology, writing on zoophytes, shells, Mollusca
and Papilioniiae, still aided by Dr Leach at the British Museum.
In December 1824 he obtained the post of assistant in that
institution; and from that date to December 1839, when J. G.
Children retired from the keepership, he had so zealously applied
himself to the study, classification and improvement of the
national collection of zoology that he was selected as the fittest
person to he entrusted with its charge. Immediately on bis
appointment as keeper, he took in hand the remston of the
systematic arrangement of the collections; scientific catalogues
followed in rapid succession; the department was raised in
importance; its poverty as well as its wealth became known,
and whilst increased grants, donations asad exchanges made
good many deficiencies, great numbers ©£ students, foreign as
well as English, availed themselves of its resources to enlarge the
knowledge of zoology in all its branches. In spite of numerous
obstacles, he worked up the department, within: a few years of
his appointment as keeper, to such a slate of c . x c n U ca c n as to
make it the rival of the cabinets of Leiden, Para and Berlin;
and later 00 it was raised under Ins mana geme nt to the. dignity
of the largest and most complete zoological collection in this
world. Although seized with paralysis in 187a, be continued to
discharge the functions of keeper of zoology, and to contribute
papers to the Armais of Natural History, his favourite journal, and
to the transactions of a few of the learned societies.; but at
Christmas 1874, having completed half a century of official
work, he resigned office, and died in London ea the 7th of Merck
1875.
Gray was an exceedingly voluminous writer, and his
interests were not confined to natural history only, for he took
an active part in questions of public impaEtanoe of his day, such
as slave emancipation, prison discipline, abohtian of imprison¬
ment for debt, sanitary and municipal organizations, the decimal
system, public education, extension of the opening of mu s eu ms,
&c. He began to publish in 180a, and continued' till the you
of his death.
Tbe titles of the books, tteatoim and mfsceUantoai papan written
by him, accompanied by a few nets, fill a privately printed Rat of 36
octavo pages with 1162 entries.
GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6th Baron (d. 1612), was descended
from Sir Andrew Gray (c. 1390-1469) of Broxmauth and Foulis,
who was created a Scottish peer as Lord Gray, probably m 2445.
Andrew was a leading figure in Scottish politics during the reigns
of James I. and hia two successors, and. visited Engtand ai a
39 *
GRAY, R.—GRAY, THOMAS
ho«tage r a'diplomatist and a pilgrim. The 2nd Lord Gray was
his grandson Andrew (d. 1514). and the 4th lord was the latter’s
grandson Patrick (d. 1582), a participant in Scottish politics
during the stormy time of Mary, queen of Scots. Patrick’s son,
Patrick, the 5th lord (d. 1609), married Barbara, daughter of
William, 2nd Lord Ruthven, and their son Patrick, known as
the “ Master of Gray,” is the subject of this article. Educated
at Glasgow University and brought up as a Protestant, young
Patrick was married early in life to Elizabeth Lyon, daughter
of Lord Glamis, whom he repudiated almost directly; and
afterwards went -to France, where he joined the friends of Mary,
queen of Scots, became a Roman Catholic, and assisted the
French policy of the Guises in Scotland. He returned and took
up his residence again in Scotland in 1583, and immediately
began a earner of treachery and intrigue, gaining James’s favour
by disclosing to him his mother’s secrets, and acting in agreement
with James Stewart, carl of Arran, in order to keep Mary a
prisoner in England. In 1584 he was sent as ambassador to
England, to effect a treaty between James and Elizabeth
and to exclude Hairy. His ambition incited him at the same
time to promote a plot to secure the downfall of Arran.
This was supported by Elizabeth, and was finally accomplished
by letting loose the lords banished from Scotland for their
participation in the rebellion called the Raid of Ruthven, who,
joining Gray, took possession of the king’s person at Stirling in
1385, the league with England being ratified by the parliament
in December. Gray now became the intermediary between the
English government and James on the great question of Mary’s
execution, and in 1587 he was despatched on an embassy to
Elizabeth, ostensibly to save Mary's life. Gray had, however,
previously advised her secret assassination and had endeavoured
to overcome all James’s scruples ; and though he does not appear
to have carried treachery so far as to advise her death on this
occasion, no representations made by him could have had any
force or weight. The execution of Mary caused his own downfall
and loss of political power in Scotland ; and after his return he
was imprisoned on charges of plots against Protestantism, of
endeavouring to prevent the king’s marriage, and of having been
bribed to consent to Mary’s death. He pleaded guilty of sedition
and of having obstructed the king's marriage, and was declared
a traitor; but his life was spared by James and he was banished
from the country, but permitted to return in 1589, when he was
restored to his office of master of the wardrobe to which he had
been appointed in 1585. His further career was marked by
lawlessness and misconduct. In 1592, together with the 5th
Lord Bothwell, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the
king at Falkland, and the same year earned considerable dis¬
credit by bringing groundless accusations against the Presby¬
terian minister, Robert Bruce; while after the king’s accession
to the English throne he was frequently summoned before
the authorities on account of his conduct. Notwithstanding,
he never lost James’s favour. In 1609 he succeeded his father as
6th Baron Gray, and died in 1612.
Gray was an intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, but, if one
of the ablest, handsomest and most fascinating, he was beyond
doubt one of the most unscrupulous men of his day. He married
as his second wife in 1585 Mary Stewart, daughter of Robert,
earl of Orkney, and had by her, besides six daughters, a son,
Andrew (d. 1663), who succeeded him as 7th Baron Gray.
Andrew, who served for a long time in the French army, was a
supporter, although not a very prominent one, of Charles I. and
afterwards of Charles II. He was succeeded as 8th Lord Gray
by Patrick’(d. 1711), a son of his daughter Anne, and Patrick's
successor was his kinsman and son-in-law John (d. 1724). On
the extinction of John’s direct line in 1878 the title of Lord Gray
passed to'George Stuart, earl of Moray. In 1606 Gray had been
ranked sixth among the Scottish baronies.
BtBUOQRAPHY.—Article in Diet, of Nat. Biog., and authorities
there quoted; Gray'V relation concerning the surprise at Stirling
(Bannatyne Club Putins, i, 131, 1827); Andrew Lang, History 0/
Scotland, vol. ii. (1Q02) ; Peter Gray, The Descent and Kinship 0/
Patrich, Master at Gray (1003); Gray Papers (Bannatyne Club,
1835); Hist. MSS. Comm^Marq. 0/ Salisbury's MSS.
GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872), first bishop of Cape Town and
metropolitan of South Africa, was born at Biahop Wearmouth,
Durham, and was the son of Robert Gray, bishop of Bristol.
He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and took orders in 1833.
After holding the livings of Whitworth, Durham, 1834-1845, and
Stockton-on-Tees 1845-1847, he was consecrated bishop of Cape
Town in 1847 ; the bishopric having been endowed through the
liberality of Miss (afterwards Baroness) Burdett-Coutts. Until
1853 he was a suffragan of Canterbury, but in that year he
formally resigned his see and was reappointed by letters patent
metropolitan of South Africa in view of the contemplated
establishment of the suffragan dioceses of Graham’s Town and
Natal. In that capacity his coercive jurisdiction was twice
called in question, and in each case the judicial committee of the
privy council decided against him. The best-known case is that
of Bishop Colenso, whom Gray deposed and excommunicated in
1863. The spiritual validity of the sentence was upheld by the
convocation of Canterbury and the Pan-Anglican synod of 1867,
but legally Colenso remained bishop of Natal. The privy council
decisions declared, in effect, that the Anglican body in South
Africa was on the footing of a voluntary religious society. Gray,
accepting this position, obtained its recognition by the mother
church a» the Church of the Province of South Africa, in full
communion with the Church of England. The first provincial
synod was held in 1870. During his episcopate Bishop Gray
effected a much-needed organization of the South African church,
to which.he added five new bishoprics, all carved out of the
original diocese of Cape Town. It was also chiefly owing to his
suggestions that the universities’ mission to Central Africa was
founded.
GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369), English chronicler, was a
son of Sir Thomas Gray, who was taken prisoner by the Scots
at Bannockburn and who died about 1344. The younger Thomas
was present at the battle of Neville’s Cross in 1346; in 1355,
whilst acting as warden of Norham Castle, he was made a prisoner,
and during his captivity in Edinburgh Castle he devoted his
time to studying the English chroniclers, Gildas, Bede, Ranulf
Higdon and others. Released in 1357 he was appointed warden
of the east marches towards Scotland in 1367, and he died about
1369. Gray’s work, the Scalacrontca (so called, perhaps, from
the scaling-ladder in the crest of the Grays), is a chronicle of
English history from the earliest times to about the year 1362.
It is, however, only valuable for the reigns of Edward I. and
Edward II. and part of that of Edward III., being especially
so for Hie account of the wars between England and Scotland, in
which the author’s father and the author himself took part.
Writing in Norman-French, Gray tells of Wallace and Bruce,
of the fights at Bannockburn, Byland and Dupplin, and makes
some mention of the troubles in England during the reign of
Edward II. He also narrates the course of the war in France
between 1355 and 1361; possibly he was present during some
of these campaigns.
The Scalacrtmica was summarized by John Leland in the 16th
century; the part dealing with the period from 1066 to the end,
together with the prologue, was edited for the Maitland Club by
J. Stevenson (1836) ; and the part from 1274 to 1362 was translated
into English by Sir Herbert Maxwell (Glasgow, 1907). In the
extant manuscript, which is in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
there is a gap extending from about 1340 to 1355, and Gray's
account of this period is only known from Leland's summary.
GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771), English poet, the fifth and sole
surviving child of Philip and Dorothy Gray, was bom in London
on the 26th of December 1716. His mother’s maiden name was
Antrobus, and in partnership with her sister Mary she kept a
millinery shop in Comhill. This and the house connected with
it were the property of Philip Gray, a money-scrivener, who
married Dorothy in 1706 and lived with her in the house, the
sisters renting the shop from him and supporting themselves
by its profits. Philip Gray had impaired the fortune which he
inherited from his father, a wealthy London merchant ; yet lie
was sufficiently well-to-do, and at the dose of his life was building
a house upon some property of his own at Wanstead. But he
was selfish and brutal, and in 1735 his wife took some abortive
GRAY, THOMAS
steps to obtain a separation from him. At this date she had
given birth to twelve children, of whom Thomas was the only
survivor. He owed his life as well as his education to this
“ careful, tender mother,*’ as he calls her. The child was
suffocating when she opened one of his veins with her own hand.
He went at her expense to Eton in 1727, and was confided
to the care of her brother, William Antrobus, one of the assistant-
masters, during some part at least of his school-life.
At Eton Gray’s closest friends were Horace Walpole, Richard
West (son of the lord chancellor of Ireland and grandson of the
famous Bishop Burnet), and Thomas Ashton, afterwards fellow
of Eton. This little coterie was dubbed “ the Quadruple
Alliance ”; its members were studious and literary, and took
little part in the amusements of their fellows. In 1734 Gray
matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, of which his unde,
Robert Antrobus, had been a fellow. At Cambridge he had once
more the companionship of Walpole and Ashton who were at
King’s, but West went to Christchurch, Oxford. Gray made at
this time the firmest and most constant friendship of his life
with Thomas Wharton (not the poet Warton) of Pembroke
College. He was maintained by his mother, and his straitened
means were eked out by certain small exhibitions from his
college. His conspicuous abilities and known devotion to study
perhaps atoned in the eyes of the authorities for his indifference
to the regular routine of study ; for mathematics in particular
he had an aversion which was the one exception to his almost
limitless curiosity in other directions. During his first Cambridge
period he learnt Italian “ like any dragon,” and made translations
from Guarini, Dante and Tasso, some of which have beep pre¬
served. In September 1738 he is in the agony of leaving college,
nor can we trace his movements with any certainty for a while,
though it may be conjectured that he spent much time with
Horace Walpole, and mode in his company some fashionable
acquaintances in London. On the 29th of March 1739, he
started with Walpole for a long continental tour, for the expenses
of which it is probable that his father, for once, came in some
measure to his assistance. In Paris, Gray visited the great with
his friend, studied the picture-galleries, went to tragedies,
comedies, operas and cultivated there that taste for the French
classical dramatists, especially Racine, whom he afterwards tried
to imitate in the fragmentary “ Agrippina.” It is characteristic
of him that he travels through France with Caesar constantly
in his hands, ever noting and transcribing. In the same way, in
crossing the Alps and in Piedmont, he has “ Livy in the chaise
with him and Silius Italicus too.” In Italy he made a long
sojourn, principally at Florence, where Walpole’s life-long
correspondent, Horace Mann, was British envoy, and received
and treated the travellers most hospitably. But Rome and
Naples are also described in Gray’s letters, sometimes vividly,
always amusingly, and in his notes are almost catalogued.
Herculaneum, an object of intense interest to the young poet
and antiquary, had been discovered the year before. At
length in April 1741 Gray and Walpole set out northwards for
Reggio. Here they quarrelled. Gray, “ never a boy,” was a
student, and at times retiring; Walpole, in his way a student
too, was at this time a very social being, somewhat too frivolous,
and, what was worse, too patronizing. He good-humouredly
said at a later date, “ Gray loves to find fault,” and this fault¬
finding was expressed, no doubt with exaggeration, in a letter
to Ashton, who violated Gray’s confidence. The rupture
followed, and with two friends, John Chute of the Vyne, Hamp¬
shire, and the young Francis Whithcd, Gray went to Venice to
see the doge wed the Adriatic on Ascension Day. Thence he
returned home attended only by a laguais de voyage, visiting
once more the Grande Chartreuse where he left in the album of
the brotherhood those beautiful alcaics, 0 Tu severa Religio
loci, which reveal hia characteristic melancholy (enhanced by
solitude and estrangement) and that sense of the glory as distinct
from the horror of mountain scenery to which perhaps he was
the first of RngKriw—» to give adequate expression. On the
18th of September 1741 we find him in London, astonishing the
street boys with hi* deep ruffles, large bag-wig and long sword,
m
and “mortified ” under the hands of the English barber. On
the 6th of November hi* father died; Philip Gray had, it is
evident, been less savage and niggardly at last to those who
were dependent upon him, and his death left his wife and son
seme measure of assured peace and comfort
London was Gray'* headquarters for more than a year, with
occasional visits to Stoke Poges, to Which his mother and Mary
Antrobus had retired from business to live with their sister,
Mrs Rogers. At Stoke he heard of the death of West, to whom
he had sent the “ Ode on Spring,” which was returned to him
unopened. It was an unexpected blow, shocking in all its
circumstances, especially if we believe die story that his friend’s
frail life was brought to a close by the discovery that the mother
whom he tenderly loved had been an unfaithful wife, and, as
some say, poisoned her husband. About this .tragedy Gray
preserved a mournful silence, broken only by the pathetic sonnet,
and some Latin lines, in which he laments his loss. The year
1742, was, for him, fruitful in poetic effort, of which, however,
much was incomplete. The “ Agrippina,” the De printipiis
Cogitandi, the splenetic “ Hymn to Ignorance ” in which he
contemplates his return to the university, remain fragments;
but besides the two poems already mentioned, the “ Ode on a
Distant Prospect of Eton College ” and the “ Hymn to Adver¬
sity,” perhaps the most faultless of his poems, were written
before the close of the summer. After hesitating between
Trinity Hall and Peterhouse, he returned to the latter, probably
as a fellow-commoner. He hod hitherto neglected to read for a
degree ; he proceeded to that of LL.B. in 1744. In 1745 a
reconciliation with Walpole, long desired probably on both sides,
was effected through the kind offices of Chute’s sister. In 1746
he spent his time between Cambridge, Stoke and London ; was
much with Walpole; graphically describes the trial of the
Scottish rebel lords, and studied Greek with avidity ; but “ the
muse,” which by this time perhaps had stimulated him to begin
the “ Elegy,” “ has gone, and left him in much worse company.”
In town he finds his friends Chute and Whithcd returned to
England, and “ flaunts about ” in public places with them.
The year 1747 produced only the ode on Walpole’s cat, and we
gather that he is mainly engaged in reading with a very critical
eye, and interesting himself more in the troubles of Pembroke
College, in which he almost seems to live, than in the affairs of
Peterhouse. In this year also he made the acquaintance of
Mason, his future biographer. In 1748 ho first came before the
public, but anonymously, in Dodsley’s Miscellany, in which
appeared the Eton ode, the ode on spring, and that on the cat.
In the same year he sent to Wharton the beginningnd the didactic
poem, “ The Alliance of Education and Government," which
remains a fragment. His aunt, Mary Antrobus, died in 1749.
There is little to break the monotony,of his days till 1750,
when from Stoke he sent Walpole “ a thing to which he had at
last put an end.” The “ thing ” was the “ Elegy.” It was
shown about in manuscript by his admiring friend; it was
impudently pirated, and Gray had it printed by Dodsley in
self-defence. Even thus it had “ a pinch or two in it* cradle,”
of which it long bore the marks. The publication led to the one
incident in Gray’s life which has a touch of romance. At Stoke-
house had come to live the widowed Lady Cobham, who learnt
that the author of the “ Elegy ” was her neighbour. At her
instance, Lady Schaub, her visitor, and Mis* Speed, her prot6gfe,
paid him a call; the poet was out, and his quiet mother and
aunts were somewhat flustered at the apparition of these women
of fashion, whose acquaintance Gray had already made in town.
Hence the humorous “Long Story.” A platonic affection
sprang up between Gray and Miss Speed; rumour, upon the
death of Lady Cobham, said that they were to be married:, but
the lady escaped this mild destiny to become the B a ron ess de bt
Peyridre, afterwards Countess Viry, and a dangerous political
intriguante.
In 1733 all Gray’s completed poems, except the sonnet on the
death ol West, were published by Dodsley in «handsome volume
illustrated by Richard Bentley, the son of the Celebrated master
of Trinity. To these designs we owe the verses to the artist
xn. 13 a
GRAY; THOMAS
394
which.were posthumously published from a MS. tom at the end.
In the sartte year Gray’s mother died and was buried in the
churchyard ait Stoke Pages, the scene of the “ Elegy,” in the
same grave with Mary Antrobus. A visit to his friend Dr
Wharton at Durham later in the year revives his earlier impres¬
sions of that bolder scenery which is henceforth to be in the
main the framework of his muse. Already in 1754 he had
almost completed “ The Progress of Poesy,” in which, and in
“ The Bard,” the imagery is largely furnished forth by mountain
and torrent. The latter poem long held fire ; Gray was stimu¬
lated to finish it by hearing the blind Welsh harper Parry at
Cambridge. Both odes were the first-fruits of the press which
Walpole had set up at Strawberry Hill, and were printed together
there in 1757. They are genuinely Pindaric, that is, with corre¬
sponding strophes, anlistrophes and epodes. As the Greek
motto prefixed to them implies, they were vocal to the intelligent
only ; and these at first were few.»But the odes, if they did not
attain the popularity of the “ Elegy,” marked an epoch in
the history of English poetry, and the influence of “ The Burd ”
may be traced eve# in that great but very fruitful imposture,
the pseudo-Ossian of Macpherson. Gray yields to the impulse
of the Romantic movement; he has long been an admirer of
ballad poetry ; before he wrote “ The Bard ” he had begun to
study Scandinavian literature, and the two “ Norse Odes,”
written in 1761, were in style and metrical form strangely
anticipative of Coleridge and Scott. Meanwhile his Cambridge
life had been vexed by the freaks of the fellow-commoners of
Peterhouse, a peculiarly riotous set. He had suffered great
inconvenience for a time by the burning of his property in
Cornhill, and so nervous was he on the subject of fire that he
had provided himself with a rope-ladder by which he might
descend from his college window. Under this window a hunting-
party of these rude lads raised in the early morning the cry
of fire ; the poet’s night-capped head appeared and was at
once withdrawn. This, or little more than this, was the simple
tact out of which arose the legend still current at Cambridge.
The servile authorities of Peterhouse treated Gray’B complaints
with scant respect, and he migrated to Pembroke College. “ I
left my lodgings,” he said, “ because the rooms were noisy, and
the people of the house dirty.”
In 1758 died Mrs Rogers, and Gray describes himself as
employed at Stoke in “ dividing nothing ” between himself and
the surviving aunt, Mrs Oliffe, whom he calls 11 the spawn of
Cerberus and the Dragon of Wantley.” In 1750 he availed
himself of the MS. treasures of the British Museum, then for the
first time open to the public, made a very long sojourn in town,
and in 1761 witnessed the coronation of George III., of which
to his friend Brown of Pembroke he wrote a very vivacious
account. In his last years he revealed a craving for a life less
sedentary than heretofore. He visited various picturesque
districts of Great Britain, exploring great houses and ruined
abbeys ; he was the pioneer of the modem tourist, noting and
describing in the spirit now of the poet, now of the art-critic,
now of the antiquary. In 1762 he travelled in Yorkshire and
Derbyshire ; in 1764 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and thence
went to Southampton and its neighbourhood. In 1765 he
revisits Scotland ; he is the guest of Lard Strathmore at Glamis ;
and revels in “ those monstrous creatures of God,” the Highland
mountains. His most notable achievement in this direction
was his journey among the English lakes, of which he wrote an
interesting account to Wharton; and even in 1770, the year
before his death, he visited with his young friend Norton Nicholls
“ five of the most beautiful counties of the kingdom,” and
descended the Wye for 40 m. In all these quests he displays a
physical energy which surprises and even perplexes us. His
true academic status was worthily secured in 1768, when the
duke of Grafton offered him the professorship of modem history
which in 1762 he had vainly endeavoured to obtain from Bute.
He wrote in 1769 thw” Installation Ode ” upon the appointment
of Grafton as chancellor of the university. It was almost the
only instance in which he successfully executed a task, not, in
the strictest sense, self-imposed; the great founders of the
university are tactfully memorized and pass before us in a kind
of heraldic splendour. He bore with indifference the taunts
to which, from Junius and others, he was exposed for this
tribute to his patron. He was contemplating a journey to
Switzerland to visit his youthful friend de Bonstetten when, in
the summer of 1771, he was conscious of a great decline in his
physical powers. He was seized with a sudden illness when
dining in his college hall, and died of gout in the stomach on the
30th of July 1771. His last moments were attended by his
cousin Mary Antrobus, postmistress through his influence at
Cambridge and daughter of his Eton tutor; and he was laid
beside his beloved mother in the churchyard of Stoke Poges.
Owing to his shyness and reserve he had few intimate friends,
but to these his loss was irreparable; for to them he revealed
himself either in boyish levity and banter, or wise and sympa¬
thetic counsel and tender and yet manly consolation ; to them
he imparted his quiet but keen observation of passing events
or the stores of his extensive reading in literature ancient,
medieval or modem ; and with Proteus-like variety he writes
at one time as a speculative philosopher, at another as a critic
in art or music, at another as a meteorologist and nature-lover.
His friendship with the young, after his migration to Pembroke
College, is a noteworthy trait in his character. Witli Lord
Strathmore and the Lyons and with William Palgrave he con¬
versed as an elder brother, and Norton Nicholls of Trinity Hall
lost in him a second father, who had taught him to think and feel.
The brilliant young foreigner, de Bonstetten, looked back after
a long and chequered career with remembrance still vivid to the
days in which the poet so soon to die taught him to read Shake¬
speare and Milton in the monastic gloom of Cambridge. With
the elderly “ Levites ” of the place he was less in sympathy ;
they dreaded his sarcastic vein; they were conscious that he
laughed at them, and in the polemics of the university he was
somewhat of a free lance, fighting for his own hand. Lampoons
of his were privately circulated with effect, and that he could be
the fiercest of satirists the “ Cambridge Courtship ” on the
candidature of Lord Sandwich for the office of high steward, and
the verses on Lord Holland’s mimic ruins at Westgate, sufficiently
prove. The faculty which he displayed in humour and satire
was denied to his more serious muse ; there all was the fruit of
long delay ; of that higher inspiration he had a thin but very
precious vein, and the sublimity which he undoubtedly attained
was reached by an effort of which captious and even sympathetic
criticism can discover the traces. In his own time he was
regarded as an innovator, for like Collins he revived the poetic
diction of the past, and the adverse judgments of Johnson and
others upon his work are in fact a defence of the current literary
traditions. Few men have published so little to so much effect;
few have attained to fame with so little ambition. His favourite
maxim was “ to be employed is to be happy,” but he was always
employed in the first instance for the satisfaction of his own soul,
and to this end and no other he made himself one of the best
Greek scholars at Cambridge in the interval between Bentley
and Porson. His genius was receptive rather than creative,
and it is to be regretted that he lacked energy to achieve that
history of English poetry which he once projected, and for which
he possessed far more knowledge and insight than the poet
Thomas Warton, to whom he resigned the task. He had a fine
taste in music, painting and architecture ; and his correspondence
includes a wide survey of such European literature as was
accessible to him, with criticisms, sometimes indeed a little
limited and insular, yet of a singularly fresh and modern cast.
In person he was below the middle height, but well-made, and
his face, in which the primness of his features was redeemed
by his flashing eyes, was the index of his character. There was
a touch of affectation in his demeanour, and he was sometimes
reticent and secretive even to his best friends. He was a refined
Epicurean in his habits, and a deist rather than a Christian in
his religious beliefs; but his friend, Mrs Bonfoy, had “ taught
him to pray ” and he was keenly alive to the dangers of a flippant
scepticism. In a beautiful alcaic stanza he pronounces the man
supremely happy who in the depths of the heart is conscious
GRAY, W.
of the “fount of tears,” and his characteristic melancholy,
except in the few hours when it was indeed black, was not a
pitiable state; rather, it was one secret of the charm both of
the man and of the poet.
A very complete bibliography of Gray will be found In Dr. Brad¬
shaw’s edition of the poems in the Aldine series. Dodsley published
ten of the poems, exclusive of the " Long Story,” in 1768. Mason's
Life of Gray (1778) included the poems and some hitherto unpub¬
lished fragments, with a selection from his letters, much garbled.
Mathias in 1814 reprinted Mason’s edition and added much from
Gray's MS. commentaries together with some more of his transla¬
tions. The most exhaustive edition of Gray's writings was achieved
by the Rev. John Mitford, who first did justice to the correspondence
with Wharton and Norton Nicholls (5 vols., Pickering, 1836-1S43 ;
correspondence of Gray and Mason, Bentley, 1853) ; see also the
rdition of the works bv Edmund Gosse (4 vols. 1884); the Life
by the same in En;. Men ol Letters (and ed., 1889); some further
relics arc given in Gray and His Friends by D. C. Tovey (Cambridge,
1890) ; and a new edition of the letters copiously annotated by D.
C. Tovey is in the Standard Library (1900-1907). Nicholl’s
Illustrations, vol. vi. p. 805, quoted by Professor kittredge in the
Nation, Sept lath, 1900, gives the true story of Gray's migration
1o Pembroke College. Matthew Arnold's essay on Gray in Ward's
English Poets is one of tlie minor classics of literary criticism.
(D. C. To.)
GRAY (or Grey), WALTER DE (d. 1255), English prelate and
statesman, was a nephew of John de Gray, bishop of Norwich,
and was educated at Oxford. He owed his early and rapid
preferment in church and state to the favour of King John,
becoming the king’s chancellor in 1205, and being chosen bishop
of Lichfield in 1210. He was, however, not allowed to keep this
bishopric, but he became bishop of Worcester in 1214, resigning
his office as chancellor in the same year. Gray was with-John
when the king signed Magna Carta in June 1215; soon after
this event he left England on the king's business, and it was
during his absence that he was forced into the archbishopric
of York, owing his election to the good offices of John and of
Pope Innocent III. He took a leading part in public affairs
during the minority of Henry III,, and was regarded with much
favour by this king, who employed him on important errands
to foreign potentates, and left him as guardian of England when
lie went to France in 1242. Afterwards the archbishop seems
to have been less favourably disposed towards Henry, and for a
time he absented himself from public business; however, in
1255, he visited London to attend a meeting of parliament, and
died at Fulham on the 1st of May 1255. Gray was always
anxious to assert his archiepiscopal authority over Scotland,
and to maintain it against the archbishop of Canterbury, but
in neither case was he very successful. He built the south
transept of the minster at York and bought for his see the
village, afterwards called Bishopthorpe, which is still the residence
of the archbishop of York. He was also generous to the church
at Ripon. Gray was regarded by his contemporaries as an
avaricious, but patriotic man.
GRAY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Haute-Saone, situated on the declivity of
a hill on the left bank of the Saone, 36 m. S.W. of Vesoul by the
Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 5742. The streets of the town are
narrow and steep, but it possesses broad and beautiful quays
and has a busv port. Three bridges, one dating from the 18th
century, unite it to suburbs on the right bank of the river, on
which is the railway-station from which lines branch off to
Auxonne, Dijon, Besanyon and Culmont-Chalindrey. The
principal buildings are the Gothic church, restored in the style
of the Renaissance but with a modem portal, and the hotel de
ville, built by the Spaniards in 1568. The latter building has a
handsome facade decorated with columns of red granite. Gray
is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a communal college
and a small museum. It has large flour-mills ; among the other
industries is the manufacture of machinery and iron goods.
There is also a considerable transit traffic in goods from the
south of France and the colonies', and trade in iron, com, pro¬
visions, vegetables, wine, wood, &c., much of which is carried
by river. Gray was founded in the 7th century. Its fortifications
were destroyed by Louis XIV. During the Franco-German War
DE—GRAZ i ‘ 39$
General von Werdef concentrated his army corps in thetown
and held it for a month, making it the point tfappui of move¬
ments towards Dijon and Langres, as well as towards Besanfon.
Gray gave its name to the distinguished English family of
de Gray, Gray or Grey, Anschitel de Gray being mentioned as
an Oxfordshire tenant in Domesday.
GRAYLING ( Thymallus), fishes belonging to the family
Salmonidae. The best known are the “ poisson bleu ” of the
Canadian voyageurs, and the European species, Thymallus
vulgaris (the Asch or Asche of Germany, ombre of France, and
temola of Upper Italy). This latter species is esteemed on
account of its agreeable colours (especially of the dorsal fin), its
well-flavoured flesh, and the sport it affords to anglers. The
grayling differ from the genus Salma in the smaller'Anouth with
comparatively feeble dentition, in the larger scales, and especially
in the much greater development of the dorsal fin, which contains
20 to 24 rays. These beautiful fishes, of which five or six species
are known, inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and the
northern parts of North America. The European species,
T. vulgaris or vexillijer, attains, though rarely, a length of 2 ft.
The colours during life are remarkably changeable and iridescent;
small dark spots are sometimes present on the body ; the very
high dorsal fin is beautifully marked with purplish hands and
ocelli. In England and Scotland the grayling appears to have
had originally a rather irregular distribution, but it has now
been introduced into a great number of rivers ; it is not found in
Ireland. It is more generally distributed in Scandinavia and
Russia, and the mountain streams of central Europe southwards
to the Alpine water of Upper Italy. Specimens attaining to a
weight of 4 lb are very scarce.
GRAYS THURROCK, or Grays, an urban district in the south¬
eastern parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Thames,
20 m. E. by S. from London by the Ixmdon, Tilbury & Southend
railway. Pop. (1901) 13,834. The church of St Peter and St
Paul, wholly rebuilt, retains some Norman work. The town
takes its name from a family of Gray who held the manor for
three centuries from 1149. There are an endowed and two
training ship schools. Roman remains have been found in the
vicinity ; and the geological formations exhibiting the process
of silting up of a former river channel are exposed m the quarries,
and contain large mammalian remains. The town has trade in
bricks, lime and cement.
GRAZ [Gratz], the capital of the Austrian duchy and crown-
land of Styria, 140 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900)
138,370. It is picturesquely situated on both banks of the Mur,
just where this river enters a broad and fertile valley, and the
beauty of its position has given rise to the punning French
description, La Ville des graces sur la riviere de Vamour. The main
town lies on the left bank of the river at the foot of the Schloss-
berg (1345 ft.) which dominates the town. The beautiful valley
traversed by the Mur, known as the Grazer Feld and bounded
by the Wildonerberge, extends to the south ; to the S.W. rise
the Bacher Gcbirge and the Koralpen ; to the N. the Schockel
(4745 ft.), and to the N.W. the Alps of Upper Styria. On the
Schiossherg, which can be ascended by a cable tramway, beautiful
parks have been laid out, and on its top is the bell-tower, 60 ft.
high, and the quaint clock-tower, 52 ft. high, which bears a
gigantic clock-dial. At the foot of the Schlossberg is the Stadt-
Park.
Among the numerous churches of the city the most important
is the cathedral of St Aegidius, a Gothic building erected by the
emperor Frederick III. in 1450-1462 on the site of a previous
church mentioned as early as T157. It hfts been several times
modified and redecorated, more particularly in 7718. The
present copper spire dates from 1663. The interior is richly
adorned with stained-glass windows of modern date, costly
shrines, paintings and tombs. In the immediate neighbourhood
of the cathedral is the mausoleum church erected by the emperor
Ferdinand II. Worthy of mention also are the parish church, a
Late Gothic building, finished in 1520, and restored In 1873,
which possesses an altar piece by Tintoretto; the Augustinkm
church, appropriated to the service of the university since 1827 •
396 GRAZZINI—GREAT AWAKENING
the small Leech Kirche, an interesting building in Early Gothic
style, dating from the 13th century, and the Hera Jrau-Kirche,
a building in Early Gothic style, finished in 1891, with a tower
360 ft. high. Of the secular buildings the most important is the
Landhaus, where the local diet holds its sittings, erected in the
16th century in the Renaissance style. It possesses an interesting
portal and a beautiful arcaded court, and amongst the curiosities
preserved here is the Styrian hat. In its neighbourhood is the
Zeuglmus or arsenal, built in 1^44, which contains a very rich
collection of weapons of the 15th- 17th centuries, and which is
maintained exactly in the same condition as it was 250 years ago.
The town hall, built in 1807, and rebuilt in 1892 in tire German
Renaissance style, and the imperial castle, dating from the 11th
century, now used as government offices, are also worth notice.
At the head of the educational institutions is the university
founded in 1586 by the Austrian archduke Charles Francis, and
restored in 1817 after an interruption of 45 years. It is now
housed in a magnificent building, finished in 1895, and is endowed
with numerous scientific laboratories and a rich library. It
had in 1901 a teaching staff of i6x professors and lecturers,
and .1652 students, including many Italians from the Kiisttmland
and Dalmatia. The Joanneum Museum, founded in )8n by the
archduke John baptist, has become very rich in many depart¬
ments, and an additional huge building in the rococo style was
erected in 1895 f° r its accommodation. The technical college,
founded in 1814 by the archduke John Baptist, had in 190 1
about 400 pupils.
An active trade, fostered by abundant railway communications,
is combined with manufactures of iron and steel wares, paper,
chemicals, vinegar, physical and optical instruments, besides
artistic printing and lithography. The extensive workshops
of the Southern railway are at Graz, and since the opening of the
railway to the rich coal-fields of Koflach the number of industrial
establishments has greatly increased.
Amongst the numerous interesting plaees in the neighbourhood
are : the Hilmteich, with the Hilmwarte, about too ft. high ;
and the Rosenberg (1570 ft.), whence the ascent of the Platte
{2136 ft.) with extensive view is made. At the foot of the
Rosenberg is Maria Grim, with a large sanatorium. All these
places are situated to the N. of Graz. On the left bank of the
Mur is the pilgrimage church of Maria Trost, built in 1714;
on the right hank is the castle of Eggenberg, built in the 17th
century. To the S.VV. is the Buchkogel (2150 ft.), with a magnifi¬
cent 'view, and a little farther south is the watering-place of
Tobelbad.
History .—Graz may possibly have been a Roman site, but
the first mention erf it under its present name is in a document
of a.d. 881, after which it became the residence of the rulers
of the surrounding district, known later as Styria. Its privileges
were confirmed by King Rudolph I. in 1281. Surrounded with
walls and fosses in 1435, it was able in 1481 to defend itself
against the Hungarians under Matthias Corvinus, and in 1529
and 1532 the Turks attacked it with as little success. As early
as 7530 the Lutheran doctrine was preached in Graz by Seifried
and Jacob von Eggenberg, and in 1540 Eggenberg founded the
Paradies or Lutheran school, in which Kepler afterwards taught.
But the archduke Charles burned 20,000 Protestant books in
the square of the present lunatic asylum, and succeeded by his
oppressive measures in bringing the city again under the authority
of Rome. From the earlier part of the 15th century Graz was
the residence of one branch of the family of Habsburg, a branch
which succeeded to the imperial throne in 1619 in the person
of Ferdinand II. New fortifications were constructed in the end
of the 16th century by Franz von Poppendorf, and in 1644 the
town afforded an asylum to the family of Ferdinand III. The
French were in possession of the place in 1797 and again in 1805 ;
and in 1809 Marshal Macdonald having, in accordance with the
terms of the peace of Vienna, entered the citadel which he had
vainly besieged, blew it all up with die exception of the bell-
tower and the citizens’ 'or clock tower. It benefited greatly
during the 19th century from the care of the archduke John and
received extended ciyic privileges in i860.
See Ilwof and Peters, Goat, Gesekkhte umd Topographer der Stai)
(Gres, 1873); G. Fete, Gnu nod stint Umgebvng (Graz, 1898); L,
Mayer, Die Stadt der Gratien (Graz, 1897), and Hoirichter, Riickblicke
in ait Vergangenheil von Gnu (Graz, 1885).
GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO (1503-1583), Italian
author, was bom at Florence on the 22nd of March 1503, of good
family both by his father’s and mother’s side. Of his youth
and education all record appears to be lost, but he probably
began early to practise as an apothecary. In 1540 he was one
of the founders of the Academy of the Humid (degli Umidi)
afterwards called “ della Fiorentina,” and later took a prominent
part in the establishment of the more famous Accademia della
Crusca. In both societies he was known as II Lasca or Leuciscus,
and this pseudonym is still frequently substituted far his proper
name. His temper was what the French happily call a difficult
one, and his life was consequently enlivened or disturbed by
various literary quarrels. His Humid brethren went so far as
to expel him for a time from the society—the chief ground
of offence being apparently his ruthless criticism of the
“ Arameans,” a party of the academicians who maintained
that the Florentine or Tuscan tongue was derived from the
Hebrew, the Chaldee, or some other branch of the Semitic.
He was readmitted in 1566, when his friend Salviati was “consul”
of the academy. His death took place on the 18th of February
1583. H Lasca ranks as one of the great masters of Tuscan
prose. His style is copious and flexible ; abundantly idiomatic,
but without any affectation of being so, it carries with it the
force and freshness of popular speech, while it lacks not at the
same time a flavour of academic culture. His principal works
are l.e Cent (1756), a collection of storks in the manner of
Boccaccio, and a number of prose comedies. La Gelosia ( 1 568), La
Spiritata (1561)./ Pan-ntadi,LaArenga,La Sibilla, La Pimochera,
L' Arzigugolo. The stories, though of no special merit as far
us the plots are concerned, are told with verve and interest.
A number of miscellaneous poems, a few letters and Four
Orations to the Cross complete the list of Grazzini's extant works.
He also edited the works of Bern!, and collected 7 utti i tnouft,
tarn , maschcrale, e canti cartiascialascln, andati per h (rente dal
tempo del magnijico Lorento de‘ Medici fino at!' anno //,- q. In i H68
Adamo Kossi published in his Ricerche per le biblioiethe di Perugia
three " novelie ” by (irazzmi, from a MS. of the ibth century in the
" Comunale " of Perugia; and in 1S70 a small collection of those
poems which have been left unpublished by previous editors appeared
at Poggibonsi, Alcune Pwsie inedite. See Pietro Fanfani’s " Vita
del Lasca,” prefixed to his edition of the Opere di A. Gratzuu
(Florence, 18,57).
GREAT AWAKENING, the name given to a remarkable
religious revival centring in New England in 1740-1743, hut
covering, all the American colonies in 1740-1750. The word
“ awakening ’’ in this sense was frequently (and possibly first)
used by Jonathan Edwards at tine time of the Northampton
revival of 1734-1735, which spread through the Connecticut
Valley and prepared the way for the work in Rhode Island,
Massachusetts and Gonnectirut( 1740-1741) of George Whitefield,
who had previously been preaching in the South, especially
at Savannah, Georgia. He, his immediate follower, Gilbert
Tennent (1703-1764), other clergymen, such as James Davenport,
and many untrained laymen who took up the work, agreed
in the emotional and dramatic character of their preaching,
in rousing their hearers to a high pitch of excitement, often
amounting to frenzy, in the undue stress they put upon “ bodily
effects ” (the physical manifestations of an abnormal psychic
state) as proofs of conversion, and in their unrestrained attacks
upon the many clergymen who did not join them amd whom
they called “ dead men,” unconverted, unregenerate and
careless of the spiritual condition of their parishes. Jonathan
Edwards, Benjamin Cohnan (1673-1747), and Joseph Bellamy,
recognized the viciousness of so extreme a position. Edwards
personally reprimanded Whitefield for presuming to say of any
one that he was unconverted, and in his Thoughts Concerning
the Present Revival of Religion devoted much space to “ showing
what things are to be corrected, or avoided, m promoting this
work.” Edward’s famous sermon at Enfield in 1741 so affected
his audience that they cried and groaned aloud, and he found
GREAT BARRIER REEF—GREAT BASIN 397
it necessary to bid them be stall that he night go on; but
Davenport and many itinerants provoked and invited shouting
and even writhing, and other physical manifestations. At its
May session in 1742 the General Court of Massachusetts forbade
itinerant preaching save with full consent front the resident
pastor; in May 1743 the annual ministerial convention, by a
small plurality, declared against “several errors in doctrine
and disorders in practice which have of late obtained in various
parts of the land,” against lay preachers and disorderly revival
meetings ; in the same year Charles Chauney, who disapproved
of the revival, published Seasonable Thoughts on the State of
Religion in New England ; and in 1744-1745 Whitefield, upon
his second tour in New England, found that the faculties of
Harvard and Yale had officially “ testified ” and “ declared ”
against him and that most pulpits were closed to him. Some
separatist churches were formed as a result of the Awakening;
these either died out or became Baptist congregations. To
tire reaction against the gross methods of the revival has been
ascribed the religious apathy of New England during the last
years of the 18th century ; but the martial and political excite¬
ment, beginning with King George’s War (1 \e. the American
part of the War of the Austrian Succession) and running through
the American War of Independence and the founding of the
American government, must be reckoned at the least as contri¬
buting causes.
See Joseph Tracy, The Great Awakening (Boston, 1842); Samuel
P. Hayes, " An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals," in
The American Journal of Psychology, vol. 13 (Worcester, Mass.,
lyoi) ; and Frederick M. Davenport, Primitive Traits in Religious
Revivals (New York, 1905), especially chapter viii. pp. 94-13T.
(R. Ws.)
GREAT BARRIER REEF, a vast coral reef extending for
1200 m. along the north-east coast of Australia (?.«.). The
channel within it is protected from heavy seas by the reef, and
is a valuable route of communication for coasting steamers.
The reef itself is also traversed by a number of navigable passages.
GREAT BARRINGTON, a township of Berkshire county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Housatonic river, in the Berkshire
hills, about 25 tn. S.W. of Pittsfield. Pop, (1890) 4612 ; (1900)
5854, of whom 1187 were foreign-born; (iqro, U.S. census)
5926. Its area is about 45 sq. m. The township is traversed by
a branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and
the Berksliire Street railway (controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H.)
has its southern terminus here. Within the township arc
three villages—Great Barrington (the most important), Housa¬
tonic und Van Deusenville ; the first two are about 5 m. apart.
The village of Great Barrington, among the hills, is well known
as a summer resort. The Congregational church with its magnifi¬
cent organ (3954 pipes) is worthy of mention. There is a public
library in the village of Great Barrington and another in the
village of Housatonic. Monument Mt (1710 ft.), partly in
Stockbridgc, commands a fine view of the Berkshircs and the
Housatonic Valley. The Sedgwick School (for boys) was removed
from Hartford, Connecticut, to Great Barrington in 1869.
There are various manufactures, including cotton-goods (in the
village of Housatonic), and electric meters, paper, knit goods
and counterpanes (in the village of Great Burrington); and
marble and blue stone are quarried here ; but the township is
primarily given over to farming. The fair of the Housatonic
Agricultural Society is held here annually during September;
and the district court of South Berkshire sits here. The township
was incorporated in 1761, having been, since 1743, the “ North
Parish of Sheffield ” ; the township of Sheffield, earlier known
as the “ Lower Housatonic Plantation ” was incorporated in
1733. Great Barrington was named in honour of John Shute
(1678-1734), Viscount Barrington of Ardglass (the adjective
“ Great ” being added to distinguish it from another township
of the same name). .In 1761-1787 it was the shire-town. Great
Barrington was a centre of the disaffection during Shays’s
rebellion, and on the lath of September 1786 a riot here pre¬
vented the sitting of court Samuel Hopkins, one of the most
eminent of American theologians, was pastor here in 1743-1769;
General Joseph Dwight (1703-1765), a merchant, lawyer and
brigadier-general of Massachusetts militia, who took part Id
the Louisburg expedition in 1745 sad later-in the Freiidh and
Indian War, lived here from 1758 until his. death; and William
Cullen Bryant lived here as a lawyer and town clerk in 1816-1825.
See C. J. Taylor, History of Great Barrington (Great Barrington,
1882).
GREAT BASIN, an area in the western Coedilleran region of
the United States of America, about- boo, 000 sq. m. in extent,
characterized by wholly interior drainage, a peculiar mountain
system and extreme aridity. Its form is approximately that
of an isosceles triangle, with the shaip angle extending into
Lower California, W. of the Colorado river; the northern edge
bfcing formed by the divide of the drainage basin of the Columbia
river, the eastern by that of the Colorado, the western by the
central part of the Sierra Nevada crest, and bp other high
mountains. The N. boundary and much of the E. is not con¬
spicuously uplifted, being plateau, rather than mountain. The
W. half of Utah, the S.W. corner of Wyoming, the SJE. corner
of Idaho, a huge area in S.E. Oregon, much of S. California,
a strip along the E. border of the last-named slate, and almost
tiic whole of Nevada are embraced within the limits of the
Great Basin.
The Great Basin is not, as its name implies, a topographic cup.
Its surface is of varied character, with many independent closed
basins draining into lakes or “ play as,” none of which, however,
has outlet to the sea. The mountain chains, which from their
peculiar geologic character are known as of the “ Basin Range
type ” (not exactly conterminous in distribution with the Basin),
are echeloned in short ranges running from N, to S. Many of
them are fault block mountains, the crust having been broken
and the blocks tilted so that there is a steep face on one side
and a gentle slope on the other. This is the Basin Range type of
mountain. These mountains are among the most recent in the
continent, and some of them, at least, are still growing. In
numerous instances clear evidence of recent movements along
the fault planes has been discovered ; and frequent earthquakes
testify with equal force to the present uplift of the mountain
blocks. The valleys between the tilted mountain blocks arc
smooth and often trough-like, and are often the sites of shallow
salt lakes or playos. By the rain wash and wind action detritus
from the mountains is carried to these valley floors, raising their
level, and often burying low mountain spurs, so as to cause
neighbouring valleys to coalesce. The plateau “ lowlands ” in
the centre of the Basin are approximately 5000 ft. in altitude.
Southward the altitude falls, Death valley and Coahuila valley
being in part below the level of the sea. The whole Basin is
marked by three features of elevation—the Utah basin, the
Nevada basin and, between them, the Nevada plateau.
Over the lowlands of the Basin, taken generally, there is an
average precipitation of perhaps 6-7 in.,* while in the Oregon
region it is twice as great, and in the southern parts even less.
The mountains receive somewhat more. The annual evaporation
from water surfaces is from 60 to 150 in. (60 to 80 on the Great
Salt Lake). The reason for the arid climate differs in different
sections. In the north it is due to the fact that the winds from
the Pacific lose most of their moisture, especially in winter, on
the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada ; in the south it is due
to the fact that the region lies in a zone of calms, and light,
variable winds. Precipitation is largely confined to local showers,
often of such violence as to warrant the name “ cloud bursts,”
commonly applied to the heavy down-pours of this desert
region. It is these heavy rains, of brief duration, when great
volumes of water rapidly run off from the barren slopes, that
cause the deep channels, or arroyas, which cross the desert
Permanent streams are rare. Many mountains are quite without
perennial streams, and some lack even springs. Few of the
mountain creeks succeed in reaching the arid plains, and those
that do quickly disappear by evaporation or by seepage into
the gravels. In the N.W. there are many permanent lakes
without outlet fed by the mountain streams ; others, saoW fed,
occur among the Sierra Nevada; and some in the larger mountain
masses of the middle region. Almost all are saline. The largest
398 GREAT BEAR LAKE—GREATHEAD
of all. Great Salt Lake, is maintained by the waters of the
Wasatch and associated plateaus. No lakes occur south of
Owens in the W. and Sevier in the E. (39°); evaporation below
these limits is supreme. Most'of the small closed basins, how¬
ever, contain “ playas,” or alkali mud flats, that are overflowed
when the tributary streams are supplied with storm water.
Save where irrigation has reclaimed small areas, the whole
region is a vast desert, though locally only some of the interior
plains are known as “ deserts.” Such are the Great Salt Lake
and Carson deserts in the north, the Mohave and Colorado and
Amargosa (Death Valley) deserts of the south-west. Straggling
forests, mainly of conifers, characterize the high plateaus of
central Utah. The lowlands and the lower mountains, especially
southward, are generally treeless. Cottonwoods line the streams,
salt-loving vegetation margins the bare playas, low bushes and
scattered bunch-grass grow over the lowlands, especially in the
north. Gray desert plants, notably cactuses and other thorny
plants, partly replace in the Bouth the bushes of the north.
Except on the scattered oases, where irrigation from springs and
mountain streams has reclaimed small patches, the desert is
barren and forbidding in the extreme. There are broad plains
covered with salt and alkali, and others supporting only scattered
bunch grass, sage bush, cactus and other arid land plants.
There are stony wastes, or alluvial fans, where mountain streams
emerge upon the pliiins, in time of flood, bringing detritus in
their torrential courses from the mountain canyons and depositing
it along the mountain base. The barrenness extends into the
mountains themselves, where there are hare rock cliffs, stony
slopes and e general absence of vegetation. With increasing
altitude vegetation becomes more varied and abundant, until the
tree limit is reached ; then follows a forest belt, which in the
highest mountains is limited above by cold as it is below by
aridity.
The successive explorations of B. L. E. Bonneville, J. C.
Frimont and Howard Stansbury (1806-1863) furnished a
general knowledge of the hydrographic features and geological
lacustrine history of the Great Basin, and this knowledge was
rounded out by the field work of the U.S. Geological Survey from
1879 to 1883, under the direction of Grove Karl Gilbert. The
mountains are composed in great part of Paleozoic strata,
often modified by vulcanism and greatly denuded and sculptured
by wind and water erosion. The climate in late geologic time
was very different from that which prevails to-day. In the
Pleistocene periud many large lakes were formed within the Great
Basin; especially, by the fusion of small catchment basins,
two great confluent bodies of water—Lake Lahontan (in the
Nevada basin) and Lake Bonneville (in the Utah basin). The
latter, the remnants of which are represented to-day by Great
Salt, Sevier and Utah Lakes, had a drainage basin of some
54,000 sq. m.
Sue G. K. Gilbert in Wheeler Survey, U.S. Geographical Survey
West oj the Hundredth Meridian, vol. iii.; Clarence King and others
in the Report of the Fortieth Parallel Survey (U.S. Geul. Exploration
of the Fortieth Parallel) ; G. K. Gilbert’s Lake Bonneville (U.S.
Geological Survey, Monographs, No. 1, 1890), also I. C. Russell’s
Lake Lahontan (Same, No. 11,1885), with references to other publica¬
tions of the Survey. For reference to later geological literature, and
discussion of the Basin Ranges, see J. E. Spurr, Bull. Gcal. Soc. Amer.
vol. 12, iijoi, p. 217 ; and G. D. Louderback, same, vol. 15, 1004,
p. 280; also general bibliographies issued by the U.S. Geol. Survey
(e.g. Bull. 301, 372 and 409).
GREAT BEAR LAKE, an extensive sheet of fresh water in
the north-west of Canada, between 65° and 67° N., and 117° and
123° W. It is of very irregular shape, has an estimated area
of 11,200 sq. m., a depth of 270 ft., and is upwards of 200 ft.
above the sea. It is 175 m. in length, and from 25 to 45 in
breadth, though the greatest distance between its northern and
southern arms is about 180 m. The Great Bear river discharges
its waters into the Mackenzie river. It is full of fish, and the
neighbouring country, though barren and uncultivated, contains
quantities of game.
GREAT CIRCLE. The circle in which a sphere is cut by a
plane is called a “ great airole,” when the cutting plane passes
through the centre of sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere.
the meridians of longitude are all great circles. Of the parallels
of latitude, the equator only is a great circle. The shortest line
joining any two points is an arc of a great circle. For “ great
circle sailing ” see Navigation.
GREAT FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Cascade county,
Montana, U.S.A., 99 m. (by rail) N.E. of Helena, on the S. bank
of the Missouri river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, at an
altitude of about 3300 ft. It is 10 m. above the Great Falls
of the Missouri, from which it derives its name. Pop. (1890)
3979; (1000) 14,930, of whom 4692 were foreign-bom; (1910,
census) 13,948. It has an area of about 8 sq. m. It is served
by the Great Northern and the Billings & Northern (Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy system) railways. The city has a splendid
rk system of seven parks (about 530 acres) with 15 m. of
ulevartls. 1 Among the principal buildings are a city hall,
court house, high school, commercial college, Carnegie library,
the Columbus Hospital and Training School for Nurses (under
the supervision of the Sisters of Charity), and the Montana
Deaconess hospital. There is a Federal land office in the city.
Great Falls lies in the midst of a region exceptionally rich in
minerals—copper, gold, silver, lead, iron, gypsum, limestone,
sapphires and bituminous coal being mined in the neighbourhood.
Much grain is grown in the vicinity, and the city is an important
shipping point for wool, live-stock and cereals. Near Great
Falls the Missouri river, within 75 m., contracts from a width of
about- 900 to 300 yds. and falls more than 500 ft., the principal
falls being the Black Eagle Falls (50 ft.), from which power is
derived for the city’s street railway and lighting plant, the
beautiful Rainbow Fulls (48 ft.) and Great Falls (92 ft,). Giant
Spring Fall, about 20 ft. high, is a cascade formed by a spring
on the bank of the river near Rainbow Falls. Hie river furnishes
very valuable water-power, partly utilized by large manufactur¬
ing establishments, including flour mills, plaster mills, breweries,
iron works, mining machinery shops, and smelting and reduction
works. The Boston & Montana copper smelter is one of the
largest in the world ; it has a chimney stack 506 ft. high, and in
1908 employed 1200 men in the smelter and 2500 in its mining
department. Great Falls ranked second (to Anaconda) among
the cities of the state in the value of the factory product of 1905,
which was $13,291,979, showing an increase of 42^4 % since 1900.
The city owns and operates its water-supply system. Great Falls
was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1888.
GREAT HARWOOD, an urban district in the Darwen parlia¬
mentary division of Lancashire, England, 4$ m. N.E. of Black¬
burn, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901)
12,015. ^ “ of modem growth, a township of cotton operatives,
with large collieries in the vicinity. An agricultural society
is also maintained.
GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY (1844-1896), British engineer,
was bom at Grahamstown, Cape Colony, on the 6th of August
1844. He migrated to England in 1859, and in 1864 was a pupil
of P. W. Barlow, from whom he became acquainted with the
shield system of tunnelling with which his name is especially
associated. Barlow, indeed, had a strong belief in the shield,
and was the author of a scheme for facilitating the traffic of
London by the construction of underground railways running
in cast-iron tubes constructed by its aid. To show what the
method could do, it was resolved to make a subway under
the Thames near the Tower, but the troubles encountered
by Sir M. I. Brunei in the Thames Tunnel, where also a shield was
employed, made engineers hesitate to undertake the subway,
even though it was of very much smaller dimensions (6 ft. 7 in.
1 Great Falls was a pioneer among tlic cities of the state in the
development of a park system. When the city was first settled its
site was a " barren tract of sand, thinly covered with buffalo-grass
and patches of Bage brush.” The first settler, Paris Gibson, of
Minneapolis, began the planting of trees, which, though not indi¬
genous, grew well. The city's sidewalks are Ixirdered by strips of
lawn, in which there is a row of trees, and the city maintains a large
nursery where trees are grown for this purpose. A general state law
(1901) placing the parking of cities on a sound financial basis is due
very largely to the impulse furnished by Great Falls. See an article,
" Great Falls, the Pioneer Park City of Montana,” by C. H. Forbes-
Lindsay, in tlie Craftsman for November 1908.
GREAT LAKES
internal diameter) than the tunnel. At this juncture Greathead
came forward and offered to take up the contract; and he
successfully carried it through in 1869 without finding any
necessity to resort to the use of compressed air, which Barlow
in 1867 had suggested might be employed in water-bearing strata.
After this he began to practise on his own account, and mainly
divided his time between railway construction and taking out
patents for improvements in his shield, and for other inventions
such as the “ Ejector ” fire-hydrant. Early in the ’eighties he
began to work in conjunction with a company whose aim was
to introduce into London from America the Hallidie system of
cable traction, and in 1884 an act of Parliament was obtained
authorizing what is now the City & South London Railway—
a tube-railway to be worked by cables. This was begun in 1886,
and the tunnels were driven by means of the Greathead shield,
compressed air being used at those points where water-bearing
gravel was encountered. During the progress of the works
electrical traction became so far developed as to be superior
to cables; the idea of using the latter was therefore abandoned,
and when the railway was opened in 1890 it was as an electrical
one. Greathead was engaged in two other important under¬
ground lines in London—the Waterloo & City and the Central
London. He lived to see the tunnels of the former completed
under the Thames, but the latter was scarcely begun at the time
of his death, which happened at Streatham, in the south of
London, on the 21st of October i8y6.
GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE. The connected
string of five fresh-water inland seas. Lakes Superior. Michigan,
Huron, Erie and Ontario, lying in the interior of North America,
between the Dominion of Canada on the north and the United
States of America on the south, and forming the head-waters of
the St Lawrence river system, are collectively and generally
known as “ The Great Lakes.” From the head of lake Superior
these lakes are navigable to Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie,
a distance of 1023 m., for vessels having a draught of 20 ft.;
from Buffalo to Kingston, 191 m. farther, the draught is limited,
by the depth in the Welland canal, to 14 ft.; lake Superior, the
largest and most westerly of the lakes, empties, through the river
St Mary, 55 m. long, into lake Huron. From Point Iroquois,
which may be considered the foot of the lake, to Sault Ste
Marie, St Mary's Falls, St Mary's Rapids or the Soo, as it is
variously called, a distance of 14 m., there is a single channel,
which has been dredged by the United States government, at
points which required deepening, to give a minimum width
of 800 ft. and a depth of 23 ft. at mean stage water. Below the
Sault, the river, on its course to lake Huron, expands into several
lakes, and is divided by islands into numerous contracted
passages. There are two navigated channels; the older one,
following the international boundary-line by way of lake George,
$99
| 19I ft., the height varying as the lakes change in level The
enormous growth of inter-lake freight traffic has justified the
construction of three separate locks, each overcoming the rapids
by a single lift—-two side by side on the United States and one
on the Canadian side of the river. These beta,. the largest in
the world, are all open to Canadian and United States vessels
alike, and are operated free from all taxes or tolls on shipping.
The Canadian ship canal, opened to traffic., on the 9th of
September 1895, wai constructed through St Mary Island, on
the north side of the rapids, by the Canadian government, at a
cost of $3,684,227, to facilitate traffic and to secure to Canadian
vessels an entrance to lake Superior without entering United
States territory. The canal is 5967 ft. long between the ex¬
tremities of the entrance piers, has one lock 900 ft. long.and
60 ft. wide, with a depth on the sills at the lowest known water-
level of 2of ft. The approaches to the canal .are dredged to
18 ft. deep, and are well buoyed and lighted. On the United
States side of the river the length of the canal is if m., the
channel outside the locks having a width varying, from ,108 to
600 ft. and depth of 25 ft. The locks of 1855 were closed in 1886,
to give place to the Poe lock. The Weitzel lock, opened to
navigation on the 1st of September 1881, was built south of the
old locks, the approach being through the old canal. Its chamber
is 515 ft. long between lock gates, and 80 ft. wide, narrowing
to 60 ft. at the gates. The length of the masonry walls is 717 ft.,
height 39f ft., with 17 ft. over mitre sills at mean stage of water.
The Poe lock, built because the Weitzel lock, large and fully
equipped as it is, was insufficient for the rapidly growing traffic,
was opened on the 3rd of August 1896. Its length between gates
is 800 ft.; width 100 ft.; length of masonry walls 1100 ft.;
height 431 to 45 ft., with 22 ft. on the mitre,sill at mean stage.
The expenditure by the United States government on the
canal, with its several locks, and on improving the channel
through the river, aggregated fourteen million dofiars up to the
end of 1906. 1 Plans were prepared in 1907 for a third United
States lock with a separate canal approach.
The canals are closed every winter, the average date of opening
up to 1893 being the 1st of May, and of closing the 1st of
December. The pressure of business since that time, aided
possibly by some slight climatic modification, has extended
the season, so that the average date of opening is now ten days
earlier and of closing twelve days later. The earliest opening
was in 1902 on the 1st of April, and the latest closing in 1904 on
the 20th of December.
The table below gives the average yearly commerce for periods
of five years, and serves to show the rapid increase in freight growth.
Around the canals have grown up two thriving towns, one
on the Michigan, the other on the Ontario side of the river, with
manufactories driven by water-power derived from the Sault.
Statement of the commerce through the ser>eral Sault Ste Marie canals t averaged for every five years A
Years.
Pass¬
ages.
Registered
Tonnage.
Passen¬
gers.
TT.
Coal. Flour.
Net Tons. Barrels.
Wheat.
Bushels.
Other
Grains.
Bushels.
General
Merchan¬
dise.
Net Tons
Salt.
Barrels.
n
Iron Ore.
Net Tons.
Lumber. Total
M. ft. Freight.
B.M. i Net Tons.
i 855 -l 8 S 9 s
1880-1884
1885-1889
1890-1894
1895-1899
1900-1904
1906 alone
387
4,457
7,908
11,985
18, 35 *
19,374
21,155
192,207
2,267,l6b
4 . 901,105
9 , 912,589
. 8 , 451,447
26 , 199,795
41,098,324
6,206
34,607
29,434
24,609
40,289
54,°93
63,033
4,672 ; 19,555
463,431 681,726
1 , 398,441 1 , 838,325
2,678,80515,764,766
3,270,842 8,319,699
5,457,01917,021,839
8,739,630 6,495,350
None.
5,435,6oi
18,438,085
34-875,971
57,227,269
56,269,265
84 , 27 U 358
34,6x2
936,346
1,213,815
1,738,706
23,349,134
26,760,533
54.343,155
2,249
81,966
74,447
87,540
164,426
646,277
i,134,85'
1,248
107,225
175,725
131,178
282,156
407,263
468,162
27,206
867,999
2 , 497,403
4 , 939,909
10,728,075
20,020,487
35 , 357,042
3*0 55,797
79,144 ! 2,184,731
197,605 5 , 441,297
510,482 10,627,349
832,968 19 , 354,974
999,944 ' 31 , 245,565
900,631 51,751,080
ha, a width of 150 to 300 ft., and a depth of 17 ft. ; it is buoyed
but not lighted, and is not capable of navigation by modem
large freighters; the other, some 12 m. shorter, an artificial
channel dredged bv the United States government in their own
territory, has a minimum width of 300 ft. and depth of 20 ft.
It is elaborately lighted throughout its length. A third channel,
west of all the islands, was designed for steamers bound down,
the older channel being reserved for upbound boats.
Between lake Superior and lake Huron there is a fall of 20 ft.
of which the Sault, in a distance of $ m., absorbs from 18 to
The outlet of lake Michigan, the only lake of the safes lying
wholly in United States territory, is at the Strait of Mackmac,
near the point where the river St Mary reaches lake Huron.
With lake Michigan are connected the Chicago Sanitary and
Ship canal, the Illinois and Michigan, and the Illinois, and Missis¬
sippi canals, for which see Illinois. With lake Huron is always
1 Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals. Col.
Chas. E. L. B. Davis, U.S.A., engineer in charee, 1907.
1 Statistical retort of lake commerce passing, through canals,
published annually by the U.S. engineer officer in Charge.
1 The first five yean of operation.
400 GREAT
fadwMCeagmn Bay u well ai tibe channel north of Manitoulin
Island. Ai it m principally navigated as a connecting waterway
between Superior and Michigan and lake Erie it has no
notable barbourc on it. It empties into lake Erie through the
river St Clair, lake St Clair and the river Detroit On these con¬
necting waters are several important manufacturing and shipping
towns, and through this chain passes nearly all the traffic of the
lakes, both that to and from lake Michigan ports, and also that of
lake Superior. The tonnage of a single short season of navigation
exceeds in the aggregate 60,000,000 tons. Extensive dredging
and embankment works have been carried on by the United
States government in Idee St Clair and the river Detroit, and a
io*ft channei now exists, which is being constantly improved.
Lake St Clair is nearly circular, 25 m. in diameter, with the north¬
east quadrant filled liy the delta of the river St Oair. It has a
very flat bottom with a general depth of only 21 ft., shoaling very
gradually, usually to reed beds that line the low swampy shores.
To enter the lake from river St Clair two channels have been
provided, with retaining walls of cribwork, one for upward, the
other for downward bound vessels. Much dredging has also been
necessary at the outlet of the lake into river Detroit. A critical
point in that river is at Limekiln crossing, a cut dredged through
limestone rock above the Canadian town of Amherstburg. The
normal depth here before improvement was 121*15 ft.; by a
project of 1903 a channel 600 ft. wide and 2 x ft. deep was planned ;
there are separate channels for up- and down-bound vessels. To
prevent vessels from crowding together in the cut, the Canadian
government maintains a patrol service here, while the United
States government maintains a similar patrol in the St Mary
channel.
The Grand Trunk railway opened in 1891 a single track
tunnel under the river St Clair, from Sarnia to Port Huron.
It is 6026 ft. long, a cylinder 20 ft. in diameter, lined with
cast iron in flanged sections. A second tunnel was undertaken
between Detroit and Windsor, under the river Detroit.
From Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, the river Niagara runs
northwards 36 m. into lake Ontario. To overcome the difference
of 327 ft. in level between lakes Erie and Ontario, the Welland
canal, accommodating vessels of 255 ft. in length, with a draught
of 14 ft., was built, and is maintained by Canuda. 'Hie Murray
cftnal extends from Prcsqu’ile Bay, on the north shore of lake
Ontario, a distance of ftj m., to the headquarters of the Bay of
Quinte. Trent canal is a term applied to a series of water
stretches in the interior of Ontario which are ultimately designed
to connect lake Huron and luke Ontario. At Peterboro a
hydraulic balance-look with a lift of 65 ft., 140 ft. in length and
33 ft. clear in width, allowing a draught of 8 ft., has been con¬
structed. The ordinary locks are 134 by 33 ft. with a draught
of 6 ft. When the whole route of 200 m. is completed, there will
not be more than 15 m. of actual canal, the remaining portion
of the waterway being through lakes and rivers. For the Erie
canal, between that lake and the Hudson river, see Erie and
New York.
The population of the states and provinces bordering on the
Greut Lakes is estimated to be over 35,000,000. In Pennsylvania
and Ohio, south of lake Erie, there are large coal-fields. Sur¬
rounding lake Michigan and west of lake Superior are vast
grain-growing plains, and the prairies of the Canadian north¬
west are rapidly increasing the ureu and quantity of wheat
grown; while both north and south of lake Superiur are the
most extensive iron mines in the world, from which 35 million
tons of ore were shipped in 1906. The natural highway for the
shipment of all these products is the Great Lakes, and over
them coal is distributed westwards and grain and iron ore are
concentrated eastwards. The great quantity of coarse freights,
that could only be profitably carried long distances by water,
has revolutionised the type of vessel used for its transportation,
making large steamers imperative, consolidating interests and
cheapening methods. It is usual for the vessels in the grain
trade and in the iron-org trade to make their up trips empty ;
but in consequence of the admirable facilities provided at
terminal points, they make very fast time, and carry freight very
LAKES
cheaply. The coat of freight per ton-mile M from 33/100 cat
in 1887 to 8/100 cent in 1898; since then the rate Iras slightly
risen, but keeps weH below 1/10 cent per tan-mile.
The traffic on the lakes may be divided into three classes,
passenger, package freight and bulk freight. Of passenger
boots the largest are 380 ft. long by 44 ft. beam, having a
speed of over 20 m. an hour, making the round trip between
Buffalo and Chicago 1800 m., or Buffalo and Dnlutfa 2000 m.,
every week. They carry no freight. The Canadian Pacific
railway runs a tine of fine Tyne-built passenger and freight
steamers between Owen Sound and Fort William, and these
two lines equal in accommodation transatlantic passenger
steamers. On lake Michigan many fine passenger boats run out
of Chicago, and on lake Ontario there are several large and fast
Canadian steamers on routes radiating from Toronto. The
package freight business, that is, the transportation of goods
in enclosed parcels, is principally local; all the through business
of this description is controlled by lines run by the great trunk
railways, and is done in boats limited in beam to 50 ft. to admit
them through bridges over the rivers at Chicago and Buffalo.
By far the greatest number of vesseLs on the lakes are bulk
freighters, and the conditions of the service have developed a
special type of vessel. Originally sailing vessels were largely
used, but these have practically disappeared, giving place to
steamers, which have grown steadily in size with every increase
in available draught. In 1894 there was no vessel on the lakes
with a capacity of over 5000 tons; in 1906 there were 254 vessels
of a greater capacity, 12 of them carrying over 12,000 tons each.
For a few years following i8qo many large barges were built,
carrying up to 8000 tons each, intended to be towed by a
steamer. It was found, however, that the time lost by one boat
of the pair having to wait for the other made the plan unprofit¬
able and no more were built. Following 1888 some 40 whale-
back steamers and barges, having oval cross-sections without
frames or decks, were built, but experience failed to demonstrate
any advantage in the type, and their construction has ceased.
'The modern bulk freighter is a vessel 600 ft. long, 58 ft. beam,
capable of carrying 14,000 tons on 20 ft. draught, built with a
midship section practically rectangular, the coefficient frequently
as high as -y8, with about two-thirds of the entire length
absolutely straight, giving a block coefficient up to -87, The
triple-expansion machinery and boilers, designed to drive the
boat at a speed of 12 m. an hour, are in the extreme stem, and
the pilot house and quarters in the extreme bow, leaving all
the cargo space together. Hatches are spaced at multiples
of 12 ft. throughout the length and are made as wide as possible
athwartships to facilitate loading and unloading. The vessels
are built on girder frames and fitted with double bottoms for
strength and water ballast. This type of vessel can be loaded
in a few minutes, and unloaded by self-filling grab buckets up to
ten tons capacity, worked hydraulically, in six or eight hours.
The bulk freight'generally follows certain well-defined routes;
iron ore is shipped east from ports on both sides of luke Superior
and on the west side of lake Michigan to rail shipping points
on the south shore of lake Erie. Wheat and other grains from
Duluth find their way to Buffalo, as do wheat, com (maize)
and other grains from Chicago. Wheat from the Canadian
north-west is distributed from Fort William and Port Arthur
to railway terminals on Georgian Bay, to Buffalo, and to Port
Colborne for trans-shipment to canal barges for Montreal,
and coal is distributed from lake Erie to all western points. The
large shipping trade is assisted by both governments by a system
of aids to navigation that mark every channel and danger.
There are also life-saving stations at all dangerous points.
The Great Lakes never freeze over completely, but the harbours
and often the connecting rivers are closed by ice. The navigable
season at the Sault is about 7} months; in lake Erie it is
somewhat longer. The season of navigation has been slightly
lengthened since 1905, by using powerful tugs as ice-breakers
in the spring and autumn, the Canadian government undertaking
the service at Canadian terminal ports, chiefly at Fort William
and Port Arthur, the most northerly ports, where the season
GREAT MOTHER OFOMB GOUS
is naturally shortest,, Mid the Lake Carriers’ Association, a
federation of the freighting steamship owners, acting in tkeriver
St Mary. Car ferries run through the winter across lake Michigan
and the Strait d! Mackinac, across the rivers St Chur and Detroit,
and across the middle of lakes Erie and -Ontario. The largest
of these steamers is 350 ft long by 56 ft wide, draught 14 ft-,
horse power 3500, speed 13 knots. She carries on four trarln 30
freight cars, with 1350 tons of freight Certain passenger steamers
run on lake Michigan, from Chicago north, all the winter.
The level of the lakes varies gradually, and is affected by the
general character of the season, and not by individual rainfalls.
The variations of level of the several lakes do not necessarily
synchronize. There is an annual fluctuation of about 1 ft. in
the upper lakes, and in some seasons over 2 ft in the lower
lakes ; the lowest point being at the end of winter and the highest
in midsummer. In lake Michigan the level has ranged from a
maximum in the years 1850, 1876 and 1886, to a minimum
nearly 5 ft. lower in 1896. In lake Ontario there is a range of
Si ft- between the maximum of May 1870 and the minimum of
November 1895. In consequence of the shallowness of lake Erie,
its level is seriously disturbed by a persistent storm ; a westerly
gale lowers the water at its upper end exceptionally as much
as 7 ft, seriously interfering with the navigation of the river
Detroit, while an easterly gale produces a similar effect at Buffalo.
(For physiographical details see articles on the several lakes,
and United States.)
There is geological evidence to show that the whole basin of
the Wees has in recent geological times gradually changed in
level, rising to the north and subsiding southwards; and it is
claimed that the movement is still in gradual progress, the rate
assigned being -42 ft. per 100 m. per-century. The maintenance
of the level of the great lakes is u matter of great importance to
the large freight boats, which always load to the limit of depth
at critical points in the dredged channels or in the harbours.
Fears have been entertained that the water power canals at
Sault Ste Marie, the drainage canal at Chicago and the dredged
channel in the river Detroit will permanently lower the levels
respectively of lake Superior and of the Michigan-Huron-Erie
group. An international deep-waterway commission exists
for the consideration of this question, and army engineers
appointed bv the United States government have worked on the
problem. 1 Wing dams in the rivers St Mary and Niagara, to
retard the discharges, have been proposed as remedial measures.
The Groat Lakes are practically tideless, though some observers
claim to find true tidal pulsations, said to amount to 3$ in. at
spring tide at Chicago. Secondary undulations of a few minutes
in period, ranging from 1 to 4 in., are well marked.
The Great Lakes are well stocked with fish of commercial
value. These are largely gathered from the fishermen by
steam tenders, and taken fresh or in frozen condition to railway
distributing points. In lakes Superior and Huron salmon-trout
(Salvelinus namaycush, Walh) are commercially most important.
They ordinarily range from to to 50 !b in weight, and are often
larger. In Georgian Bay the catches of whitefish (Coregenus
clupeifortius, Mitchill) are enormous. In lake Erie whitefish,
lesser whitefish, erroneously called lake-herring (C. artedi, Le
Sueur), and stungeon ( Aapenter ruiicundus, Le Sueur) are the
most common. There is good angling at numerous points on the
lakes and their feeders. The river Nipigon, on the north shore
of lake Superior, is famous as a stream abounding in speckled
trout (Salvelinus fmtinaUs, Mitchill) of unusual size. Black
bass (M.icrapterus)nxt found from Georgian Bay to Montreal, and
the maskinonge (Esox nob Oder, Le Sueur), plentiful in the same
waters, is a very, game fish that often attains a weight of 70 !b.
Bibliography’.— E. Channing and M. F. Lansing, Story of the
Great Lakes (New York, 1909), for an account of the lakes in history;
and for shipping, &c.,- J. O. Curwood, The Great Lakes (New York,
1909) : U.S. Hydrographic office publication, No. 108, " Sailing
directions for the Orsat'Lakes,'' Navy Department (Washington,
1901, »eqq.); Bulletin No . rj, “ Survey of Northern and North¬
western Lakes," Corps of Engineers, U.S. War Department, U.S.
1 Report o! the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, in Report of War
Deportment, US. 1B98, p- 3776.
Lake ffurvoy rOfiw (Detroit, Xtafe, Aotaned reports of
C ana d i an D eportm en t at 'Marino- mod Emmet 1 (Ottawa,
seqq.). -(W, P. A.)
OlIttTinna OFTHC«OM, aiirientOrieitttf-Greek-
Ronuut deity commonly known as Cybele (q.v.) in Greek and
Latin litarature from the time Of Pindar. She was also known
under many other names, «ome of which were derived from
famous places of worship: as Dindyraene from Mt. Dmdymon,
Mater Idaea from Mt. Ida, Sipylene from Mt Sipylus, Agdistis
from Mt Agdistis or Agdus, Mater Phrygia from the greatest
stronghold of her cult; while others were reflections of her
character as a great nature goddess; e.g. Mountain. Mother,
Great Mother of the Gods, Mother of all Gods and all Men.
As the great Mother deity whose worship extendril throughout
Aria Minor she was known as Mfi or Ammas. Cybele is her
favourite name in ancient and modern literature, whijje Great
Mother of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of the Gods (Mater
Deua 1 Magna, Mater Drum Magna Idaea), the most frequently
recurring epigraphical title, was her ordinary official designation.
The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the
Great Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined
geographical limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of
prehistoric times, and was more extensive than die Roman
province of Phrygia (Diod. Sic. iii. 58; Paus. vii 17 ; Amob.
v. 5; Firm. Mat. lie error., 3 ; Ovid, Fasti, iv, 223 ff.; Sallust.
Phil. De diit et munde, 4; Jul. Or. v. 165 ff.). Her best-known
early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus, Cyzicus, Sardis
and Pessintts, the last-named city, in Galatia near the borders
of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of
the cult. She was known to the Romans and Greeks as essenti¬
ally Phrygian, and ail Phrygia was spoken of as sacred to her
(Sdhol. Apollon. Rhod. Argonautiea, i. 1126). It is probable,
however, that the Phrygian race, which invaded Aria Minor
from the north in the 9th century s.c., found a great nature
goddess already universally worshipped there, and blended her
with a deity of their own. The Asiatic-Phrygian worship thus
evolved was further modified by contact with the Syrians and
Phoenicians, so that it acquired strong Semitic characteristics.
The Great Mother known to the Greeks and Romans was thus
merely the Phrygian form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor.
From Asia Minor the cult of the Great Mother spread first
to Greek territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early
date, was known’in Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and
entered Attica near the beginning of the 4th century (Grant
Showerman, The Great Mother of the Gods, Bulletin of the Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin, No. 43, Madison, 1901). At Peiraeus, where
it probably arrived by wav of the Aegean islands, it existed
privately in a fully developed state, that is, accompanied by the
worship of Attis, at the beginning of the 4th century, and publicly
two centuries later (D. Comparetti, Annales, 1862, pp. 23 ff.).
The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a resemblance
to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two completely,
though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never universally
popular with them (Showerman, p. 294). In her less Asiatic
aspect, i.e. without Attis, she was sometimes identified with
Gaia and Demeter. It was m this phase that she was worshipped
in the Metrofin at Athens. In reality, the Mother Goddess
appears under three aspects: Rhea, the Homeric and Hesiodic
goddess of Cretan origin : the Phrygian Mother, with Attis;
and the Greek Great Mother, a modified form of the Phrygian
Mother, to be explained as the original goddess of the Phrygians
of Europe, communicated to the Greek stock before the Phrygian
invasion of Asia Minor and consequent mingling wth Asiatic
stocks (cf. Showerman, p, *52).
In 204 b.c., in obedience to the Sibylline prophecy which said
that whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy
he could be expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were
brought to Rome from Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother,
together with her sacred symbol, a small meteoric stone reputed
to have fallen from the heavens, was transferred to Rome and
established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy xxix. 10-14).
Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea, Telkis
GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS
4 0#
and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on s
firm footing. By the end of the Republic it had attained promin¬
ence, and under the Empire it became one of the three most
important cults in the Roman world, the other two being those
of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence
prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a centre to the
remotest provinces (Showerman, pp. 291 -293). During the brief
revival of paganism under Eugenius in a.d. 394, occurred the
last appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on
the Palatine, there existed minor shrines of the Great Mother near
the present church of St Peter, on the Sacra Via on the north
slope of the Palatine, near the junction of the Almo and the
Tiber, south of the city (ibid. 311-314).
In all her aspects, Roman, Greek and Oriental, the Great
Mother was characterized by essentially the same qualities.
Most prominent among them was her universal motherhood.
She was the great parent of gods and men, as well as of the lower
orders of creation. “ The winds, the sea, the earth and the
snowy seat of Olympus are hers, and when from her mountains
she ascends into the great heavens, the son of Cronus himself
gives way before her ” (Apollon. Rhod. Argonautica, i. 1098).
She was known as the All-begetter, the All-nourisher, the Mother
of all the Blest. She was the great, fruitful, kindly earth itself.
Especial emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild
nature. She was called the Mountain Mother ; her sanctuaries
were almost invariably upon mountains, and frequently in caves,
the name Cybele itself being by some derived from the latter;
lions were her faithful companions. Her universal power over
the natural world finds beautiful expression in Apollonius
Rhodius , Argonaultca, i. 1140 ff. She was also a chaste and
beautiful deity. Her especial affinity with wild nature was
manifested by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her
attendants, the Cory ban tes, were wild, half demonic beings.
Her priests, the Galli, were eunuchs attired in female garb, with
long hair fragrant with ointment. Together with priestesses,
they celebrated her rites with flutes, horns, castanets, cymbals
and tambourines, madly yelling and dancing until their frenzied
excitement found its culmination in self-scourging, self-laceration
or exhaustion. Self-emasculation sometimes accompanied this
delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood
(Showerman, pp. 234-239). The A Ill's of Catullus (lxiii.) is a
brilliant treatment of such an episode.
Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully
developed state the worship of the Great Mother was accom¬
panied by that of Attis (q.v.). The cult of Attis never existed
independently. Like Adonis and Aphrodite, Baal and Astarte,
&c., the two formed a duality representing the relations of Mother
Nature to the fruits of the earth. There is no positive evidence
to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece
before the 2nd century b.c., nor in Rome before the Empire,
though it may have existed in private (Showerman, “ Was Attis
at Rome under the Republic ? ” in Transactions 0/ the American
Philological Association, vol. 31, 1900, pp. 46-59; Cumont,
s.v. “Attis," De Ruggiero’s Dittonario ejngrafico and Pauly-
Wissowa’s Realencyclopddir, Supplement; Hepding, Attis, seine
Mythen und seine Hull, Giessen, 1903, p. 142).
The philosophers of the late Roman Empire interpreted the
Attis legend as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her
children the fruits. Porphyrius says that Attis signified the
flowers of spring time, and was cut off in youth because the flower
falls before the fruit (Augustine, De civ. Dei, vii. 25). Matemus
(De error. 3) interprets the love of the Great Mother for Attis
as the love of the earth for her fruits; his emasculation as the
cutting of the fruits ; his death as their preservation; and his
resurrection as the sowing of the seed again.
At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great
Mother devolved upon the high priest, Archigallus, called Attis,
a high priestess, Sacerdos Maxima, and its support was derived,
at least in part, from a popular contribution, the slips. Besides
other priests, priestesses 'tad minor officials, such as musicians,
curator, &c., there were certain colleges connected with the
administration of thtj cult, called cannophori (reed-bearers) and
dendrophori (branch-bearers). The Qhindfecimvirs exettliifd a
general supervision over this cult, as. over all other authorized
cults, and it was, at least originally, under the special patronage
of a club or sodality (Showerman, pp. 269-276). Roman citizens
were at first forbidden to take part in its ceremonies, and the ban
was not removed until the time of the Empire.
The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother whs
the annual festival, which took place originally on the 4th of
April, and was followed on the 5th by the Megalesia, games
instituted in her honour on the introduction of the cult. Under
the Empire, from Claudius on, the Megalesia lasted six days,
April 4-«o, and the original one day of the religious festival
became an annual cycle of festivals extending from the 15th
to the 27th of March, in the following order. (1) The 15th of
March, Canna intrat —the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull in
behalf of the mountain fields, the high priest, a priestess and
the cannophori officiating, the last named carrying reeds in
procession in commemoration of the exposure of the infant
Attis on the reedy banks of the stream Gallus in Phrygia. (This
may have been originally a phallic procession. Cf. Showerman,
American Journal of Phitol. xxvii. 1; Classical Journal, i. 4.)
(2) The 22nd of March, Arbor intral —the bearing in procession
of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis’ self-mutilation, death and
immortality, to the temple on the Palatine, the symbol of the
Mother’s cave, by the dendrophori, a gild of workmen who made
the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) The 24th of
March, Dies sanguinis —a day of mourning, fasting and abstin¬
ence, especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the
Mother for Attis, her abstinence from food and her chastity.
The frenzied dance and self-kceration of the priests in com¬
memoration of Attis’ deed, and the submission to the act of
consecration by candidates for the priesthood, was a special
feature of the day. The taurobolium (q.v.) was often performed
on this day, on which probably took place the initiation of
mystics. (4) The 25th of March, Hilaria—one of the great
festal days of Rome, celebrated by all the people. All mourning
was put off, and good cheer reigned in token of the return of the
sun and spring, which was symbolized by the renewal of Attis’
life. (5) The 26th of March, Requietio —a day of rest and quiet.
(6) The 27th of March, Lavatio —the crowning ceremony of the
cycle. The silver statue of the goddess, with the sacred meteoric
stone, the Acus, set in its head, was borne in gorgeous procession
and bathed in the Almo, the remainder of the duy being given
up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially dramatic repre¬
sentation of the legend of the deities of the day. Other cere¬
monies, not necessarily connected with the annual festival,
were the taurobolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a bull, and the crio-
bolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a ram, the latter being the analogue
of the former, instituted ior the purpose of giving Attis special
recognition. The baptism of blood, which was the feature of
these ceremonies, was regarded as purifying and regenerating
(Showerman, Great Mother, pp. 277-284).
The Great Mother figures in the art of all periods both in
Asia and Europe, but is especially prominent in the art of the
Empire. No work of the first class, however, was inspired by
her. She appears on coins, in painting and in all forms of
sculpture, usually with mural crown and veil, well draped, seated
on a throne, and accompanied by two lions. Other attributes
which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals, sceptre,
garlands and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine, Phrygian
cap, pedum, syrinx and torch, also appear. The Cybele of
Formia, now at Copenhagen, is one of the most famous repre¬
sentations of the goddess. The Niobe of Mt. Sipylus is really the
Mother. In literature she is the subject of frequent mention,
but no work of importance, with the exception of Catullus lxiii.,
is due to her inspiration. Her importance in the history of
religion is very great. Together with Isis and Mithras, she wus a
great enemy, and yet a great aid to Christianity. The gorgeous
rites of her worship, its mystic doctrine of communion with
the divine through enthusiasm, its promise of regeneration
through baptism of blood in the taurobolium, were features
which attracted the masses of the people and made it a strong
GREAT REBELLION 46*
rival Of Christianity; and its remttblsnce to rite new religion,
however superficial, mads it, r: spite of the scandalous practices
which grew up around it, a stepping-stone to Christianity when
the tide set in against paganism.
Authorities.— Grant Showerman, " The Great Mother of the
Gods," Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, No, 43 ; Philology
and Literature Series, vol. i. No. 3 (Madison, 1901); Hugo Hepding,
Allis , seine Mythen uni seine Kult (Giessen, 1903); Rapp, Roschers
Ausfiihrliches Lexicon ier griechischen und rSmischen Mythologie
s.v. “ Kybele "; Drexler, ibid. s.v. " Meter." See Roman Reuoion,
Greek Religion, Attis, Corybantbs ; for the great “Hittite”
portrayal of the Nature Goddess at Pteria, see Pteria. (G. Sn.)
CHEAT REBELLION (1642-52), a generic name for the civil
wars in England and Scotland, which began with the raising of
King Charles I.’s standard at Nottingham on the 22nd of August
1642, and sided with the surrender ( of Dunottar Castle to the
Parliament's troops in May 1652. It is usual to classify these
wars into the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the Second Civil
War of 1648-52. During most of this time another civil war
was raging in Ireland. Its incidents had little or no connexion
with those of the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the
struggle in England to a considerable extent.
x. FirstCivil War {1642-46 ).—Itis impossible rightly to under¬
stand the events of this most national of all English wars without
some knowledge of the motive forces on both sides. On the side
of the king were enlisted the deep-seated loyalty which was the
result of two centuries of effective royal protection, the pure
cavalier spirit foreshadowing the courtier era of Charles II., but
still strongly tinged with the old feudal indiscipline, the militarism
of an expert soldier nobility, well represented by Prince Rupert,
and lastly a widespread distrust of extreme Puritanism, which
appeared unreasonable to Lord Falkland and other philosophic
statesmen and intolerable to every other class of Royalists.
The foot of the Royal armies was animated in the main by the
first and last of these motives; in the eyes of the sturdy rustics
who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and
fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the
higher social orders, the rebels were, in addition, bourgeois, while
the soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular’s
contempt for citizen militia. Thus in the first episodes of the
First Civil War moral superiority tended to be on the side of the
king. On the other side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily
and apparently political, ultimately and really religious, and thus
the elements of resistance in the Parliament and the nation were
at first confused, and, later, strong and direct. Democracy,
moderate republicanism and the simple desire for constitutional
guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against the
various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men of either
party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise. But
the backbone of resistance was the Puritan clement, and this
waging war at first with the rest on the political issue soon (as
the Royalists anticipated) hrought the religious issue to the front.
The Presbyterian system, even more rigid than that of Laud and
the bishops—whom no man on either side supported save Charles
himself—was destined to be supplanted by the Independents
and their ideal of free conscience, but for a generation before the
war broke out it had disciplined and trained the middle classes of
the nation (wbo furnished the bulk of the rebel infantry, and later
of the cavalry also) to centre their whole will-power on the attain¬
ment of their ideals. The ideals changed during the struggle, but
not the capacity for striving for them, and the men capable of the
effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals on the
rest by the force of their trained wills.
Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary
party. They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which
was in process of being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all
the financial resources of the country. They had the sympathies
of most of the large towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a
month, provided cadres for new regiments. Further, by recogniz¬
ing the inevitable, they gained a start in war preparations which
they never lost The earls of Warwick, Essex and Manchester
and other nobles and gentry of their party possessed great wealth
and territorial influence. Charles, on the other hand, although he
could,-fay meant of the " press ” and the 4ordi-lieu tenant, saite
men without authority from Parliament, could not raise taxes to
support them, and was dependent on the financ ial support of las
chief adherents, sudi #s the earls of Newcastle and Derby . Both
parties raised men when and where they could, each claiming that
the law was on its side—for England was already a law-abiding
nation—and acting in virtue of legal instruments. These
were, on the side of the Parliament; its own recent “ Militia
Ordinance”; on that of the king, the old-fashioned "Commissions
of Array.” In Cornwall the Royalist leader, Sir Ralph Hop ton,
indicted the enemy before the grand jury of the county as
disturbers of the peace, mid had the pom eomitatus called out to
expel them. The local forces in fact were everywhere employed
by whichever side could, by producing valid written authority,
induce them to assemble.
2. The Royalist and Parliamentarian .Armies.—This thread
of local feeling and respect for the laws runs throtigh the
earlier operations of both sides almost irrespective of the main
principles at stake. Many a promising scheme failed because
of the reluctance of the militiamen to serve beyond 1 the limits
of their own county, and, as the offensive lay with the
king, his cause naturally suffered far more therefrom than
that of the enemy. But the real spirit of the struggle was
very different. Anything which tended to prolong the struggle,
or seemed like want of energy and avoidance of a decision, Was
bitterly resented by the men of both sides, who had their hearts
in the quarrel and had not as yet learned by the severe lesson
of Edgehill that raw armies cannot bring wars to a speedy
issue. In France and Germany the prolongation of a war meant
continued employment for the soldiers, but in England “we
never encamped or entrenched ... or lay fenced with rivers
or defiles. Here were no leaguers in the field, as at the story of
Nuremberg, 1 neither had our soldiers any tents or what they call
heavy baggage. ’Twas the general maxim of the war—Where is
the enemy ? Let us go and fight them. Or ... if the enemy
was coming . . . Why, what should be done I Draw out into
the fields and fight them.” This passage from the Memoirs of a
Cavalier, ascribed to Defoe, though not contemporary evidence,
is an admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even
when in the end a regular professional army is evolved—exactly
as in the case of Napoleon s army—the original decision-compel¬
ling spirit permeated the whole organization. From the first the
professional soldiers of fortune, be their advice good or bad, are
looked upon with suspicion, and nearly all those Englishmen who
loved war for its own sake were too closely concerned for the wel¬
fare of their country to attempt the methods of the Thirty Years’
War in England. The formal organization of both armies was
based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of
Europe after the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and gave better
scope for the moral of the individual than the old-fashioned
Spanish and Dutch formations in which the man in the ranks was
a highly-finished automaton.
3. Campaign of 1641. —When the king raised his standard at
Nottingham on the 22nd of August 1642, war was already in pro¬
gress on a small scale in many districts, each side endeavouring to
secure,or to deny to the enemy, fortified country-houses, territory,
and above all arms and money. Peace negotiations went mi in the
midst of these minor events until there came from the Parliament
an ultimatum so aggressive as to fix the warlike purpose of the
still vacillating court at Nottingham, and, in the country at large,
to convert many thousands of waverers to active Royalism.
Ere long Charles—who had hitherto had less than 1500 men—was
at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and
equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to
that of the Parliament The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of
detachments) was organized during July, August and September
about London, and moved thence to Northampton under the
command of Robert, earl of Essex.
At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord
Hertford in south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the
1 Gustaves Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Verte (see
Thirty Years’ War),
GREAT REBELLION
494
yeuagead of Deri)}' in Lancashire, and small parties in almost
eroy county of the west and the midlands, were in arms for the
king. North of the Tees, the earl of Newcastle, a great territorial
magnate, was raising troops and supplies for the king, while
Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging for the
importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion
wasdivided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North
Riding, that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns
of the West Riding and also in the important seaport of Hull.
The Yorkshire gentry made an attempt to neutralise the county,
but a local struggle soon began, and Newcastle thereupon
prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south and east
as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important
towns of Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament.
A small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on the
loth of September.
On the 13th of September the main campaign opened. The
king—in order to find recruits amongst his sympathizers and
arms in the armouries of the Derbyshire and Staffordshire
trained bands, and also to be in touch with his disciplined
regiments in Ireland by way of Chester—moved westward to
Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton
to Worcester. Near the last-named town u sharp cavalry
engagement (Powick Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the
advanced cavalry of Essex’s army and a force under Prince
Rupert which was engaged in protecting the retirement of the
Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the in¬
stantaneous overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the
Royalist troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant
leader which was not destined to be shaken until they met
Cromwell’s Ironsides. Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury,
where he found many Royalist officers eager to attack Essex’s
new position at Worcester. But the road to London now lay
open and it was decided to take it. The intention was not to
avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex
before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it
impossible to postpone the decision ; in Clarendon’s words,
“ it was considered more counsellable to march towards London,
it being morally sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in
their way,” and accordingly the army left Shrewsbury on the
lath of October, gaining two days’ start of the enemy, and
moved south-east via Bridgnorth, Birmingham and Kenilworth.
This had the desired effect. Parliament, alarmed for its own
safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the king and bring
him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it was
discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign
aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second
army under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus
of the London trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve
to regain touch with the enemy, reached Kiaeton, where he was
only 7 m. from the king’s headquarters at Edgeeote, on the 22nd.
4. Bailie of Edgrhill.- -Rupert promptly reported the enemy's
presence, and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the
king and the caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander-
in-chief. Both sides had marched widely dispersed in order to
Jive, and the rapidity with which, having the clearer purpose,
the Royalists drew together helped considerably to neutralize
Essex’s superior numbers. During the morning of the 23rd the
Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehiil facing
towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as lie was, had
distrusted his own raw away too much to force a decision
earlier in the month, when the king was weak; he now found
Charles in a strong position with an equal force to his own
14,000, and some of his regiments were still some miles distant.
But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy promptly
left their strong position and came down to the foot of the
hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever
they could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the
midst of hostile garrisons. Rupert was on die right of the
king’s army with the greater part of the horse, Lord Lindsey
and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with the foot, Lord VVilmot
(with whom rode the earl of Forth, the principal military adviser
of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the left In mar
of the centre were the king and a small reserve. Essex’s order
was similar. Rupert charged as soon as, his wing was deployed,
and before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking ground
to his right front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he
instantly rode down the Parliamentary horse opposed to him.
Some infantry regiments of Essex's left centre shared the same
fate as their cavalry. On the other wing Forth and Wilmot
likewise swept away all that they could see of the enemy’s
cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued
the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were
severely handled by John Hampden’s infantry brigade (which was
escorting the artillery and baggage of Essex’s army). Rupert
brought back only a few rallied squadrons to the battlefield,
and in the meantime affaips there had gone badly for the king.
The right and centre of the Parliamentary foot (the left having
been brought to a halt by Rupert’s charge) advanoed with great
resolution, and being at least as ardent as, and much better aimed
than, Lindsey’s men, engaged them fiercely and slowly gained
ground. Only the best regiments on either side, however,
maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle
was achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One
regiment of Essex’s right wing only had been the target of Wihnof s
charge, the other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as
every Royalist troop on the ground, even the king’s guards,
had joined in the mad ride to Kineton, these, Essex’s life-guard,
and some troops that had rallied from the effect of Rupert’s
charge—amongst them Captain Oliver Cromwell’s—were the
only cavalry still present. All these joined with decisive effect
in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The king’s line
was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary
troopers captured his guns and regiment after regiment broke up.
Charles himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had
not the skill to direct it. The royal standard was taken and
retaken, Lindsey and Sir Edmund Vemey, the standard-bearer,
being killed. By the time that Rupert returned both sides were
incapable of further effort and disillusioned as to the prospect
of ending the war at a blow.
On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory
and to reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied
by the Royalists, and by the 28th Charles was marching down
the Thames valley on London. Negotiations were reopened,
and a peace party rapidly formed itself in London and West¬
minster. Yet field fortifications sprang up around London,
and when Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the 12th
of November the trained bands moved out at once and took up
a position' at Tumham Green, barring the king’s advance.
Hampden, with something of the fire and energy of his cousin
Cromwell, urged Essex to turn both flanks of the Royal army
via Acton and Kingston, but experienced professional soldiers
urged him not to trust the London men to hold their ground
while the rest manoeuvred. Hampden’s advice was undoubtedly
premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power
of the Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon’s words, “ one
only manoeuvres around a fixed point,” and the city levies at
that time were certainly not, vis-a-vis Rupert’s cavalry, a fixed
point. As a matter of fact, after a slight cannonade at Tumham
Green on the 13th, Essex’s two-to-one numerical superiority of
itself compelled the king to retire to Reading. Tumham Green
has justly been called the Valmy of the English Civil War. Like
Valmy, without being a battle, it was a victory, and the tide of
invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned.
5. The Winter of 1643-43 .—In the winter, while Essex lay
inactive at Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position
in the region of Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for
the whole area, and Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill,
Banbury and Marlborough constituted a complete defensive
ring which was developed by the creation of smaller pests from
time to time. In the north and west, winter campaigns were
actively carriod on. “ It is summer in Yorkshire, summer in
Devon, and cold winter at Windsor,” said one of Essex's critics.
At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees,
GREAT REBELUON
defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North
Riding, then joining bands with the hard-pressed Royalists at
York, established himself between that city and Pontefract
Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas, who commanded for the
Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to the district between
Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his attention
to the Puritan “ clothing towns ” of the West Riding—Leeds,
Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a
determined front, the younger Fairfax with a picked body of
cavalry rode through Newcastle's lines into the West Riding
to help them, and about the end of January 1643 the earl gave
up the attempt to reduce the towns. He continued his march
southward, however, and gained ground for the king as far as
Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of Nottingham¬
shire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire (who, especially about
Newark and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, were strong enough to neutralize
the local forces of the Parliament), and to prepare the way for
the further advance of the army of the north when the queen’s
convoy should arrive from over-seas.
In the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained
a true bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary dis¬
turbers of the peace, placed themselves at the head of the county
militia and drove the rebels from Cornwall, after which they
raised a small force for general service and invaded Devonshire
(November 1642). Subsequently a Parliamentary army under
the earl of Stamford wus withdrawn from south Wales to engage
Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall. There, however,
the Royalist general was free to employ the militia again, and
thus reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford's forces
at Bradock Down near Liskeard (January 19,1643) and resumed
the offensive. About the same time Hertford, no longer opposed
by Stamford, brought over the South Wales Royalists to Oxford,
and the fortified area around that place was widened by the
capture of Cirencester on the 2nd of February. Gloucester and
Bristol were now the only important garrisons of the Roundheads
in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary
victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on the 28th of
January, the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicester¬
shire soon extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch
into Nottinghamshire and joined hands with their friends at
Newurk. Further, around Chester a new Royalist army was
being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts of Brereton
and of Sir John Cell, the leading supporter of the Parliament in
Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even before New¬
castle's army was added to the list of their enemies. Lord
Brooke, who commanded for the Parliament in Warwickshire
and Staffordshire and was looked on by many as Essex’s eventual
successor, was killed in besieging Lichfield cathedral on the
2nd of March, and, though the cathedral soon capitulated, Gell
and Brereton were severely handled in the indecisive battle of
Hopton Heath near Stafford on the 19th of March, and Prince
Rupert, after an abortive raid on Bristol (March 7), marched
rapidly northward, storming Birmingham en route, and recap¬
tured Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled
to Oxford to take part in the main campaign. The position of
affairs for the Parliament was perhaps at its worst in January.
The Royalist successes of November and December, the ever¬
present dread of foreign intervention, and the burden of new
taxation which the Parliament now found itself compelled to
impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in
London, and, while the more determined of the rebels began
thus early to think of calling in the military assistance of the
Scots, the majority were for peace on any conditions. But soon
the position improved somewhat; Stamford in the west and
Brereton and Gell in the midlands, though hand pressed, were
at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed to
conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had
cleared Hampshire and Wiltshire of “maUgnants,” entered
Gloucestershire early in March, destroyed a small Royalist
force at Highnam (March 34), and secured Bristol and Gloucester
for the Parliament Finally, some of Charles’s own intrigues
opportunely coming to light, the waverers, seeing the imposst-
40
bflity of plain dealing with the court, raised again to the party
of resistance, and the series of negotiations called by the name
of the Treaty of Oxford dosed in April with no mare result than
those which had preceded Edgehill and Turaham Green. About
this time too, fallowing and improving upon the example of
Newcastle in the north, Parliament ordered the formation of
die celebrated “ associations ” or groups of counties banded
together by mutual consent for defence. The most powerful
and best organized of these was that of the eastern counties
(headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the
north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations
for meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to
interfere with these preparations. Above all, the' Eastern
Association was from the first guided and inspired by Colonel
Cromwell
6. The Plan of Campaign, 1643 .—The king’s plan of operations
for the next campaign, which was perhaps inspired front abroad,
was more elaborate than the simple “ point ” of 164a. The
Ling’s army, based on the fortified area around Oxford, was
counted sufficient to use up Essex’s forces. On either hand,
therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the Royalist armies
were to fight their way inwards towards London, after which
all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were
to cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve
the rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold
advance was of course that the enemy should not be able to
defeat the armies in detail, i.e. that he should be fixed mid held
in the Thames valley ; this secured, there was no purely military
objection against operating in separate armies from the cir¬
cumference towards the centre. It was on the rock of local
feeling that the king’s plan came to grief. Even after the arrival
of the queen and her convoy, Newcastle had to allow her to
proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main
body, because of Lancashire and the West Riding, and above
all because the port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes,
constituted a menace that the Royalists of the East Riding
refused to ignore. Hopton’s advance too, undertaken without
the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of Sourton Down
(Dartmoor) on the 25th of April, and on the same day Waller
captured Hereford. Essex had already left Windsor to under¬
take the siege of Reading, the most important point in the circle
of fortresses round Oxford, which after a vain attempt at relief
surrendered to him on the 26th of April. Thus the opening
operations were unfavourable, not indeed so far as to require
the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying the develop¬
ment until the campaigning season was far advanced.
7. Victories of Hopton .—But affairs improved in May. The
queen’s long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the 13th.
The earl of Stamford’s army, which had again entered Cornwall,
was attacked in its selected position at Stratton and practically
annihilated by Hopton (May 16). This brilliant victory was
due above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and the lithe Cornishmen,
who, though but 2400 against 5400 and destitute of artillery,
stormed “ Stamford Hill,” killed 300 of the enemy, and captured
1700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage. Devon
was at once overrun by the victors. Essex’s army, for want of
material resources, had had to be content with die capture of
Reading, and a Royalist force under Hertford and Prince
Maurice (Rupert’s brother) moved out as far as Salisbury to
hold out a hand to their friends in Devonshire, while Waller,
the only Parliamentary commander left in the field in the west,
had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to oppose
the further progress of hw intimate friend and present enemy,
Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard
and rapidly moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath,
where Waller’s army lay. Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips,
they moved round via Frame to the Avon. But Waller, thus
cut off from London and threatened with investment, acted
with great slrill, and some days of manoeuvres and skirmishing
followed, after winch Hertford and Hopton found themselves
on the north side of Bath facing Walter’s entrenched position
cm the top of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists
GREAT REBELLION
406
stormed on the 5th of July. The battle of Lansdown was a
second Stratton for the Comishmen, but this time the enemy
was of different quality and far differently led, and they had to
mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the greater part of
their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat summit
of the hill, still firing into one another with such energy as was
not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into
Bath. “ We were glad they were gone,” wrote a Royalist
officer, “ for if they had not, I know who had within the hour.”
Next day Hopton was severely injured by the explosion of a wagon
containing the reserve ammunition, and the Royalists, finding
their victory profitless, moved eastward to Devizes, closely
followed by the enemy. On the 10th of July Sir William Waller
took post on Roundway Down, overlooking Devizes, and cap¬
tured a Royalist ammunition column from Oxford. On the nth
he came down and invested Hopton’s foot in Devizes itself,
while the Royalist cavalry, Hertford and Maurice with them,
rode away towards Salisbury. But although the siege was pressed
with such vigour that an assault was fixed for the evening of the
13th, the Comishmen, Hopton directing the defence from his
bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon of July 13th
Prince Maurice’s horsemen appeared on Roundway Down,
having ridden to Oxford, picked up reinforcements there, and
returned at full speed to save their comrades. Waller's army
tried its best, but some of its elements were of doubtful quality
and the ground was all in Maurice’s favour. The battle did not
last long. The combined attack of the Oxford force from
Roundway and of Hopton’s men from the town practically
annihilated Waller’s army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came
up with fresh Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved
westward. Bristol, the second port of the kingdom, was their
objective, and in four days from the opening of the siege it was
in their hands (July z6), Waller with the beaten remnant of his
army at Bath being powerless to intervene. The effect of this
blow was felt even in Dorsetshire. Within three weeks of the
surrender Prince Maurice with a body of fast-moving cavalry
overran that county almost unopposed.
8. Adwalton Moor .—Newcastle meanwhile had resumed opera¬
tions against the clothing towns, this time with success. The
Fairfaxes had been fighting in the West Riding since January
with such troops from the Hull region as they had been able to
bring across Newcastle's lines. They and the townsmen together
were too weak for Newcastle’s increasing forces, and an attempt
was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament’s
forces in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the
Eastern Association. But local interests prevailed again, in
spite of Cromwell’s presence, and after assembling at Notting¬
ham, the midland rebels quietly dispersed to their several
eounties (June a). The Fairfaxes were left to their fate, and
ahout the same time Hull itself narrowly escaped capture by the
queen’s forces through the treachery of Sir John Hotham, the
governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire Parlia¬
mentarians, The latter had been placed under arrest at the
Instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor
of Nottingham Castle ; he escaped to Hull, but both father and
son were seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More
serious than an isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching
Royalist plot that had been detected in Parliament itself, for
complicity in which Lord Conway, Edmund Waller the poet,
and several members of both Houses were arrested. The safety
of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns, and thie
Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton)
Moor near Bradford on the 30th of June. After this, by way
of Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the
defence of that place. The West Riding perforce submitted.
The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army
under Henry (I/>rd) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashby-
de-la-Zouch, Lichfield and other Royalist garrisons to Oxford,
where she joined her husband on the 14th of July. But New¬
castle (now a marquis) irai not yet ready for his part in the
programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London
while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was
a solid barrier between the royal army of the north and the
capital. Roundway Down and Adwalton Moor were not after
all destined to be fatal, though peace riots in London, dissensions
in the Houses, and quarrels amongst the generals were their
immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen in the war—
the Eastern Association.
9. Cromwell and the Eastern Association. —This had already
intervened to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops
to the abortive gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its
own ground of “ malignants.” From the first Cromwell was the
dominant influence. Fresh from Edgehill, he had told Hampden,
“ You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as
gentlemen will go,” not “ old decayed serving-men, tapsters
and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen that have
honour and courage and resolution in them,” and in January
1643 he had gone to his own county to “ raise such men as had
the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what
they did.” These men, once found, were willing, for the cause,
to submit to a rigorous training and an iron discipline such as
other troops, fighting for honour only or for profit only, could
not be brought to endure. 1 The result was soon apparent.
As early as the 13th of May, Cromwell’s regiment of horse—
recruited from the horse-loving yeomen of the eastern counties—
demonstrated its superiority in the field in a skirmish near
Grantham, and in the irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during
June and July (which was on the whole unfavourable to the
Parliament), as previously in pacifying the Eastern Association
itself, these Puritan troopers distinguished themselves by long
and rapid marches that may bear comparison with almost any
in the history of the mounted arm. When Cromwell’s second
opportunity came at Gainsborough on the 28th of July, the
“ Lincolneer ” horse who were under his orders were fired by
the example of Cromwell’s own regiment, and Cromwell, directing
the whole with skill, and above all with energy, utterly routed
the Royalist horse and killed their general, Charles Cavendish.
In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After
the fall of Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced
it to impotence. On the 18th of June the Parliamentary
cavalry was routed and John Hampden mortally wounded at
Chalgrove Field near Chiselhampton, and when at last Essex,
having obtained the desired reinforcements, moved against
Oxford from the Aylesbury side, he found his men demoralized
by inaction, and before the menace of Rupert’s cavalry, to which
he had nothing to oppose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July).
He made no attempt to intercept the march of the queen’s
convoys, he had permitted the Oxford army, which he should
have held fast, to intervene effectually in the midlands, the west,
and the south-west, and Waller might well complain that Essex,
who still held Reading and the Chiltems, had given him neither
active nor passive support in the critical days preceding Round¬
way Down. Still only a few voices were raised to demand his
removal, and he was shortly to have an opportunity of proving
his skill and devotion in a great campaign and a great battle.
The centre and the right of the three Royalist armies hud for a
moment (Roundway to Bristol) united to crush Waller, but
their concentration was short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton’s
men what Hull was to Newcastle’s—they would not march on
London until the menace to their homes was removed. Further,
there were dissensions among the generals which Charles was too
weak to crush, and consequently the original plan reappears—
the main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton’s (now
Maurice’s) on the right, Newcastle on the left towards London.
While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally
decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester,
the one great fortress of the Parliament in the west.
10. Siege and Relief of Gloucester.— This decision quickly
brought on a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell
as his lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of
the Eastern Association against Newcastle, and Waller was
1 " Making not money but that which they took to be the public
felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant ”
(Baxter).
GREAT REBELLION
4*7
given a new army wherewith again to engage Hopton and
Maurice, the task of saving Gloucester from the king’s army fell
to Essex, who was heavily reinforced and drew his army together
for action in the last days of August. Resort was had to the
press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting for Waller’s new army
was stopped, and London sent six regiments of trained bands
to the front, closing the shops so that every man should be free
to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial
of strength.
On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Ayles¬
bury and round the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold
the army moved resolutely,' not deterred by want of food and
rest, or by the attacks of Rupert’s and Wilmot’s horse on its
flank. On the 5th of September, just as Gloucester was at
the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the
Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Chelten¬
ham and the danger was over. Then, the field armies being
again face to face and free to move, there followed a series of
skilful manoeuvres in the Severn and Avon valleys, at the end
of which the Parliamentary army gained a long start on its
homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and Reading. But
the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by Charles
and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to
head off Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on
Aldbourne Chase on the 18th of September succeeded in doing
so. On the 19th the whole Royal army was drawn up, facing
west, with its right on Newbury and its left on Enborne Heath.
Essex’s men knew that evening that they would have to break
through by force—there was no suggestion of surrender. .
n. First Battle oj Newbury, September jo, 1643. — The ground
was densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists’
left centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and,
practically, Essex’s army was never formed in line of battle,
for each unit was thrown into the fight as it came up its own
road or lane. On the left wing, in spite of the Royalist counter-
strokes, the attack had the best of it, capturing field after field,
and thus gradually gaining ground to the front. Here Lord
Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself Essex did not
succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury Wash,
but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to
the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right
of the Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of
Enborne Heath, took place a famous incident. Here two of the
London regiments, fresh to war as they were, were exposed to a
trial as severe as that which broke down the veteran Spanish
infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert and the Royalist
horse again and again charged up to the squares of pikes’, and
between each charge his guns tried to disorder the Londoners, but
it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained
bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the
heath. The result of it all was that Essex’s army had fought
its hardest and failed to break the opposing line. But the
Royalists had suffered so heavily, and above all the valour
displayed by the rebels had so profoundly impressed them, that
they were glad to give up the disputed road and withdraw into
Newbury. Essex thereupon pursued his march, Reading was
reached on the 22nd after a small rearguard skirmish at Alder-
maston, and so ended one of the most dramatic episodes of
English history.
12. Hull and Winceby .—Meanwhile the siege of Hull had
commenced. The Eastern Association forces under Manchester
promptly moved up into Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn
(which surrendered on the 16th of September) while the horse
rode into the northern part of the county to give a hand to the
Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of .Hull were
open. On the 18th of September part of the cavalry in Hull
was ferried over to Barton, and the rest under Sir Thomas
Fairfax went by sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole
joining Cromwell near Spilsby. In return the old Lord Fairfax,
who remained in Hull, received infantry reinforcements and
a quantity of ammunition and stores from the Eastern Associa¬
tion. On the nth of October Cromwell and Fairfax together
won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the Royalist
horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day
Newcastle’s army around Hull, which had suffered terribly
from the hardships of continuous giege work, was attacked
by the garrison and so severely handled that next day the
siege was given up. Later, Manchester retook Lincoln and
Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been almost
entirely in Newcastle’s hands before he was compelled to under¬
take the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the
Eastern Association.
Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the
war languished. . The city regiments went home, leaving Essex
too weak to hold Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on the
3rd of October. At this the Londoners offered to serve again,
and actually took part in a minor campaign around Newport
Pagneil, which town Rupert attempted to fortify as a menace
to the Eastern Association and its communications with-London.
Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London regiments
again went home, and Sir William Waller’s new army in
Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House
(November 7), the London trained bands deserting en bloc.
Shortly afterwards Arundel surrendered to a force under Sir
Ralph, now Lord Hopton (December 9).
13. The “ Irish Cessation ” and the Solemn League and
Covenant. —Politically, these months were the turning-point of
the war. In Ireland, the king’s lieutenant, by order of his
master, made a truce with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles's
chief object was to set free his army to fight in England, but it
was believed universally that Irish regiments—-in plain words,
papists in arms—would shortly follow. Under these cir¬
cumstances his act united against him nearly every class in
Protestunt England, above all brought into the English quarrel
the armed strength of Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles,
still trusting to intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in
check, deliberately rejected the advice of Montrose, his greatest
and most faithful lieutenant, who wished to give the Scots
employment for their army at home. Only ten days after the
“ Irish cessation,” the Parliament at Westminster swore to the
Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true
that even a semblance of Presbyterian theocracy put the
“ Independents ” on their guard and definitely raised the question
of freedom of conscience, and that secret negotiations were
opened between the Independents and Charles on that basis,
but they soon discovered that the king was merely using them
as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and
other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to inter¬
pret the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning
of 1644 the Parliamentary party showed so united a front that
even Pym'%death (December 8,1643) hardly affected its resolu¬
tion to continue the struggle.
The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an
enormous political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all.
Those serving in Hopton's army were “ mutinous and shrewdly
infected with the rebellious humour of England.” When Waller’s
Londoners surprised 1 and routed a Royalist detachment at
Alton (December 13,1643), half the prisoners took the Covenant.
Hopton had to retire, and on the 6th of January 1644 Waller
recaptured Arundel. Byron’s Cheshire army was in no better
case. Newcastle’s retreat from Hull and. the loss of Gainsborough
had completely changed the situation in the midlands, Brereton
was joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the
Royalists were severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich
(January as). As at Alton, the majority of the prisoners
(amongst them Colonel George Monk) took the Covenant and
entered the Parliamentary army. In Lancashire, as in Cheshire,
Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, the cause of
the Parliament was in the ascendant. Resistance revived in the
West Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the
1 For the third time within the year the London trained band*
tamed out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the
war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of tbo
cltircn soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times ie.g. at Basing
House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit. ' “
GREAT REBELLION
408
East Riding, and even Newark was closely besieged by Sir
John Meldrmn. More important news came in from the north.
The advanced guard of the Scottish army had passed the Tweed
On the igth of January, and the marquis of Newcastle with the
remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and rear
at once.
14. Newark and Cheriton (March 1644). —As in 1643, Rupert
was soon on his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his
side. Moving by the Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons
and recruits snowball-wise as he marched, he went first to
Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then, with the utmost
speed, he made for Newark. On the 20 th of March 1644 he
bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 21st he not only relieved
Newark but routed the besiegers’ cavalry. On the 22nd
Meldrum's position was so hopeless that he capitulated on terms.
But, brilliant soldier as he was, the prince was unable to do more
than raid a few Parliamentary posts around Lincoln, after
which he had to return his borrowed forces to their various
garrisons and go back to Wales—laden indeed with captured
pikes and muskets—to raise a permanent field army. But
Rupert could not be in all places at once. Newcastle was
clamorous for aid. In Lancashire, only the countess of Derby,
in Lathom House, held out for the king, and her husband
pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too, the prince was
ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for the
queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child
and returned to France. The order was countermanded within
a few hours, it is true, but Charles had good reason for avoiding
detachments from his own army, (hi the 29th of March, Hopton
had undergone a severe defeat at Cheriton near New Alresford.
In the preliminary manoeuvres and in the opening stages of the
battle the advantage lay with the Royalists, and the carl of
Forth, who was present, was satisfied with what had been achieved
and tried to break off the action. But Koyaiist indiscipline
ruined everything. A young cavalry colonel charged in defiance
of orders, a fresh engagement opened, and at the last moment
Waller snatched a victory out of defeat. Worse than this was
the news from Yorkshire and Scotland. Charles had at last
assented to Montrose’s plan and promised him the title of
marquis, but the first attempt to raise the Royalist standard in
Scotland gave no omen of its later triumphs. In Yorkshire
Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from Lancashire through the
West Riding, joined his father. Selby was stormed on the nth
of April, and thereupon Newcastle, who had been manceuvring
against the Scots in Durham, hastily drew back, sent his cavalry
away, and shut himself up with his foot in York. Two days
later the Scottish general, Alexander Leslie, Lord Leven, joined
the Fairfaxes and prepared to invest that city.
15. Plans ej Campaign jar 1644 .—The original plan of the
Parliamentary “ Committee of Both Kingdoms,” which directed
the military and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a
modern cabinet, was to combine Essex’s and Manchester’s
armies in an attack upon the king's army, Aylesbury being
appointed as the place of concentration. Waller’s troops were
to continue to drive back Hopton and to reconquer the west,
Fairfax and the Scots to invest Newcastle’s army, while in the
midlands tirereton and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted
upon to neutralize, the one Byron, the others the Newark
Royalists. But Waller, once more deserted by his trained bands,
was unable to profit by kiu victory of Cheriton, and retired to
Famham. Manchester, too, was delayed because the Eastern
Association was still suffering from the effects of Rupert’s
Newark exploit—Lincoln, abandoned by the rebels on that
occasion, was not reoccupied till the 6th of May. Moreover,
Essex found himself compelled to defend his conduct and
motives to the Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was
straitened for men and money. But though there were grave
elements of weakness on the other side, the Royalists considered
their own position to be hopeless. Prince Maurice was engaged
in the fruitless siege Of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was again a
centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation
in the north was practically desperate, Rupert himself came
to Oxford (April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept
free to march to aid Newcastle, who was now threatened—owing
to the abandonment of the enemy's original plan—by Manchester
as well as Fairfax and Leven. There was no further talk of the
concentric advance of three armies on London. Use fiery
prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at
one at least in recommending that the Oxford area with its
own garrison and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot
of the field armies’ operations. Rupert, needing above all ade¬
quate time for the development of the northern offensive, was not
in favour of abandoning any of the barriers to Essex’s advance.
Brentford, on the other hand, thought it advisable to contract
the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual undecided, agreed
to Rupert’s scheme and executed Brentford’s. Reading, there¬
fore, was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly
afterwards.
16. Cropredy Bridge. —It was now possible far the enemy to
approach Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than
(May 26) Waller’s and Essex’s armies united there—still, un¬
fortunately for their cause, under separate commanders. From
Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller towards
Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic
governor of Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west
(Maurice with a whole army was still vainly besieging the single
line of low breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme)
that the king despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol.
Nor were things much better at Oxford; the barriers of time
and space and the supply area bad been deliberately given up
to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced to undertake
extensive field operations with no hope of success save in con¬
sequence of the enemy’s mistakes. The enemy, as it happened,
did not disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brent¬
ford, conducted a skilful war of manoeuvre in the area defined
by Stourbridge, Gloucester, Abingdon and Northampton, at the
end of which F.ssex, leaving Waller to the secondary work, as he
conceived it, of keeping the king away from Oxford and reducing
that fortress, marched off into the west with most of the general
service troops to repeat at Lyme Regis his Gloucester exploit
of 1643. At one moment, indeed, Charles (then at Bewdley)
rose to the idea of marching north to join Rupert and Newcastle,
but he soon made up his mind to return to Oxford. From
Bewdley, therefore, he moved to Buckingham—the distant
threat on London producing another evanescent citizen army-
drawn from six counties under Major-General Browne—and
Wuller followed him closely. When the king turned upon
Browne's motley host, Waller appeared in time to avert disaster,
and the two armies worked away to the upper Cherwell. Brent¬
ford and Waller were excellent strategists of the 17th century
type, and neither would fight a pitched battle without every
chance in his favour. Eventually on the 29th of June the
Royalists were successful in a series of minor fights ahout
Cropredy Bridge, and the result was, in accordance with con¬
tinental custom, admitted to be an important victory, though
Waller’s main army drew off unharmed. In the meantime,
Essex hud relieved Lyme (June 15) and occupied Weymouth,
and was preparing to go farther. The two rebel armies were
now indeed separate. Waller had been left to do as best lie could,
and a worse fate was soon to overtake the cautious earl.
17. Campaign of Marston Moor .—During these manoeuvres
the northern campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert's
courage and energy were more likely to command success in the
English Civil War than all the conscientious caution of an Essex
or a Brentford. On the x6th of May he left Shrewsbury to fight
his way through hostile country to Lancashire, where he hoped
to re-establish the Derby influence and raise new forces. Stock-
port was plundered on the 15th, the besiegers of Ijithom House
utterly defeated at Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he
received a large reinforcement under General Goring, which
included 5000 of Newcastle’s cavalry. The capture of the
almost defenceless town of Liverpool—undertaken as usual to
allay local fears—did not delay Rupert more than three or four
days, and he then turned towards the Yorkshire border with
GREAT REBELLION
greatly augmented forces. On the 14th of June he received a
despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was a
time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost
or did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward
via Worcester. “ If York be relieved and you beat the rebels’
armies of both kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly
make a shift upon the defensive to spin out time until you come
to assist me.”
Charles did manage to “ spin out time.” But it was of capital
importance that Rupert had to do his work upon York and
theiallied army in the shortest possible time, and that, according
to the despatch, there were only two ways of saving the royal
cause, “ having relieved York by beating the Scots,” or marchmg
with all speed to Worcester. Rupert’s duty, interpreted through
the medium of his temperament, was clear enough. Newcastie
still held out, his men having been encouraged by a small success
on the 17th of June, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on
the 30th. At once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up
the siege of York and moved out to meet him. But the prince,
moving still at high speed, rode round their right flank via
Boroughbridge and Thornton Bridge and entered York on the
north side. Newcastle tried to dissuade Rupert from fighting,
but his record as a general was scarcely convincing as to the
value of his advice. Rupert curtly replied that he had orders to
fight, and the Royalists moved out towards Marston Moor
(q.v.) on the morning of July 2, 1644. The Parliamentary
commanders, fearing a fresh manoeuvre, had already begun to
retire towards Tadcaster, but as soon as it became evident that
a battle was impending they turned back. The battle of Marston
Moor began about four in the afternoon. It was the first real
trial of strength between the best elements on either side, and it
ended before night with the complete victory of the Parliamentary
armies. The Royalist cause in the north collapsed once for all,
Newcastle fled to the continent, and only Rupert, resolute as
ever, extricated 6000 cavalry from the debacle and rode away
whence he had come, still the dominant figure of the war.
18. Independency.—The victory gave the Parliament entire
control of the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution
of the political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles’s
place in a newConstitution,the victorious generals quarrelled even
before York had surrendered. Within three weeks of the battle
the great army was broken up. The Yorkshire troops proceeded
to conquer the isolated Royalist posts in their county, the Scots
marched off to besiege Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in check
a nascent Royalist army in Westmorland. Rupert in Lancashire
they neglected entirely. Manchester and Cromwell, already
estranged, marched away into the Eastern Association. There,
for want of an enemy to fight, their army was forced to be idle,
and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element
quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the
cause. Waller’s army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On
the 2nd of July, despairing of the existing military system, he
made to the Committee of Both Kingdoms the first suggestion
of the New Model,—“ My lords,” he wrote, “ till you have an
army merely your own, that you may command, it is . . .
impossible to do anything of importance.” Browne’s trained
band army was perhaps the most ill-behaved of all—once the
soldiers attempted to murder their own general. Parliament in
alarm set about the formation of a new general service force
(July 12), but meantime both Waller’s and Browne’s armies
(at Abingdon and Reading respectively) ignominiously collapsed
by mutiny and desertion. It was evident that the people at
large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for their
own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men—such as
Cromwell—who had set their hearts on fighting out the quarrel
of conscience, kept steadfastly to their purpose. Cromwell
himself had already • decided that the king himself must be
deprived of his authority, and his supporters were equally con¬
vinced. But -they were relatively few. Even the Eastern
Association trained bands had joined in the disaffection in
Waller’s army, and that unfortunate general’s suggestion of a
professional army, with aU its dangers, indicated the only means
409
of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired.
There was this important difference, however, between Waller's
idea and Cromwell’s achievement—that the professional soldiers
of the New Model were disciplined, led, said in all things inspired
by “godly” officers. Godliness, devotion to the cause, and
efficiency were indeed the only criteria Cromwell applied in
choosing officers. Long before this he had warned the Scottish
major-general Lawrence Crawford that the precise colour of a
man’s religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his
devotion to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, “ I
had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what
he fights for and- loves what he knows than that which you call
a ‘ gentleman ’ and is nothing else. I honour a gentleman that
is so indeed . . . but seeing it was necessary the work must
go on, better plain men than none.” If “ men 6f honour and
birth ’’ possessed the essentials of godliness, devotion, and
capacity, Cromwell preferred them, and as a fact only seven
out of thirty-seven of the superior officers of the original New
Model were not of gentle birth.
19. Lostwithiel .—But all this was as yet in the future. Essex’s
military promenade in the west of England was the subject of
immediate interest. At first successful, this general penetrated
to Plymouth, whence, securely based as he thought, he cou)d
overrun Devon. Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to
overrun Cornwall as well. At once the Comishmen rose, as they
had risen under Hopton, and the king was soon on the march
from the Oxford region, disregarding the armed mobs under
Waller and Browne. Their state reflected the general languishing
of the war spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles dis¬
covered when he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant-
general of his horse, was in correspondence with Essex. Wilmot
was of course placed under arrest, and was replaced by the
dissolute General Goring. .But it was unpleasantly evident
that even gay cavaliers of the type of Wilmot had lost the ideals
for which they fought, and had come to believe that the realm
would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward
it will be found that the Royalist foot, now a thoroughly pro¬
fessional force, is superior in quality to the once superb cavalry,
and that not merely because its opportunities for plunder, &c.,
are more limited. Materially, however, the immediate victory
was undeniably with the Royalists. After a brief period of
manoeuvre, the Parliamentary army, now far from Plymouth,
found itself surrounded and starving at Lostwithiel, on the
Fowey river, without hope of assistance. The horse cut its way
out through the investing circle of posts, Essex himself escaped
by sea, but Major-General Skippon, his second in command, had
to surrender with the whole of the foot on the 2nd of September.
The officers and men were allowed to go free to Portsmouth,
but their arms, guns and munitions were the spoil of the victors.
There was now no trustworthy field force in arms for the Parlia¬
ment south of the Humber, for even the Eastern Association
army was distracted by its religious differences, which had now
at last came definitely to the front and absorbed the political
dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already proposed to abolish
the peerage, the members of which were inclined to make a
hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his
general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quart-el
was an impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism.
Manchester for his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy,
refusing to move against Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and
actually threatened to hang Colonel Lilburne for capturing a
Royalist castle without orders.
20. Operations of Essex’s, Waller’s and Manchester’s Armies .—
After the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles’s
main army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Banbury, a
most important point in the Oxford circle, and Basing House
(near Basingstoke) were in danger of capture. Waller, who had
organized a small force of reliable troops, had already sent
cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting Essex, and
he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as
lay in his power, the king’s return to the Thames valley. Charles
was accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and
4io
GREA1T REBELLION
by puts ,of Prince Maurice’* and Hopton’s armies—the Cornish
levies had as usual scattered as soon as the war receded from
their borders. Manchester slowly advanced to Reading, Essex
gradually reorganized his broken army at Portsmouth, while
Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury, endeavoured to gain
the necessary time and space for a general concentration in
Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and Basing
and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of
rearming Essex’s troops proceeded slowly for want of money,
and Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his
more vigorous subordinates or by the Committee of Both
Kingdoms, saying that the army of the Eastern Association
was for the guard of its own employers and not for general
service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark
Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been
in his hands ere this had he chosen to move thither instead of
lying idle for two months. As to the higher command, things
had come to such a pass that, when the three armies at last
united, a council of war, consisting of three army commanders,
several senior officers, and two civilian delegates from the
Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the majority
had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general
of the Parliament’s first army, was to issue the necessary orders
for the whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that
Waller's hopes of a great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized.
On the 8th of October he fell back, the royal army following
him stop by step and finally reaching Whitchurch on the aoth
of October. Manchester arrived at Basingstoke on the r7th,
Waller on the 19th, and Essex on the 21st. Charles had found
that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from Basingstoke)
without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and
Oxford ; 1 he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved
Donnington Castle near Newbury, on the 22nd. Three days
later Banbury too was relieved by a force which could now be
spared from the Oxford garrison. But for once the council of
war on the other side was for fighting a battle, and the Parlia¬
mentary armies, their spirits revived by the prospect of action
and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the defeat of a
sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they appeared
north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex m 1643,
Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly
fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between
the two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case
merely drew a barrier across Essex’s path. On the present
occasion the eager Parliamentarians made no attempt to force
the king to attack them ; they were well content to attack
him in ms chosen position themselves, especially as he Was better
off for supplies and quarters than they.
21, Second Newbury .—The second battle of Newbury is
remarkable as being the first great manoeuvre-battle (as distinct
from “pitched" battle) of the Civil War, A preliminary
reconnaissance by the Parliamentary leaders (Essex was not
present, owing to illness) established the fact that the king’s
infantry held a strong line of defence behind the Lambnurn
brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington (exclusive), Shaw
House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced
po*t. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of
Newbury, lay the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear
of the main line, and separated from it by more than a
thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice’s corps at Speen, advunccd
troops on the high ground west of that village, but Donnington
Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys, formed a
strong post covering tliis gap with artillery fire. The Parlia¬
mentary leaden had no intention of flinging their men away
in a frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank
attack from the east side could hardly succeed owing to the
obstacle presented by the confluence of the Lambourn and the
Keimet, hence they decided on a wide turning movement via
Chieveley, Winterbouro; and Wickham Heath, against Prince
Maurice’s position—a decision which, daring and energetic
* Charles’s policy was still, as before Maiston Moor, to " spin out
time until Rupert Came hack from the north.
as it was, led only to & modified success, for reasons which will
appear. The flank march, out of range of the castle, was con¬
ducted with punctuality and precision. The troops enmprwnpg
it were drawn from all three armies and led by the best fighting
generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex’s 1 subordinates Balfour
and Skippon. Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand fast until
the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous
holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Waller’s guns were
heard at Speen. But there was no commander-in-chief to co¬
ordinate the movements of the two widely separated corps, and
consequently no co-operation. Waller’s attack was not unex¬
pected, and Prince Maurice had made ready to meet him. Yet
the first rush of tile rebels carried the entrenchments of Speen
Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their
hands within an hour, Essex’s infantry recapturing here some
of the guns they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But mean¬
time Manchester, in spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not
stirred from Clay Hill. He had made one false attack already
early in the morning, and been severely handled, and he was
aware of his own deficiencies as a general. A year before this
he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of a capable
soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was
warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only
to avoid defeat pending a happy solution of the quarrel. Those
who sought to gain peace through victory were meanwhile
driving Maurice back from hedge to hedge towards the open
ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge from the lanes
and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed by
every available man and horse, for Charles’s officers had gauged
Manchester’s intentions, and almost stripped the front of its
defenders to stop Waller’s advance. Nightfall put an end to
the struggle around Newbury, and then—too late—Manchester
ordered the attack on Shaw House. It failed completely in spite
of the gallantry of Ilia men, and darkness being then complete
it was not renewed. In its general course the battle closely
resembled that of Freiburg (?.».), fought the same year on the
Rhine. But, if Waller’s part in the battle corresponded in a
measure to Turenne’s, Manchester was unequal to playing the
part of Condi, and consequently the results, in the case of the
French won by three days’ hard fighting, and even then com¬
paratively small, were in the case of the English practically nil.
During the night, the royal army quietly marched away through
the gap between Waller’s and Manchester’s troops. The heavy
artillery and stores were left in Donnington Castle, Charles himself
with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet Rupert,
and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt
at pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry
they could lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council
of war had decided to content itself with besieging Donnington
Castle. A little later, after a brief and half-hearted attempt to
move towards Oxford, it referred to the Committee for further
instructions. Within the month Charles, having joined Rupert
at Oxford and made him general of the Royalist forces vice
Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of Newbury.
Donnington Castle was again relieved (November 9) under the
eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable
condition that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some
manoeuvres followed, in the course of which Charles relieved
Basing House and the Parliamentary armies fell back, not in
the best order, to Reading. The season for field warfare was
now far spent, and the royal army retired to enjoy good quarters
and plentiful supplies around Oxford.
22. The Self-denying Ordinance .—On the other side, the
dissensions between the generals had become flagrant and public,
and it was no longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to
ignore the fact that the army must be radically reformed.
Cromwell and Waller from their places in parliament attacked
Manchester’s conduct, and their attack ultimately became, so
far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most
of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots,
who attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an “ incendiary.”
At the crisis of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly
GREAT REBELLION
proposed to stifle all animosities by the resignation of all officers
who were members of either House, a proposal which affected
himself not less than Essex and Manchester. The first “ self-
denying ordinance ” was moved on the 9th of December, and
provided that “ no member of either house shall have or execute
any office or command . . &c. This was not accepted by
the Lords, and in the end a second “ self-denying ordinance ”
was agreed to (April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned
were to resign, but without prejudice to their reappointment.
Simultaneously with this, the formation of the New Model was
at last definitely taken into, consideration. The last exploit of
Sir William Waller, who was not re-employed after the passing of
the ordinance, was the relief of Taunton, then besieged by General
Goring’s army, Cromwell served as his lieutenant-general on
this occasion, and we have Waller’s own testimony that he was
in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate. Under
a leader of the stamp of Waller, Cromwell was well satisfied to
obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands.
23. Decline of the Royalist Cause.—A raid of Goring’s horse
from the west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General
Browne at Abingdon ware the chief enterprises undertaken on
the side of the Royalists during the early winter. It was no
longer “ summer in Devon, summer in Yorkshire ’’ as in January
1643. An ever-growing section of Royalists, amongst whom
Rupert himself was, soon to be numbered, were for peace; many
scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of three
years’ rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory,
were making their way to Westminster to give in their sub¬
mission to the Parliament and to pay their fines. In such
circumstances the old decision-seeking strategy was impossible.
The new plan, suggested probably by Rupert, had already been
tried with strategical success in the summer campaign of 1644.
As we have seen, it consisted essentially in using Oxford as the
centre of a circle and striking out radially at any favourable
target—“ manoeuvring about a fixed point,” as Napoleon called
it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that
the “ fixed point ” had been in 1643 the king’s field army, based
indeed on its great entrenched camp, Bonbury-Cirencester-
Reading-Oxford, but free to move and to hold the enemy wherever
met, while now it was the entrenched camp itself, weakened
by the loss or abandonment of its outer posts, and without the
power of binding the enemy if they chose to ignore its existence,
that conditioned the scope and duration of the single remaining
field army’s enterprises.
24. The New Model Ordinance. —For the present, however,
Charles's cause was crumbling more from internal weakness
than from the blows of the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace
which opened on the 29th of January at Uxbridge (by the name
of which place they are known to history) occupied the attention
of the Scots and their Presbyterian friends, the rise of Inde¬
pendency and of Cromwell was a further distraction, and over
the new army and the Self-denying Ordinance the Lords and
Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh
mutiny in Waller’s command struck alarm into the hearts of
the disputants. The “ treaty ” of Uxbridge came to the same
end as the treaty of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army
reform was achieved on the 15th of February. Though it was
only on the 25th of March that the second and modified form of
the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses, Sir Thomas Fairfax
and Philip Skippon (who were not members of parliament)
had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the
infantry) respectively of the new army as early as the 21st of
January. The post of lieutenant-general and cavalry commander
was for the moment left vacant, but there was little doubt as to
who would eventually occupy it.
95. Victories of Montrose.—In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose
was winning victories which amazed the people of the two
kingdoms. Montrose’s royalism differed from that of English¬
men of the 17 th century less than from that of their forefathers
under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. To him the king was the
protector of bis people against Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely
less offensive to him than the Inquisition itself, and the feudal
4IH
oppression of the great nobles. Little as this ideal corresponded
to the Charles of reality, it inspired in ‘Montrose not merely
romantic heroism but a force of leadership which was sufficient
to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild Highlanders
and the experienced professional soldiers who at various times
and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful
enterprise has been mentioned above. It seemed, in the early
stages of his second attempt (August 1644), as if failure were again
inevitable, for the gentry of the northern Lowlands wore over¬
awed by the prevailing party and resented the leadership of a
lesser noble, even though he were the king's lieutenant over all
Scotland. Disappointed of support where he most expected it,
Montrose then turned to the Highlands. At Blair Athol he
gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune
gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined
experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds and commanded
by Alastair of that name) had been sent over front Ireland
earlier in the year, and, after ravaging the glens of their hereditary
enemies the Campbells, had attempted without success, now
here, now there, to gather the other clans in the king’s name.
Their hand was against every man’s, and when he finally arrived
in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect himself
by submitting to the authority of the king’s lieutenant
There were three hostile armies to be dealt with, besides—
ultimately—the main covenanting army far away in England.
The duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army
of his own clan and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Eloho
with another Lowland urmy lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour
of Burleigh was collecting a third (also composed of Lowlanders)
at Aberdeen. Montrose turned upon Elcho first, and found him
at Tippermuir near Perth on the 1st of September 1644. The
Royalists were about 3000 strong and entirely foot, only Montrose
himself and two others being mounted, while Elcho had about
7000 of all arms. But Elcho’s townsmen found that pike and
musket were clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and,
like Mackay’s regulars at KiUiecrankie fifty years later, they
wholly failed to stop the rush of the Highland swordsmen.
Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and Montrose slept in
Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his enemies,
Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started for
Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped
away to place their booty in security. But the Macdonald
regulars remained with him, and as he passed along the coast
some of the gentry came in, though the great western dan of
the Gordons was at present too far divided in sentiment to take
his part Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were even
in Balfour’s army. On the other hand, the earl of Airiie brought
in forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute
two wings of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters
were about 2500 strong and drawn up on a dope above the‘Ho#
Burn 1 just outside Aberdeen (September 13, 1644}. Montrose,
after clearing away the enemy’s skirmishers, drew up his army
in front of the opposing line, the foot in the centre, the forty-dour
mounted men, with musketeers to support them, on either flank.
The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and some bodies
of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however,
Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy
that attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over
the small band of mounted men that constituted his right wing
cavalry, and also some musketeers from the centre, and
destroyed the assailants, and when the ill-led left wing of the
Covenanters charged again, during the absence of the cavalry,
they were mown down by the close-range volleys of Macdonald’s
musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour’s army
yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked
by order of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while
delivering a message under a flag of truce to the magistrates.
26. Inverlochy .—Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with.
The Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose’s
own men, and had lew townsmen serving with them. Still there
were enough of the letter and of the impedimenta of regular
1 The ground has been entirely built over lor many yean.
GREAT REBELLION
warfare with him to prevent Argyll from overtaking his agile
enemy, and ultimately after a “ htde-and-seek ” in the districts
of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and Strathbogie,
Montrose stood to fight at Fyvie Castle, repulsed Atgyll’s attack
on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There
he was joined by Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters
for a grand raid on the Campbell country; he himself wished to
march into the Lowlands, well knowing that he could not achieve
the decision in the Grampians, but he had to bow, not for the
first time nor the last, to local importunity. The raid was duly
executed, and the Campbells’ boast, “ It’s a far cry to Loch Awe,”
availed them little. In December and January the Campbell
lands were thoroughly and mercilessly devastated, and Montrose
then retired slowly to Loch Ness, where the bulk of his army as
usual dispersed to store away its plunder. Argyll, with such
Highland and Lowland forces as he could collect after the disaster,
followed Montrose towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and .
other northern clans marched to Loch Ness. Caught between
them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The Royalists crossed
the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the northern face
of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche upon Argyll’s
forces at Inverlochy (February 2,1645). As usual, the Lowland
regiments gave way at once—Montrose had managed in all this
to keep with him a few cavalry—and it was then the turn of the
Campbells. Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting
force, was practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four
victories in these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly
promised Charles that he would come to his assistance with a
brave army before the end of the summer.
27. Organization of the New Model Army. —To return to the
New Model. Its first necessity was regular pay ; its first duty to
serve wherever it might be sent. Of the three armies that had
fought at Newbury only one, Essex’s, was in a true sense a general
service force, and only one, Manchester’s, was paid with any
regularity. Waller’s army was no better paid than Essex’s and
no more free from local ties than Manchester’s. It was therefore
broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry passed
into the New Model. Essex’s men, on the other hand, wanted but
regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers,
and their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his
personal popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin.
Manchester’s army, in which Cromwell had been the guiding
influence from first to last, was naturally the backbone of the
New Model. Early in April Essex, Manchester, and Waller re¬
signed their commissions, and such of their forces as were not
embodied in the new army were sent to do local duties, for
minor armies were still maintained, General Poyntz's in the north
midlands. General Massey’s in the Severn valley, a large force in
the Eastern Association, General Browne’s in Buckinghamshire,
&c., besides the Scots in the north.
The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7700
horse and dragoons. Of the infantry only 6000 came from the
combined armies, the rest being new recruits furnished bv the
press. 1 Thus there was considerable trouble during the first
months of Fairfax’s command, and discipline had to be enforced
with unusual sternness, As for the enemy, Oxford was openly
contemptuous of “ the rebels’ new brutish general ” and his
men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller
had failed. But the effect of the Parliament’s having “ an army
all its own ” was soon to be apparent.
28. First Operations of 164}- —On the Royalist side the cam¬
paign of 1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of
Wales (Charles II.) was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon),
Hopton and others as his advisers. General (Lord) Goring,
however, now in command of the Royalist field forces in this
quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and dissolute, though on
the rare occasions when he did his duty he displayed a certain
degree of skill and leadership, and the influence of the prince’s
' The Puritans had by' now disappeared almost entirely from the
ranks of the infantry. Per iontra the officers and sergeants and the
troopers of the horse' were the sternest Puritans of all, the survivors
of three years of a disheartening war.
counsellors was but small. As usual, operations began With
the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and
Lyme were blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The
reinforcement thrown into the last place by Waller and Cromwell
was dismissed by Blake (then a colonel in command of the
fortress and afterwards the great admiral of the Commonwealth),
and after many adventures rejoined Waller and Cromwell.
The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their commissions,
then engaged Goring for some weeks, but neither side having
infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in
February and March and in country that had been fought over
for two years past, no results were to be expected. Taunton
still remained unrelieved, and Goring’s horse still rode all over
Dorsetshire when the New Model at last took the field.
2q. Rupert's Northern March .—In the midlands and Lanca¬
shire the Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring’s men,
were directly responsible for the ignominious failure with which
the king’s main army began its year's work. Prince Maurice
was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and part of his Oxford army
early in March, and the brothers drove off Brereton from the
siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on Lord Byron
in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert’s again invading
Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the north,
English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But
at this moment the prince was called back to clear his line
of retreat on Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire
peasantry, weary of military exactions, were in arms, and though
they would not join the Parliament, and for the most part
dispersed after stating their grievances, the main enterprise was
wrecked. This was but one of many ill-armed crowds—“ Club¬
men ” as they were called—that assembled to enforce peace
on both parties. A few regular soldiers were sufficient to disperse
them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party
in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile.
The Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair,
those who still fought against Charles did so with the full deter¬
mination to ensure the triumph of their cause, and with the
conviction that the only possible way was the annihilation of the
enemy’s armed forces, but the majority were so weary of the war
that the earl of Manchester’s Presbyterian royalism—which had
contributed so materially to the prolongation of the struggle—
would probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all England
as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost
universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends
at Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to
complete victory.
30. Cromwell’s Raid .—Having without difficulty rid himself
of the Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the
north. It is unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though
Charles himself favoured that plan, but he certainly intended
to fight the Scottish army, more especially as after Inverlochy
it had been called upon to detach a large force to deal with
Montrose. But this time there was no Royalist army in the
north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched battle, and
Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main body,
and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and
join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford
that the first operations of the New Model centred. The irtfantry
was not yet ready to move, in spite of all Fairfax’s and Skippnn’s
efforts, and it became necessary to send the cavalry by itself
to prevent Rupert from gaining a start. Cromwell, then under
Waller’s command, hud come to Windsor to resign his commission
as required by the Self-denying Ordinance. Instead, he was
placed at the head of a brigade of his own old soldiers, with orders
to stop the march of the artillery train. On the 23rd of April
he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on the
24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On
the same day, though he had no guns and only a few firearms
in the whole force, he terrified the governor of Bletchingdon
House into surrender. Riding thence to Witney, Cromwell
won another cavalry fight at Bampton-in-the-Bush on the 27th,
and attacked Faringdon House, though without success, on the
GREAT REBELLION
aqth. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury. He had done
his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist cavalry,
and, above all, had carried off every horse on the country-side.
To all Rupert’s entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns
could not be moved till the 7th of May, and he even summoned
Goring’s cavalry from the west to make good his losses.
31. Civilian Strategy. —Cromwell's success thus forced the
king to concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood
of Oxford, and the New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell
hoped, found its target. But the Committee of Both Kingdoms
on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and Goring on the other,
held different views. On the 1st of May Fairfax, having been
ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the long
march to that place ; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the and,
he directed the lieutenant-general to watch the movements of
the king's army, and himself marched on to Biandford, which
he reached on the 7th of May. Thus Fairfax and the main army
of the Parliament were marching away in the west while Crom¬
well’s detachment was left, as Waller had been left the previous
year, to hold the king as best he could. On the very evening
that Cromwell’s raid ended, the leading troops of Goring’s
command destroyed part of Cromwell’s own regiment near
Faringdon, and on the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with
a force of all arms at Burford. Yet the Committee of Both
Kingdoms, though aware on the aqth of Goring’s move, only
made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send
off orders till the 5th. These orders were to the effect that a
detachment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that
the main army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, even
though a siege of Oxford and not the enemy’s field army was
the objective assigned him. But long before he came up to the
Thames valley the situation was again changed. Rupert, now
in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his uncle
the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with
Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly
marched out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-on-the-Wold,
on the very day, as it chanced, that Fairfax began his return
march from Biandford. But Goring and most of the other
generals were for a march into the west, in the hope of dealing
with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644. The armies
therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same
place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring
to return to his independent command in the west. Rupert,
not unnaturally wishing to keep his influence with the king and
his authority as general of the king’s army unimpaired by
Goring’s notorious indiscipline, made no attempt to prevent the
separation, which in the event proved wholly unprofitable. The
flying column from Biandford relieved Taunton long before
Goring’s return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel
Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open
country. As for Fairfax, he was out of Goring’s reach preparing
for the siege of Oxford.
3*. Charles in the Midlands .—On the other side also the
generals were working by data that had ceased to have any value.
Fairfax’s siege of Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the 10th
of May, and persisted in after it was known that the king was on
the move, was the second great blunder of the year and was
hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by the visionary scheme
of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen, and the midland
forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having
created a new model army “ all its own ’’ for general service, the
Parliament at once tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted
an improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy’s main
army. In reality the Committee seems to have been misled by
false information to the effect that Goring and the governor of
Oxford were about to declare for the Parliament, but had they not
despatched Fairfax to the relief of Taunton in the first instance
the necessity for such intrigues would not have arisen. However,
Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Oxford, and, so far as he eras able
without a proper siege train, besieged it for two weeks, while
Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the end
of that tine came new* so alarming that the Committee hastily
4*3
abdicated their control over military operations and gave
Fairfax a free hand. “Black Tom” gladly and instantly
abandoned the siege and marched northward to give battle to the
king.
Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On
the nth of May they reached Droitwich, whence after two days’
rest they marched against Brereton. The latter hurriedly raised
the sieges he had on hand, and called upon Yorkshire and the
Scottish army there for aid. But only the old Lord Fairfax
and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of new
victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his
army and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in
the hope of being in time to bar the king’s march on Scotland
via Carlisle.
33. Dundee .—After the destruction of the .Campbells at
Inverlochy, Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies
without difficulty. He now gained a respectable force of cavalry
by the adhesion of Lord Gordon and many of his dan, and'this
reinforcement was the more necessary as detachments from
Leven’s army under Baillie and Hurry—disciplined infantry and
cavalry—were on the march to meet him. The Royalists marched
by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, and
thence across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and Hurry
were encountered. A war of manoeuvre followed, in Which they
thwarted every effort of the Royalists to break through into tile
Lowlands, but in the end retired into Fife. Montrose thereupon
marched into the hills with the intention of reaching the upper
Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise from
himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the
quarrel be decided, and was sanguine—over-sanguine, as the
event proved—os to the support he would obtain from those who
hated the kirk and its system. But he had called to his aid the
semi-barbarous Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands
resented a Presbyterian inquisition, they hated and feared the
Highland clans beyond all else. He was equally disappointed in
his own army. For a war of positions the Highlanders had neither
aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the greater part of them
went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to its duty,
plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of
Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose
brilliantly surprised that place on the 4th of April, but Baillie and
Hurry were not far distant, and before Montrose’s men had time
to plunder the prize they were collected to face the enemy.
His retreat from Dundee was considered a model operation by
foreign students of the art of war (then almost as numerous as
now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could
rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was
remarkable enough. Baillie moved parallel to Montrose on his
left flank towards Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the
hills and attempting to pin him against the sea. Montrose,
however, halted in the dark so as to let Baillie get ahead of him
and then turned sharply back, crossed Baillie’s track, and made
for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened and
turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists
were again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But
Montrose cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once ;
all he could do, he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the
enemy’s forces as possible.
34. Auldearn .—For a time he wandered in the Highlands
seeking recruits. But soon he learned that Baillie and Hurry had
divided their forces, the former remaining about Perth and
Stirling to observe him, the latter going north to suppress the
Gordons. Strategy and policy combined .to make Hurry the
objective of the next expedition. But the soldier of fortune who
commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean
antagonist Marching at onoe with a large army (formed on the
nucleus of his own trained troops and for the rest composed of
clansmen and volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact
with Montrose there, and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew
him into the hostile country round Inverness. Montrose fell into
the trap, and Hurry took his measures to surprise him at Auld¬
earn so successfully flat (May 9) Montrose, even though the
GREAT REBELLION
4 I 4
indiscipline of some of Huny’s young soldiers during the night
march gave him the alarm, had barely time to form up before the
enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no avail when
the battle it produces goes against the strategist, and Montrose’s
tactical skill was never more conspicuous than at Auldearn.
Alastair Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the
Royal standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to
draw upon himself the weight of Hurry’s attack; only enough
men were posted in the village Itself to show that it was occupied,
and on the south side, out of sight, was Montrose himself with a
body of foot and all the Gordon horse. It was the prototype, on a
small scale, of AusterliU. Macdonald resisted sturdily while
Montrose edged away from the scene of action, and at the right
moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven
back on the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens
and enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon’s cavalry. These,
abandoning for once the pistol tactics of their time, charged
hom'e with the sword. The enemy’s right wing cavalry was
scattered in an instant, the nearest infantry was promptly ridden
down, and soon Huny’s army had ceased to exist.
35. Campaign of Naseby .—If the news of Auldearn brought
Leven to the region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English
allies. Fairfax was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in
spite of the protests of the Scottish representatives in London.
Massey, the active and successful governor of Gloucester, was
placed in command of a field force on the 25th of May, but he was
to lead it against, not the king, but Goring. At that moment the
military situation once more changed abruptly. Charles, instead
of continuing his march on to Lancashire, turned due eastward
towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when this new
development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of the
Self-denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the
defence of the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no
intentions in that direction. Conflicting reports as to the
condition of Oxford reached the royal headquarters in the last
week of May, and the eastward march was made chiefly to
“ spin out time ” until it could be known whether it would be
necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to
fight Leven in Yorkshire—his move into Westmorland was not
yet known—and invade Scotland by tbe easy east coast route.
Goring’s return to the west had already been countermanded
and he had been directed to march to Harborough, while the
South Wales Royalists were also called in towards Leicester.
Later orders (May 26) directed him to Newbury, whence he was
to feel the strength of the enemy’s positions around Oxford.
It is hardly necessary to say that Goring found good military
reasons for continuing his independent operations, and marched
off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the
balance there for the moment by overawing Massey’s weak force,
and his purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for
extortion, but he and his men were not at Noseby. Meanwhile
the king, at the geographical centre of England, found an im¬
portant and wealthy town at his mercy. Rupert, always for
action, took the opportunity, and Leicester was stormed and
thoroughly pillaged on the night of the 3oth-3ist of May. There
was the usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for
Charles, it resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the
siege of Oxford and given carte blanche to bring the Royal army
to battle wherever it was met. On his side the king had, after
the capture of Leicester, accepted tbe advice of those who feared
for the aafety of Oxford—Rupert, though commander-in-chief,
was unahle to insist on the northern enterprise—and had marched
to Davtntey, where he halted to throw supplies into Oxford.
Thus Fairfax in his turn was free to move, thanks to the in¬
subordination of Goring, who would neither relieve Oxford nor
join the kingfor as attack on the New ModeL The Parliamentary
general moved from Oxford towards Northampton so as to
cover the Eastern Association. On tbe rath of June the two
armies were only a few miles apart, Fairfax at Kishngbury,
Charles at Coventry, and/thoogh the Royalists turned northward
again on the 13th to resume tbe Yorkshire project nnder the very
eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed dose. On the night of
the 13th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fairfax at Guihborough.
Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of the New Model,
had ridden into camp on the morning of the 13th with fresh
cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter came up
with more from Lincolnshire on the morning of the battle,
and it was with an incontestable superiority of numbers and an
overwhelming moral advantage that Fairfax fought at Naseby
(q.v) on die 14th of June. The result of the battle, this time a
decisive battle, was the annihilation of the Royal army. Part
of the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in tolerable order,
but the guns and the baggage train were taken, and, above all,
the splendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to a
man.
36. Effects of Naseby .—After Naseby, though the war dragged
on for another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army
as good as, or even more numerous than, that which Fairfax’s
army had so heavily outnumbered on the 14th of June. That
the fruits of the victory could not be gathered in a few weeks
was due to a variety of hindrances rather than to direct opposi¬
tion—to the absence of rapid means of communication, tbe
paucity of the forces engaged on both sides relatively to the total
numbers under arms, and from time to time to the political
exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and
Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby,
the Scots rejoiced that the “ back of the malignants was broken,”
and demanded reinforcements as a precaution against ‘‘the
insolence of others,” i.e. Cromwell and the Independents—“ to
whom alone the Lord has given the victory of that day.” Leven
had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a fortnight after Naseby,
after a long and honourable defence by Sir Thomas Glemham,
Carlisle fell to David Leslie’s besieging corps. Leicester was
reoccupied by Fairfax on the 18th, and on tbe 20th Leven’s
army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfield. This move
was undertaken largely for political reasons, i.e. to restore the
Presbyterian balance as against tbe victorious New Model.
Fairfax's army was intended by its founders to be a specifically
English army, and Cromwell for one would have employed it
against the Scots almost as readily as against malignants.
But for the moment the advance of the northern army was of
the highest military importance, for Fairfax was thereby set
free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the
publication of tbe king’s papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax's
troops a measure of official and popular support which a month
before they could not have been said to possess, for it was now
obvious that they represented the armed force of England against
the Irish, Danes, French, Lorrainers, See., whom Charles had for
three yean been endeavouring to let loose on English soil.
Even the Presbyterians abandoned for the time any attempt
to negotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous prosecution
of the war.
37. Fairfax’s Western Campaign. —This, in the hands of Fairfax
and Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and
Rupert, with the remnant of their cavalry, hurried into South
Wales to join Sir Charles Gerard's troops and to raise fresh in¬
fantry, Fairfax decided that Goring’s was the most important
Royalist army in the field, and turned to the west, reaching
Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight after the battle of
Naseby. One last attempt was made to dictate the plan of
campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass
on the directions of tbe Houses, and he remained free to deal
with Goring as he desired. Time pressed; Charles in Monmouth¬
shire and Rupert at Bristol were well placed for a junction with
Goring, which would have given them a united army 15,000
strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey’s efforts to keep the field,
was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset numerous bands
of Clubmen were on foot which the king’s officers were doing
their best to turn into troops for their master. But the process
of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his
subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king’s
most devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and de¬
bauchery. Moreover, Goring had no desire to lose the fade-
pendent command he had extorted at Stowon-the-WoUfa May.
GREAT REBELLION
4*5
Still, it was clear that he must be disposed of as quickly as
possible, And Fairfax requested the Houses to take other
measures against the kmg(June s6). Thu they did by paying up
the arrears due to Leven’s army and bringing it to the Severn
valley. On the 8th of July Leven reached Alcester, bringing
with him a Parliamentarian force from Derbyshire under Sir
John Gelt. The design was to besiege Hereford.
38. Langport .—By that time Fairfax and Goring were at
dose quarters. The Royalist general’s line of defence faced west
along the Yeo and the Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater,
and thus barred the direct route to Taunton. Fairfax, however,
marched from Lechladc via Marlborough and Blandford—
hindered only by Clubmen—to the friendly posts of Dorchester
and Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was
able to turn the headwaters of Goring’s river-line via Beaminster
and Crewkerne. The Royalists at once abandoned the south and
west side of the rivers—the siege of Taunton had already been
given up—and passed over to the north and east bank. Bridg¬
water was the right of this second line as it had been the left of
the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could thus
remain in touch with Charles in south Wales through Bristol,
and the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no
longer any incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the
water-line. But his army was thoroughly demoralised by its
own licenoe and indiscipline, and the swift, handy and resolute
regiments of the New Model made short work of its strong
positions. On the 7th of July, demonstrating against the points
of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly
occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the
right of Goring’s first position, had, perhaps rightly, been'with¬
drawn to Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and
Fairfax repaired the bridge without interruption. Goring
showed himself unequal to the new situation. He might, if
sober, make a good plan when the enemy was not present to
disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with boldness
and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was in¬
capable. On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the
Yeo as far as Langport without striking a Wow, and Fairfax,
having nothing to gain by continuing his ditour through Yeovil,
came back and quietly crossed at Long Sutton, west of Ilchester
(J uly 9). Goring had by now formed a new plan. A strong rear¬
guard was posted at Langport and on high ground east and north¬
east of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with the cavalry rode
off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This place
was no longer protected by Massey’s little army, which Fairfax
had called up to assist his own. But Fairfax, who was not yet
across Long Sutton bridge, heard of Goring’s raid in good time,
and sent Massey after him with a body of horse. Massey sur¬
prised a large party of the Royalists at Ilminster on the 9th,
wounded Goring himself, and pursued the fugitives up to the
south-eastern edge of Langport. On the 10th Fairfax’s ad¬
vanced guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell’s own regiment,
brilliantly stormed the position of Goring’s rearguard east of
Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell
himself, swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater,
where Goring’s army, dismayed and on the point of collapse,
was more or . less rallied. Thence Goring himself retired to
Barnstaple. His army, under the regimental offioers, defended
itself in Bridgwater resolutely till the 13rd of July, when it
capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax complete con¬
trol of Somerset and Dorset horn Lyme to the Bristol channel.
Even in the unlikely event of Goring’s raising a fresh army,
he would now have to break through towards Bristol by open
force, and a battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have
one Tesult. Thus Charles had perforce to give up his intention
of joining Goring—his recruiting operations in south Wales had
not been so successful as he hoped, owing to the apathy of the
people and the vigour of die local Parliamentary leaders—
and to resume the northern enterprise begun in the spring.
39. Schemes 0/ Leri Digby .—This time Rupert would not be
with him. The prince, now despairing of success and hoping
only for a peace on the best terms procurable, listlessly returned
to his governorship of Bristol and prepared to meet Fairfax’s
impending attack. The influence of Rupert was supplanted by
that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles and far more
energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding spirit
of the Royalists, but being a civilian he proved incapable of
judging the military factors in the situation from a military
standpoint, and not only did he offend the officers by constituting
himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, but
he was distrusted by all sections of Royalists lor his. reckless
optimism. The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed
by Rupert and directly inspired by Digby, . led to nothing.
Charles inarched by Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to
Doncaster, where on the 18th of August he was met by great
numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises of fresh recruits.
For a moment the outlook was bright, lor the I)ert>yshire men
with Gell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the Yorkshire
Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle,
Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that
David Leslie with the cavalry of Leven’s army was coming
up behind him, and that, rite Yorkshire sieges being now ended,
Major-General Poyntz’s force lay in his front. It was now im¬
possible to wait for the new levies, and reluctantly the king turned
back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and other parts of the
hated Eastern Association en nut*.
40. Montrose’s Last Victories .—DavidLeslie did not pursue him.
Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two
more battles, and was practioally master of all Scotland. Alter
Auldearn he had turned to meet Baillie’s army in Strathspey, and
by superior mobility and skill forced that commander to keep at
a respectful distance. He then turned upon a new army which
Lindsay, titular earl -of Crawford, was forming in Forfarshire,
but that commander betook himself to a safe distance, and
Montrose withdrew into the Highlands to find recruits (June).
The victors of Auldearn had mostly dispersed on the usual errand,
and he was now deserted by most of die Gordons, who were re¬
called by the chief of their clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite
of die indignant remonstrances of Huntly’s heir, Lord Gordon,
who was Montrose’s warmest admirer. Baillie now approached
again, but he was weakened by having to find trained troops
to stiffen Lindsay’s levies, and a strong force of the Gordons had
now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. The two armies met in
batde near Alford on the Don; litde can be said of the engage-
meat save that Montrose bad to fight cautiously and tentatively
as at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing spirit of Auldearn,
and that in the end Baillie’s cavalry gave way and his infantry
was cut down as it stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royaljst
dead (July a). The plunder was put away in the glens before any
attempt was made to go forward, and thus the Covenanters had
leisure to form a numerous, if not very cp he rent, army on the
nucleus of Lindsay’s troops. .Baillie, much against his will, was
continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly of nobles
whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll, Etcho and
Balfour) to direct his every movement. Montrose, when rejoined
by the Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of
July and the early part of August there were manoeuvres and
minor engagements round Perth. About the ;th of August
Montrose suddenly slipped away into the Lowlands, heading
for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began to
assemble in Clydesdale. But h was ejear that Montrose could
beat mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and
despairing of success, hurried alter ham. Montrose then, having
drawn Baillie’s Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure
their being discontented, turned upon them on the 14th of August
near Kilsyth. Baillie protested against fighting, but his aristo¬
cratic masters of tile council of war decided to cut off Montrose
from the hills by turning his left wing. The Royalist general
seized the opportunity, sad his advance caught them in the very
act of making a flank march (August 15). The head of the
Covenanters’ column was met and stopped by the furious attack
of the Gordon infantry, and Akstair Macdonald ledthe men' of
his own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was
made in the centre of Baillie's army at the first rush, and then
4x6 GREAT REBELLION
Montrose sent in the Gordon and Ogflvy horse. The leading half of
the column was surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear
half, seeing the fate of its comrades, took to flight, but in vain,
for the Highlanders pursued d outranee. Only about one hundred
Covenanting infantry out of six thousand escaped. Montrose
was now indeed the king’s lieutenant in all Scotland.
41. Fall of Bristol .—But Charles was in no case to resume his
northern inarch. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing
Bridgwater, had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire
Clubmen and to besiege Sherborne Castle. On the completion
of this task, it had been decided to besiege Bristol, and on the
23rd of August—while the king’s army was still in Huntingdon,
and Goring was trying to raise a new army to replace the one he
had lost at Langport and Bridgwater—the city was invested.
In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west
only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Associa¬
tion raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he
first moved to the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven’s
Scots, no longer having Leslie’s cavalry with them to find supplies,
were more occupied with plundering their immediate neighbour¬
hood for food than with the siege works. Worcester was relieved
on the 1st of September by the king. David Leslie with all his
cavalry was already on the march to meet Montrose, and Leven
had no alternative but to draw off his infantry without fighting.
Charles entered Worcester on the 8th, but he found that he
could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse
was to come. A few hours later, on the night of the pth-ioth,
Fairfax’s army stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the
hopelessness of further fighting—-the very summons to surrender
sent in by Fairfax placed the fate of Bristol on the political issue,
—the lines of defence around the place were too extensive for
his small force, and on the nth he surrendered on terms. He
was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing as he rode with
the officers of the escort about peace and the future of his adopted
country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the
catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered
him to leave England, and for almost the last time called upon
Goring to rejoin the main army—if a tiny force of raw infantry
and disheartened cavalry can be so called—in the neighbourhood
of Raglan. But before Goring could be brought to withdraw
his objections Charles had again turned northward towards
Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills brought the
Royal army on the 22nd of September to the neighbourhood of
Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which
was partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael
Jones, and the rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale were sent to
take Jones’s lines in reverse. But at the opportune moment
Poynt2’s forces, which had followed the king’s movements since
he left Doncaster in the middle of August, appeared in rear of
Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton Heath
(September 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king’s
troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the Royal
army withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important
seaport remaining to connect Charles with Ireland, was again
besieged.
42. Philiphaugh .—Nor was Montrose’s position, even after
Kilsyth, encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of
fighting in Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby.
Glasgow and Edinburgh were indeed occupied, and a parliament
summoned in the king’'' name. But Montrose had now to choose
between Highlanders and Lowianders. The former, strictly
kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly vanished,
even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the
Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose’s military and political
resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he
demanded support from the sturdy middle classes of the Low-
lsmds, it was not forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the
sack of Lowland towns. Thus his new supporters could only
come from amongst the discontented and undisciplined Bonier
lords and gentry, and tang before these moved to join him the
romantic conquest of Scotland was over.. On thefith of September
David Leslie had repressed the frontier with his cavalry and some
infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England.
Early on the morning of the 13th he surprised Montrose at
Philiphaugh near Selkirk. The king’s lieutenant had only 650
men against 4000, and the battle did not last long. Montrose
escaped with a few of his principal adherents, but his little army
was annihilated. Of the veteran Macdonald infantry, 500 strong
that morning, 250 were killed in the battle and the remainder
put to death after accepting quarter. The Irish, even when they
bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more than English¬
men, regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After Naseby
the Irishwomen found in the king’s camp were branded by order
of Fairfax; after Philiphaugh more than 300 women, wives or
followers of Macdonald's men, were butchered. Montrose’s
Highbinders at their worst were no more cruel than the sober
soldiers of the kirk.
43. Digby's Northern Expedition .—Charles received the news
of Philiphaugh on the 28th of September, and gave orders that
the west should be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be
sent to France, and Goring should bring up what forces he could
to the Oxford region. On the 4th of October Charles himself
reached Newark (whither he had marched from Denbigh after
revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of Rowton Heath).
The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up, at any
rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and
the Royalist militia of the west—each in its own way a broken
reed to lean upon. A hollow reconciliation was patched up
between Charles and Rupert, and the court remained at Newark
for over a month. Before it set out to return to Oxford another
Royalist force had been destroyed. On the 14th of October,
receiving information tha* Montrose had raised a new army,
the king permitted Langdaie’s northern troops to make a fresh
attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale's request Digby was
appointed to command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he
was, and disastrous though his influence had been to the discipline
of the army, he led it boldly and skilfully. His immediate
opponent was Poyntz, who had followed the king step by step
from Doncaster to Chester and back to Welbeck, and he succeeded
on the 15th in surprising Poyntz’s entire force of foot at Sherbum.
Poyntz’s cavalry were soon after this reported approaching
from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also. At first
all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed.
But by a singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the
Parliamentary squadrons in flight through Sherbum for friends,
and believing all was lost took to flight also. Thus Digby’s
cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz’s and in the same direction, and
the latter, coming to their senses first, drove the Royalist horse in
wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby was still sanguine,
and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as Dumfries.
But whether Montrose’s new army was or was not in the Low¬
lands, it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border,
and the mad adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the
mere handful of men remaining to him, was driven back into
Cumberland, and on the 24th of October, his army having
entirely disappeared, he took ship with his officers for the Isle of
Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond Skipton, and was
now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter with the
Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king’s chances of
escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by, day,
and they were not improved by a violent dispute between him
and Rupert, Maurice, Lord Gerard and Sir Richard Willis, at
the end of which these officer* and many others rode away to
ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas. The pretext of the
quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the views of
Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends
on the other was fundamental—to the latter peace had become
a political as well as a military necessity. Meanwhile south
Wales, with the single exception of Raglan Castle, had been
overrun by the Parliamentarians. Everywhere the Royalist
posts were falling. The New Model, no longer fearing Goring,
had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset and
Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was
the famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on the
GREAT REBELLION
14th of October and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work
finished, returned to headquarters, and the army wintered in the
neighbourhood of Crediton.
44. End oj the First War.— The military events of 1646 call
for no comment. The only field army remaining to the king
was Goring’s, and though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the
command after Goring’s departure, tried at the last moment
to revive the memories and the local patriotism of 1643, it was
of no use to fight against the New Model with the armed rabble
that Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered on
January 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on February
16, and surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on
March 14. Exeter fell on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was
taken on December 17, 1645, an d the last battle of the war
was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord Astley on
March 21,1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6
and June 24. On August 31 Montroseescaped from the Highlands.
On the njth of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered,
and the last Royalist post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained
the useless struggle until March 13,1647. Charles himself, after
leaving Newark in November 1645, had spent the winter in and
around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous journey, he came
to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5, 1646.
45. Second Civil War [1648-52). —The close of the First
Civil War left England and Scotland in the hands potentially of
any one of the four parlies or any combination of two or more
that should prove strong enough to dominate the rest. Armed
political Royalism was indeed at an end, but Charles, though
practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost to
the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success
of whichever amongst the other three parties could come to terms
with him. Thus he passed successively into the hands of the
Scots, the Parliament and the New Model, trying to reverse the
verdict of arms by coquetting with each in turn. The Presby¬
terians and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of Fairfax’s horse
seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3, 1647),
began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against
Independency, as embodied in the New Model -henceforward
called the Army—and after making use of its sword, its opponents
attempted to disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut
off its arrears of pay, with the result that it was exasperated
beyond control, and, rememhering not merely its grievances
but also the principle for which it had fought, soon became the
most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to 1648
the breach between army and parliament widened day by day
until finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and
ihc remaining Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a
second civil war.
46. The English war .—In Fehmury 1648 Colonel Poyer, the
Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand
over his command to one of Fairfax’s officers, and he was soon
joined by some hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied,
ostensibly for arrears of pay, but really with political objects.
At the end of March, encouraged by minor successes, Poyer
openly declared for the king. Disbanded soldiers continued
to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and eventually
he was joined by Major-General Laughame, his district com¬
mander, and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the
Scots were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been
seized by the English Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off
at the head of a strong detachment to deal with Laughame and
Poyer. But before he arrived Laughame had been severely
defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagans (May 8). The English
Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their principles
with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken
at St Fagans bore “ We long to see our King ” on their hats;
very soon in fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist
revolt, and the war in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture
of Royalism and Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a
Scottish army. The former were disturbers of the peace and no
more. Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First
Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the
417
Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost amongst
them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the
king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in
the second War. Those who did so, and by implication those
who abetted them in doing so, were likely to be treated with
the utmost rigour if captured, for the army was in a less placable
mood in 1648 than in 1645, and had already determined to
“ call Charles Stuart, that man of blood, to an account for the
blood he had shed.” On the 21st of May Kent rose in revolt in
the king’s name. A few days later a most serious blow to the
Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from com¬
mand of which they had removed Vice-Admiral Batten, as being
a Presbyterian. Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of
Warwick, also a Presbyterian, was brought back to the service,
it was not long before the navy made a purely Royalist declara¬
tion and placed itself under the command of the prince of Wales.
But Fairfax had a clearer view and a clearer purpose than the
distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into Kent, and on the
evening of June 1 stormed Maidstone by open force, after which
the local levies dispersed to their homes, und the more determined
Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of London to
declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall, Northampton¬
shire, North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as
easily. Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England
was there serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell
rapidly reduced all the fortresses except. Pembroke, where
laughame, Poyer and Powel held out with the desperate courage
of deserters. In the north, Pontefract was surprised by the
Royalists, and shortly afterwards Scarborough Castle declared
for the king. Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the
pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce Essex, where,
under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles
Lucas, the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon
drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town
was repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome
siege en regie. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death
of the young and gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at
Kingston (July 7), collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered
force, and its leaders, the duke of Buckingham and the earl of
Holland, escaped, after another attempt to induce London to
declare for them, to St Albans and St Neots, where Holland was
taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped over-seas.
47. Lambert in the North .—By the 10th of July therefore the
military situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke,
Fairfax Colchester, Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere
all serious local risings had collapsed, and the Scottish army had
crossed the Border. It is on the adventures of the latter tliat
the interest of the war centres. It was by no means the veteran
army of .Leven, which had long been disbaftded. For the most
part it consisted of raw levies, and ns the kirk had refused to
sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie
and thousands of experienced officers and men declined to serve.
The duke of Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie;
his army, too, was so ill provided that as soon as England was
invaded it began to plunder the countryside for the bare
means of sustenance. Major-General Lambert, a brilliant young
general of twentv-nine, was more than equal to the situation.
He had already left the sieges of Pontefract and Scarborough
to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried into Cumberland to deal with the
English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his
cavalry he got into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and
slowly fell back, fighting small rearguard actions to annoy the
enemy and gain time, to Bowes and Barnard Castle. Langdale
did not follow him into the mountains, but occupied himself
in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food for the
Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared
early in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half
finished. About the same time the local horse of Durham and
Northumberland were put into the field by Sir A. Hesilrige,
governor of Newcastle, ^nd under the command of Colonel
Robert Lilbume won a considerable success {June 30) at the river
Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of LangdaLe’s
xi). 14
4i* GREAT REBELLION
force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton
to choose the west coast route for bis advance, and his army
began slowly to move down the long couloir between the
mountains and the sea. The campaign which followed is one
of the most brilliant in English history.
48. Campaign of Preston .—On the 8th of July the Scots, with
Langdale as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforce¬
ments from Ulster were expected daily. Lambert’s horse were
at Penrith, Hexham and Newcastle, too weak to fight and having
only skilful leading and rapidity of movement to enable them
to gain time. Far away to the south Cromwell was still tied
down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester. Elsewhere
the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action
rather than sheer weight of numbers, smouldered, and Prince
Charles and the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell
and Lambert, however, understood each other perfectly, while
the Scottish commanders quarrelled with langdale and each
other. Appleby Castle surrendered to the Scots on the 31st
of July, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on to the flank
of the Scottish advance, fell back from Hamard Castle to Rich¬
mond so as to dose Wenslevdale against any attempt of the
invaders to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of
Langdale’s horse was unable to dislodge him from the. passes
or to find out what was behind that impenetrable cavalry
screen. The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell had received
the surrender of Pembroke on the jith, and had marched off,
with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through
the midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he
knew that Hamilton in the broken ground of Westmorland was
still worse off. Shoes from Northampton and stockings from
Coventry met him at Nottingham, and, gathering up the local
levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where he arrived on
the 8th of August, having gained six days in advance of the time
he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up
artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars
who were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert.
On the 12th he was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot
at Otley, Langdale at Skipton and Gargravc, Hamilton at
Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with the Scots from Ulster and
the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a separate command owing
to friction between Monro and the generals of the main army)
at Hornby. On the 13th, while Cromwell was marching to join
Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to
whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through
Lancashire so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists.
49. Preston Fight .—On the 14th Cromwell and Lambert
were at Skipton, on the 15th at Gisburn, and on the r6th
they marched down the valley of the Ribble towards Preston
with full knowledge of the enemy’s dispositions and full deter¬
mination to attack him. They had with them horse and foot
not only of the army, but also of the militia of Yorkshire,
Durham, Northumberland and Lancashire, and withal were
heavily outnumbered, having only 8600 men against perhaps
ao,ooo of Hamilton's command. But the latter were scattered
for convenience of supply along the road from Lancaster,
through Preston, towards Wigan, Lnngdale’s corps having thus
become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard.
Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view
to resuming the duties of advanced guard, on the night of
the 13th, and collected them near Longridge. It is not clear
whether he reported Cromwell's advance, but, if he did, Hamilton
ignored the report, for on the 77th Monro was half a day’s march
to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and the main army
strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a body
of foot, the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton,
yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of
Callenciar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the main body
just as Langdale, with 3000 foot and 500 horse only, met the
first shock of Cromwells attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton,
like Charles at Edgehill, passively stayed in, without directing,
the battle, and, (hough Langdale’s men fought magnificently,
they were alter four hours ^struggle driven to the Ribble. Baillie
attempted to cover the Ribble arid Darwen bridges on the Wigan
road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both before night¬
fall. Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until
Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to
Uttoxeter and Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by
Cromwell’s horse and held up in front by the militia of the mid¬
lands, the remnant of the Scottish army kid dawn its arms on
the 25th of August. Various attempts were made to raise the
Royalist standard in Wales and elsewhere, but Preston was the
death-blow. On the 28th of August, starving and hopeless of
relief, the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax.
The victors in the Second Civil War were not merciful to those
who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of
the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George
Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were sentenced to
death, but Poyer alone was executed on the 25th of April 1649,
being-the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist
peers who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three,
the duke of Hamilton, the earl of Holland, and Lord Capel,
one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character,
were beheaded at Westminster on the 9th of February. Above
all, after long hesitations, even after renewal of negotiations,
the army and the Independents “ purged ” the Houses of their
ill-wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the
king. The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign
the death-warrant, and Charles was beheaded at Whitehall on
the 30th of January.
50. Cromwell in Ireland.— The campaign of Preston was
undertaken under the direction of the Scottish parliament, not
the kirk, and it needed the execution of the king to bring about
a union of all Scottish parties against the English Independents.
Even so, Charles if. in exile had to submit to long negotiations
and hard conditions before he was allowed to put himself at
the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly was
executed for taking up arms for the king on the 22nd of March
1640. Montrose, under Charles’s directions, made a last attempt
to rally the Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely
used Montrose as a threat to obtain better conditions for himself
from the Covenanters, and when the noblest of all tile Royalists
was defeated (Carbisdale, April 27), delivered up to his pursuers
(May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650), he was not ashamed to
give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to place himself
at the head of Montrose's executioners. His father, whatever
his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church,of
England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by
allowing Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and
dismissed all the faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to
exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in which a fresh war, with openly
anti-English and anti-l’rotestant objects, had broken out in
1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who beat
down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless
severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines
near Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, August 2, 1649;
storming of Drogheda, September 11, and of Wexford, October
11, by Cromwell ; capture of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of
Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned to England at the end
of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been anxious
and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the com-
mand-in-chief of the army to his lieutenant-general. The
pretext, rather than the reason, of Fairfax's resignation was his
unwillingness to lead an English army to reduce Scotland.
51. The Invasion of Scotland .—This important step had been
resolved upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would
come to terms with the Covenanters. From this point the
Second Civil War becomes a war of England against Scotland.
Here at least the Independents carried the whole of England
with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement at the
hands of a victorious foreign army, and on the 28th of June,
five days after Charles II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new
lord-general was on his way to the Border to take command of
the English army. About the same time a new militia act was
passed that was destined to give full and decisive effect to the
GREAT REBELLION
national spirit of England in the great final campaign of the war.
Meanwhile the motto frappet fori, frappet vile was carried out
at once by the regular forces. On the 19th of July 1650 Cromwell
made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed. Major-
General Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent,
was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England,
and to secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presby¬
terians. Cromwell took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general
and Lambert as major-general, and his forces numbered about
10,000 foot and 5000 horse. His opponent David Leslie (his
comrade of Marston Moor) had a much larger force, but its degree
of training was inferior, it was more than tainted by the political
dissensions of the people at large, and it was, in great part at
any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On the :2nd of July
Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by
the sea coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh,
living almost entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which
accompanied him—for the country itself was incapable of
supporting even a small army-—and on the 29th he found
I<eslie’s army drawn up and entrenched in a position extending
from Leith to Edinburgh.
52. Operations around Edinburgh .—The same day a sharp but
indecisive fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur's Seat,
after which Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie’s line,
drew back to Musselburgh. Leslie's horse followed him up
sharply, and another action was fought, after which the Scots
assaulted Musselburgh without success. Militarily Leslie had
the best of it in these affairs, but it was precisely this moment
that the kirk party chose to institute a searching three days’
examination of the political and religious sentiments of his army.
The result was that the army was “ purged ” of 80 officers and
3000 soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Crom¬
well was more concerned, however, with the supply question
than with the distracted army of the Scots. On the 6th of
August he had to fall back as far as Dunbar to enable the fleet
to iand supplies in safety, the port of Musse lburgh being unsafe
in the violent and stormy weather which prevailed. He soon
returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie to battle.
In preparation for an extended manoeuvre three days’ rations
were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first
time in the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army,
which had to be cared for, made comfortable and economized,
that was now carrying on tile work of the volunteers of the first
war. Even after Cromwell started on his manoeuvre, the Scottish
army was still in the midst of its political troubles, and, certain
though he was that nothing but victory in the field would give
an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the confused
negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however,
Charles II. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his
strange supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell
had now entered the hill country, with a view to occupying
Queensferry and thus blocking up Edinburgh. Leslie had the
shorter road and barred the way at Corstorphine Hill (August
21). Cromwell, though now far from his base, manoeuvred
again to his right, l-eslie meeting him onre more at Gogar
(August 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough
to dismay even Cromwell, and the manoeuvre on Queensferry
was at last given up. It had cost the English army severe losses
in sick, and much suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak
hillsides.
53. Dunbar .—On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh,
and on the 31st, after embarking his non-effective men, to Dun¬
bar. Leslie followed him up, and wished to fight a battle at
Dunbar on Sunday, the 1st of September. But again the kirk
intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to break the Sabbath, and
the unfortunate Scottish commander could only establish himself
on Doon Hill (see DuStbar) and send a force to Cnckburnspath
to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to Cromwell’s
it,000, and proposed, faute dr mieux, to starve Cromwell into
surrender. But the English army was composed of "ragged
soldiers with bright muskets,” and had a great captain of un¬
disputed authority at their head. Leslie’s, on the other hand,
4*9
had lost such discipline as it had ever possessed, and was now,
under outside influences, thoroughly disintegrated. Cromwell
wrote home, indeed, that he was “ upon an engagement very
difficult,’’ but, desperate as his position seemed, he felt the
pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army away
by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the tum of Leslie’s
men on the hillside to endure patiently privation and exposure,
and after one night’s bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that
the enemy was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The
battle of Dunbar (i/.v.) opened in the early morning of the 3rd of
September. It was the most brilliant of all Oliver’s victories.
Before the sun was high in the heavens the Scottish army had
ceased to exist.
54. Royalism in Scotland. —After Dunbar it was easy for the
victorious army to uverrun southern Scotland, more especially
as the dissensions of the enemy were embittered by the defeat
of which they had been the prime cause. The kirk indeed put
Dunbar to the account of its own remissness in not purging their
army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on the 4th of
September, the kirk had “done its do." “ 1 believe their king
will set up on his own score," he continued, and indeed, now that
the army of the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were
secure behind the Forth and based on the friendly Highlands,
Charles and the Cavaliers were in a position not only to defy
Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish national spirit of resist¬
ance to the invader into a purely Royalist channel. Cromwell
had only received a few drafts and reinforcements from England,'
and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle
(which surrendered on Christmas eve), and try to bring up
adequate forces and material for the siege of Stirling—an attempt
which was frustrated by the badness of the roads and the violence
of the weather. The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus
occupied in semi-military, semi-political operations between
detachments of the English army and certain armed forces of the
kirk party which still maintained a precarious existence in the
western Lowlands, and in police work against the moss-troopers
of the Border counties. Early in February 1651, still in the
midst of terrible weather, Cromwell made another resolute but
futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick,
and his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from
England, many of whom came most unwillingly to serve in the
cold wet bivouacs that the newspapers lmd graphically reported. 1
55. The English Militia.— About this time there occurred
in England two events which had a most important bearing on
the campaign. The first was the detection of a widespread
Royalist-Prcshyterian conspiracy—how widespread no one knew,
for those of its promoters who were captured and executed cer¬
tainly formed but a small fraction of the whole number. Harrison
was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh,
Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were
taken in various parts of England. The second was the revival
of the militia. Since 1644 there had been no general employment
of local forces, the quarrel having fallen into the hands of the
regular armies by force of circumstances. The New Model,
though a national army, resembled Wellington’s Peninsular
army more than the soldiers of the French Revolution and the
American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting a
war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border—
strictly the task of a professional army with a national basis.
The militia was indeed raw and untrained. Some of the Essex
men “ fell flat on their faces on the sound of a cannon,” In the
north of England Harrison complained to Cromwell of the
“ badness ” of his men, and the lord general sympathized,
having “ bad much such stuff ” sent him to make good the
losses in trained men. Even he for a moment lost touch with the
spirit of the people. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign
service, but in England the new levies were trusted to defend
1 The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for
cross-country manoeuvres against the enemy. These manoeuvres,
as we have seen, often took several days. The ban giniral ordinaire
of the 17th and 18th centuries framed his manoeuvres on a smaller
scale so as not to expose Ms expensive and highly trained soldiers
to discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert.
GREAT REBELLION
420
their homes., and the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its
existence on the day of Worcester.
56. lnverkeithing .—While David Leslie organized and drilled
the king's new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly
and with frequent relapses, recovering from his illness. The
English army marched to Glasgow in April, then returned to
Edinburgh. The motives of the march and that of the return
arc alike obscure, but it may be conjectured that, the forces in
England under Harrison having now assembled in Lancashire,
the Edinburgh-Newcastle-York road had to be covered by the
main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell’s health again broke
down and his life was despaired of. Only late in June were
operations actively resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow.
At first Cromwell sought without success to bring Leslie to
battle, but he stormed Callendai House near Falkirk on July 13,
and on the 16th of July he began the execution of a brilliant
and successful manoeuvre. A force from Queensferry, covered by
the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth of Forth to North-
ferry. Lambert followed with reinforcements, and defeated a
detachment of Leslie’s army at Inverkeithing on the 20th.
Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fiesh strong
position in front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again.
At this juncture Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across
the firth. His contemplated manceuvre of course gave up to the
enemy all the roads into England, and before undertaking it the
lord general held a consultation with Harrison, as the result of
which that officer took over the direct defence of the whole
Border. But his mind was made up even before this, for on the
day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole
army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered
to Lambert on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon
which to base his subsequent movements. On the 30th of July
the English marched upon Perth, and the investment of this
place, the key to Leslie’s supply area, forced the crisis at once.
Whether Leslie would have preferred to manoeuvre Cromwell
from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial ; the young king
and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters
seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st,
leaving Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched
southward to raise the Royal standard in England.
57. The Third Scottish Invasion of England. —Them began the
last and most thrilling eampuign of the Great Rebellion. Charles
11 . expected complete success. In Scotland, vis-a-vis the extreme
Covenanters, he was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough
to find himself in England with some thirty solidly organized regi¬
ments under Royalist officers and with no regular army in front
of him. He hoped, too, to rally not merely the old faithful
Royalists, but also the overwhelming numerical strength of the
English Presbyterians to his standard. His army was kept well
in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the Royalists
covered 150 m.—in marked contrast, to the duke of Hamilton’s
ill-fated expedition of 1(148. On the 8th of August the troops
were given a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal.
But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy
was taken aback by their new move. Everything had been
foreseen both by Cromwell and by the Council of State in West¬
minster. The latter had called out the greater part of the
militia on the 7th. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood began to
draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London
trained hands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000
strong. Every susjiceted Royalist was closely watched, and the
magazines of arms in the country-houses of the gentry were for
the most part removed into the strong places. On his part
Cromwell had quietly made his preparations. Perth passed into
his hands on the and of August; and he brought hack his army to
Leith by the 5th. Thence he despatched Lambert with a cavalry
corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at Newcastle
picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his own
regulars. On the 9th Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in
hi* rear, and Harriso'd marching swiftly to bar his way at the
Mersey. Fairfax emerged for a monftnt from his retirement to
organize the Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of
the Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed
upon Warrington, which point Harrison reached on the 15th, a
few hours in front of Charles’s advanced guard. Lambert too,
slipping round the left flank of the enemy, joined Harrison, and
the English fell back (16th), slowly and without letting themselves
be drawn into a fight, along the London roud.
58. Campaign of Worcester .—Cromwell meanwhile, leaving
Monk with the least efficient regiments to carry on the war in
Scotland, had reached the Tyne in seven days, and thence,
marching 20 m. a day in extreme heat—with the country people
carrying their arms and equipment—the regulars entered
Ferrybridge on the 19th, at which date Lambert, Harrison and
the north-western militia were about Congleton. 1 It seemed
probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield
and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Crom¬
well, Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it.
But the scene and the date of the denouement were changed by
the enemy’s movements. Shortly after leaving Warrington the
young king had resolved to abandon the direct march on London
and to make for the Severn valley, where his father had found the
most constant and the most numerous adherents in the first war,
and which had been the centre of gravity of the English Royulist
movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parlia¬
mentary governor of Gloucester, was now with (diaries, and it was
hop'd that he would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms.
The military quality of the Welsh border Royalists was well
proved, that of the Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and,
based on Gloucester and Worcester as his father had been based
on Oxford, Charles 11 . hoped, not unnaturally, to deal with an
Independent minority more effectually than Charles I. had done
with a Parliamentary majority of the people of England. But
even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army
could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was
not an Independent faction but all England that took amis
against it. Charles arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August,
and spent five days in resting the troops, preparing for further
operations, and gathering and arming the few recruits who came
in. It is unnecessary to argue that the delay was fatal; it was a
necessity of the case foreseen and accepted when the march to
Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other course,
that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle
would have been fought three days earlier with the same result.
As affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his
concentration two marches to the south-west, to Evesham.
Early on the 28th Laml>crt surprised the passage of the Severn
at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and in the action which followed
Massey, was severely wounded. Fleetwood followed Lambert.
The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened by the
apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly nil
their own. Cromwell, for the first and last, time in his military
career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority.
59. The “ Crowning Mercy.” —He took his measures deliber¬
ately, Lilbume from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the
Worcestershire horse were to secure Bewdlcy Bridge on the
enemy’s line of retreat. Lambert and Fleetwood were to force
their way across the Teme (a little river on which Rupert had won
his first victory in 1642) and attack St John’s, the western suburb
of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army, were to
attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary
of Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood
forced the passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had
been carefully organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme
and the Severn. Then Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood
on the right swept in a semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester.
Every hedgerow was contested by the stubborn Royalists, but
Fleetwood's men would not be denied, and Cromwell’s extreme
right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after three hours’
hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists to break
1 The lord general had during his march thrown out successively
two flying columns under Colonel Ullmme to deal with the Lanca-
shire Royalists under the earl of Derby. I.ilbume entirely ranted
the enemy at Wigan on the 2 jth of August.
GREAT SALT LAKE
out It was indeed, as a German critic 1 has pointed out, the
prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as
darkness came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal
gallantry, and the few thousands of the Royalists who escaped
during the night were easily captured by Lilbume and Mercer, or
by the militia which watched every road in Yorkshire and Lanca¬
shire. Even the country people brought in scores of prisoners,
for officers and men alike, stunned by the suddenness of the
disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after many
adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who
regained a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent
home within a week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed “ such stuff ”
six months ago, knew them better now. “Your new raised
forces,” he wrote to the House, “ did perform singular good
service, for which they deserve a very high estimation and
acknowledgment.” Worcester resembled Sedan in much more
than outward form. Both were fought by “ nations in arms,” by
citizen soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be
trusted not only to fight their hardest but to march their best.
Only with such troops would a general dare to place a deep river
between the two halves of his army or to send away detachments
beforehand to reap the fruits of victory, in certain anticipation
of winning the victory with the remainder. The sense of duty,
which the raw militia possessed in so high a degree, ensured the
arrival and the action of every column at the appointed time and
place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare victories in
which a pursuit is superfluous—a “ crowning mercy,” as Cromwell
called it. There is little of note in the closing operations. Monk
had completed his task by May 1652 ; and Scotland, which.had
twice attempted to impose its will on England, found itself
reduced to the position of an English province under martial
law. The details of its subjection are uninteresting after the
tremendous climax of Worcester.
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shire (London, 1879). (C. F. A.)
GREAT SALT LAKE, a shallow body of highly concentrated
brine in the N.W. part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between n8*8°
and 113*2“ W. long, and between 40*7° and 41*8° lat. Great
Salt Lake is 4218 ft. above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is
fed chiefly by the Jordan, the Weber and the Bear rivers, all
draining the mountainous country to the E. and S.E. The
irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the roughly
drawn hand, palm at the S,, thumb (exaggerated in breadth)
pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn
too small) reaching N.
No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the
maximum depth is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft.,
possibly as little as 13 ft. Hie lake in 1906 was approximately
75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E., and had a maximum width of
50 m. and an area of 1750 sq. m. This area is not constant, as the
water is very shallow at the margins, and the relation between
supply from precipitation, &c., and loss by evaporation is
variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the
water of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest),
and besides a difference running through longer cycles ; in 1850
the water was lower and the lake smaller than by any previous
observations (the area and general outline were nearly the same
again in 1906); then the water rose until 1873 ; and between
1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 11 *6 ft. The range of rise and
fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise in 1865-1886.
With the fall of water there is an increase in the specific gravity,
which in 1850 was 1*17, and in September 1901 was 1*179;
in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22*282 %, in
September 1901 it was 25*221 ; at the earlier of these dates
the solids in a litre of water weighed 260*69' grams, at the latter
date 302*122 grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation
is unknown: the low level of 1906 is usually regarded as the
result of extensive irrigation and ploughing in the surrounding
country, which have robbed the lake, in part, of its normal
supply of water. It is also to be noted that the rise and fall
of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with con¬
tinued wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up
entirely seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m.
wide, about 40 ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and
4*4 GRECOtTURKISH 1 WAR
• ' 0 - •
mdivulual wwk, reprobating Spanish character even mow I Elassona, ordered a general advance.
truthniRy than did any Sparuah artist, a ad it gathers up A] ^— . . ■ Am *
the fugitive moods, the grace and charm, the devices and defects V
Ctf a itnrrla rnr'p unr) n>iuaa slum
of a single race, and gives them complete stability in their
wavering expressions.
Between 1595 and x6oo, El Greco executed two groups of
paintings in the churched San Jos£ at ToMlo, and in the hospital
of La Caridad, at Illescas. Besides these, he is known to have
painted thirty-two portraits, several manuscripts, and many
paintings for altar-pieces in Toledo and the neighbourhood.
As an architect he was responsible for more than one of the
churches of Toledo, and as a sculptor for carvings both in wood
and in marble, and he can only be properly understood in all
his varied excellences alter a visit to the city where mist of
his work was executed.
He died on the 7th of April 1614, an^ the date of his death
is one of the very few certain facts which we have respecting him.
The record informs us that he made no will, that he received the
sacraments, and was buried in the church of Santo Domingo.
The popular legend of his having gone mad towards the latter
part of his career has no foundation in fact, but his painting
became more and more eccentric as his life went on, and his
natural perversity and love of strange, cold colouring, increased
towards the end of his life. As has been well said, “ Light with
him was only used for emotional appeal, and was focussed or
scattered at will.” He was haughtily certain of the value of his
own art, and was determined to paint in cold, ashen colouring,
with livid, startling effect, the gaunt and extraordinary figures
that lie beheld with his eccentric genius. Ilis pictures have
wonderful visionary quality, admirable invention, and are full
of passionate fervency. They may be considered extravagant,
but are never commonplace, and are exceedingly attractive in
their intense emotion, marvellous sincerity, and strange, chilly
colour. 1
El Grecos work is typically modern, and from it the portrait-
painter, | S. Sargent, claims to have learnt more than from that
of any other artist. It immortalizes the character of the people
amongst whom he dwelt, and he muv be considered as the initiator
of truth and realism in art, a precursor and inspircr of Velazquez.
In his own time he was exceedingly popular, and held in
peat repute. Sonnets were written in his honour, and he is
himself said to have written several treatises, but these have not
come down to our time. For more than a generation his work
was hardly known, but it is now gaining rapidly in importance,
and its true position is more and more recognized. Some
examples of the artist's own handwriting have been discovered
in Toledo, and Senor Don Manuel Cossia of Madrid has spent
many years collecting information for a work dealing with the
"'■‘s 1, (G. c. w.)
GRECO-TURKISH WAR. 1897. This war between Greece
and Turkey (see Greece: Modem History) involved two prac-
tically distinct campaigns, in Thessaly and in Epirus. Upon the
Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in March, had concentrated
six divisions (about 5^,000 men), 1500 sabres and 1^6 guns,
under Kdhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered available’
a little later. The Greeks numbered about 4^,000 infantry,
800 cavalry and 96 guns, under the crown prince. On both
sides there was a considerable dispersion of forces along the
frontier. The Turkish navy, an important factor in the war of
1877-78, had become paralytic ten years later, and the Greek
squadron held complete command of the sea. Expeditionary
forces directed against the Turkish line of communications
might have influenced the course of the campaign ; but for
such woiic the Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond
bombarding one or two insignificant ports on the coast-line’ and
aiding the transport of troops from Athens to Volo, the naw
practically accomplished nothing. On the 9th and 10th April
Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either with a view to
provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising in Mace¬
donia. On the 16th ahd 17th some fighting occurred, in which
Greek regulars took part; and on the 18th Edhem Pasha,
whose hsadquarte^ had for some time been established at
-——7 w.mv.v« — gwuvsiu nurnuui. The Turkish plan was te
turn the Greek left and tsbing on a decisive action, bi 4 th 3
was not carried out. In thflMftre the Turks occupied the Meluna
Pass on the 19th, and the tty was practical!? open to Larissa.
The Turkish right wing, hpwever, moving on DartBni and the
Rdpsni Pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing was !
temporarily checked by the*Greeks among the mountains near
^jpzeros. At Mati, covering tie road to Tymavo, the Greeks!
entrenched themselves. Here sharp fighting occurred on the
21st and 22nd, during which the Greeks sought to turn the right
flank of the superior Turkish central column. On the 23rd
fighting was renewed, and the advance guard of the Turkish left
column, which had been reinforced, and had pressed back the
Greeks, reached Deliler. The Turkish forces had now drawn
together, and the Greeks were threatened on both flanks. In
the evening a general retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline
of the Greek army was at once manifested. Rumours of disaster
spread among the ranks, and wild panic supervened. There
was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement upon Larissa,
which had been fortified and provisioned, and which offered a
good defensive position. The general dibacle could not, however,
be arrested, and in great disorder the mass of the Greek army
fled southwards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the
Turkish commander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th.
Thus ended the first phase of the war, in which the Greeks
showed tenacity in defence, which proved fruitless by reason of
initially bad strategic dispositions entailing far too great disper¬
sion, and also because there was no plan of action beyond a
general desire to avoid risking a defeat which might prevent the
expected risings in Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of
the Turkish army showed little skill or enterprise ; but on both
sides political considerations tended to prevent the application
of sound military principles.
Larissa being abandoned by the Greeks, Velestino, the junction
of the Thessalian railwuys, where there was a strong position
covering Volo, seemed to be the natural rallying point for the
Greek army. Here the support of the fleet would have been
secured, and a Turkish advance across the Othrys range upon
Athens could not have taken place until the flanking position
had been captured. Whether by direction or hv natural impulse
however, the mass of the Greek troops made f Jr Pharsala, where
some order was re-established, and preparations were made to
resist attack. The importance of Velestino was recognized by
sending u brigade thither by railway from Pharsala, and the
inferior Greek army was thus split into two portions, separated
by nearly 40 m. On 27th April a Turkish reconnaissance on
Velestino was repulsed, and further fighting occuped on the
29th and 30th, in which the Greeks under Colonel Smolenski held
their own. Meanwhile the Turks made preparations to attack
Pharsala, and on 5th May the Greeks were driven from their
positions in front of the town by three divisions. Further
fighting followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army
retired in fair order upon Domokos. It was intended to turn
the Greek left with the first division under Hairi Pasha, but the
flanking force did not arrive in time to bring about a decisive
result. The abandonment of Pharsala involved that of Velestino,
where the Turks had obtained no advantage, and on the evening
of the 5th Colonel Smolenski began a retirement upon Halmyros.
Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the
17 th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The
attack was delivered in three columns, of which the right was
checked and the centre failed to take the Greek trenches and
suffered much loss. The left column, however, menaced the
line of retreat, and the Greek army abandoned the whole position
during the night. No effective stand was made at the Furka
Pass, which was evacuated on the following night. Colonel
Smolenski, who arrived on the i8lh from Halmvros, was directed
to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much
demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by
telegraph; and the latter sent a personal appeal to the Sultan,
who directed a suspension of hostilities. On the aoth an armistice
was arranged.
Capitals of Departments
Railways
Ancient Sites
Monasteries
GEOGRAPHY]
GREECE
la Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks, including
a cavalry regiment and five batteries, the whole under Colonel
Manos, occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The
Turks, about 28,000 strong, with forty-eight guns, under Achmet
Hifsi Pasha, were distributed mainly at lannina, Pentepagadia,
and in front of Arta. On r8th April the Turks commenced a
three days’ bombardment of Arta; but successive attempts
to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the night of the
21st they retired on Phihppiada, 26 m. distant, which was
attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on the 23rd. The
Greeks then advanced to Pentepagadia, meeting with little
resistance. Their difficulties now began. After some skirmishing
on the 27th, the position held by their advanced force near
Homopulos was attacked on the 28th. The attack was renewed
on the 29th. and no Greek reinforcements were forthcoming
when needed. The Euzones made a good defence, but were
driven hack bv superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which
quickly degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across
the Arta. Reinforcements, including 2500 Epirote volunteers,
were sent to Arta from Athens, and on 12th May another incursion
into Turkish territory began, the apparent object being to
occupy a portion of the country in view of the breakdown in
Thessaly and the probability that hostilities would shortly end.
The advance was made in three columns, while the Epirote
volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with
the idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of I’revesa. The
centre column, consisting of a brigade, three squadroas and
two batteries, which were intended to take up and hold a defensive
position, attacked the Turks near Strevina on the 13th. The
Greeks fought well, and being reinforced by a battalion from
the left column, resumed the offensive on the following day, and
fairly held their own. On the night of the 15th a retreat was
ordered and well carried out. The volunteers landed at the
mouth of the Luro, were attacked and routed with heavy loss.
The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in
Thessaly. Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on
20th September, and arranged by the European powers, Turkey
obtained an indemnity ot £'14,000,000, and a rectification of
the Thessalian frontier, carrying with it some strategic advantage.
History records few more unjustifiable wars than that which
Greece gratuitously provoked. The Greek troops on several
occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and
cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were
incapable; the campaign was gravely mismanaged; and
politics, which led to the war, impeded iLs operations. On the
other hand, the fruits of the German tuition, which began in
1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the appointment
of General von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish
army. The mobilization was on the whole smoothly carried out,
and the newly completed railways greatly facilitated the con¬
centration on the frontier. The young school of officers trained
by General von der Goltz displayed ability, and the artillery at
Pharsala and Domokos was well handled. The superior leading
was, however, not conspicuously successful; and while the rank
and file again showed excellent military qualities, political
conditions and the Oriental predilertinn for half-measures and
for denying full responsibility and full powers to commanders
in the field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign. On account
of the total want of careful and systematic peace training on both
sides, a war which presented several interesting strategic problems
provided warnings in place of military lessons. ((;. s. C.)
GREECE , 1 an ancient geographical area, and a modern
kingdom more or less corresponding thereto, situated at the
south-eastern extremity of Europe: and forming the most
southerly portion of the Balkan Peninsula. The modem kingdom
is bounded on the N. by European Turkey and on the E., S. and
W, by the Aegean, Mediterranean and Ionian seas. The name
Graeeia, which was more or less vaguely given to the ancient
country by the Romans, seems not to have been employed by
any native writer before Aristotle; it was apparently derived
1 See also Greek Art, Greek Language, Greek Law, Greek
Literature, Greek Religion.
42 $
by the Romans from the'Illyrians, Who applied the name, of an
Epirote tribe (Tpautot, Greed) to all their southern neighbour*.
The names Hellas, Hellenes ("KAAoi, "EAAijws), by which the
ancient Greeks called their country and their race, and which are
still employed by the modem Greeks, originally designated a snail
district in Phthiotis in Thessaly and its inhabitants, who gradu¬
ally spread over the lands south of the Cambunian mountains.
The name Hellenes was not universally applied to the Greek
race until the post-Homeric epoch (Thucyd. i. 3).
1. Geography and Statistics
The. ancient Greeks had a somewhat vague conception of the
northern limits of Hellas. Thessaly was generally included and
Epirus excluded ; some writers included some of'-the
southern cantons of Epirus, while others excluded not
only all that country but Aetolia and Acamania. om»**
Generally speaking, the confines of Hellas in the age
of its greatest distinction were represented by a line drawn from
the northern shore of the Ambracian Gulf on the W. to the
mouth of tile Peneus on the E. Macedonia and Thrace were
regarded as outside the pale of Hellenic civilization till 386 b.c..
when after his conquest of Thessaly and Phocis, Philip of Macedon
obtained a seat in the Amphictvonir Council. In another sense,
however, the name Hellas expressed an ethnological rather than
a geographical unity : it denoted every country inhabited by
Hellenes. It thus embraced all the Greek settlements on the
coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, on the shores of the
Hellespont, the Bosporus and the Black Sea. Nevertheless,
the Greek peninsula within the limits described above, together
with the adjacent islands, was always regarded as Hellas par
excellence. The continental area of Hellas proper was no greater
than that of the modern Greek kingdom, which comprises but
a small portion of the territories actually occupied by the Greek
race. The Greeks have always been a maritime people, and the
real rentre of the national life is now, as in antiquity, the Aegean
Sea or Archipelago. Thickly studded with islands and bordered
by deeply indented coasts with sheltered creeks and harbours,
the Aegean in the earliest days of navigation invited the enter¬
prise of the mariner ; its shores, both European and Asiatic,
became covered with Greek settlements and its islands, together
with Crete and Cyprus, became Greek, True to their maritime
instincts, the Greeks rarely advanced inland to any distance
from the sea ; the coasts of Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor
are still mainly Greek, but, except for some isolated colonies, the
hinterland in each case lies outside the limits of the race. Con¬
tinental Greece is divided by its mountain ranges into a number
of natural cantons; the existence of physical barriers tended
in the earliest times to the growth of isolated political com¬
munities, and in the epoch of its uncient independence the
country was occupied by seventeen separate states, none of
them larger 1 han an ordinary English county. These states, which
are noticed separately, were: Thessaly, in northern Greece ;
Acarnaniu, Aetolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Megaris, Boeotia and
Attica in central Greece ; and Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaea, Elis,
Messenia, Laconia, Argolis and Arcadia in the Peloponnesus.
Modern Greece, whirh (including the adjacent islands) extends
from 35 0 50' to 39° 54' N. and from iy° 20' to 26° 15' E., com¬
prises ail the area formerly occupied by these states.
Under the arrangement concluded at Constantinople f*j t *"* /
on the 21st of July 1832 between Great Britain, an**.
France, Russia and Turkey, the northern boundary
of Greece was drawn from the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius)
to the Gulf of Volo (S. Pftgasaeus), the lirih keeping to the crest
of the Othrys range. Thessaly and part of Acarnania were thus
left to Turkey. The island of Euboea, the Cyclades and the
northern Sporades were added to the new kingdom. In 1864
the Ionian islands (q.v.) were ceded by Great Britain to Greece.
In 1880 the Conference of Berlin proposed a new frontier, which
transferred to Greece not only Thessaly but a considerable
portion of southern Epirus, extending to the river Kalanuu.
This, however, was rejected by Turkey, and the existing boundary
was traced in 1881. Starting from the Aegean coast at a point
xn. 14 a
426
GREECE
[GEOGRAPHY
the Aegean, and is continued by the mountains of Euboea (highest
summits, Dirphys, 5725 ft., and Ocha, 4830 ft.) and by the islands
of Andros and Tenos. West of Pindus, the Cambunian Mountains
are continued by several ridges which traverse Epirus from north
to south, enclosing the plain and lake of lannina ; the most westerly
of these, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the Acroceraunian
promontory terminating in Cape Glossa. The principal pass through
the Cambunian Mountains is that of Meluna, through which runs
the carriage-road connecting the town of Elassona in Macedonia
„„ ..._ J with Larissa, the capital of Thessaly; there are horse-paths at
TiTNorthern^Greece which extends northwards from Mount I Revem and elsewhere. The central chain of Pindus at the point
Vj.) Northern Greece,^ wniu ^ 4rta tll famhnmnn I where it is intersected by the Cambunian Mountains forms the masi
near Platomona, between Mount Olympus and the mouth of the
Salambria (Peneus), the line passes over the heights of b-ritin
and Zygos (Pindus) and descends the course of the river Arta
to its mouth. After the war of 1897 Greece restored to Turkey
some strategical points on the frontier possessing no geographical
importance. The greatest length of Greece is about ago m.,
the greatest breadth 180 m. The country is generally divided
into five parts, which are indicated by its natural features
(i.) Northern Greece, which extends northwards from Mount
Othrys and the gulfs of Zcittin (Lamia)andArta to the Cambunian
Mountains, and comprises Thessaly and a small portion of
Epirus ; (ii.) Central Greece, extending from the southern, limits
of Northern Greece to the gulfs of Corinth and Aegina; (ill.)
the peninsula of the Peloponnesus or Morea, attached to the
mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth ; (iv.) the Ionian Islands
on the west coasts of Epirus and Greece ; (v.) The islands of the
Aegean Sea, including Euhoea, the Cyclades and the northern
Sporades.
In the complexity of its contour and the variety of its natural
features Grew f surpasses every country in Europe, as Europe sur¬
passes every continent in the world. The broken character
Physical coast-line is unique ; except a few districts in 1 hes-
teatarau. nQ p art 0 f the country is more than 50 ill. from the
sea. Although the area of Greece is considerably smaller than that
ol Portugal, its coast-line is greater than that ol Spain and Portugal
together. The mainland is penetrated by numerous gulfs and inlets,
and the adjoining seas are studded with islands. Another character¬
istic IS the number and complexity of the mountain cliams, which
traverse every pari of the eouutry and which, together with their
ramifications, cover four fifths of its surface. The mountain-chains
interlace, the interstices forming small enclosed basins, such as the
plain of Boeotia and the plateau of Arcadia; the only plain of any
extent is that of Thessaly. The mountains project into the sea,
forming peninsulas, and sometimes reappearing in rows or groups
ot islands ■ they descend abruptly to tile coast or are separated
from it by small alluvial plains. The portions of the country suitable
for human colonization were thus isolated one from the other, but
as a rule possessed easy access to the sea. The earliest settlements
were generally situated on or around some rocky elevation, which
dominated the surrounding plain and was suitable for fortification
as a citadel or acropolis; owing to the danger of piratical attacks
they ware usually at some little distance from the sea, but in the
vicinity of a natural harbour. The physical features oi the country
played an important part m moulding the character of its inhabitants.
Protected against foreign invasion by the mountain barriers and to
a great extent cut off from mutual intercourse except by sea, the
ancient Greek communities developed a marked individuality and a
strong sentiment of local patriotism ; their inhabitants were both
mountaineers and mariners ; they possessed the love of country,
the vigour and the courage which are always found in highlanders,
together with the spirit of adventure, the versatility and the passion
for freedom characteristic of a seafaring people. The great variety
of natural products as well as the facility of maritime communication
tended to the early growth of commercial enterprise, while the
peculiar lieautv of the scenery, though little dwelt upon in ancient
literature, undoubtedly quickened the poetic and artistic instincts
of the race. I he effects of physical environment are no k-.s notice¬
able among the modem Greeks. The rural populations of Attica
and Boeotia, though descended from Albanian colonists in the
middle ages, display the same contrast in character which marked
the inhabitants of those regions in ancient times.
In its general aspect the country presents a series of striking and
interesting contrasts. Fertile tracts covered with vineyards, olive
groves, i ore-fields or forests display themselves in close proximity
with rugged heights and rocky precipices ; the landscape is never
monotonous; its outlines are graceful, ami its colouring, owing to
the clearness of the air, is at once brilliant and delicate, while the
sea, in must instances, adds a picturesque feature, enhancing the
charm and variety of the scenery.
The ruling teal lire in the mountain syslom of northern Greece is
the great chain of Pindus, which, extending southwards from the
lofty Shar Dagh (Skardos) near IJskuh, forms the back¬
bone of the Balkan peninsula. Reaching the frontier
of Greece a little S. of lat. 40“, the 1 ’imltis rauge is inter¬
sected by the Cambunian Mountains running E. and W.; the
eastern branch, which forms the northern boundary of Thessaly,
extends to the Gulf of Salonica and culminates in Mount Olympus
(9754 ft.) a little to the N. of the Greek frontier; then bending to
the S.E. it follows the coast-line, foriptag a rampart between the
Thessalian plain and the sea ; the Earner is severed at one point
only where the river Salambria (anr Peneus) finds an exit through
the narrow defile of ‘fiempe. South of Teinpe tin- mountain ridge,
known as the Myvro Vouno, connects the pyramidal Kisaovo (anc.
of Zygos (anc. Lacmon, 7113 ft.) through which a horse-path con¬
nects the town of Metzovo with Kalahaka in Thessaly; on
the declivity immediately N. of Kalabaka are a series of rocky
pinnacles on which a number of monasteries are perched. Trending
to the S., the Pindus chain terminates in the conical Mount Velouchi
(anc. Tymphrestus, 7609 ft.) in the heart of the mountainous region of
northern Greece. From this centre-point a number of mountains
radiate m all directions. To the E. runs the chain of Helloro (anc.
Othrys ; highest summit, Hagios Elias, 5558 ft.) separating the plain
of Thessaly from the valley-of the Spercheios and traversed by the
Phourka pass (2789 ft.); to the S.E. is Mount Katdvotlira (anc.
Oeta, 7080 ft.) extending to the southern shore of the Gulf of Lamia
at Thermopylae; to the S.E., S. and S.W. are the mountains of
Aetoha and Acamania. The Aetolian group, which may be regarded
as the direct continuation of the Pindus range, includes Kiona
(B240 ft.), tiie highest mountain in Greece, and Vardusi (anc. Kora. r,
8190 ft.). The mountains of Acarnania with 'T^-yXr, napm/Ai (3215 ft.)
rise to the W. of the valley of the Aspropotamo (anc. A chitons). The
Aetolian Mountains are prolonged to the S.E, by the double-crested
Laakoura (unc. Parnassus ', M064 ft.) in Phocis; by Palaeo Vouno
(anc. Helicon, 5738 It.) and Elatcas (anc. CMaeroii, 4626 it.) respect¬
ively W. and S.' of the Boeotian plain ; and by the mountains of
Attica,—Ozca (anc. Fames, 4620 ft.), Mendeli (anc. Pentelicus or
llrilessos, 3639 it.), Trellovouno (anc. Hymettus, 3369 ft.), and
Keratia (2136 ft.)—terminating in the promontory of Sunium, but
reappearing in the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Scriphox and Siphnos.
South ot Cithaerou are Patera in Megans (3383 it.) und Makri
Plagi (anc. Orranr.ia , 4495 ft.) overlooking the isthmus of Corinth.
The mountains of the Morea, grouped around the elevated central
plateau of Arcadia, form an independent system with ramifications
extending through the Argolid peninsula on the E. and the three
southern promontories of Malea, Taenaron and Acritas. At the
eastern end of the northern chain, separating Arcadia from the Gulf
of Corinth, is Ziria (anr ( yllenr, 7780 ft.); it forms a counterpart to
Parnassus on the opposite side of the gulf. A little to the W.
is Ihelmos (anc. Aroania, 7725 ft.); farther W., Olonos (anc.
Krymanthus, 7297 ft.) and Voidia (anc. Panarhuicon, 6322 ft.)
overlooking the Gull ol Patras. The highest summit in the
Argolid peninsula is Hagios Elias (anc. Arachnaeon, 3930 ft.). The
series of heights forming the eastern rampart ol Arcadia, including
Arlemision (3814 (t.) and Ktenia (5246 it.) is continued to the S. by
the Malevo range (anc. /’onion, highest summit (1365 ft.) which ex¬
tends into the peninsula of Malea and reappears in the island of
Congo. Separated from ftimon by the Eurotas valley to the YV.,
the chain of laygetus (mod. PcntedahtyUm ; highest summit Hagios
Elias, 7874 ft., the culminating point of tin- Morea) forms a barrier
between the plains of Laconia and Mcssenia ; it is traversed by the
Langada pass leading from Sparta to Kalamata. The range is
prolonged to the S. through the arid district of Mama and terminates
in Cape Matapan (anc. Taniarum). The mountains of western
Arcadia are less lofty anu of a less marked type; lliey include
Hagios retros (4777 ft.) and Palaeficastro (anc. Pholoc, 2257 ft)
N. of the Alpheus valley, Diaphorti (anc. Lyiaeus, 4600 ft.), lilt
haunt of Pan, and Nomia (4554 ft.) W. of the plain ol Megalopolis.
Farther south, the mountains of western Messenia form a detached
group (Varvara, 4003 II. ; Mathia, 3140 ft.) extending to Cape Gallo
(anc. Acritas) and the Oeuussae Islands. In central Arcadia are
Apanokrapa (anc. Maenalus, also sacred to Pan) and.Roudia (5072
ft.); the Taygetus chain forms the southern continuation of these
mountains.
The more noteworthy fortified heights of ancient Greece were the
Acrocorinthus, the citadel of Corinth (1885 ft.) ; Ithome (2631 ft.) at
Messene; Larissa (050 ft.) at Argos; the Acropolis of Mycenae
(oro ft.) ; Tiryns (60 ft.) near Nauplla, which also possessed its own
citadel, the Palamidhi or Acro-nauplia (703 ft.) ; the Acropolis of
Athens (300 ft.) alxive the mean level of the city and 512 ft. above
the sen), and the Cadmea of Thebes (715 ft,).
Greece has few rivers; most of these are small, rapid and turbid, as
might be expected from the mountainous configuration of the country.
They are either perennial rivers or torrents, the white beds gi nn
of the latter being dry in slimmer, and only filled with water
after the autumn rains. The chief rivers (none of which is navigable)
are the Salambria {peneus) in Thessaly, the Mavropotamo ( Cephisus )
in Phocis, the Hellada ( Spercheios) in Phthiotis, the Aspropotamo
(Achebus) in Aetolia, and the Ruphia (Alpheus) and Vasiliko
I ( Eurotas) in the Morea. Of the famous rivers of Athens, the one,
Ossa, 6400 11 .) w-ith Plessidi (anc. Potion, 5310 ft.); it is prolonged j the Ilissus is only a chain of pools all summer, and the othra the
in the Magnesian, peninsula, which separates the Gulf of Volo from 1 Cephisus, though never absolutely dry, does not reach the sea,
Mourn-
taint.
FAUNA, FLORA]
GREECE
427
being drawn off in numerous artificial channels to irrigate the neigh¬
bouring olive groves. A frequent peculiarity of the Greek rivers is
their sudden disappearance in subterranean chasms and reappear¬
ance on the surface again, such as gave rise to the fabled course of
the Alpheus under the sea, and its emergence in the fountain of
Arethusa in Syracuse. Some of these chasms—" Katavothras ”—
are merely sieves with herbage and gravel in the bottom, but others
are large caverns through which the course of the river may some¬
times be followed. Floods are frequent, especially in autumn, and
natural fountains abound and gush out even from the tops of rite
hills. Aganippe rises high up among the peaks of Helicon, and
Peircne nows from the summit of Acrocorinthus, The only note¬
worthy cascade, however, is that of the Styx in Arcadia, which has a
fall of 500 ft. During part of the year it is lost in snow, and it
is at all times almost inaccessible. Lakes are numerous, but few are
of considerable size, and many merely marshes in summer. The
largest are Karla (Boebeis) in Thessaly, Trichonis m Aetolia, Copals
in Boeotia, Pheneus and Stymphalus in Arcadia.
The valleys are generally narrow, and the plains small in extent,
deep basins walled in among the hills or more free at the mouths
. of the rivers. The principal plains are those of Thessaly,
' Boeotia, Messciiia, Argos, Elis and Marathon. The bottom
of these plains consists of an alluvial soil, the most fertile in Greece.
In some of the mountainous regions, especially in the Morea, are
extensive table-lands. The plain of Mantinea is 2000 ft. high, and
the upland district of Sciritis, between Sparta and Tcgoa, is in some
parts 3000 ft.
Straho said that the guiding thing in the geography of Greece
was the sea, whirh presses in upon it at all parts with a thousand
Cornnt nrms. From the Gulf of Arta on the one side to the Gulf
of Volo on the other the coast is indented with a succession
of natural bays and gulfs. The most important are the Gulfs of
Aegina ( Saronicus) and Lepanto (Corinthiatus), which separate
the Morea from the northern mainland of Greece,--the first an inlet
of the Aegean, the second of the Ionian Sea,—and are now connected
by a canal cut through the high land of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth
(3 '» m. wide). The outer portion of the Gulf of Lepanto is called the
Gulf of Patras, and the inner part the Bay of Corinth; a narrow
inlfl 011 the north side of the same gulf, called the Bay of Salona or
ltea, penetrates northwards into Phocis so for that it is within
24 geographical miles of the Gulf of Zcitun oil the north-east coast.
The width of the entrance to the gulf of Lepanto is subject to singular
changes, winch are ascribed to the formation of alluvial deposits by
certain marine currents, and their removal again by others. At
(he time ol the Peloponnesian war this channel was 1200 yds. broad ;
in the time of Strabo it was only 830 ; and in our own day it has
again increased to 2200. (>11 the coast of the Morea there are several
large gulfs, that of Arcadia (Cyparisstus) on the west, Kalamata
(Mrsicnimm) and Kolokythia ( Laconuus ) on the south and Nauplia
{Argolirus) on the east. ’ Between Euboea and the mainland lie the
channels of Trikeri, Talanti (Iluhoti um Mare) and Egripo ; the latter
two are connected by the strait of Egripo (Eunpus). This strait,
which is spanned by a swing-bridge, is about 180 fl wide, and is
remarkable for the unexplained eccentricity ol its tide, which has
puzzled ancients and moderns alike. The current runs at the
average speed oi 5 m. an hour, but continues only for a short time in
one direction, changing its course, it is said, ten or twelve times in a
day; it is sometimes very violent.
There are no volcanoes on the mainland of Greece, but every¬
where traces of volcanic action and lrequentiv visitations of earth-
y . quakes, for it lies near a centre of volcanic agency, the
actfon C ‘ a * an< * °* bantorill, which lias been within recent years in
' a state of eruption. There is an extinct crater at Mount
Laphystium (Gramtsa) 111 Boeotia. The mountain of Methane, on
the coast of Argolis, was produced by a volcanic eruption in 282 n.c.
Earthquakes laid Thebes in ruins in 1853, destroyed every house in
Corinth in 1858, filled up the Castalian spring in 1870, devastated
Zante in 1893 and the district of Atalanta in 1894. There arc hoi
springs at Thermopylae and other places, which are used for sanitary
purposes. Various parts of the coast exhibit indications of up¬
heaval within historical times. On the coast of Elis four rocky
islets are now joined to the land, which were separate from it in the
days of ancient Greece. There are traces of earlier sea-beaches
at Corinth, and on the coast of the Morea, and at the mouth of
the Hellada. The land has gained so mnch that the pass of Ther¬
mopylae which was extremely narrow in the time of Leonidas and
his three hundred, is now wide enough for the motions of a whole
army. (J. D. B.)
Structurally, Greece may be divided into two regions, an eastern
and a western. • The former includes Thessaly, Boeotia, the island
aeoJoiry of Euboea, the isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of
Argolis, and, throughout, the strike of the beds is nearly
from west to east. The western region includes the Findus and au
the parallel ranges, and the whole of ttie Peloponnesus excepting
Argolis. Here the folds which affect the Mesozoic and early Tertiary
strata run approximately from N.N.W. to S.S.E.
Up to the dose of the 19th century the greater part of Greece was
believed to be formed of Cretaceous rocks, but later researches have
shown that the supposed Cretaceous beds include a variety of geo- j
logical horizons. The geological sequence begins with crystalline
schists and limestones, followed by Palaeoxoic, Triaseic and Liaauc
rocks. The oldest beds which hitherto have yielded fossils belong
to the Carboniferous System (Fusulina limestone of Euboea).
Following upon these older beds are the great limestone mseews which
cover most of the eastern region, and which are now-known to include
Jurassic, Tithonian, Lower and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds.
In .the Pindus and the Peloponnesus these beds are overlaid by a
scries of sbales and platy limestones (Olonos Limestone of the
Peloponnesus), which were formerly supposed to be of Tertiary
age. It has now been shown, however, that the upper series of
limestones has been brought upon the top of the lower by a great
overtlirust Triassic fossils have been found in the Olonos Lime¬
stone and it is almost certain that other Mesozoic horizons are
represented.
The earth movements which produced the mountain chains of
western Greece have folded the Eocene beds and must therefore
be of post-Eocone date. The Neogene beds, on the qther hand, are
not affected by the folds, although by faulting without folding they
have in some places been raised to a height of nearly 6000 ft. They
lie, however, chiefly along the coast ana in the valloys, and consist
of marls, conglomerates and sands, sometimes with seams of lignite.
The Pikermi deposits, of late Miocene age, are famous for their rich
mammalian fauna.
Although the folding which formed the mountain chains appears
to have ceased, Greece is still continually shaken by earthquakes,
and these earthquakes are closely connected with the great lines
of fracture to which the country owes its outline. Around the
narrow gulf which separates the Peloponnesus from the mainland,
earthquakes are particularly frequent, and another region which is
often shaken is the south-western comer of Greece, the peninsula of
Messene. 1 (p,
The vegetation of Greece in general resembles that of southern
Italy while presenting many types common to that of Asia Minor.
Owing to the geographical configuration of the peninsula and
its mountainous surface the characteristic flora of the _
Mediterranean regions is often found m juxtaposition with wora.
that of central Europe. In respect to its vegetation the country
may lie regarded as divided into lour zones. In the first, extending
from the sea-level to the height of 1500 ft., oranges, olives, dates,
almonds, pomegranates, figs and vines flourish, and cotton and
tobacco are grown. In the neighbourliood of streams are found
the laurel, myrtle, oleander and lentisk, together with the plane and
white poplar; the cypress is often a picturesque feature in the
landscape, and there is a variety of aromatic plants. The second
zone, from 1500 to 3500 it., is the region of the oak, chestnut and
other British trees. In the third, from 3500 to 5300 ft., the beech
is the characteristic forest tree; the Abies cepkalonica and Finus
ptneu now take the place of the Ptnus halepensis , which grows
everywhere in the lower regions. Above 5500 ft. is the Alpine
region, marked by small plants, lichens and mosses. During the
short period of spring anemones and other wild flowers enrich
the hillsides with magnificent colouring; 111 June all verdure dis¬
appears except in the watered districts and elevated plateaus.
The asphodel grows abundantly in the dry rocky soil; aloes, planted
in rows, form impenetrable hedges. Medicinal plants are numerous,
such as the Jnula Helemum, the Mandragora Officinarutn, the .
Colchicum napolitanum and the Helltborus ortenlalis, which still
grows abundantly near Aspraspitia, the ancient Anticyra, at the
foot of Parnassus.
The fauna is similar to that of the other Mediterranean peninsulas,
and includes some species found m Asia Motor but not elsewhere in
Europe. The lion existed in northern Greece in the time of _
Aristotle and at un earlier period in the Morea. The bear auaa.
is still found in the Pindus range. Wolves are common in all the
mountainous regions and jackals are numerous in the Morea. Foxes
are abundant in all parts of the country ; the polecat is found ill the
woods of Attica and the Morea; the lynx is now rare. The wild
boar is common in the mountains of northern Greece, but is almost
extinct in the Peloponnesus. The badger, the marten and the
weasel are found on the mainland and in the islands. The red
deer, the fallow deer and the roe exist 111 northern Greece, but are
becoming scarce. The otter is rare. Hares and rabbits are abund¬
ant in many parts of the country, especially in the Cyclades ; the
two species never occupy the same district, and in the Cyclades
some islands (Naxos, MeloB, Tenos, &c.) form the exclusive domain
of the hares, others (Seriphos, Kimolos, Mykonos, &c.) of the rabbits.
In Andros alone a demarcation has been arrived at, the bares retain¬
ing the northern and the rabbits the southern portion of the island.
1 For the Geology of Greece see: M. Neumayr, &c., Dtnhs. h.
Ahod, IVisr Wien, math.-not. Cl. vol. xl. (1880); A. Philippson, Der
Peloponnes (Berlin, 1892) and "Beitrage zur Kenntnis der griechischen
Inselwelt,” Peterm. Mitt., Erganz.-heft No. 134 (1901); R. Lepsius,
Geologic von Attika (Berlin, 1893); L. Cayeux, “ Phtnomtncs de
eharriage dans la Mediterran6e orientals,” C. R. Acad. Sci. Parts,
vol.cxxxvi. (1903)110.474-476; J. Deprat, “ Note prtliminaire sur ia,
geologic de i’ile d'Eubije," Bull. Soc. Giol. France, set. 4, vci. ill.
(1903) pp, 229-243, p. vii. and " Note sur la geologic du mas.if
du Pilion et sur ( influence exercfic par les massifs archfiens sur la
tectonique de TEgdide," ib. vol. iv. (1904), pp. 299-338.
*28
GREECE
[POPULATION
The chamois is found in the higher mountains, such as Pindos,
Parnassus and Tymphrestua. The Cretan agrimi, or wild goat
{Capra nubiana , C. aegagrus), found in Antimelos and said to exist
in Taygetus, the jackal, the Stellion, and the chameleon are among
the Asiatic species not found westward of Greece. There is a great
variety of birds ; of 338 species catalogued two-thircU are migratory.
Among the birds of prey, which are very numerous, are the golden
and imperial eagle, the yellow vulture, the Gv partus barbatus , and
several species of falcons. The celebrated owl of Athena (Athene
noctua) is becoming rare at Athens, but still haunts the Acropolis
and the royal garden; it is a small species, found everywhere in Greece.
The wild goose and duck, the bustard, partridge, woodcock, snipe,
wood-pigeon and turtle-dove are numerous. Immense flocks of
quails visit the southern coast of the Morca, where they are cap¬
tured in great numbers and exported alive. The stork, which was
common m the Turkish epoch, has now become scarce. There is a
great variety of reptile, ol which sixty-one species have been
catalogued. The sauriaus are all harmless; among them the
stellion (Stellto vulgar^), commonly called icpo\6du\ot in Mykonos
and Crete, is believed by Heldreieh to have furnished a name to the
crocodile of the Nile (Herod. 11. by). There are five species of
tortoise and nine oi Amphibia. Of the serpents, which arc numerous,
there are onlv two dangerous species, the Yifwra ammodytes and the
Viper* asfns ; the first-named is common. Among the marine
fauna are the dolphins, familiar in the legends and sculpture of
antiquity; in the clear water of the Aegean they often afford a
beautiful spectacle a* they play round ships ; porpoises and whales
are sometimes seen. Sea-fish, of which 24b species have been
ascertained, are very abundant.
The climate of Greece, like that of the other countries of tne Balkan
peninsula, is liable to greater extremes of heat and cold than prevail
in Spam and Italy; the difference is due to the general
bllmmte. con p mi - C) f the peninsula, which assimilates its climatic
conditions to those of the European mainland. Another distinctive
feature is the great variety ot local contrasts ; the rapid transitions
are the natural effect ot diversity m the geographical configuration of
the country. Within a few' hours it is possible to pass from winter to
spring and from spring to summer. The spring is short ; the sun
is already powerful in March, but the increasing warmth is often
checked by cold northerly winds , in many places the corn harvest
is cut in May, when southerly winds prevail and the temperature
rises rapidly. The great heat of summer is tempered throughout the
whole region ol the archipelago by the Etesian winds, which blow
regularly from the :VK. for forty to fifty days in July and August.
This current of cool dry air from tin* north is due to the vacuum
resulting from intense heat in the region of the Sahara. The healthy
Etesian winds are generally replaced towards the end of summer by
the southerly l.ibas or sirocco, which, wdien blowing strongly,
resembles the blast from a furnace and is most injurious to health.
The sirocco affects, though in a less degree, the other countries of
the Balkan peninsula and even Rumania. The mean summer
temperature m about 70" Fahr. The autumn is the least healthy
season of the vear owing to the great increase of humidity, especially
in October and November. At the end ol October snow reappears on
the higher mountains, remaining on the summits till June. The
winter is mild, and even in January there are, as a rule, many warm
clear days; but the recurrence of biting northerly winds and cold
blasts from the mountains, as well as the rapid transitions from heat
to cold and the difference in the temperature of sunshine and shade,
render the climate somewhat treacherous and unsuitable for invalids.
Snow seldom falls in the maritime and lowland districts and frost is
rare. The mean winter temperature is from 48° to 55 0 Fahr. The rain
fall varies greatly according to localities; it is greatest in the Ionian
Islands (33*34 ins. at Corfu), in Arcadia and in tne other mountainous
districts, and least on the Aegean littoral and in the Cyclades; in
Attica, the driest region in Greece, it is 16*1 ins. The wettest
months are November, December and January; the driest Julv
and August, w’hen, except for a few thunder-storms, there is practi¬
cally no rainfall. The rain generally accompanies southerly or south¬
westerly winds. In all the maritime districts the sea breeze greatly
modifies the temperature ; it begins about q a.m. , attains its maximum
force soon alter noon, and ceases about an hour after sunset. Greece
is renowned for the dearness of its climate; fogs and mists are
almost unknown. In most years, however, onlv four or five daw
are recorded in which the sky is perfectly cloudless. The natural
healthiness of the climate is counteracted in the towns, especially
in Athens, by deficient sanitation and l»v stifling clouds of dust,
which propagate infection and are peculiarly hurtful in cases of
ophthalmia and pulmonary disease. Malarial fever is endemic m
the marshy districts, especially in the autumn.
The area of the country was 18,341 sq. m. before the acquisition
of the Ionian Islands in 1864, 10,381 sq. m. prior to the annexa¬
tion of Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881, and
24,552 sq. m. at the census in 1896. If we deduct 152
Mm. sq. m., the extent of territory ceded to Turkey after
the war of 1897, the area of Greece in 1908 would be
24,400 sq, m. Qther authorities give 25,164 and 25,136 sq. m.
os the area prior to the rectification of the frontier m 1898.1
The population in 1896 was 2,433,806, or 99-1 to the sq. m.,
the population of the territories annexed in 1881 being approxi¬
mately 350,000; and *,631,952 in 1907, or ro7-8 to the sq. m.
(according to the official estimate of the area), showing an
increase of 198,146 or o-8i % per annum, as compared with
1 -6i % during the period between 1896 and 1889; the diminished
increase is mainly due to emigration. The population by sex
in 1907 is given as 1,324,942 males and 1,307,010 females (or
5 °' 3 % males to 49-6 females). The preponderance of males,
which was 52 % to 48 % females in 1896, has also been reduced
by emigration ; it is most marked in the northern departments,
especially in Larissa. Only in the departments of Arcadia,
Eurytania, Corinth, Ccphalonia, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Phocis,
Argolis and in the Cyckdcs, is the female population in excess
of the male.
Neither the census of 1896 nor that of 1889 gave any classification
by professions, religion or language. The following figures, which
are only approximate, were derived from unofficial sources in 1901
agricultural and pastoral employments 444,000; industries 04,200;
traders and their employes 118,000 ; labourers and servants 31,300 ;
various professions 15,700: officials 12,000; clergy about 6000;
lawyers 4000; physicians 2500. In 1879, 1,635,098 of the popula¬
tion were returned as Orthodox Christians, 14,677 as Catholics and
Protestants, 2652 as Jews, and 740 as of other religions. The
annexation ot Thessaly and pari of Epirus is stated to have added
24,165 Mabommedan subjects to the Hellenic kingdom. A consider¬
able portion of these, however, emigrated immediately after the
annexation, and, although a certain number subsequently returned,
the total Mabommedan population in Greece was estimated to be
under 5000 in 1908. A number of the Christian inhabitants ot these
regions, estimated at about 50,000, retained Turkish nationality with
the object of escaping military service. The Albanian population,
estimated at 200,000 by Finlay in 1851, still probably exceeds
120,000, It is gradually being absorbed in the Hellenic population.
In 18711 37,598 persons (an obviously untrustworthy figure) were
returned as speaking Albanian only. In 1879 the number is given as
58,858. The Vlacli population, which has been increased by the
annexation of Thessaly, numbers about 60,000. The number of
foreign residents is unknown. The Italians are the most numerous,
numbering about ji,ooo. Some 1500 persons, mostly Maltese,
possess British nationality.
By a law of 27 November 1899, Greece, whirl) had hitherto been
divided into sixteen departments (euiiut) was redivided into twenty-
six departments, as follows:—
Departments.
Pop.
Departments.
Pop.
1 Atticu .
341.247
M
Corinth . . .
. 71,229
2 Boeotta
65,816
if)
Arcadia .
• 162,324
3 Fhth iotis
112,328
16
Achaea .
, 150,018
4 Phocis
62,246
*7
Elis ....
. 103,810
5 Aetolia and
Acar-
18
Triphvlia
• 90,523
Jiania .
I 4 I . 4°5
IQ
Messema
■ 127,991
0 Eurytania.
47,192
20
Laconia
■ 61,522
‘7 Arta .
41,280
21
1-acedaemon
. 87,106
8 Trikkala .
90,548
22
Corfu
• 99,571
q Karchtsa .
92,941
23
Cephalonia .
• 71,235
10 Larissa
05,06b
24
Lcucas (with Ithaca) 41,186
11 Magnesia .
102,742
25
Zante .
. 42,502
12 Euboea
116,903
26
Cyclades
• 130,37a
13 Argolis
Si ,943
The population is densest in the Ionian Islands, exceeding 307 per
sq. m. The departments of Acarnania, Phocis and Euboea, are the
most thinly inhabited (about 58, 6r and 66 per sq. m. respectively).
Very little information is obtainable with regard to the movement
of the' population ; no register ot births, deaths and marriages is
kept in Greece. The only official statistics are found in the periodical
returns of the mortality in the twelve principal towns, according to
which the yearly average of deaths in these towns for the five years
1903-1907 was approximately 10,253, or 23’8 per 1000; of these
more than a quarter are ascribed to pulmonary consumption, due in
the main to defective sanitation. Both the birth-rate and death-rate
are low, being 27-6 and 20-7 per 1000 respectively. Infant mortality
is slight, and in point of longevity Greece compares favourably with
most other European countries. The number of illegitimate births
is 12'25 per tooo ; these are almost exclusively in the towns.
Of the total population 28-5 % are stated to live in towns. The
population of the principal towns is
i8g6. 1907.
Athens.111,486 167,479
Peiraeus .... 43,848 73.579
Patras. 37 , 5 >h 5 37 . 7*4
1 No state survey ot Greece was available in 1908, though a
survey had been undertaken by the ministry ot war.
ETHNOLOGY]
GREECE
429
1896.
1907.
Trikkala ....
21,149
17,809
Hermopolia (Syra) .
18,760
18,232
Corfu.
18,581
28,254
Volo .
16,788
23,563
Larissa.
15,373
J«,OOI
Zante .
14,906
13,580
Kalamata ....
14,298
15,397
Pyrgos .
12,708
13,690
Tripolis.
10,465
10,789
Chalcis.
8,661
10,958
Laurium ....
7,926
10,007
No trustworthy information is obtainable with regard to immigra¬
tion and emigration, of which no statistics have ever been kept.
Emigration, which was formerly in the main to Egypt and Rumania,
is now almost exclusively to the United States of America. The
principal exodus is from Arcadia, Laconia and Maina ; the emigrants
from these districts, estimated at about 14,000 annually, are for the
most part young men approaching theageof military service. Accord¬
ing to American statistics 12,431 Greeks arrived in the United
States from Greece during the period 1869-1898 and 130,154 111
lHyy-1907; a considerable number, however, have returned to
Greece, and those remaining in the United States at the end of 1007
were estimated at between 136,000 and 138,000; this number was
considerably reduced m iyo8 by rcmigration. Since i8y6 the
tendency to emigration has received a notable and somewhat
alarming impulse. There is an increasing immigration into the
towns from the rural districts, which are gradually becoming depopu¬
lated. Both movements are due in part to the preference of the
Greeks fur a town life and in part to distaste for military service,
but in the main to the poverty of the peasant population, whose
condition and interests have been neglected hv the government.
Greece is inhabited by three races --the Greeks, the .Albanians
and the Vlaehs. The Greeks, who are by far the most numerous,
Bihm- * laVe to U litr ? e p xUnt absorbed the other races; the
logy, ’ process of assimilation has been especially rapid since
tlie foundation of the Greek kingdom.' Like most
European nations, the modem Greeks are 11 mixed race. The
question of their origin has been the subject of much learned
controversy; their presumed descent from the Greeks of the
classical epoch has proved a national asset of great value ;
during the period of their struggle for independence it won
them the devoted zeal of the I’hilhellenes, it inspired the
enthusiasm of Byron, Victor Hugo, and a host of minor poets,
and it has furnished a pleasing illusion to generations of scholarly
tourists who delight to discover in the present inhabitants of the
country the mental and physical characteristics with which they
have been familiarized by the literature and art of antiquity.
This amiable tendency is encouraged by the modem Greeks,
who possess an implicit faith in their illustrious ancestry. The
discussion of the question entered a very acrimonious stage with
the appearance in 1830 of Fallmeraver’s History oj the Morea
during the Middle Ages. Fallmerayer maintained that after
the great Slavonic immigration at the dose of the 8th century the
original population of northern Greece and the Morea, which
had already been much reduced during the Roman period, was
practically supplanted by the Slavonic element and that the
Greeks of modern limes are in fact Byzantinized Slavs. This
theory was subjected to exhaustive criticism by Ross, Hopf,
Finlay and other scholars, and, although many of Fallmerayer's
conclusions remain unshaken, the view is now generally held tliat
the base of the population both in the mainland and the Morea
is Hellenic, not Slavonic. During the 5th and 6th centuries
Greece had been subjected to Slavonic incursions which resulted
in no permanent settlements. After the great plague of 746- 747,
however, large tracts of depopulated country were colonized
by Slavonic immigrants; the towns remained in the hands of
the Greeks, many of whom emigrated to Constantinople. In
the Morea the Slavs established themselves principally in
Arcadia and the region of Taygctus, extending their settlements
into Achaia, Elis, Laconia and the promontory of Taenaron;
on the mainland they occupied portions of Acamania, Aetolia,
Doris and Phocis. Slavonic place-names occurring in all these
districts confirm the evidence of history with regard to this
immigration. The Slavs, who were not a maritime race, did ,
not colonize the Aegean Islands, but a few Slavonic place-names
* Including suburbs.
in Crete seem to indicate that some of the invaders reached that
island. The Slavonic settlements in the More* proved more
permanent than those in northern Greece, which were attacked
by the armies of the Byzantine emperors. But even in the
Morea the Greeks, or “ Romans ” as they called themselves
fPupatot), who had been left undisturbed on the eastern side of
the peninsula, eventually absorbed the alien clement, which
disappeared after the 15th century. In addition to the plac»
names the only remaining traces of the Slav immigration are the
Slavonic type of features, which occasionally recurs, especially
among the Arcadian peasants, and a few customs and traditions.
Even when allowance is made for the remarkable power of
assimilation which the Greeks possessed in virtue of their
superior civilization, it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the
Hellenic element must always have been the most numerous in
order to effect so complete un absorption. This element has
apparently undergone no essential change since the epoch of
Roman domination. The destructive invasions of the Goths m
A.o. 267 and 39j introduced no new ethnic feature ; the various
races which during the middle ages obtained partial or complete
mastery in Greene—the Franks, the Venetians, the Turks-
contributed no appreciable ingredient to the mass of the popula¬
tion. The modem Greeks may therefore be regarded as in the
main the descendants of the population which inhabited Greece
in the earlier centuries of Byzantine rule. Owing to the opera¬
tion of various causes, historical, social and economic, that
population was composed of many heterogeneous elements and
represented in a very limited degree the race which repulsed
the Persians and built the Parthenon. The internecine conflicts
of the Greek communities, wars with foreign powers and the
deadly struggles of factions in the various cities, had to a large
extent obliterated the old rare of free citizens by the beginning
of the Roman period. The extermination of the Plataeans by
the Spartans and of the Melinns by the Athenians during the
Peloponnesian war, the proscription of Athenian citizens after
I the war, the massacre of the Corcyraean oligarchs by the
democratic party, the slaughter of the Thebans by Alexander
and of the Corinthians by Mummius, are among the more
familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook the civic
element in the Greek cities ; the void can only have been filled
from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the descend¬
ants of the far more numerous slave population. Of the latter
a portion was of Hellenic origin : when a city was taken the
males of military age were frequently put to the sword, but the
women and children were sold as slaves ; in Laconia and Thessaly .
there was a serf population of indigenous descent. In the classical
period four-fifths of the population of Attica were slaves surd of
the remainder half were metics. In the Roman period the number
of slaves enormously increased, the supply being maintained from
the regions on the borders of the empire ; the same influences
which in Italy extinguished the small landed proprietors and
created the latijundia prevailed also in Greece. The purely
Hellenic population, now greatly diminished, congregated in the
towns; the large estates which replaced the small freeholds
were cultivated by slaves and managed or farmed by slaves or
freedmen, and wide tracts of country were wholly depopulated.
How greatly the free citizen element had diminished by the close
of the 1st century a.d. may be judged from the estimate of
Plutarch that all Greece could not furnish more than 3000
hoplites. The composite population which replaced the ancient
Hellenic stock became completely Hellenized. According to
craniologists the modern Greeks are brachycephalouB while
the ancient race is stated to have been dolichocephalous, but it
seems doubtful whether any such generalization with regard
to the ancients can be conclusively established. The Aegean
islanders are more brachyrephalous than the inhabitants of the
mainland, though apparently of purer Greek descent. No
general conception of the facial type of the ancient race can be
derived from the highly-idealized statues of deities, heroes and
athletes ; so far as can be judged from portrait statues it was
vary varied. Among the modem Greeks the same variety of
features prevails; the face is usually oval, the nose generally
43°
long and somewhat aquiline, the teeth regular, and the eyes
remarkably bright and full of animation. The country-folk are,
as a rule, tall and well-made, though slightly built and rather
meagre ; their form is graceful and supple in movement. The
urban population, as elsewhere, is physically very inferior.
The women often display a refined and delicate beauty which
disappears at an early age. The best physical types of the race
are found in Arcadia, in the Aegean Islands and in Crete.
The Albanian population extends over all Attica and Megaris
(except the towns of Athens, Peiraeus and Megara), the greater
part of Boeotia, the eastern districts of Locris, the southern half
of Euboea and the northern side of Andros, the whole of the
islands of Salamis, Hydra, Spetsae and Poros, and part of Aegina,
the whole of Corinthia and Argolis, the northern districts of
Arcadia and the eastern portion of Achaca. There are also small
Albanian groups in Laconia and Messenia (see Albania). The
Albanians, who call themselves Shkyipetar, and are called by
the Greeks Arvanitae (’A p/javirui), belong to the Tosk or
southern branch of the race ; their immigration took place in
the latter half of the 14th century. Their first settlements in the
Morea were made in 1347-1355. The Albanian colonization was
first checked by the Turks ; in 1454 an Albanian insurrection in
the Morea against Byzantine rule was crushed by the Turkish
general Tura Khan, whose aid had been invoked by the Palaeo-
logi. With a few exceptions, the Albanians in Greece retained
their Christian faith after the Turkish conquest. The failure
of the insurrection of 1770 was followed by a settlement of
Moslem Albanians, who had been employed by the Turks to
suppress the revolt. The Christian Albanians have long lived
on good terms with the Greeks while retaining their own customs
and language and rarely intermarrying with their neighbours.
They played a brilliant part during the War of Independence,
and furnished the Greeks with many of their most distinguisherl
leaders. The process of their Hellenization, which scarcclv
began till after the establishment of the kingdom, has been
somewhat slow; most of the men can now speak Greek, hut
Albanian is still the language of the household. The Albanians,
who are mainly occupied with agriculture, arc less quick-witted,
less versatile, and less addicted to politics than the Greeks, who
regard them as intellectually their inferiors. A vigorous and
manly race, they furnish the best soldiers in the Greek army,
and also make excellent sailors.
The Vjachs, who call themselves Aromani, t.e. Romans, form
another important foreign element in the population of Greece.
They are found principally in Pindus (the Agrapha district), the
mountainous parts of Thessaly, Othrys, Oeta, the mountains
of Boeotia, Aetolia and Acarnania ; they have a few settlements
in Euboea. They are for the most part either nomad shepherds
and herdsmen or carriers (kiradjis). They apparently descend
from the Latinized provincials of the Roman epoch who took
refuge in the higher mountains from the incursions of the bar¬
barians and Slavs (see Vlachs and Macedonia). In the 13th
century the Vlach principality of “ Great Walachia " (MeydXy
BA«xf<x) included Thessaly and southern Macedonia as far as
Castoria; its capital was at Hvpati near Lamia. Acamaniu
and Aetolia were known us “ Lesser Walachia.” The urban
element among the Vlachs has been almost completely Hellenizcd;
it has always displayed great aptitude for commerce, and Athens
owes many of its handsomest buildings to the benefactions
of wealthy Vlach merchants. The nomad population in the
mountains has retained its distinctive nationality and customs
together with its Latin language, though most of the men can
speak Greek. Like the Albanians, the pastoral Vlachs seldom
intermarry with the Greeks; they occasionally take Greek wives,
but never give their daughters to Greeks ; many of them are
illiterate, and their children rarely attend the schools. Owing
to thoir deficient intellectual culture they are regarded with
disdain by the Greeks, who employ the term /SA-agos to denote
not only a shepherd buj: an ignorant rustic.
A considerable Italian element was introduced into the Ionian
Islands during the middle ages owing to their prolonged sub¬
jection to Latin princes and suhseonently (till 1797) to the
[ETHNOLOGY
Venetian republic. The Italians intermarried with the Greeks ■
Italian became the language of the upper classes, and Roman
Catholicism was declared the state religion. The peasantry
however, retained the Greek language and remained faithful to
the Eastern Church ; during the past centurv the Italian elrment
was completely absorbed by the Greek population.
The Turkish population in Greece, which numbered about
70,000 before the war of liberation, disappeared in the course
of the struggle or emigrated at its conclusion. The Turks in
Thessaly are mainly descended either from colonists established
in the country by the Byzantine emperors or from immigrants
from Asia Minor, who arrived at the end of the 14 th century ;
they derive their name Konariots from Tconium (Konia). Many
of the beys or land-owning class are the lineal representatives
of the Seljuk nobles who obtained fiefs under the feudal system
introduced here and in Macedonia by the Sultan Bayezid I.
Notwithstanding their composite origin, their wide geo¬
graphical distribution and their cosmopolitan instincts, the
modem Greeks are a remarkably homogeneous people,
differing markedly in character from neighbouring ehmetlr
races, united by a common enthusiasm in the pursuit r ‘
of their national aims, and profoundly convinced of their
superiority to other nations. Their distinctive character,
comhined with their traditional tendency to regard non-Hellenic
peoples as barbarous, has, indeed, to some extent counteracted
the results of their great energy and zeal in the assimilation of
other races ; the advantageous position which they attained at
an early period under Turkish rule owing to their superior
civilization, their versatility, their wealth, and their monopoly
of the ecclesiastical power would probably have enabled them to
Hellenize permanently the greater part of the Balkan peninsula
had their attitude towards other Christian races been more
sympathetic. Always the most civilized race in the East, they
have successively influenced their Macedonian, Roman and
Turkish conquerors, and their remarkable intellectual endow¬
ments bid fair to secure them a brilliant position in the future.
The intense patriotic zeal of the Greeks may be compared with
that of the Hungarians ; it is liable to degenerate into arrogance
and intolerance; it sometimes blinds their judgment and involves
them in ill-considered enterprises, but it nevertheless offers the
best guarantee for the ultimate attainment of their national
aims. All Greeks, in whatever country they may reside, work
together for the realization of the Great Idea (?) MeydA?) 'ISca)—
the supremacy of Hellenism in the East—and to this object they
freely devote their time, their wealth and their talents ; the
large fortunes which they amass abroad are often bequeathed
for the .foundation of various institutions in Greece or Turkey,
for the increase of the national fleet and army, or for the spread
of Hellenic influence in the Levant. This patriotic sentiment is
unfortunately much exploited by self-seeking demagogues and
publicists, who rival each other in exaggerating the national
pretensions and in pandering to the national vanity. In no other
country is the passion for politics so intense ; “ keen political
discussions are constantly going on at the cafes ; the newspapers,
which are extraordinarily numerous and generally of little value,
are literally devoured and every measure of the government Ls
violently criticized and ascribed to interested motives.” The
influence of the journals is enormous; even the waiters in the
caf^s and domestic servants have their favourite newspaper,
and discourse fluently on the political problems of the day.
Much of the national energy is wasted by this continued political
fever; it is diverted from practical aims. and may be said to
evaporate in words. The practice of independent criticism
tends to indiscipline in the organized public services; it has
been remarked that every Greek soldier is a general and every
sailor an admiral. During the war of 1897 a young naval
lieutenant telegraphed to the minister of war condemning the
measures taken by his admiral, and his action was applauded
by several journals. There is also little discipline in the ranks
of political parties, which are held together, not by any definite
principle, but by the personal influence of the leaders ; defections
are frequent, and as a rule each deputy in the Chamber makes
GREECE
CUSTOMS]
GREECE
his terms with his chief. On the other hand, the independent
character of the Greeks is favourably illustrated by the circum¬
stance that Greece is the only country in the Balkan peninsula
in which the government cannot count on securing a majority
by official pressure at the elections. Few scruples are observed
in political warfare, but attacks on private life are rare. The
love of free discussion is inherent in the strongly-rooted demo¬
cratic instinct of the Greeks. They are in spirit the most demo¬
cratic of European peoples ; no trace of Latin feudalism survives,
and aristocratic pretensions are ridiculed. In social life there
is no artificial distinction pf classes; all titles of nobility arc
forbidden; a few families descended from the chiefs in the
War of Independence enjoy a certain pre-eminence, but wealth
and, still more, political or literary notoriety constitute the
principal claim to social consideration. The Greeks display great
intellectual vivacity ; they are clever, inquisitive, quick-witted
and ingenious, but not profound ; sustained mental industry
and careful accuracy are distasteful to them, and their aversion
to manual labour is still more marked. Even the agricultural
class is but moderately industrious ; abundant opportunities
for relaxation are provided by the numerous church festivals.
The desire for instruction is intense even in the lowest ranks
of the community ; rhetorical and literary accomplishments
possess a greater attraction for the majority than the fields of
modern science. The number of persons who seek to qualify
for the learned professions is excessive : they form a superfluous
element in the community, an educated proletariat, attaching
themselves to the various political parties in the hope of obtaining
state employment, and spending an idle existence in the cafe
and the streets when their party is out of power. In disposition
the Greeks are lively, cheerful, plausible, tactful, sympathetic ;
very affable with strangers, hospitable, kind to their servants
and dependants, remarkably temperate and frugal in their
habits, amiable and united in family life. Drunkenness is
almost unknown, thrift is universally practised ; the standard
of sexual morality is high, especially in the rural districts, where
illegitimacy is extremely rare. The faults of the Greeks must
in a large degree be attributed to their prolonged subjection to
alien races ; their cleverness often degenerates into cunning,
their readv invention into mendacity, their thrift into avarice,
their fertility of resource into trickery and fraud. Dishonesty
is not a national vice, but many who would scorn to steal will
not hesitate to compass illicit gains by duplicity and misrepre¬
sentation ; deceit, indeed, is often practised gratuitously for
the mere intellectual satisfaction which it affords. In the
astuteness of their monetary dealings the Greeks proverbially
surpass the Jews, but fall short of the Armenians ; their remark¬
able aptitude for business is sometimes marred by a certain
short-sightedness which pursues immediate profits at the cost
of ulterior advantages. Their vanity and egoism, which are
admitted by even the most favourable observers, render them
jealous, exacting, and peculiarly susceptible to flattery. In
common with other southern European peoples the Greeks are
extremely excitable ; their passionate disposition is prone to take
oftence at slight provocation, and trivial quarrels not infre¬
quently result in homicide. They are religious, but bv no means
fanatical, except in regard to politico-religious questions affecting
their national aims. In general the Greeks may be described
as a clever, ambitious and versatile people, capable of great
effort and sacrifice, but deficient in some of the more solid
qualities which make for national greatness.
The customs and habits of the Greek peasantry, in which
the observances of the classical age may often be traced, together
with.their legends and traditions, have furnished an
Custaau. j nterest jj,g subject of investigation to many writers
(see Bibliography below). In the towns the more cosmopolitan
population has largely adopted the “ European ” mode of life,
and the upper classes show a marked preference for French
manners and usages. In both town and country, however, the
influence of oriental ideas is still apparent, due in part to the
long period of Turkish domination, in part to tire contact of
the Greeks with Asiatic races at all epochs of their history. In
43 *
the rand districts, especially, the women lead a somewhat
secluded life and occupy a subject position; they wait at table,
and only partake of the meal when the men of the family have
been served. In most parts of continental Greece the women
work in the fields, but in the Aegean Islands and Crete they rarely
leave the house. Like the Turks, the Greeks have a great
partiality for coffee, which can always be procured even m the
remotest hamlets ; the Turkish practice of carrying a string of
beads or rosary (comboloio), which provides an occupation for
the hands, is very common. Many of the observances in con¬
nexion with births, christenings, weddings and funerals are very
interesting and in some cases are evidently derived from remote
antiquity. Nuptial ceremonies are elaborate and protracted;
in some of the islands of the archipelago they continue for three
weeks. In the preliminary negotiations for a marriage the
question of the bride’s dowry plays a very important part; a
girl without a dowry often remains unmarried, notwithstanding
the considerable excess of the male over the female population.
Immediately afterthechristeningof afemalechildherparents begin
to lay up her portion, and young men often refrain from marrying
until their sisters have been settled in life. The dead are carried
to the tomb in an open coffin ; in the country districts profes¬
sional mourners are engaged to chant dirges ; the body is washed
with wine and crowned with a wreath of flowers. A valedictory
oration is pronounced at the grave. Many superstitions still
prevail among the peasantry ; the belief in the vampire and the
evil eye is almost universal. At Athens and in the larger towns
many handsome dwelling-houses may be seen, but the upper
classes have no predilection for rural life, and their country
houses are usually mere farmsteads, which they rarely visit.
In the more fertile districts two-storeyed houses of the modem
type are common, but in the mountainous regions the habita¬
tions of the country-folk are extremely primitive; the small
stone-built hut, almost destitute of furniture, shelters not only
the family but its cattle and domestic animals. In Attica the
peasants’ houses are usually built of cob. In Maina the villagers
live in fortified towers of three or more storeys; the animals
occupy the ground floor, the family the topmost storey; the
intermediate space serves as a granary or hay-loft. The walls
are loop-holed for purposes of defence in view of the traditional
vendetta and feuds, which in some instances have been handed
down from remote generations and are maintained by occasional
sharp-shooting from these primitive fortresses. In general
cleanliness and sanitation are much neglected ; the traveller in
the country districts is doomed to sleepless nights unless he has
provided himself with bedding and a hammock. Even Athens,
though enriched by many munificent benefactions, is still without
a drainage system or an adequate water supply ; the sewers of
many houses open into the streets, in which rubbish is allowed
to accumulate. The effects of insanitary conditions are, how¬
ever, counteracted in some degree by the excellent climate.
The Aegean islanders contrast favourably with the continentals
in point of personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings;
their houses are generally covered with the flat roof, familiar
in Asia, on which the family sleep in summer. The habits and
customs of the islanders afford an interesting study, Propitiatory
rites are still practised by the mariners and fishermen, and thank-
offerings for preservation at sea are hung up in the churches.
Among the popular amusements of the Greeks dancing holds a
prominent place; the dance is of various kinds; the most usual
is the somewhat inanimate round dance (trvprd or rp dr«), in
which a number of persons, usually of the same sex, take part
holding hands; it seems identical with the Slavonic kalo
(“ circle ”). The more lively Albanian fling is generally danced
by three or four persons, one of whom executes a series of leaps
and pirouettes. The national music is primitive and monotonous.
All classes are passionately addicted to card-playing, which is
forbidden by law in places of public resort. The picturesque
national costume, which is derived from the Albanian Tosks,
has unfortunately been abandoned by the upper classes and the
urban population since the abdication of King Otho, who always
wore it; it is maintained as the uniform of toe evtones (highland
[GOVERNMENT
GREECE
43*
regiments). It consists of a ted cap with dark blue tassel, a
white shirt with wide sleeves, a vest and jacket, sometimes of
velvet, handsomely adorned with gold or black braid, a belt in
which various weapons are carried, a white kilt or fustaneUa of
many folds, white hose tied with garters, and red leather shoes
with pointed ends, from which a tassel depends. Over all is worn
the shaggy white capote. The islanders wear a dark blue costume
with a crimson waistband, loose trousers descending to the knee,
stockings and pumps or long boots. The women’s costume is
very varied ; the loose red fez is sometimes worn and a short
velvet jacket with rich gold embroidery. The more elderly
women are generally attired in black. In the Megara district
and elsewhere peasant girls wear on festive occasions a head¬
dress composed of strings of coins which formerly represented
the dowry.
Greece is a constitutional monarchy ; hereditary m the male
line, or, in case of its extinction, in the female. The sovereign,
by decision of the conference of London (August 1863),
murt"’ ' s styled “ king of the Hellenes ” ; the title “ king
of Greece ’' was borne by King Otho. The heir
apparent is st.vlad ’> RwSoxos, “ the successor ” ; the title
" duke of Sparta,” which has been accorded to the crown prince,
is not generally employed in Greece. The king and the heir
apparent must belong to the Orthodox Greek Church ; a special
exception has been made for King George, who is a Lutheran.
The king attains his majority on completing his eighteenth year;
before ascending the throne hr must take the oath to the con¬
stitution in presence of the principal ecclesiastical and lay
dignitaries of the kingdom, and must convoke the Chamber
within two months after his accession. The civil list amounts
to 1,125,000 dr., in addition to which it was provided that King
George should receive £4000 annually as a personal allowance
from each of the three protecting powers, Great Britain. France
and Russia. The heir apparent receives from the state an
annuity of 200,000 dr. The king has a palace at Athens and
other residences at Corfu, Tatoi (on the slopes of Mt. Pames)
and Uirissa. The present constitution dates from the 29th of
October 1864. The legislative power is shared by the king with
a single chamber (/JoeAij) elected by manhood suffrage for a
period of four years. The election is by ballot; candidates
must have completed their thirtieth year and electors their
twenty-first. The deputies (fiov\anai), according to the
constitution, receive only their travelling expenses, but they
vote themselves a payment of 1800 dr. each for the session and
a further allowance in case of an extraordinary session. The
Chamber sits for a term of not less than three or more than six
months. No law can he passed except by an absolute majority
of the house, and one-half of the members must be present to
form a quorum ; these arrangements have greatly facilitated the
practice 1 of obstruction, and often enable individual deputies
to impose terms on the government for their attendance. In
1898 the number of deputies was 234. Some years previously
a law diminishing the national representation and enlarging
the constituencies was passed by Trikoupis with the object
of checking the local influence of electors upon deputies, but
the measure was subsequently repealed. The number of deputies,
however, who had hitherto been elected in the proportion of one
to twelve thousand of the population, was reduced in 1905,
when the proportion of one to sixteen thousand was substituted ;
the chamber of 1906, elected under the new system, consisted
of 177 deputies. In 1906 the electoral districts were diminished
in number and enlarged so as to coincide with the twenty-six
administrative departments (vo/jwi); the reduction of these
departments to their former number of sixteen, which is in
contemplation, will bring about some further diminution in
parliamentary representation. It is hoped that recent legislation
will tend to check the pernicious practice of bartering personal
favours, known as trwaAAnyy, which still prevails to the great
detriment of public morality, paralysing all brandies of the
administration and wasting the resources of the state. Political
parties are formed not for the furtherance of any principle or
cause, but with the object of obtaining the spoils of office, and
the various groups, possessing no party watchword or programme,
frankly designate themselves by the names of their leaders.
Even the strongest government is compelled to bargain with its
supporters in regard to the distribution of patronage and other
favours. The consequent instability of successive ministries
has retarded useful legislation and seriously checked the national
progress. In 1906 a law was passed disqualifying junior officers
of the army and navy for membership of the Chamber; great
numbers of these had hitherto been candidates at every election.
This much-needed measure had previously been passed by
Trikoupis, but had been repealed by his rival Delyannes. The
executive is vested in the king, who is personally irresponsible,
and governs through ministers chosen by himself and responsible
to the Chamber, of which they are ex-officio members. He
appoints all public officials, sanctions and proclaims laws,
convokes, prorogues and dissolves the Chamber, grants pardon
or amnesty, coins money and confers decorations. There are
seven ministries which respectively control the departments
of foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, education and
worship, the army and the navy.
The 26 departments or vopul. into which the country is divided
for administrative purposes, are each under a prefect or nomarch
(yap apxos) 1 they are subdivided into 69 districts or
eparchies, and into 445 communes or demes (Sf/joni) LoctJ
under mayors or demarchs (cbj/iu/ixoi). The prefects jjjjjjjj*"
and sub-prefects are nominated by the government;
the mayors are elected by the communes for a period of four
years. The prefects are assisted by a departmental council,
elected by the population, which manages local business and
assesses rates ; there arc also communal councils under the
presidency of the mayors. There are altogether some 12,000
state-paid officials in the country, most of them inadequately
remunerated and liable to removal or transferral upon a cliange
of government. A host of office-seekers has thus been created,
and large numbers of educated persons spend many years in
idleness or in political agitation. A law passed in 1905 secures
tenure of office to civil servants of fifteen years’ standing, and
some restrictions have been placed on the dismissal and trans¬
ferral of schoolmasters.
Under the Turks the Greeks retained, together with their
ecclesiastical institutions, a certain measure of local self-govern¬
ment and judicial independence. The Byzantine code,
based on the Roman, as embodied in the *J££«/ 3 i/jA.os
of Armenopoulos (1345), was sanctioned by royal decree in j 835
with some modifications as the civil law of Greece. Further
modifications and new enactments were subsequently introduced,
derived from the old French and Bavarian systems. The penal
rode is Bavarian, the commercial French. Liberty of person
and domicile is inviolate; no arrest can be made, no house
entered, and no letter opened without a judicial warrant. Trial
by jury is established for criminal, political and press offences.
A new civil code, based on Saxon and Italian law, has been
drawn up by a commission of jurists, but it has not yet been
considered by the Chamber. A separate civil code, partly French,
partly Italian, is in force in the Ionian Islands. The law is
administered by 1 court of cassation (styled the “ Areopagus "),
5 courts of appeal, 26 courts of first instance, 233 justices of the
peace and 19 correctional tribunals.
The judges, who are appointed by the Crown, are liable to
removal by the minister of justice, whose exercise of this right
is often invoked by political partisans. The administration of
justice suffers in consequence, more especially in the country
districts, where the judges must reckon with the influential
politicians and their adherents. The pardon or release of a
convicted criminal is not infrequently due to pressure on the part
of some powerful patron. The lamentable effects of this system
have long been recognized, and in 1906 a law was introduced
securing tenure of office for two or four years to judges of the
courts of first instance and of the inferior tribunals. In the
circumstances crime is less rife than might be expected ; the
temperate habits of the Greeks have conduced to this result
A serious feature is the great prevalence of homicide, due ia
EDUCATION]
GREECE
part to the passionate character of the people, but still more to
the almost universal practice of carrying weapons. The tradi¬
tions of the vendetta are almost extinct in the Ionian Islands,
but still linger in Maina, where family feuds are transmitted
from generation to generation. The brigand of the old-fashioned
type (A.n«mjr, has almost disappeared, except in the
remoter country districts, and piracy, once so prevalent in the
Aegean, has been practically suppressed, but numbers of outlaws
or absconding criminals (4>i’yoikkoi) still haunt the mountains,
and the efforts of the police to bring them to justice are far from
successful. Their ranks were considerably increased after the
war of 1897, when many deserters from the army and adventurers
who came to Greece as volunteers betook themselves to a pre¬
datory life. On the other hand, there is no habitually criminal
class in Greece, such as exists in the large centres of civilization,
and professional mendicancy is still rare.
Police duties, for which officers and, in some cases, soldiers
of the regular army were formerly employed, are since 1906
carried out by a reorganized gendarmerie force of 194 officers
and 6344 non-commissioned officers and men, distributed in
the twenty-six departments and commanded by an inspector-
general resident at Athens, who is aided bv a consultative com¬
mission. There are male and female prisons at all the depart¬
mental centres ; the number of prisoners in 1906 was 5705.
Except in the Ionian Islands, the general condition of the prisons
is deplorable ; discipline and sanitation arc very deficient, and
conflicts among the prisoners are sometimes reported in which
knives and even revolvers are employed. A good prison has
been built near Athens by Andreas Svngros, and a reformatory
for juvenile offenders («V«//hn ir) has been founded by George
Averoff, another national benefactor. Capital sentences are
usually commuted to penal servitude for life; executions, for
which the guillotine is employed, tire for the most part carried
out on the island of Bourzi near Nauplia ; they are often post¬
poned for months or even for years. There is no enactment
resembling the Habeas Corpus Act, and accused persons may
be detained indefinitely before trial. The Greeks, like the other
nations liberated from Turkish rule, are somewhat litigious, and
numbers of lawyers find occupation even in the smaller country
towns.
The Greeks, an intelligent people, have always shown a remark¬
able zeal for learning, and popular education has made great
strides. So eager is the desire for instruction that
schools are often founded in the rural districts on the
initiative of the villagers, and the sons of peasants,
artisans and small shopkeepers come in numbers to Athens,
where they support themselves by domestic service or other
humble occupations in order to study at the university during
their spare hours. Almost immediately after the accession of
King Otho steps were taken to establish elementary schools in
all the communes, and education was made obligatory. The
law is not very rigorously applied in the remoter districts, but
its enforcement is scarcely necessary. In 1898 there were 2914
“ demotic ” or primary schools, with 3465 teachers, attended by
129,210 boys (5-38 % of the population) and 29,119 girls (1-19 %
of the population). By a law passed in 1905 the primary schools,
which had reached the number of 3359 in that year, were reduced
to 2604. The expenditure on primary schools is nominally
sustained by the communes, but in reality by the government
in the form of advances to the communes, which are not repaid ;
it was reduced in 1905 from upwards of 7,000,000 dr. to under
6,000,000 dr. In 1905 there were 306 “ Hellenic ” or secondary
schools, with 819 teachers and 21,575 pupils (hoys only) main¬
tained by the state at a cost of 1,720,096 dr.; and 39 higher
schools, or gymnasia, with 161 masters and 6485 pupils, partly
maintained by the, state (expenditure 615,600 dr.) and partly
by benefactions and other means. Besides these public schools
there are several private educational institutions, of which there
are eight at Athens with 650 pupils. The Polytechnic Institute
of Athens affords technical instruction in the departments of art
and science to an students. Scientific agricultural instruction
has been much neglected; there is an agricultural school at
m
Aidinion in Thessaly with 40 pupils; there are eight agricultural
stations (oratf/iot) in various parts of the country. There are
two theologies! seminaries—the Rizari School at Athens (iso
pupils) and a preparatory school at Arts; three other seminaries
have been suppressed. The Commercial and Industrial Academy
at Athens (about 225 pupils), a private institution, has proved
highly useful to the country; there are four commercial schools,
each in one of the country towns. A large school for females
at Athens, the Arsakion, is attended by 1500 girls. There are
several military and naval schools, including the military college
of the Euelpides at Athens and the school of naval cadets (ru>v
ftoklfwiv). The. university of Athens in 1905 numbered 57
professors and 2598 students, of whom 557 were from abroad.
Of the six faculties, theology numbered -79 students, law 1467,
medicine 567, arts 206, physics and mathematics 193, and
pharmacy 87. The university receives a subvention from the
state, which in 1905 amounted to 563,960 dr.; it possesses
a library of over 150,000 volumes and' geological, zoological and
botanical museums. A small tax on university education was
imposed in 1903 ; the total cost to the student for the four years’
course at the university is about £25. Higher education is
practically gratuitous in Greece, and there is a somewhat ominous
increase in the number of educated persons who disdain agri¬
cultural pursuits and manual labour. The intellectual culture
acquired is too often of a superficial character owing to the
tendency to sacrifice scientific thoroughness and accuracy, to
neglect the more useful brunches of knowledge, and to aim at a
showy dialectic and literary proficiency, (For the native and
foreign archaeological institutions see Athens.)
The Greek branch of the Orthodox Eastern Church is practi¬
cally independent, like those of Servia, Montenegro and Rumania,
though nominally subject to the patriarchate of
Constantinople. The jurisdiction of the patriarch
was in fact repudiated in 1833, when the king was declared the
supreme head of the church, and the severance was completed
in 1850. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the
Ministry of Education. Church government is vested in the
Holy Synod, a council of five ecclesiastics under the presidency
of the metropolitan of Athens; its sittings are attended by a
royal commissioner. The church can invoke the aid of the civil
authorities for the punishment of heresy and the suppression of
unorthodox literature, pictures, See. There were formerly 21
archbishoprics and 29 bishoprics in Greece, but a law passed in
1899 suppressed the archbishoprics (except the metropolitan
see of Athens) on the death of the existing prelates, and fixed .
the total number of sees at 32. The prelates derive their incomes
partly from the state and partly from the church lands. There
are about 5500 priests, who belong for the most part to the
poorest classes. The parochial clergy have no fixed stipends,
and often resort to agriculture nr small trading in order to
supplement the scanty fees earned by their ministrations. Owing
to their lack of education their personal influence over their
parishioners is seldom considerable, In addition to the parochial
clergy there arc 19 preachers («poKrjpvK«s) salaried by the state.
There are 170 monasteries and 4 nunneries in Greece, with about
1600 monks and 250 nuns. In regard to their constitution the
monasteries are either “ idiorrhythmic " or “ coenobian ” (see
Athos) ; the monks (xaAoyspot) are in some cases assisted
by lay brothers (ko<j>ukoi). More than 300 of the smaller
monasteries were suppressed in 1829 and their revenues secular¬
ized. Among the more important and interesting monasteries
are those of Megaspelaeon and Lavra (where the standard of
insurrection, unfurled in 1821, is preserved) near Kalavryta,
St Luke of S-tiris near Arachova, Daphne and Penteli near Athens,
and the Meteora group in northern Thessaly. The bishops, who
must be unmarried, are as a rule selected from the monastic
order and are nominated by the king; the parish priests are
allowed to marry, but the remarriage of widowers is forbidden.
The bulk of the population, about 2,000,000, belongs to the
Orthodox Church; other Christian confessions number about
15,000, the great majority being Roman Catholics. The Roman
Catholics (principally in Naxos and the Cyclades) have three
UKIM un
434
archbishoprics(Athens,Naxos wd Corfu), five bishoprics and about
66 chur ch e s , The Jews, who are regarded with much hostility,
have almost disappeared from the Greek mainland ; they now
number about 5000, and are found principally at Corfu. The
Mahommedans are confined to Thessaly except a few at Chalcis.
National sentiment is a more powerful factor than personal
religious conviction in the attachment of the Greeks to the
Orthodox Church ; a Greek without the pale of the church is
more or less an alien. The Catholic Greeks of Syros sided with
the Turks at the time of the revolution ; the Mahommedans of
Crete, though of pure Greek descent, have always been hostile
to their Christian fellow-countrymen and are commonly called
Turks. On the other hand, that portion of the Macedonian
ppulation which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople
is regarded as Greek, while that which adheres to the Bulgarian
exarchate, though differing in no point of doctrine, has been
declared schismatic. The constitution of 1864 guarantees
toleration to all creeds in Greece and imposes no civil disabilities
on account of religion.
Greece is essentially an agricultural country ; its prosperity
depends on its agricultural products, and more than half the
ppulation is occupied in the cultivation of the soil
eStun. anc * kindred pursuits. The land in the plains and
valleys is exceedingly rich, and, wherever there is
a sufficiency of water, produces magnificent crops. Cereals
nevertheless furnish the principal figure in the list of imports,
the annual value being about 30,000,000 fr. The country,
especially since the acquisition of the fertile province of Thessaly,
might under a well-developed agricultural system provide a
food-supply for all its inhabitants and an abundant surplus
for exportation. Thessaly alone, indeed, could furnish cereals
for the whole of Greece. Unfortunately, however, agriculture
is still in a primitive state, and the condition of the rural popula¬
tion has received very inadequate attention from successive
governments. The wooden plough of the Hesiodic typ is still
in use, especially in Thessaly ; modern implements, however,
are being gradually introduced. The employment of manure
and the rotation of crops are almost unknown ; the fields are
generally allowed to lie fallow in alternate years. As a rule,
countries dependent on agriculture are liable to sudden fluctua¬
tions in prosprity, but in Greece the diversity of products is so
great that a failure in one class of crop is usually compensated
by exceptional ahnndance in another. Among the causes which
have hitherto retarded agricultural progress are the ignorance
and conservatism of the pasantry, antiquated methods of
cultivation, want of capital, absentee proprietorship, sparsity
of ppulation, bad roads, the prevalence of usury, the uncertainty
of boundaries and the land tax, which, in the absenco of a survey,
is levied on ploughing oxen ; to these may be added the in¬
security hitherto prevailing in many of the country districts
and the growing distaste for rural life which has accompnied
the spread of education. large estates are managed under the
metayer system ; the cultivator paving the proprietor from
one-third to half of the gross produce; the landlords, who
prefer to live in the larger towns, see little of their tenants, and
rarely interest themselves in their welfare. A great proportion
of the best arable land in Thessaly is owned by prsons who
reside permanently out of the country. The great estates in
this province extend over some 1,500,000 acres, of which about
500,000 are cultivated. In the Peloponnesus peasant proprietor¬
ship is almost universal; elsewhere it is gradually supplanting
the metayer system ; the small properties vary from 2 or 3 to
50 acres. The extensive state lands, about one-third of the
area of Greece, were formerly the property of Mahommedan
religious communities (vakou/s) ; they are for the most part
farmed out annually by auction. They have been much en¬
croached upon by neighbouring owners ; a considerable portion
has also been sold to the peasants. The rich plain of Thessaly
suffers from alternate droughts and inundations, and from the
ravages of field mice; with improved cultivation, drainage
and irrigation it might be rendered enormously productive.
A commission has been occupied for tome years in preparing
[AGRICULTURE
a scheme of hydraulic works. Usury is, perhaps, a greater
scourge to the rural population than any visitation of nature •
the institution of agricultural banks, lending money at a fair
rate of interest on the security of their land, would do much
to rescue the peasants from the clutches of local Shylockg.
There is a difficulty, however, in establishing any system of
land credit owing to the lack of a survey. Since 1897 a law
passed in 1882 limiting the rate of interest to 8 % (to 9 % in the
case of commercial debts) has to some extent been enforced by
the tribunals. In the Ionian Islands the rate of 10% still
prevails.
The following figures give approximately the acreage in 1906
and the average annual yield of agricultural produce, no official
statistics being available :—
Acres.
Fields sown or lying fallow.3,000,000
Vineyards. 337 , 5 °o
Currant plantations. 175,000
Olives (10,000,000 trees). 250,000
Fruit trees (fig, mulberry, &c.) .... 125,000
Meadows and pastures '.7,500,000
Forests.2,000,000
Waste lands.2,875,000
The average annual yield is as follows
Wheat.
Maize.
Rye.
Barley.
Oats.
Beans, lentils, &e.
Currants.
Sultamna.
Wine.
Olive oil.
Olives (preserved)
Figs (exported only) ....
Seed cotton ......
Tobacco.
Vegetables and fresh fruits .
Cocoons .......
Hesperidimns (exported only) .
Carobs (exported only) .
Resin.
Beet.
16,262,500
350,000,000 kilograms
100 , 000,000 ,,
20,000,000 ,,
70,000,000 ,,
75,000,000 ,,
25,000,000
350,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
300,000
i 00,000,000
12,000,000
6,500,000
8,000,000
20 , 000,000
1 , 000,000
4,000,000
10 , 000,000
5,000,000
12 , 000,000
Venetian lb
hectolitres
kilograms
Rice is grown in the marshy plains of libs, Bocotia, Marathon
and Missolonghi; beet in Thessaly. The cultivation of vegetables
is increasing; beans, peas and lentils are the most common. Potatoes
are grown in the upland districts, but are not a general article of diet.
Of late years market-gardening has been taken up as a new industry
in the neighbourhood of Athens. There is a, great variety of fruits.
Olive plantations are found everywhere; in i860 they occupied
about 90,000 acres; in 1887, 433,701 acres. The trees are sometimes
of immense age and form a picturesque feature iti the landscape.
Ill latter years the groves in many parts of the western Morea and
Zante have been cut down to make room for curranl plantations;
the destruction has been deplorable in its consequences, for, as the
free requires twenty years to come into full bearing, replanting
is seldom resorted to. Preserved olives, eaten with bread, are a
common article of food. Excellent olive oil is produced in Attica
and elsewhere. The value of the oil and fruit exported varies from
five to ten million francs. Figs are also abundant, especially in
Messenia and in the Cyclades. Mulberry trees are planted for the
purposes of sericulture ; they have been cut down in great numbere
m the currant-growing districts. Other fruit trees are the orange,
citron, lemon, pomegranate and almond. Peaches, apricots, pears,
cherries, &c,, abound, but are seldom scientifically cultivated ; the
fruit is generally gathered while unripe. Cotton in 1906 occupied
about 12,500 acres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of lavadia. Tobacco
plantations in 1893 covered 16,320 acres, yielding about 3,500,000
kilograms ; the yield in 1906 was 9,000,000 kilograms. About 40 %
of the produce is exported, principally to Egypt and Turkey. More
important are the vineyards, which occupied m 1887 an area of 306,421
acres. The best wine is made at Patras, 011 the royal estate at
Decelea, and on other estates in Attica; a peculiar flavour is im¬
parted to the wine of the country by the addition of resin. The
wine of Santorin, the modem representative of the famous " malm¬
sey,” is mainly exported to Russia. The foreign demand for Greek
wtaes is rapidly increasing ; 3,770,257 gallons were exported in 1890,
4,974,196 gallons in 1894. There is also a growing demand for
Greek cognac. The export of wine in 1905 was 20,850,941 okes,
value 5,848,544 fr.; of cognac, 363,720 okes, value 1,091,160 fr.
The currant, by far the most important of Greek exports, is culti¬
vated in a limited area extending along the southern shore of the
Gulf of Corinth and the seaboard of the Western Peloponnesus,
AGRICULTURE]
GREECE
435
in Zante, CephaJonia and Lencas, and in certain districts of
Acarnania and Aetolia; attempts to cultivate it elsewhere have
generally proved unsuccessful. The history of the currant
Cmraatt, g^ustry has been a record of extraordinary vicissitudes.
Previously to 1877 the currant was exported solely for eating purposes,
the amounts for the years 1872 to 1877 being 70,766 tons, 71,222
tons, 76,210 tons, 72,916 tons, 86,947 tons, and 82,181 tons respect¬
ively. In 1877, however, the French vineyards began to sufler
seriously from the phylloxera, ai)d French wine producers were
obliged to have recourse to dried currants, which make an excellent
wine for blending purposes. The importation of currants into
France at once rose from 881 tons in 1877 to 20,999 tons in 1880,
and to 70,402 tons in 1889, or about 20,000 tons more than were
imported into England in that year Meanwhile the total amount
of currants produced in Greece had nearly doubled in these thirteen
years. The country was seized with a mania for currant planting ;
every other industry was neglected, and olive, orange and lemon
groves were cut down to make room for the more lucrative growth.
The currant growers, in order to increase their production as rapidly
as possible, had recourse to loans at a high rate of interest, and the
great profits which they made were devoted to further planting,
while the loans remained unpaid. A crisis followed rapidly. By
1891 the French vineyards had to a great extent recovered from the
disease, and wine producers in Franco began to clamour against the
competition of foreign wines and wine-producing raisins and currants.
The import duty on these was thereupon raised from 6 francs to 15
francs per 100 kilos, and was further increased in 1894 to 25
francs. The currant trade with France was thus extinguished ; of a
crop averaging 160,000 tons, only some 110,000 now found a market.
Although a fresh opening for exportation was found in Russia, the
value of the fruit dropped from £15 to £5 per ton, a price scarcely
covering the cost of cultivation. In July 1895 the government
introduced a measure, since known as the Retention (irapaspdTipm)
Law, by which it was enacted that every shipper should deliver
into depots provided by the government a weight of currants equiva¬
lent to 15 % of the amount which he intended to export. A later law
fixed the quantity to be retained by the state at 10 %, which might
be increased to 20 %, should a representative committee, meeting
every summer at Athens, so advise the government. The currants
thus taken over by the government cannot be exported unless they
are reduced to pulp, syrup or otherwise rendered unsuitable for
eating purposes ; they may l>e sold locally for wine-making or distil¬
ling, due precautions being taken that they are not used in any other
way. The price of exported currants is thus maintained at an artificial
figure. The Retention Law, which after 1895 was voted annually,
was passed for a period of ten years in 1899. This pernicious
measure, which is in defiance of all economic laws, perpetuates a
superfluous production, retards the development of other branches
of agriculture and burdens the government with vast accumulations
of an unmarketable commodity. It might excusably be adopted as
a temporary expedient to meet a pressing crisis, but as a permanent
system it can only prove detrimental to the country and the currant
growers themselves.
In 1899 a " Bank of Viticulture ” was established at Patras for the
purpose of assisting the growers, to whom it was bound to make
advances at a low rate of interest; it undertook the storage and the
sale of the retained fruit, from which its capital was derived. The
bank soon found itself burdened with an enormous unsaleable
stock, while its loans for the most part remained unpaid ; meantime
over-prod net ion, the cause of the trouble, continued to increase,
and prices further diminished. In 1903 a syndicate of English and
other foreign capitalists made proposals for a monopoly of the export,
guaranteeing fixed prices to the growers. The scheme, which con¬
flicted with Anglo-Greek commercial conventions, was rejected by the
Theotokis ministry; serious disturbances followed in the currant¬
growing districts, and M. Theotokis resigned. His successor, M.
Rallis, in order to appease the cultivators, arranged that the Currant
Bank should offer them fixed minimum prices for the various growths,
and guaranteed it a loan of 6,000,000 dr. The resources.of the bank,
however, gave out before the end of the season, and prices pursued
their downward course. Another experiment was then tried ; the
export duty (15 %) was made payable in kind, the retention quota
being thus practically raised from 20 to 35 %. The only result of this
measure was a diminution of the export: in the spring of 1905 prices
fell very low and the growers began to despair. A syndicate of banks
and capitalists then came forward, which introduced the system now
in operation. A privileged company was formed which obtained
a charter from the government for twenty years, during which period
the retention and export duties are maintained at the fixed rates
of 20 and 15 %-respectively. The company aims at keeping up the
prices of the marketable qualities by employing profitably for
industrial purposes the unexported surplus and retained inferior
qualities; ft pays to .the state 4,000,000 dr. annually under the head
of export duty; oflers all growers at the beginning of each agri¬
cultural year a fixed price of 11J dr. per 1000 Venetian lb irrespective
of quality, and pays a price varying from 115 dr. to 145 dr. according
to quality at the end of the year for the unexported surplus. In
return for these advantages to the growers the company is entitled
to receive 7 dr. on every 1000 ft of currants produced and to dispose
of the whole retained amount. A special company has been formed
for the conversion of the superfluous product into spirit, wine, dtc.
The system may perhaps prove commercially remunerati ve, b ut it
penalizes the producers of the better growths in order to provide a
livelihood for the growers of inferior and unmarketable kinds and
protracts an abnormal situation. The following table gives the
annual currant crop from 1877 to 1905:—
Year.
Total crop
(tons).
Exported to
Gt. Britain.
Exported to
France.
1877
82,181
881
1878
100,004
9,086
1879
9*,31*
. .
19,087
1880
92,337
20,999
1881.
121,994
. .
30,313
1882
109,403
.51,933
26,282
1883
114,980
52,099
24,815
1884
129,268
59,629
39,190'
1885
”3.287
55,765
37,73«>
1886
127,570
48,892
45,ooo
1887
1*7, Ibo
55,549
37,438
1888
158,728
63,7»4
40,735
1889
142,308
.32,25‘
69,555
1B90
146,749
67,502
37 , 8 i 6
1891
>61,54.5
70,762
39,712
1892
116,944
60,418
21,721
1893
119,886
73,000
6,800
1894
*3S,5°°
64,500
15,000
•895
167,695
60,500
26,500
1896
153,514
&5,ooo
6,500
1897
•15,730
63,000
2,000
1898
•53,514
69,300
6,000
1899
•44,071
65,600
3,800
1900
47,236
36,000
3°°
IQOI
139,820
58,000
1,216
1902
152,580
58,400
4,782
1903
•79,499
54,boo
4.470
I9O4
146,500
58,850
820
1905
•62,957
61,700
1,042
The “ peronospora," a species of white blight, first caused con¬
siderable damage in the Greek vineyards in 1892, recurring in 1897
and 1900.
More than half the cultivable area of Greece is devoted to pastur¬
age. Cattle-rearing, as a rule, is a distinct occupation from agri¬
cultural farming ; the herds are sent to pasture on the - .
mountains in the summer, and return to the plains at the
beginning of winter. The larger cattle are comparatively
rare, being kept almost exclusively for agricultural labour; the
smaller are very abundant. Beef is scarcely eaten in Greece, the
milk of cows is rarely drunk and butter is almost unknown. Cheese,
a staple article of diet, is made from the milk of sheep and goats.
The number of larger cattle has declined in recent years; that of
the smaller has increased. The native breed of oxen is small;
buffaloes arc seldom seen except in north-western Thessaly; a few
camels are used in the neighbourhood of Parnassus. The Thessalian
breed of horses, small but Rturdy and enduring, can hardly be taken
to represent the celebrated chargers of antiquity. Mules are much
employed in the mountainous districts; the best type of these
animals is found in the islands. The flocks of long-horned sheep anil
goats add a picturesque feature to Greek rural scenery. The goats
are more numerous in proportion to the population than in any other
European country (137 per 100 inhabitants). The shepherds' dogs
rival those of Bulgaria in ferocity. According to an unofficial estimate
published in 1905 the numbers of the various domestic animals in
1899 were as follows : Oxen and buffaloes, 408,744 ; horses, 157,068;
mules, 88,869; donkeys, 141,174; camels, 51 ; sheep, 4,568,151 ;
goats, 3,339,439; pigs, 79,716- During the four years 1899-1902
the annual average value of imported cattle was 4,218,015 dr., of
exported cattle 209,321 dr.
The forest area (about 2,500,000 acres or one-fifth of the surface
of the mainland) is for the most part state property. The value of
the forests has been estimated at 200,000 000 fr.; the
most productive are in the district extending from the
Hndus range to the Gulf of Corinth. The principal trees are the
oak (about 30 varieties), the various conlferae, the chestnut, maple,
elm, beech, alder, cornel and arbutus. In Greece, as in other lands
formerly subject to Turkish rule, the forests, are not only neglected,
but often deliberately destroyed; this great source of national
wealth is thus continually diminishing. Every year immense forest
fires may be seen raging in the mountains, and many of the most
picturesque districts in the country are converted into desolate
wildernesses. These conflagrations are mainly the work of shep¬
herds eager to provide increased pasturage for their Hooks; they are
sometimes, however, due to the carelessness of smokers, and occa¬
sionally, it is said, to spontaneous ignition in hot weather. Great
damage is also done by the goats, which browse on the young saplings;
file pme trees are much injured by the practice of scoring their bark
for resin. With the disappearance of the trees the soil of the moun¬
tain slopes, deprived of its natural protection, is soon washed away
+36
GREECE
tCOMMEJBCE
by the rein; the rapid docent of the water causes inundations in
the plaint, while the uplands beoome sterile and lose their vegetation.
The china to has been affected by the change; rain falls less fre¬
quently but with greater violence, and the process of denudation is
accelerated. The government has from time to time made efforts
for the protection of the forests, but with little success till recently.
A stall of inspectors and forest guards was first organized in 1877.
The administration of the forests has since 1803 been entrusted to a
department of the Ministry of Finance, which controls a staff of 4
inspectors (iriUtwp^rm), 31 superintendents (Satrapxoi), 52 head
foresters \osrj) and 298 lorester [SatrvtpiiXaKcs)- The
foresters arc aided during the summer months, when fires are most
frequent, by about 500 soldiers and gendarmes. About a third
of these functionaries have received instruction in the school of
forestry at Vythine in the Moron, open since 1898. Owing to the
measures now taken, winch include excommunication by the parish
priests of incendiaries ami their accomplices, the conflagrations have
considerably diminished. The total annual value of the products of
the Greek forests averages 13,000,000 drachmae. The revenue
accruing to the government in 19115 was 1,418,158 dr., as compared
with 583,991 dr. in 1883. The increase is mainiy due to improved
administration. The supply of timber for house-construction, ship¬
building, furniture-making, railway sleepers, &c., is insufficient, and
is supplemented by importation (annual value about 12,000,000
francs); transport is rendered difficult by the lack of roads and
navigable streams. The principal secondary products are valonca
(annual exportation about 1,250,000 fr.) and' resin, which is locally
employed as a preservative ingredient in the fabrication of wine.
The administration of the forests is still defective, and measures
for the augmentation and better instruction of the staff of foresters
have been designed by the government. In 1900 a society for the ro-
attorostiiig of the country districts and environs ol tile large towns
was founded at Athens under the patronage of the crown princess.
The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper manganese,
magnesia, iron, sulphur and coal. Emery, salt, millstone ami
Mima gypsum, which are found in considerable quantities,
are worked by the government. The important mines
at Luurium, a source of great wealth to ancient A tlicus, were reopened
in 1804 by a Franco-Italian company, but were declared to lie state
property m 1871 ; they are now worked by a Greek and a French
company. The output of marketable ore in 1899 amounted to
486,7(10 tons, besides 289,292 tons of dressed lead ore. In 1905
the output was as billows: Raw and roasted manganese iron ore,
113,636 tons; hematite iron ore, 94,734 tons; calamine or zinc
ore, 22,612 tons; arsenic and argentiferous lead, 1875 tons; zinc
blende and galena, 443 tons; total, 233,300 tons, together with
194,857 tons of dressed lead, producing 13,822 tons of silver pig lead
containing 1657 to 1910 grams oi silver per ton. It has been found
profitable to resmelt the scoriae of the ancient workings. The total
value ot the exports from the Laurtum mines, which in 1875 amounted
to only £150,513, had in 1899 increased to £827,209, but Jell til 1905
ti> £499,882. The revenue accruing to the government from all mines
Cliromc.
j Emery.
Gypsum.
! Iron ore .
1 Ferromanganese .
I I.ead (argentiferous pig) ore
■ I-ignite.
Magnesite.
Manganese ore ....
Mill stones.
! Sail.
Sulphur.
Zinc ore .
Tons. 1 Francs.
8,900 1 337,952 '
• 6,972 742,48ft
'85 7,995
465,622 3,3 s 7,467
89,687 1,182,652 I
13,720 1 6,811,702
”■757 143,814
43,408 864,082
8,171 : 122,565
I 12,628 34,660
I 25,201 1 1,638,065 1
I,T 2 fi 1 121,000
. 22,562 2,852,355
and quarries, including those worked bv the state, was estimated
in the budget for 1906 at 1,332,000 dr. The emery of Naxos, which
is a stute mono|ioty, is excellent in quality and very abundant.
Mines of iron ore have latterly been opened at Larimna in I-oeris.
Magnesite mines are worked by an Anglo-Greek company ill Euboea.
There are sulphur and manganese mines in the island of Melos, and
the volcanic island pi Santorin produces pozzolana, a kind ol cement,
which is exported in considerable quantities. The great abundance
of marble in Greece has latterly attracted the attention of foreign
capitalists. New quarries have been opened since 1897 by an
English company on (lie north slope of Mount Featelicus, and are
now connected by rail with Athens and the Peiraeus. The marble
on this side ol the mountain is harder than,that on the south, which
alone was worked by the ancients. The,output in 1005 was 1573
ton*. Mount Penteiicus furnished material for most of the celebrated
buildings of ancient Athena; the marble, which is white, blue-
veined, and somewhat transparent, assumes a rich yellow hue after
long exposure to the air, The famous Parian quarries are still
worked ; whits marble is alto found at Scyros, Tenos and Naxos;
grey at Stoura and Karystoe; variegated at Valaxa and Karystos ;
green on Taygetus and in Thessaly: Mack at Tenos; and red
(porphyry) in Mama.
. T “ e official statistics of the output and value of minerals produced
in 1903 were as in the preceding table. P oouceo
^renumber of persons employed in mining operations in 1905
Owing to the natural aptitude of the Greeks for commerce
and their predilection for a seafaring life a great portion of the
trade of the Levant has fallen into their hands. Im¬
portant Greek mercantile colonies exist in all the Comm * r m
larger ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea,
and many of them possess great wealth. In some of
the islands of the archipelago almost every householder is the
owner or joint owner of a ship. The Greek mercantile marine,
which in r888 consisted of 1352 vessels (70 steamers) with a total
tonnage of 219,415 tons, numbered in 1906, accordmg to official
returns, 1364 vessels (275 steamers) with a total tonnage of
427,291 tons. This figure is apparently too low, as the ship¬
owner* are prone to understate the tonnage in order to dimmish
the payment of dues. Almost the whole corn trade of Turkey
is in Greek hands. A large number of the sailing ships, especially
the smaller vessels engaged in the coasting trade, belong to the
islanders. A considerable portion of the shipping on the Danube
and Truth is owned by the inhabitants of Ithaca and Cephalonia ;
a certain number of their steps (<rA«rta) have latterly been
acquired by Rumanian Jews, but the Greek flag is still pre¬
dominant. There are seven principal Greek steamship companies
owning 40 liners with a total tonnage of 21,972 tons. In 1847
there was but one lighthouse in Greek waters ; in 1906 there
were 70 lighthouses and 68 port lanterns. Hcrmoupolis (Syra)
is the chief seat of the carrying trade, but as a commercial port
it yields to Peiraeus, which is the principal centre of distribution
for imports. Other important ports are Patras, Volo, Corfu,
Kalamata and Laurium.
1 lie following table gives the total value (in francs) of special
Greek commerce lor the given years
! | 1887. 1892. | 1897. I 1002.
Imports 131,840,325 | 110,306,1107 116,363,348 137,220,364
| Exports j 102,652,487 ! 82,261,464 81,708,626 79,663,473
The marked fluctuations in the returns are mainly attributable
to variations in the price and quantity of imported cereals and in
the sale of currants The great excess of imports, caused by the
large importation oi food-stuffs and manufactured articles, is due
to the negier.t of agriculture and the undeveloped condition of local
industries.
The imports and exports for 1905 were distributed as follows :—
; Russia
j Great Britain
Austria-Hungarj
1 Turkey .
Germany
France .
Italy .
j Bulgaria .
' Rumania.
America .
Belgium .
Netherlands .
Egypt . .
Switzerland .
Other countries .
I
j Imports from.
1'rs.
27,725,218
27,516,028
19,444,415
*5,538,370
13,806,687
10,101,070
6,too,253
5 , 135 . 7*8
3,814,641
2,656,501
2,276,303
1,921,762
6 . 34,035
348,281
4 . 555,781
Total
141,756,053
Exports to.
Frs.
810,025
24,436,707
7,876,806
4,5*6,403
7 , 5 * 4,474
7,078,321
4,266,210
133,106
1,152,207
6,440,648
2,068,138
7,180,301
3 , 928,555
4,288,365
83,691,166
An enumeration of the chief articles of importation and exporta¬
tion, together with their value, will be found in tabular form overleaf.
Greece does not possess any manufacturing industries on a large
scale; the absence of a native coal supply is an obstacle to their
development. In 1889 there wore 145 establishments employing
steam of 5568 indicated horse-power; in 1892 the total horse-power
employed was estimated at 10,000. In addition to the smelting-works
at Laurium, at which some 5000 hands are employed by Greek and
French companies and local proprietors, there air flour mill*, cloth,
cotton and silk spinning ntiHs, ship-building and engineering works,
oil-presses, tanneries, powder and dynamite mills, soap mills (about
ARMY]
GREECE
Principal Articles of Importation.
Articles.
1904.
Total value
in francs.
Imported from
the United
Kingdom.
Cereals.
* 7 . 735,808
none
Textiles.
* 7 . 999,344
10,762,464
Raw minerals.
* 3 . 34 *.* 9 *
7,630,633
Forest products ....
10,146,500
9,769
1 Wrought metals . . ...
7 . 757,444
2,162,250
: Coals and pit-coal ....
6,522,086
6,087,068
! Yarn and tissues ....
4 . 739,819
2,504,667
Fish.
4,992,615
2,304,224
Raw hides.
4,558,101
478.965
Various animals ....
4 ,* 71,151
none
Horses.
3 , 0 * 1,450
none
Paper, books, &c.
3 , 3 * 7,*44
* 57 , 0*7
Coffee.
2 , 957 , 6 °*
293,610
Sugar .
2,606,6<)6
none
Rice.
1 , 977.894
6^,882
Colours.
1,750,858
341,839
j Chief Articles of Exportation.
Total value
in francs.
3 *,5*1,784
13,460,620
12,254,190
5,073,84*
8,021,523
1,014,10.(
3 , 909,657
3 , 373,523
2,070,350
3 , 3 * 9,700
3,060/304
2,887,854
1,901.486
2,146,509
1905.
, Imported from
the United
Kingdom.
none
5 , 497 , 17 *
4 , 3 P 8,357
6,838,079
186,072
2 * 5 . 745 '
1,268
none
76,454
107,296
70
236,027
*81,433
Total value
in francs.
Exported to
the United
Kingdom.
Currants.' 28,841,678 1 14,561),137 [
Minerals and raw metals . . 19,134,185 5,161,898
Wmes. 10,084,960 429,143
Tobacco.; 7,285,385 39,312
Olive oil. 4,163,262 212,081
Figs. 3,583,428 62,304
Minerals and metals (worked) 2,754,245 7,75°
Olives. 1,793,362 9,833
! Yalonea. 1,558,678 200,849
I Cognac. 1,027,224 12,099
40), and sonic manufactures of paper, glass, matches, turpentine,white
lead, hats, gloves, candles, S-c. About 100 factories are established
in the neighbourhood of Athens and Peiraeus. The wine industry
(10 factories) is of considerable importance, and the manufacture
of cognat has latterly made great progress ; there are 10 large and
numerous small cognac distilleries. Ship-building is carried on
actively at all the ports on the mainland and islands; about 200
•ships, mostly of low tonnage, an' launched annually.
Public Works .— The important drainage-works at Lake Copais
were taken over by an English company in tHqo. The lake covered
an area of 58,080 acres, the greater part of which is now rendered
lit for cultivation. The drainage works consist of a canal, 28 kilo¬
metres in length, and a tunnel of 600 metres descending through
the mountain to a lower lake, which is connected by a second tunnel
with the sea. The reclaimed land is highly fertile. The area under
crops amounted in 1906 to 27,414 acres, of which 20,744 were let
to tenants and the remainder fanned by the company. The un¬
cultivated portion affords excellent grazing. The canal through the
Isthmus of Corinth was opened to navigation in November 1893.
The total cost of the works, which were begun by a company in 1882,
was 70,000,000 francs. The narrowness of the canal, which is only
24 '6o metres broad at the surface, and the strength of the current
which passes through it, beriously detract from its utility. The hiRh
charges imposed on foreign vessels have proved almost prohibitive.
There are reduced rates for ships sailing in Greek waters. 1 ip to the
31st of July 1906, 37,214 vessels, with a tonnage of 4,971,922, had
passed through the canal. The receipts up to that date were 3,207,835
drachmae (mainly from Greek ships) and 415,976 francs’ (mainly
from foreign ships). In 1905, 2930 vessels (2735 Greek) passed
through, tnc receipts being 281,935 drachmae and 34,142 francs.
The total liabilities of the company in 1906 were about 40,000,000 fr.
The canal would be more frequented by foreign shipping if the
harbours at its entrances were improved, and its aides, which are of
masonry, lined with beams ; efforts are being made to raise funds for
these purposes. . The widening of the Eunpus Channel at Chalcis
to the extent of 21-56 metres was accomplished in 1894. The opera¬
tions involved the destruction of the picturesque Venetian tower
which guarded the strait. A canal was completed in 1903 rendering
navigable the shallow channel between Leucas (Santa Maura) and
the mainland (breadth 15 metres, depth 5 metres). Large careening
docks were undertaken in 1909 at Peiraeus at an estimated cost of
4,750,000 drachmae.
Communications .— Internal communication by roads is improving,
though much remains to be done, especially as regards the quality
of the roads. A considerable Impetus was given to road-making
Total value
in francs.
34,299,780
15,125,07*
5,832,139
6,i57, 0 92
2,150,284
3 , 300 . 43 *
2,607,580
1,138,116
1,917,014
1,991,160
Exported to
the United
Kingdom.
17,008,929
5,438,698
14 7 , 5<>5
64,310
338,190
goo
18,800
146,<>27
2,283
under the Trikoupia admniatratua.
In 1878 there were only 555 m. at
roads; in 1898 there were 2398 m.;
in 1906, 3275 m. Electric trams have
been introduced at Patras. Railways
were open to traffic in 1900 far a length
of 598 m.; in 1906 for a length of
867 m. The circuit of the Morea rail¬
ways (462 m.) was completed in 1902 ;
from Diakophto, on the north coast, a
cogwheel railway, finished in 1894,
ascends to Kalavryta. A very im¬
portant undertaking is the completion
of a line from Peiraeus to the frontier,
the contract for which was signed in
1900 between the Greek government
and the Eastern Railway Extension
Syndicate (subsequently converted into
the Socittt dcs Ckemins dc Per hellt-
nimucs). A line connecting Peiraeus
with Larissa was begun in ,890, but
in 1894 the English company which
had undertaken the contract went into
liquidation. Under the contract of
1900 the line was drawn through
Demerli, in the south of Thessaly, to
Larissa, a distance of 217 m., and con¬
tinued through the vale of Tempo to
the Turkish frontier (about 246 m. in
all). Branch lines have been con¬
structed to Lamia and Chalcis. The
establishment of a connexion with the
continental railway system, by a
junction with the line from Belgrade
to Saloiuca, would be of immense ad¬
vantage to Greece, and the Peiraeus
would become uu important place of
embarkation lor Egypt, India and the
Far East.
Ill 1905 the number of post offices
was 640. Of these 320 were also tele¬
graph and 89 telephone
stations, with 664 clerks;
the remaining post offices *“■**'•'
possess no special staff, but * r * , *‘-
are served by persons who also pursue othor occupations. The
number of postmen and other employees was 889. During the
vear there passed through the post 6,897,899 ordinary letters
for the interior, 2,980,958 for foreign destinations, 2,788,477 from
abroad ; 540,411 registered letters or parcels for the ihterior, 309,907
for foreign countries, and 300,150 from abroad ; 880,073 post-cards
over 4222 m. with 6836 m. of wires; 841,913 inland telegrams,
221,188 service telegrams and 129,036 telegrams to foreign destina¬
tions were despatched, and 169,519 received from abroad. Receipts
amounted to 4,589,601 drachmae (postal service 2,744,212, telegraph
j and telephone services 1,845,389 drachmae) and expenditure to
3,954,742 drachmae.
The Greek army has recently been in *a state of transition.
Its condition has never been satisfactory, partly owing to the
absence of systematic effort in the work of organization,
partly owing to the pernicious influence of political Arm *'
I parties, and in times of national emergency it has never been
in a condition of readiness. The experience of the war of 1897
proved the need of far-reaching administrative changes and
j disciplinary reforms. A scheme of complete reorganization was
subsequently elaborated under the auspices of the crown prince
Constantine, the commander-in-chief, and received the assent
of the Chamber in June 1904. During the war of 1897 about
65,000 infantry, jooo cavalry, and 24 batteries were put into the
field, and after great efforts another 15,000 men were mobilized.
Under the new scheme it is proposed to maintain on a peace
footing 1887 officers, 25,140 non-commissiohed officers and men,
and 4059 horses and mules; in time of war the active army
will consist of at least 120,000 men and the territorial army of
at least 60,000 men. The heavy expenditure entailed by the
project has been an obstacle to its immediate realization. In
order to meet this expenditure a special fund has been instituted
in addition to the ordinary military budget, and certain revenues
have been assigned to it amounting to about 5,500,000 drachmae
annually. In 1906, however, it was decided to suspend partially
for five yean the operation of the law of 1904 and to devote
43 8
GREECE
[NAVY
the rmourcet thus economized together with other funds to
the immediate purchase of new armaments and equipment.
Under this temporary arrangement the peace strength of the
army in 1908 consisted of 1939 officers and civilians, 19,416
non-commissioned officers and men and 2661 horses and
mules; it is calculated that the reserves will furnish about
77,000 men and the territorial army about 37,000 men in time
of war.
Military service is obligatory, and liability to serve begins
from the twenty,-first year. The term of service comprises
two years in the active army, ten years in the active army
reserve (for cavalry eight years), eight years in the territorial
army (for cavalry ten years) and ten years for all branches in
the territorial army reserve. As a rule, however, the period
of service in the active army has hitherto been considerably
shortened; with a view to economy, the men, under the law
of 1904, receive furlough after eighteen months with the colours.
Exemptions from military service, which were previously very
numerous, are also restricted considerably by the law of 1904,
which will secure a yearly contingent of about 13,000 men in
time of peace. The conscripts in excess of the yearly contingent
are withdrawn by lot; they are required to receive six months'
training in the ranks as supernumeraries before passing into the
reserve, in which they form a special category of “ liability ” men.
Under the temporary system of 1906 the contingent is reduced
to about 10,000 men by postponing the abrogation of several
exemptions, and the period of service is fixed at fourteen months
for all the conscripts alike. The field army as constituted by
the law of 1904 consists of 3 divisions, each division comprising
2 brigades of infantry, each of 2 regiments of 3 battalions and
other units. There are thus 36 battalions of infantry (of which
12 are cadres); also 6 battalions of cvzones (highlanders),
18 squadrons of cavalry (6 cadres), 33 batteries of artillery (6
cadres), 3 battalions of engineers and telegraphists, 3 companies
of ambulance, 3 of train, &c. The artillery is composed of 24
field batteries, 3 heavy and 6 mountain batteries ; it is mainly
provided with Krnpp 7-5 cm. guns dating from 1S70 or earlier.
After a series of trials in 1907 it was decided to order 36 field
lotteries of 7-5 cm. quick-firing guns and 6 mountain batteries,
in all 168 guns, with 1500 projectiles for each battery from the
Creuzot factory. The infantry, which was hitherto armed
with the obsolete Gras rifle 1-433 in.), was furnished in 1907 with
the Miinnlicher-Schonauer (model 1903) of which 100,000 had
been delivered in May 1908. Hitherto the gendarmerie, which
replaced the police, have formed a corps drawn from the army,
which in 1908 consisted 01194 officers and 6344 non-commissioned
officers and men, but a law passed in 1907 provided for these
forces being thenceforth recruited separately by voluntary
enlistment in annual contingents of 700 men. The participation
of the officers in politics, which has proved very injurious to
discipline, has been checked by a law forbidding officers below
the rank of colonel to stand for the Chamber. In the elections
of 1905 115 officers were candidates. The three divisional
headquarters are at Larissa, Athens and Missolonghi; the six
headquarters of brigades are at Trikkala, Larissa, Athens,
Chalcis. Missolonghi and Nuuplia. In 1907 annual manoeuvres
were instituted.
The Greek fleet consisted in 1907 of 3 armoured barbette ships
of 4885 tons (built in France in 1890, reconstructed 1899),
Nary carrying each three io-8-in. guns, five 6-in., thirteen
quick-firing and smaller guns, and three torpedo tubes ;
1 cruiser of 1770 tons (built in 1879V with two 6-7-in. and six
light quick-firing guns ; i armoured central battery ship of
1774 tons (built 1867, reconstructed 1897) with two 8-4 in.
and nine small quick-firing guns ; 2 coast-defence gunboats
with one io-6-in. gun each ; 4 corvettes ; 1 torpedo depot ship ;
8 destroyers, each with six guns (ordered in 1905); 3 transport
steamers; 7 small gunboats ; 3 mining boats ; 5'torpedo boats ;
1 royal yacht 2 school ships and various minor vessels. The
personnel of the navy'was composed in 1907 of 437 officers, 26
cadets, 1118 petty officers, 3372 seamen and stokers, 60 boys
and 99 civilians, 1 together with 386 artisans employed at the
arsenal. The navy is manned chiefly by conscription; the period
of service is two years, with four years in the reserve. Th e
headquarters of the fleet and arsenal are in the island of Salamis
where there is a dockyard with naval stores, a floating dock and
a torpedo school. Most of the vessels of the Greek fleet were in
1907 obsolete; in 1904 a commission under the presidency
of Prince George proposed the rearmament of the existing iron¬
clads and the purchase of three new ironclads and other
vessels. A different scheme of reorganization, providing almost
exclusively for submarines and scout vessels, was suggested
to the government by the P'rench admiral Fournier in 1908, but
was opposed by the Greek naval officers. With a view to the
augmentation and better equipment of the fleet a special fund
was instituted in 1900 to which certain revenues have been
assigned; it has been increased by various donations and
bequests and by the proceeds of a state lottery. The fleet is not
exercised methodically either in navigation or gunnery practice ;
a long voyage, however, was undertaken by the ironclad vessels
in 1904. The Greeks, especially the islanders of the Aegean,
make better sailors than soldiers ; the personnel of the navy,
if trained by foreign officers, might be brought to a high state
of efficiency.
The financial history of Greece has been unsatisfactory from tbe
outset. .Excessive military and naval expenditure (mainly due to
repeated and hasty mobilizations), a lax and improvident
Bystem of administration, the corruption of political parties ™“®“-
and the instability of the government, which has rendered impossible
the continuous application of any scheme of fiscal velorm all alike
have contributed to the economic ruin of the country. For a long
scries of years preceding the declaration of national insolvency in
1893 successive budgets presented a deficit, which in years of political
excitement and military activity assumed enormous proportions:
the shortcomings of the budget were supplied by the proceeds of
foreign loans, or by means of advances obtained in the country at
a high rate of interest. The two loans which had been contracted
during the war of independente were extinguished by means of a
conversion in 1K89. Of the existing foreign loans the earliest is
that of 60,000,000 frs., guaranteed by the three protecting powers
in 1S32 ; owing to the payment of interest and amortization by tin-
powers, the capital amounted in 1871 to 100,392,833 fr.; on this
Greece pays an annual sum of 900,000 fr., of which 300,000 have been
granted by the powers as a yearly subvention to King George.
The only other existing foreign obligation of early date is the debt to
the heirs of King Otlio (4,500,000 dr.) contracted in 1868. A large
amount of internal debt was incurred between 1848 and 1880, but
a considerable proportion of this was redeemed with the proceeds
of the foreign loans negotiated after this period. At the end of 1880
the entire national debt, external and internal, stood at 252,652,481
dr. In 1S81 the era of great foreign loans began. X11 that year a 5 %
loan oi 120,000,000 fr. was raised to defray the expenses of the
mobilization of 1880. This was followed m 1884 by a 5 % loan of
170,000,000 fr., of which 100,000,000 was actually issued. The
service-of these loans was guaranteed by various State revenues. A
" patriotic loan " of 30,000,000 dr. without interest, issued during the
war excitement of 1885, proved a failure, only 2,723,860 dr. being
subscribed. In 1888 a 4 % loan of 135,000,000 fr. was contracted,
secured on the receipts of the five State monopolies, the management
of which was entrusted to a privileged company. In the following
year (i88q) two 4 % loans of 30,000,000 fr. and 125,000,000 fr.
respectively were issued without guarantee or sinking fund ; Greek
credit had now apparently attained an established position in the
foreign money market, but a decline of public confidence soon
became evident. In 1890, of a 5 % loan of 80,000,000 fr, effective,
authorized for the construction of the Peiraeus-l.arissa railway,
only 40,050,000 fr. was taken up abroad and 12,900,000 fr. at home ;
large portions of the proceeds were devoted to other purposes.
In 1892 the government was compelled to make large additions
to the internal floating debt, and to borrow 16,500,000 fr. from the
National Bank on onerous terms. In 1893 aii effort to obtain a
foreign loan for the reduction of the forced currency proved unsuccess¬
ful. (For the events leading up to the declaration of national
bankruptcy m that year see under tiund History.) A fundin';
convention was concluded in the summer, under which the creditors
accepted scrip instead of cash payments of interest. A few months
later this arrangement was reversed by the Chamber, and on the
13th December a law was passed assigning provisionally to all the
foreign loans alike 30 % of the stipulated interest: the reduced
coupons were made payable in paper instead of gold, the sinking
funds were suspended, and the sums encashed by the monopoly
oompany were confiscated. The causes of the financial catastrophe
may be briefly summarized as follows : (1) The military prepara¬
tions of 1885-1886, with the attendant disorganization of the
country; the extraordinary expenditure of these years amounted to
>3°.987,772 dr. (a) Excessive borrowing abroad, involving a charge
FINANCE]
GREECE
439
for the service of foreign loans altogether disproportionate to the
revenue. (3) Kemissnese in the collection of taxation; the total
loss through arrears in a period of ten years (1882 -1891) was
36,549,203 dr., being in the main attributable to non-payment of
direct taxes. {4) The adverse balance of trade, largely due to the
neglected condition of agriculture; in the five years preceding the
crisis (1888-1892) the exports were stated to amount to £19,578,973,
while the imports reached £24,890,146; foreign live stock and cereals
being imported to the amount of £6,193,579. The proximate cause
of the crisis was the rise in the exchange owing to the excessive
amount of paper money in circulation. Forced currency was first
introduced in 1868, when 15,000,000 dr. in paper money was issued;
it was abolished in the following year, but reintroduced in 1877 with
a paper issue of 44,000,000 dr. It was abolished a second time in
1884, but again put into circulation in 1885, when paper loans to
the amount of 45,000,000 dr. were authorized. In 1893 the total
authorized forced currency was 146,000,000 dr., of which 88,000,000
(including 14,000,000 dr. in small notes) was on account of the govern¬
ment. The gold and silver coinage had practically disappeared from
circulation. The rate of exchange, as a rule, varies directly with the
amount of paper money in circulation, but, owing to speculation, it
is liable to violent fluctuations whenever there is an exceptional
demand for gold in the market. In 1893 the gold franc stood at
the ratio of 1 -Go to the paper drachma ; the service of the foreign
loans required upwards of 31,000,000 dr. in gold, and any attempt
to realize this sum in the market would have involved an outlay
equivalent to at least half the budget With the failure of the
projected loan for the withdrawal of the forced currency repudiation
became inevitable. The law of the 13th of December was not recog¬
nized by the national creditors: prolonged negotiations followed,
but no arrangement was arrived at till 1897, when the intervention
of the powers after the war with Turkey furnished the opportunity
for a definite settlement. It was stipulated that Turkey should
receive an indemnity of £T4,000,000 contingent on the evacuation
of Thessaly ; in order to secure the payment of this sum by Greece
without prejudice to the interests of her creditors, and to enable
the country to recover from the economic consequences of the war,
Great Britain, France and Russia undertook to guarantee a 2J %
loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which 150,000,000 fr. has been issued.
By the preliminary treaty of peace (18th of September 1897) an
International Financial Commission, composed of six representatives
of the powers, was charged with the payment of the indemnity to
I urkey, and with " absolute control ” over the collection and
employment of revenues sulficient for the service of the foreign debt.
A law defining the powers of the Commission was passed by the
Chamber, 26th of February 1898 (o.s.). The revenues assigned
to its supervision were the five government monopolies, the tobacco
and stamp dutieB, and the import duties of Peiraeus (total annual
value estimated at 39,600,000 dr.) : the collection was entrusted to a
(Ireek society, which is under the absolute control of the Commission.
The retums'of Peiraeus customs (estimated at 10,700,000 dr.) are
regarded as an extra guarantee, and are handed over to the Greek
government; when the produce of the other revenues exceeds
28,900,000 dr. the " plus value " or surplus is divided in the propor¬
tion of 50-8 % to the Greek government and 49-2 % to the creditors.
The plus values amounted to 3,301,481 dr. in 1898, 3,533,755 dr.
in 1899, and 3,442,713 dr. in 1900. Simultaneously with the estab¬
lishment of the control the interest for the Monopoly Loan was
fixed at 43 %, for the Funding Loan at 40 %, and for the other
loans at 32 % of the original interest. With the revenues at its
disposal the International Commission has already been enablod
to make certain augmentations in the service of the foreign debt;
since 1900 it has begun to take measures ior the reduction of the
forced currency, of which 2,000,000 dr. will be annually bought up
and destroyed till the amount in circulation is reduced to 40,000,000
dr. On the 1st of January tqoT the authorized paper issue was
>64,000,000 dr., of which 92,000,000 (including 18,000,000 in
fractional currency) was on account of the government; the amount
in actual circulation was 148,619,618 dr. On the 31st of July 1906
the paper issue had been reduced to 152,775,975 dr., and the amount
in circulation was 124,668,057 dr. The financial commission retains
its powers until the extinction of all the foreign loans contracted
since 1881. Though its activity is mainly limited to tile administra¬
tion of the assigned revenues, it has exercised a beneficial influence
over the whole domain of Greek finance ; the effect may be observed
in the greatly enhanced value of Greek securities since its institution,
averaging 2576 % in 1906. No change can be made in its composi¬
tion or working without the consent of the six powers, and none of
the officials employed in the collection of the revenues subject to its
control can be dismissed or transferred without its consent. It
thus constitutes an element of stability and order which cannot
fail to react on the general administration. It is unable, however,
to control the expenditure or to assert any direct influence over
the government, with which the responsibility still restB for an im¬
proved system of collection, a more efficient stafl of functionaries
and the repression of smuggling. The country has shown a re¬
markable vitality in- recovering from the disasters of 1897, and
should it in future obtain a respite from paroxysms of mili¬
tary and political excitemc-.it, its financial regeneration will be
assured.
The following table give* the actnal expenditure and receipts for
the period 1889-1906 inclusive;
| Year.
!
Actual
Receipts
Actual I Surplus or
Expenditure.! Deficit.
|
<889
1890
r8gr
1892
1*93 1
i 1894
; i *95
1896 .
1897 a
1898“
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
Drachmae.
83 , 731,591
79 , 93 L 795
90,3*1,872
93,463,569
,£&!:£!
94,657,065
96,931,726
92,483,825
104,949,718
in,318,273
112,206,849
115 , 734,159
1 * 3 , 949,931
120,194,362
121,186,246
126,472,580
*25,753,358
Drachmae. ' Drachmae.
110,772,327 1 - 27,040,736
1 * 5 , 932,579 -46,000,784
122,836,383 | -32,524,513
*07,283,498 1 -11,817,929
92,133,565 j + 4,589,853
85,135,752 j + 17 , 749,891
91,641,967 + 3,015,098
90,890,607 + 6,041,119
137 , 043,929 ! - 44 , 558,104
110 , 341,431 ~ 5 , 391,713
104,586,504 + 6,737,769
112 , 049,279 + 137,570
113,646,301 + 2,087,858
121,885,707 1 + 2,064,224
" 7 , 436,549 j + 2,757,813
120,200,247 + 985,999
118,699,761 j+ 7,772,819
124 , 461,577 ; + 1 , 291,781
The steady increase of receipts since 1898 attests tile growing
prosperity of the country, but expenditure lias been allowed to out¬
strip revenue, and, notwithstanding the official figures which
represent a series of surpluses, the accumulated deficit in 1905
amounted to about 14,000,000 dr. in addition to treasury bonds for
8,000,000 dr. A remarkable feature has been the rapid fall in the
exchange since 1903 ; the gold franc, which stood at 1 03 dr. in 1902
had fallen to 1-08 in October 1906. The decline, a favourable
symptom if resulting from normal economic factors, is apparently
due to a combination of exceptional circumstances, and consequently
may not he maintained ; it has imposed a considerable strain on the
financial and commercial situation. The purchasing power of the
drachma remains almost stationary and the price* of imported
commodities continues high; import dues, which since 1904 are
payable in drachmae at the fixed rate of 1 -45 to the franc, have been
practically increased by more than 30 %. In April 1900 a 4 % loan
of 43,750,000 francs for the completion ol the railway from Peiraeus
to the Turkish frontier, and another loan of 11,750,000 drachmae
for the construction of a line from Pyrgos to Meliigala, linking up
the Morea railway system, were sanctioned by the Chamber; the
first-named, the “ Greek Railways Loan," was taken up at 80 by the
syndicate contracting for the works and was placed on the market
in 1902. The service of both loans is provided by the International
Commission from the surplus funds of the assigned revenues. On
the 1st of January 1906 the external debt amounted to 725,939,500
francs and the internal (including the paper circulation) to r 71,629,4 36
drachmae.
The budget estimates for 1906 were us follows: Civil list, 1,325,000
dr.; pensions, payment of deputies, &c., 7,706,676 dr.; public debt,
34,253,471 dr.; foreign affairs, 3,363,994 dr.; justice, 6,240,271
dr.; interior, 13,890,927 dr.; religion and education. 7,143,924 dr.;
army, 20,618,563 dr.; navy, 7,583,369 dr.; finance, 2,362,143
dr.; collection of revenue, 10,650,487 dr.; various expenditure,
9,122,732 dr.; total, 124,461,577 dr.
The two privileged banks in Greece aVc the National Bank,
founded in 1841 ; capital 20,000,000 drachmae in 20,000 shares of
1000 dr. each, fully paid up; reserve fund 13,500,000 dr.; notes
in circulation (September 1906) 126,721,887 dr., of which 76,360,903
dr. on account of the government; and the Ionian Bank, incorporated
in 1839; capital paid up £315,500 in 63,102 shares of £5 each;
notes in circulation, 10,200,000 drachmae, of which 3,500,000 (in
fractional notes of 1 and 2 dr.) on account of the government. The
notes issued by these two banks constitute the forced paper currency
circulating throughout the kingdom. In the case of the Ionian Bank
the privilege of issuing notes, originally limited to the Ionian IslandB,
will expire in 1920. The National Bank is a private institution under
supervision of the government, which is represented by a royal
commissioner on the board of administration ; the central establish¬
ment is at Athens with forty-two branches throughout the country.
The headquarters of the Ionian Bank, which is a British institution,
are in London; the bank has a central office at Athens and five
branches in Greece. The privileged Epiro-Thessalian Bank ceased to
exist from the 4th of January 1900, when it was amalgamated with
the National Bank. There are several other banking companies, as
well as private banks, at Athens. The most important is the Bank
of Athens (capital 40,090.000 dr.), founded in 1893; It possesses
five branches in Greece and six abroad.
Greece entered the Latin Monetary Union in 1868. The monetary
unit is the new drachma, equivalent to the franc, and divided into
1 Reduction of interest on foreign debt by 70 %.
’ War with Turkey.
* International Financial Commission instituted.
44 ®
GREECE
[HISTORY
too lepta or centimes. There,«e nickel coin* <rf ao, loaod j kpta,
copper coins of ro and 5 lepta. Gold and silver coins were minted
c in Paris between 1868 and 1884, but have since practic-
wrnMUm'’ *^y disappeared from the country. The paper currency
--g consists of notes for 1000 dr., 300 dr., 100 dr., 25 dr., 10
mission dr. and 3 dr., and of fractional notes for 2 dr. and 1 dr.
The decimal system ol weights and measures was adopted
in 1876, but some of the old Turkish standards are still in general
use. The dram *. A oz. avoirdupois approximately ; the oke — 400
drams or 2'8 lh ; tlic kilo = za okes or 0114 of an imperial quarter;
the cantar or quintal -44 okes or iz,vz lb. Liquids are measured
by weight The punta = 1J in.; the ruppa, 3J in. ; the pik, zO in. ;
the stadion = I kilometre or 10034 yds. The stremma (square
measure) is nearly one-third of an acre. ■
AiiTllOkmes.—W. Leake, Researches in Greece (1814), Travels in
the Morea (3 vols., 1830), Travels in Northern Greece (4 vols., 14)34),
Peln/mnnesiaca (184b); Bursian, Geographie von Grieehenland (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1862-1873 ); Lolling, " Hellcnische Landesltunde und
Topographic ” in Ivan Midler's Handhuch der klassischcn Altertums-
wissenschaft; C. Wordsworth, Greece ; Pictorial, Descriptive and
Historical (new ed., revised by H. F. Tozor (London, 1882) ; K.
Stephanos, /.a Grtic (Paris, 1884); C. Neumann and J. Partsch,
Physikahschc Geographic von Grieehenland (Breslau, 1885) ; K
Krumbacher, Grieihische Raise (Berlin, 1886) ; J, p. Makaffv
Rambles and Studies in Greece (Loudon, 1887); It. A. H. Bickford-
Smith, Greece under King George (Ixmdon, 1893) ; Ch. Iliehl, H\-
cursnms anhiologtgkes en Grice (Paris, 1893) ; 1 ‘errot and Chipiez
Histone de Vent, tome vi., "La Grfice primitive” (Paris, 1894);
tome vii., ” La Grice archatque ” (Paris, 1898) ; A. Philippson,
Grieehenland und seine Stellung im Orient (Leipzig, 1897) ; L.
Sergeant, Greece in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1897); J. G.
Frazer, Pausanias’s Description 0/ Greece (6 vols., Loudon, 1898) ;
Pausanias and other Greek Sketches (London, 1900) ; Greio-Turhish
War of /,!'()7, from official sources, by a German staff officer (Eng.
trans., London, 1898) ; J. A, Symonds, Studies, and Sketches in
Italy and Greece (3 vols., 2n<l ed., London, 1898) ; V. Birard, La
Turqutc rt rhelttmstnt rontemporaine (Paris, 1900).
For the climate : D. Aeginetes, Td china rj)« 'BXXrfJos (Athens,
I9O0).
** the faflna: lh, de Heldreich, Let fauna de la Grice (Athens
1878).
For special topography : A. Meliarakes, KraX««uti ffroi yrerypapla
sal IffTopia ruv Kvi\aiiKwr vipw (Athens, (874) ; 'Tiro/usij/mTa Tepiypadneh
Tier Kvk\Aouv siJitus "hripov uni Kdu (Athens, 1880); Veuypaupia
* ai i PX ala to!i "“d ” 8 ’hpydhlSen sal KogisWat (Athens,
1880); Uny/nple roNTiKp Ha sal ipyata rev ropaB KedmWvrias.
(Athens, 1890); J h. Bent, The Cyclades (London, 18X3) • A
Botticher, Olympia (and ed., Berlin, 1886) ; J. Partsch Du .Inset
Corfu: etne geographtsche Monographic (Gotha, 1887); Die Inset
Leukas (Gotha, i88y) ; Kephallenia und Hhnka (Gotha 1800) •
Die Inset Zanlt (Gotha, 1891) ; A. Philippson, Der Petoponnes.
(f ersuch enter Landeskunde auf geologisther Grundlage.) ' (Berlin
1802 ; Thessahen tmd Epirus ” [Reiser, und Forsrhungen im
ntndhchen Grieehenland) (Berlin, 1807); Die grie, hise.hen Inseln
^j l eri | n A l8<)7i 1 W - J- Woodhouse, Aetolta
c, f ,V T 8 S 7) : Scl,l,lt ' r and Barnsley, The Monastery of St Luke of
Stnts (London, 1901); M. Lampriuides, H NmurXla (Athens, 1898) ;
Memuments de I art bysantm, publibspar le Ministire de TInstruction
tome 1.; G. Millet, " 1.0 Monastire de Daplim” (Paris, iqoo). For
the life, customs ami habits of the modem Greeks : C. Wachsmuth
Das alte Gnahenland ,m neuen (Bonn, 1864) ; C. K. Tuckcrman!
The Greeks of to-day London, 1873) ; B. Schmidt, Volkslehen der
Ntugrurhen und tins heltemrchr Altertum (Leipzig, 1871) ■ Estour-
nellf* tie Constant, La Vie dr province eti Order (Paris T878) • F
coniemporatne (Pans, 1833 : 8th ed., 1883) ; V f!
Bctg Modern l ife and Thought among tlic Greeks (Izmdon, i8qi) ;
rhe Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (London,
ir,? 2 ?' ' Baedeker's Greece (3rd cd., U-ipzig, 1005);
sj C l'" ce (7th rA ' L, ’ nilt, n, 1905); Macmillan's
Guide to tlu kastem Mediterranean (London, igoi). (J, D. B.)
History
a. Ancient; to T46 b.c.
1. Introductory ,—It is necessary to indicate at the outset the
scope and otnect of the present article. The reader must not
expect to find in it a compendious summary of the chief events
in the history of ancient Greece. It is not intended to supply
an * Outlines of Greek History.” It may be questioned whether
such a sketch of the history, within the limits of space which are
necessarily imposed in a work of reference, would be of utility
to any class of readers. At any rate, the plan of the present
work, in which the subject, of Greek history is treated of in a
large number of separate articles, allows of the narrative of
events being given in a more satisfactory form under the more
general of the headings (e.g. Athens, Sparta, Peloponnesian
War). Hie character of the history itself suggests a further
reason why a general article upon Greek hijtoty should not
be confined to, or even attempt, a narrative of events. A sketch
of Greek history is not possible in the sense in which a sketch of
Roman history, or even,of English history, is possible. Greek
history is not the history of a single state. When Aristotle
composed his work upon the constitutions of the Greek states
he found it necessary to extend his survey to no less than 138
states. Greek history is thus concerned with more than 130
separate and independent political communities. Nor is it even
the history of a single country. The area occupied by the Greek
race extended from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, and from
southern Russia to northern Africa. It is inevitable, therefore
that the impression conveyed by a sketch of Greek histoty
should be a misleading one. A mere narrative can hardly fail
to give a false perspective. Experience shows that such a
sketch is apt to resolve itself into the history of a few great
movements and of a few leading states. What is still worse,
it is apt to confine itself, at any rate for the greater part of the
period dealt with, to the history of Greece in the narrower sense,
i.e. of the Greek peninsula. For the identification of Greece
with Greece proper there may be some degree of excuse when we
come to the 5th and 4th centuries. In the period that lies behind
the year 500 b.c. Greece proper forms but a small part of the
Greek world. In the 7th and 6th centuries it is outside Greece
itself that we must look for the most active life of the Greek
people and the most brilliant manifestations of the Greek spirit.
The present article, therefore, will be concerned with the causes
and conditions of events, rather than with the events themselves ;
it will attempt analysis rather than narrative, its object will’
be to indicate problems and to criticize views; to suggest
lessons and parallels, and to estimate the importance of the
Hellenic factor in the development of civilization.
2. The Minoan and Mycenaean Ages.—When does Greek
history begin ?_ Whatever may be the answer that is given to
this question, it will be widely different from any that could
have been proposed a generation ago. Then the question was,
How late does Greek history begin ? To-day the question is,
How early docs it begin ? The suggestion made by Grote that
the first Olympiad (776 b.c.) should be taken as the starting-
point of the history of Greece, in the proper sense of the term
history, seemed likely, not so many years ago, to win general
acceptance. At the present moment the tendency would seem
to be to go back as far as the 3rd or 4th millennium b.c. in order
to reach a starting-point. It is to the results of archaeological
research during the last thirty years that we must attribute so
startling a change in the attitude of historical science towards
this problem. In the. dayswhen Grote published the first volumes
of his History of Greece archaeology wus in its infancy. Its
results, so far as they affected the earlier periods of Greek history,
were scanty ; its methods were unscientifir. The methods have
been gradually perfected by numerous workers in the field ; but
the results, which have so profoundly modified our conceptions
of the early history of the Aegean area, arc principally due to the
discoveries of two men, Heinrich Schliemann and A. J. Evans.
A full account of these discoveries will be found elsewhere (see
Aegean Civilization and Crete). It will be sufficient to
mention here that Schliemann’s labours began with the excava¬
tions on the site of Troy in the years 1870-1873 ; that he passed
on to the excavations at Mycenae in 1876 and to those at Tiryns
in 1884,, It was the discoveries of these years that revealed
t0 jji l " e Mycenacan ®B e > and carried back the history to the
middle of the and millennium. The discoveries of I)r A. J. Evans
m the island of Crete belong to a later period. The work of *
excavation was begun in 1900, and was carried on in subsequent
years. It has revealed to us the Minoan age, and enabled us
to trace back the development and origins of the civilization
for a further period of 1000 or 1500 years. The dates assigned
by archaeologists to the different periods of Mycenaean and
Minoan art must be regarded as merely approximate. Even
the relation of the two civilizations is still, to some extent, a
matter of conjecture. The general chronological scheme,
HISTORY} . GRMuttB 4-4*1
however, in the sense of the relative order of the vicious period*
and the approximate interval* between them, h too firmly
established, both by internal evidence, soch as tine development
of the styles of pottery, and of the art in general, and by external
evidence, such as the points of contact with Egyptian art and
history, to admit of its being any longer. seriously called in
question. t
If, then, by “ Greek history ” is to be understood the history
of the lands occupied in later (jme's by the Greek race (t.e. the
Greek peninsula and the Aegean basin), the beginnings of the
history must be carried back some 2000 years before Grote’s
proposed starting-point. If, however, “ Greek history ” is taken
to mean the history of the Greek people, the determination of
the starting-point is far from easy. For the question to which
archaeology does not as yet supply any certain answer is the
question of race. Were the creators of the Minoan and
Mycenaean civilization Greeks or were they not ? In some
degree the Minoan evidence has modified the answer suggested
by the Mycenaean. Although wide differences of opinion as to
the origin of the Mycenaean civilization existed among scholars
when the results of Schliemana’s labours were first given to the
world, a general agreement had gradually been arrived at in
favour of the view which would identify Mycenaean with Achaean
or Homeric. In presence of the Cretan evidence it is no longer
possible to maintain this view with the same confidence. The
two chief difficulties in the way of attributing either the Minoan
or the Mycenaean civilization to an Hellenic people are connected
respectively with the script and the religion. The excavations
at Cnossus have yielded thousands of tablets written in the linear
script. There is evidence that this script was in use among the
Mycenaeans as well. If Greek was the language spoken at
Cnossus and Mycenae, how is it that all attempts to decipher
the script have hitherto failed ? The Cretan excavations, again,
have taught us a great deal as to the religion of the Minoan age ;
they have, at the same time, thrown a new light upon the evidence
supplied by Mycenaean sites. It is no longer possible to ignore
the contrast between the cults of the Minoan and Mycenaean
ages, and the religious conceptions which they imply, und the
cults and religious conceptions prevalent in the historical period.
On the other hand, it may safely be asserted that the argument
derived from the Mycenaean art, in which we seem to trace a
freedom of treatment which is akin to the spirit of the later
Greek art, and is in complete contrast to the spirit of Oriental
art, has received striking confirmation from the remains of
Minoan art. The decipherment of the script would at once
solve the problem. We should at least know whether the
dominant race in Crete in the Minoan age spoke an Hellenic or
a non-Hellenic dialect. And what could be inferred with regard
to Crete in the Minoan age could almost certainly be inferred
with regard to the mainland in the Mycenaean age. In the
meanwhile, possibly until the tablets are read, at any rate until
further evidence is forthcoming, any answer that can be given
to the question must necessarily be tentative and provisional.
(See Aegean Civilization.)
It has already been implied that this period of the history
of Greece may be subdivided into a Minoan and a Mycenaean
age. Whethor these terms are appropriate is a question of
comparatively little importance. They at least serve to remind
us of the part played by the discoveries at Mycenae and Cnossus
in the reconstruction of the history. The term “ Mycenaean,”
it is true, has other associations than those of locality. It may
seem to imply that the civilization disclosed in the excavations
at Mycenae is Achaean in character, and that it is to be connected
with the Pelopid dynasty to which Agamemnon belonged. In
its scientific use, the term must be cleared of all such associations.
Further, as opposed to “ Minoan ” it must be understood in a
more definite sense than that in which it has often been employed.
It has come to be generally recognized that two different periods
are to be distinguished in Schhemann's discoveries at Mycenae
itself. There is an earlier period, to which belong the objects
found in the sbafthgraves, and there is a later period, to which
belong the beehive tombs and the remains of the palaces. It
is the Utter period which is “ Mycenaean ” in the strict sense ;
i*. it is “■yoeoaean ” fe opposed to “ Ifineea.’" To this
period belong also tbe*pMace'at Tiryns, Che beehive-tombs
discovered elsewhere on the mainland Greece and one of the
cities on the site of Troy (Schliemaim’s sixth). The pottery
of this period is as characteristic of it, both in its forms (e.g. this
“ stirrup ” or “ false-necked ’’ form of vase)%ncyn its peculiar
glaze, as is the architecture of the palaces and the Beehive-tomHI.
Although the chief remains have been found on the %iainland
of Greece itself, the art of this period is found to have extended
as far north as Troy \nd as far east as Cyprus. On the other
band, hardly any traces of it have been discovered on the west
coast of Asia Minor, south of the Troad. The Mycenaean age,
in this sense, may be regardeddlpextending from i6ap to 1290 b.c.
The Minoan age is of far wider extent. Its latest'period includes
both the earlier and the later periods of the remains found at
Mycenae. This is the period called by Dr Evans “ Late-Minoan.” ,
To this period belong the Great Palace at Cnossus and the
linear system of writing. The “ Middle Minoan ” period, to
which the earlier palace belongs, is characterized by .the picto-
graphic system of writing Mid by polychrome pdktery of a
peculiarly beautiful kind. E§ Evans proposes to carry back
this period as far as 2500 b.c. Even behind it there - are traces
of a still earlier civilization. Thus the Minoan age, even Sf-
limited to the middle and later periods, will cover at least a
thousand years. Perhaps the most surprising result of the
excavations in Crete is the discovery that Minoan art is on a
higher level than Mycenaean art. To the scholars of a generation ,
ago it seemed a thing incredible that the art of the shaft-graves, #
and the architecture of the beehive-tombs and the palaces, could
belong to the age before the Dorian invasion. The most recant*.'
discoveries seem to indicate that the art of Mycenae is a decMeni*
art; they certainly prove that an art, hardly inferior in its way
to the art of the classical jieriod, and a civilization which implies .
the command of great material resources, were flourishing in the
Aegean perhaps a thousand years before the siege of Troy.
To the question, “ What is the origin of this civilization ?
Is it of foreign derivation or of native growth ? ” it is not
possible to give a direct answer. It is clear, on the one
hand that it was developed, by a gradual process of •
differentiation, from a culture which was common to
the whole Aegean basin and extended as far to the
west as Sicilv. It is equally dear, on the other hand, that
foreign influences contributed largely to the process of develop¬
ment. F.gvptian influences, in particular, can be traced through- ,
out th* “ Minoan ” and “ Mycenaean ” periods. The developed
art, however, both in Crete and on the mainland, displays
characteristics which are the very opposite of those which are
commonly associated with the term V oriental." Egyptian
work, even of the best period, is stiff and conventional; in the
best Cretan work, and, in a less degree, in Mycenaean work,
we find an originality and a freedom of treatment which remind
one of the spirit of the Greek artists. The dvilization is, in
many respects, of an advanced type. The Cretan architects
could design on a grand scale, and could carry out their designs
with no small degree of mechanical skill. At Cnossus we find a
system of drainage in use, which is far in advance of anything
known in the nfbdem world before the rqth century. If the art
of the Minoan age falls short of the art of the Periclean age, it is
hardly inferior to that of the age of Peisistratus. It is a civiliza¬
tion, too, which has long been familiar with the art of writing.
But it is one that belongs entirely to the Bronze Age. Iron is not
found until the very end of the Mycenaean period, and then
only in small quantities. Nor is this the only point of contrast
between the culture of the earliest age and that of the historical
period in Greece. The chief seats of the early culture are to be
found either in the island of Crete, or, on the mainland, at Tiryns
and Mycenae. In the later history Crete plays no part, and
Tiryns and Mycenae are obscure. With the great names of a
later age, Argos, Sparta and Athens, no great discoveries are
connected. In northern Greece, Orchomenos rather than Thebes
is the centre of influence. Further points of contrast readily
[HISTORY
GREECE
442
suggest themselves. The so-called Phoenician alphabet, in
use amongst the later Greeks, is unknown in the-fearliest age.
Its systems of writing, both thfe eaxliA and the later one, are
syllabic in character, and analogous to those in vogue, in Asia
Minor and Cypres. In the art of war, the chariot is of more
importance than the foot-soldier, and the latter, unlike the
Greek hoplite, is lightly clad, and trusts to a shield large enough
t8 cover the whole body, rather than to the metal helmet, breast¬
plate anjgreaves of later times (sec Arms and Armour : Greek).
The political system appears to have been a despotic monarchy,
and the realm of the monarch to have extended to far wider
limits than those of the “ city-states ” of historical Greece.
It is, perhaps, in the religious practices of the age, and in the
ideas implied in them, that the contrast is most apparent.
Neithes-in Crete nor on the mainland is there any trace of the
worship of the “ Olympian ” deities. The cults in vogue remind
us rather of Asia than of Greece. The worship of pillars and of
trees carries us back to Canaan, while the double-headed axe,
so prominent in the ritual of Cnossus, survives in later times
as the symbol of the national deity of the Cariaitx. The beehive-
tombs, found on many sites on the mainland besides Mycenae,
are evidence both of a method o^sepulturc and of ideas of the
future state, which are alien to the practice and the thought
of the Greeks of history. It is only in one region—in the island
of Cyprus—that the culture of the Mycenaean age is found
surviving into the historical period. As late as the beginning
of the 5th century b.c. Cyprus is still ruled by kings, the alphabet
has not yet displaced a syllabary, the characteristic forms of
Mycenaean vases still linger on, and the chief deity of the island
is the goddess with attendant doves whose images are among
tht common objects of Mvccnacan finds.
3. 'The Homeric Age.— Alike in Crete and on the mainland
the civilization disclosed by excavation comes abruptly to an
end. In Crete we can trace it back from r. 1200 b.c. to the
Neolithic period. From the Stone Ace to the end of the Minoan
Age the development is continuous and uninterrupted. 1 But
between the culture of the Early Age and the culture of the
Dorians,-who occupied the island in historical times, no connexion
whatever can be established. Between the two there is a great
gulf fixed. It would Ire difficult to imagine u greater contrast
than that presented by the rude life of the Dorian communities
in Crete when it is compared with the political power, the material
resources and the extensive commerce of the earlier period.
The same gap between the archaeological age and the historical
I'xists on the mainland also. It is true that the solution of
continuity is here less complete. Mycenaean art continues, here
and there, in a debased form down to the qth century, a date to
which wc can trace back the beginnings of the later Greek art.
On one or two lines (r.g. architecture) it is even possible to
establish some sort of connexion between them. But Greek
art as a whole cannot be evolved from Mycenaean art. We
cannot bridge over the interval that separates the latter art, even
in its decline, from the former. It is sufficient to compare the
“ dipylon " ware (with which the process of development begins,
which culminates in the pottery of the Great Age) with the
Mycenaean vases, to satisfy oneself that the gulf exists. What
then is the relation of the Heroic or Homeric Age (t.e. the age
whose life is portrayed for us in the poems of*Homcr) to the
Earliest Age ? It too presents many contrasts to the later
periods. On the other hand, it presents contrasts to the Minoan
Age, which, in their way. are not less striking. It is then to be
identified with the Mycenaean Age ? Schliemann, the dis¬
coverer of the Mycenaean culture, unhesitatingly identified
Mycenaean with Homeric. He even identified the shaft-graves
of Mycenae with the tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.
Later inquirers, while refusing to discover so literal a corre¬
spondence between things Homeric and things Mycenaean,
have not hesitated to accept a general correspondence between
the Homeric Age and the Mycenaean. Where it is a case of
1 It would be more accurate to say to the year 1500 B.c. At
Gnome the palace is sacked soon after this date, and the art, both
in Crete and in the whole Aegean area, becomes lifeless and' decadent.
comparing literary evidence with archaeological, an met
coincidence is not of course to be demanded. The most that
can be asked is that a general correspondence should be estab¬
lished. It may be conceded that the case for such a correspond¬
ence appears prima facie a strong one. There is much in Homer
that seems to find confirmation or explanation in Schliemann’s
finds. Mycenae is Agamemnon’s city ; the plan of the Homeric
house agrees fairly well with the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae ;
the forms and the technique of SJycenaean art serve to illustrate
passages in the poems ; such are only a few of the arguments
that have been urged. It is the great merit of Professor Ridge¬
way’s work (The Early Age of Greece) that it has demonstrated,
once and for ail, that Mycenaean is not Homeric pure and simple.
He insists upon differences as great as the resemblances. Iron is
in common use in Homer; it is practically unknown to the
Mycenaeans. Ill place of the round shield and the metal armour
of the Homeric soldier, we find at Mycenae that the warrior is
lightly clad in linen, and that he fights behind an oblong shield,
which covers the whole body ; nor are the chariots the same in
form. The Homeric dead are cremated; the Mycenaean are
buried. The gods of Homer are the deities of Olympus, of whose
cult no traces are to be found in the Mycenaean Age. The
novelty of Professor Ridgeway’s theory is that for the accepted
equation, Homeric «= Achaean “Mycenaean, he proposes to
substitute the equations, Homeric=Achaean =post-Mycenaean,
and Mycenaean *=pre - Achaean =■ Pelasgian. The Mycenaean
civilization he attributes to the Pelasgians, whom he regards
as the indigenous population of Greece, the ancestors of the later
Greeks, and themselves Greek both in speech and blood. The
Homeric heroes are Acliacans, a fair-haired Celtic race, whose
home was in the Danube valley, where they hail learned the use
of iron. In Greece they are newcomers, a conquering class
comparable to the Norman invaders of England or Ireland,
and like them they have acquired the language of their subjects
in the course of a few generations. The Homeric civilization
is thus Achaean, i.e. it is Pelasgian (Mycenaean) civilization,
appropriated by a ruder race ; but the Homeric culture is fat-
inferior to the Mycenaean. Here, at any rate, the Norman
analogy breaks down. Norman art in England is far in advance
of Saxon. Even in Normandy (as in Sicily), where the Norman
appropriated rather than introduced, he not only assimilated
but developed. In Greece the process must have been reversed.
The theory thus outlined is probably stronger on its destructive
side than on its constructive. To treat the Achaeatis as an
immigrant race is to run counter to the tradition of the Greeks
themselves, by whom the Achaeans were regarded as indigenous
(cf., Herod, viii. 73). Nor is the Pelasgian part of the theory
easy to reconcile with the Homeric evidence. If the Achaeans
were a conquering class ruling over a Pelasgian population,
we should expect to find this difference of race a prominent
feature in Homeric society. We should, at least, expect to find
a Pelasgian background to the Homeric picture. As a matter
of fact, we find nothing of the sort. There is no consciousness
in the Homeric poems of a distinction of race between the
governing and the subject classes. There are, indeed, Pelasgians
in Homer, but the references either to the people or the name
arc extraordinarily few. They appear as a people, presumably
in Asia Minor, in alliance with the Trojans ; they appear also,
in a single passage, as one of the tribes inhabiting Crete. The
name survives in “ Pelasgicon Argos,” which is probably to be
identified with the valley of the Sperchcius, 3 and as an epithet
of Zeus of Dodona. The population, however, of Pelasgicon
Argos and of Dodona is no longer Pelasgian. Thus, in the age
of Homer, the Pelasgians belong, so far as Greece proper is
concerned, to a past that is already remote. It is inadmissible
to appeal to Herodotus against Homer. For the conditions
of the Homeric age Homeir is the sole authoritative witness.
If, however, Professor Ridgeway has failed to prove that
“ Mycenaean ” equals “ Pelasgian,” he has certainly proved
that much that is Homeric is post-Mycenaean. It is possible
• See T. W. Allen In the Classical Review, vol. xx. (<906), No. 4
(May).
HISTORY]
GREECE 443
that different strata are to be distinguished in the Homeric
poems. There are passages which seem to assume the conditions
of the Mycenaean age ; there are others which presuppose the
conditions of a later age. It may be that the latter passages
reflect the circumstances of the poet’s own times, while the
former ones reproduce those of an earlier period. If so, the
substitution of iron for bronze must have been effected in die
interval between the earlier and the later periods. \
It has alreadv been pointed out that the question whether
the makers of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were
Greeks must still be regarded as an open one. No
. such question can be raised as to the Homeric Age.
state' “ The Achaeans may or may not have been Greek in
blood. What is certain is that the Achaean Age
forms an integral part of Greek history. Alike on the linguistic,
the religious and the political sides, Homer is the starting-point
of subsequent developments. In the Greek dialects the great
distinction is that between the Doric and the rest Of the non-
Doric dialects the two main groups are the Aeolic and Ionic,
both of which have been developed, by a gradual process oi
differentiation, from the language of the Homeric poems. With
regard to religion it is sufficient to refer to the judgment of
Herodotus, that it was Homer and Hesiod who were the authors
of the Greek thcogony (ii. 53 oJroi tliri oi ini^ram) dtoyovirfv
’EAAiyri). It is a commonplace that Homer was the Bible of the
Greeks. On the political side, Greek constitution^ development
would be unintelligible without Homer. When Greek history,
in the proper sense, begins, oligarchy is almost universal. Every¬
where, however, an antecedent stage of monarchy has to he
presupposed. In the Homeric system monarchy is the sole
form of government; but it is monarchy already well on the
way to being transformed into oligarchy, in the person of the
king are united the functions of priest, of judge and of leader
in war. He belongs to a family which claims divine descent
and his office is hereditary. He is, however, no despotic monarch.
He is compelled by custom to consult the council (bottle) of the
elders, or chiefs. He must ask their opinion, and, if he fails
to obtain their consent, he has no power to enforce his will.
Even when he has obtained the consent of the council, the
proposal still awaits the approval of the assembly (agora), of the
people.
Thus in the Homeric state we find the germs not only of the
oligarchy and democracy of later Greece, but also of all the
various forms of constitution known to the Western
world. And a monarchy such as is depicted in the
m y ' Homeric poems is clearly ripe for transmutation
into oligarchy. The chiefs are addressed as kings and
claim, equally with the monarch, descent from the gods.
In Homer, again, we can trace the later organization into tribe
($uAi;), clan (y«n>«), and phratry, which is characteristic of
Greek society in the historical period, and meets us in analogous
forms in other Aryan societies. The yivos corresponds to the
Roman gens, the <j>vA1} to the Roman tribe, and the phratry to
the atria. The importance of the phratry in Homeric society is
illustrated by the well-known passage (Iliad ix. 63) in which
the outcast is described as “ one who belongs to no phratry ”
(u<f>p»}Tw/>). It is a society that is, of course, based upon slavery,
but it is slavery in its least repulsive aspect. The treatment
which Eumaeus and Eurycleia receive at the hands of the poet
of the Odyssey is highly creditable to the humanity of the age.
A society which regarded the slave as a mere chattel would have
been impatient of the interest shown in a swineherd and a nurse.
It is a society, too, that exhibits many of the distinguishing
traits of later Greek life. Feasting and quarrels, it is true, are
of more moment to the heroes than to the contemporaries of
Pericles or Plato ; but “ music ” and “ gymnastic ” (though
the terms must be understood in a more restricted sense) are as
distinctive of the age of Homer as of that of Pindar. In one
respect there is retrogression in the historical period. Woman
in Homeric society enjoys a greater freedom, and receives greater
respect, than in the Athens of Sophocles and Pericles.
4. The Growth of the Greek States. —The Greek world at the
beginning of the 6th century n.c. presents a picture in nanny
respects different from that of the Homeric Age. Use Greek
race is no longer confinhd to the Greek peninsula. It occupies
the islands of the Aegean, the western seaboard of Asia Minor,
the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, of southern Italy and
Sicily. Scattered settlements are found as far apart as the mouth
of the Rhone, the north of Africa, the Crimea- and the eastern
end of the Black Sea. Hie Greeks are called by a national name,
HtUenes, the symbol of a fully-developed national self-conscious¬
ness. They are divided into three great branches, the Dorian,
the Ionian and the Aeolian, names almost, or entirely, unknown
to Homer. The heroic monarchy has nearly everywhere dis¬
appeared. In Greece proper, south of Thermopylae, it survives,
but in a peculiar form, in the Spartan state alone.-, What is the
significance and the explanation of contrasts so profound ?
It is probable that the explanation is to be found, directly
or indirectly, in a single cause, the Dorian invasion. In Homer
the Dorians arc mentioned in one passage only (Odyssey ^
xix. 177). They there appear as one of the races which
inhabit Crete. In the historical period the whole
Peloponnese, with the exception of Arcadia, Elis and Achaea,
is Dorian. In northern Greece the Dorians occupy the little
state of Doris, and in the Aegean they form the population
of Crete, Rhodes and some smaller islands. Thus the chief
centres of Minoan and Mycenaean culture have passed into
Dorian hands, and the chief seats of Achaean power are included
in Dorian states. Greek tradition explained the overthrow of
the Achaean system by an invasion of the Peloponnese by the
Dorians, a northern tribe, which had found a temporary home in
Doris. The story ran that, after an unsuccessful attempt to
force an entrance by the Isthmus of Corinth, they had crossed
from Naupactus, at the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, landed
on the opposite shore, and made their way into the heart of the
Peloponnese, whore a single victory gave them possession of the
Achaean states. Their conquests were divided among the
invaders into three shares, for which lots were cast, and thus
the three states of Argos, Sparta and Messenia were created.
There is much in this tradition that is impossible or improbable.
It is impossible, e.g. for the tiny state of Doris, with its three
or four “ small, sad villages ” (woheis fim/xu no.I Awr/t/cyiupoi,
Strabo, p. 4*7), to have furnished a force of invaders sufficient
to conquer and re-people the greater part of the Peloponnese.
It is improbable that the conquest should have been either as
sudden, or as complete, as the legend represents. On the
contrary, there arc indications that the conquest was gradual,
and that the displacement of the older population was incomplete.
The improbability of the details affords, however, no ground
for questioning the reality of the invasion. 1 The tradition
can be traced back at Sparta to the 7th century B.c. (Tyrtaeus,
quoted by Strabo, p. 362), and there is abundant evidence, other
than that of legend, to corroborate it. There is the Dorian name,
to begin with. If, as Beloch supposes, it originated on the coast
of Asia Minor, where it served to distinguish the settlers in
Rhodes and the neighbouring islands from the lonians and
Aeolians to the north of them, how came the great and famous
states of the Peloponnese to adopt a name in use among the
petty colonies planted by their kinsmen across the sea ? Or, if
Dorian is simply Old Peloponnesian, how are we to account for
the Doric dialect or the Dorian pride of race ?
It is true that there are great differences between the literary
Doric, the dialect of Corinth and Argos, and the dialects of
Laconia and Crete, and that there are affinities between the
dialect of I^conia and the non-Dorian dialects of Arcadia and
Elis. It is equally true, however, and of far more consequence,
that all the Doric dialects are distinguished from all other Greek
dialects by certain common characteristics. Perhaps the
strongest sentiment in the Dorian nature is the pride of race.
Indeed, it looks as if the Dorians claimed to be the sole genuine
Hellenes. How can we account for an indigenous population,
first imagining itself to be immigrant, and then developing a
1 It has been impugned by J. Beloch, Gntchtsche Geechichte, i.
149 ft
444
contempt for the rest of the race, equally indigenous with itself,
on account of a fictitious difference in origin ? Finally, there
is the archaeological evidence. The older civilization comes to
an abrupt end, and it does so, on the mainland at least, at the
very period to which tradition assigns the Dorian migration.
Its development is greatest, and its overthrow most complete,
precisely in the regions occupied by the Dorians and the other
tribes, whose migrations were traditionally connected with
theirs. It is hardly too much to say that the archaeologist would
have been compelled to postulate an inroad into central and
southern Greece of tribes from the north, at a lower level of
culture, in the course of the j 2th and nth centuries b.c„ if the
historian had not been able to direct him to the traditions of the
great migrations (/MTaiwruims), of which the Dorian invasion
was the chief. With the Dorian migration Greek tradition
connected the expansion of the Greek race eastwards across the
Aegean. In the historical period the Greek settlements on the
western coast of Asia Minor fall into three clearly defined groups.
To the north is the Aeolic group, consisting of the island of
Lesbos and twelve towns, mostly insignificant, on the opposite
mainland. To the south is the Dorian hexapolis, consisting of
Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the mainland, and the islands of
Rhodes and Cos. In the centre comes the Ionian dodecapolis,
a group consisting of ten towns on the mainland, together with
the islands of Samos and Chios. Of these three groups, the
Ionian is incomparably the most important. The Ionians also
occupy Euboea and the Cyclades. Although it would appear
that Cyprus (and possibly Pamphylia) had been occupied by
settlers from Greece in the Mycenaean age, Greek tradition is
probably correct in putting the colonization of Asia Minor and
the islands of the Aegean after the Dorian migration. Both the
Homeric and the archaeological evidence seem to point to the
same conclusion. Between Rhodes on the south and the Troad
on the north scarcely any Mycenaean remains have been found.
Homer is ignorant of anv Greeks east of Euboea. If the poems
are earlier than the Dorian Invasion, his silence is conclusive.
If the poems are some centuries later than the Invasion, they at
least prove that, within a few generations of that event, it was
the belief of the Greeks of Asia Minor that their ancestors had
crossed the seas after the close of the Heroic Age. It is probable,
too, that the names Ionian and Aeolian, the former of which is
found once in Homer, and the latter not at all, originated among
the colonists in Asia Minor, and served to designate, in the first
instance, the members of the Ionic and Aeolic dodeeapoleis.
As Curtius 1 pointed out, the only Ionia known to history is in
Asia Minor. It does not follow that Ionia is the original home
of the Ionian race, as Curtius argued. It almost certainly
follows, however, that it is the original home of the Ionian
name.
It is less easy to account for the name Hellenes. The Greeks
were profoundly conscious of their common nationality, and of
the gulf that separated them from the rest of mankind. They
themselves recognized a common race and language, and a
common type of religion and culture, as the chief factors in this
sentiment of nationality (see Herod, viii. 144 to 'EAAi/eiKoi' iov
iifuujutv^ tc sat u/iOyAu<rrrw k:lI l^pv/iard re KOtea sat
0 W«U j/ff.a T« oporpoTra). “ Hellenes ” was the name of their
common race, and “ Hellas ” of their common country. In
Homer there is no distinct .consciousness of a common nation¬
ality, and consequently no antithesis of Greek and Barbarian
(see Thuc. i. 3). Nor is there a true collective name. There are
indeed Hellenes (though the name occurs in one passage only,
Iliad ii. 684), and there is a Hellas; b it his Hellas, whatever its
precise signification may lie, is, at anv rate, not equivalent either
to Greece proper or to the land of the' Greeks, and his Hellenes are
the inhabitants of a small district to the south of Thessaly. It
is possible that the diffusion of the Hallenic name was due to the
Dorian invaders. Its use can be traced back to the first half of
the ?th century. Not less obscure are the causes of the fall of
monarchy. It cannot have been the immediate effect of the
* '
[HISTORY
Donan conquest, for the states founded by the Dorians went at
first monarchically governed. It may, however, have been an in¬
direct effect of it. We have already seen that the power of the
Homeric king is more limited than that of the rulers of
Cnossus, Tiryns or Mycenae. In other words, monarchy 0oru »-
is already in decay at the epoch of the Invasion. The
Invasion, in its effects on wealth, commerce and civilization is
almost comparable to the irruption of the barbarians into the
Roman empire. The monarch of the Minoan and Mvcenaean age
has extensive revenues at his command ; the monarch of the early
Dorian states is little better than a petty chief. Thus the interval
once a wide one, that separates him from the nobles tends to dis¬
appear. I he decay of monarchy was gradual; much more gradual
than is generally recognized. There were parts of the Greek world
in which it still survived in the 6th century, e.g. Sparta, Cyrene,
Cyprus, and possibly Argos and Tarentum. Both Herodotus
and Thucydides apply the title “ king ” (/WiA.,is) to the rulers
of Thessaly in the 5th century. The date at which monarchy
gave place to a republican form of government must have
differed, and differed widely, in different cases. The traditions
relating to the foundation of Cyrene assume the existence of
monarchy in Thera and in Crete in the middle of the 7th century
(Herodotus iv. 150 and 154), and the reign of Arophicrates
at Samos (Herod, iii. 59) can hardly he placed more than a
generation earlier. In view of our general ignorance of the history
of the 7th and 8th centuries, it is hazardous to pronounce these
instances exceptional. On the other hand, the change from
monarchy to oligarchy was completed at Athens before the end
of the 8th century, and at a still earlier date in some of the other
states. The process, again, by which the change was effected
was, in all probability, less uniform than is generally assumed.
There are extremely few cases in which we have any trustworthy
evidence, and the instances about which we are informed refuse
to be reduced to any common type. In Greece proper our
information is fullest in the case of Athens and Argos. In the
former case, the king Is gradually stripped of his powers by a
process of devolution. An hereditary king, ruling for life, is
replaced by three annual and elective magistrates, between
whom are divided the executive, military and religious functions
of the monarch (see Archon). At Argos the fall of the monarchy
is preceded by an aggrandisement of the royal prerogatives.
There is nothing in common between these two cases, and there
is no reason to suppose that the process elsewhere was analogous
tn that at Athens. Everywhere, however, oligarchy is the
form of government which succeeds to monarchy. Political
power is monopolized by a class of nobles, whose claim to govern
is based upon birth and the possession of land, the most valuable
form of property in an early society. Sometimes power is
confined to a single clan (e.g. the Bacchiadae at Corinth); more
commonly, as at Athens, all houses that are noble are equally
privileged. In every case there is found, as the adviser of the
executive, a Boule, or council, representative of the privileged
class. Without such a council a Greek oligarchy is inconceivable.
The relations of the executive to the council doubtless varied.
At Athens it is clear that the real authority was exercised by the
archons ; - in mam' states the magistrates were probably sub¬
ordinate to the council (cf. the relation of the consuls to the senate
at Rome). And it is clear that the way in which the oligarchies
used their power varied also. The cases in which the power was
abused are naturally the ones of which we hear; for an abuse
of power gave rise to discontent and was the ultimate cause of
revolution. We hear little or nothing of the cases in which
power was exercised wisely. Happy is the constitution which
has no annals ! We know, however, that oligarchy held its
ground for generations, or even for centuries, in a large propor¬
tion of the Greek states; and a government which, like the
oligarchies of Elis, Thebes or Aegina, could maintain itself lor
three or four centuries cannot have been merely oppressive/
■ If tie account of early Athenian constitutional history given in
the Athenaion Politria were accepted, it would follow that the
archons were inferior in authority to the Eupatrid Boale, the
Areopagus.
GREECE
HISTORY]
GREECE
The period ot the transition from monarchy to oligarchy
is the period in which commerce begins to develop, and trade-
routes to be organized. Greece had been the centre of
an active trade in the Minoan and Mycenaean epochs.
The products of Crete and of the Peloponnese had found their
way to Egypt and Asia Minor. The overthrow of the older
civilization put an end to commerce. The seas became insecure
and intercourse with the East was interrupted. Our earliest
glimpses of the Aegean after the period of the migrations disclose
the raids of the pirate and the activity of the Phoenician trader.
It is not till the 8th century has dawned that trade begins to
revive, and the Phoenician has to retire before his Greek com¬
petitor. For some time to come, however, no clear distinction is
drawn between the trader and the pirate. The pioneers of Greek
trade in the West are the pirates of Cumae (Thucyd. vi. 4).
The expansion of Greek commerce, unlike that of the commerce
of the modem world, was not connected with any great scientific
discoveries. There is nothing in the history of ancient navigation
that is analogous to the invention of the mariner's compass or
of the steam-engine. In spite of this, the development of Greek
commerce in the 7th and 6th centuries was rapid. It must have
been assisted by the great discovery of the early part of the
former century, the invention of coined money. To the Lydians,
rather than the Greeks, belongs the credit of the discovery ;
but it was the genius of the latter race that divined the import¬
ance of the invention and spread its use. The coinage of the
Ionian towns goes back to the reign of Gyges (c. 675 B.C.). And
it is in Ionia that commercial development is earliest and greatest.
In the most distant regions the Ionian is first in the field. • Egypt
and the Black Sea are both opened up to Greek trade by Miletus,
the Adriatic and the Western Mediterranean by Phocaea and
Samos. It is significant that of the twelve states engaged in the
Egyptian trade in the 6th century all, with the exception of
Aegina, are from the eastern side of the Aegean (Herod, ii. 178).
On the western side the chief centres of trade during these
centuries were the islands of Euboea and Aegina and the town
of Corinth. The Aeginetan are the earliest coins of Greece
proper (r, 650 b.c.) ; and the two rival scales of weights and
measures, in use amongst the Greeks of every age, are the
Aeginetan and the Euboic. Commerce naturally gave rise to
commercial leagues, and commercial relations tended to bring
about political alliances. Foreign policy even at this early
epoch seems to have been largely determined by considerations
of commerce. Two leagues, the members of which were connected
by political as well as commercial ties, can be recognized. At
the head of each stood one of the two rival powers in the island
of Euboea, Chalcis and Eretria. Their primary object was
doubtless protection from the pirate and the foreigner. Compet¬
ing routes were organized at an early date under their influence,
and their trading connexions can be traced from the heart of
Asia Minor to the north of Italy. Miletus, Sybaris and Etruria
were members of the Erctrian league ; Samos, Corinth, Rhegium
and Zancle (commanding the Straits of Messina), and Cumae,
on the Bay of Naples, of the Chalcidian. The wool of the
Phrygian uplands, woven in the looms of Miletus, reached the
Etruscan markets by way of Sybaris ; through Cumae, Rome
and the rest of Latium obtained the elements of Greek culture.
Greek trade, however, was confined to the Mediterranean area.
The Phoenician and the Carthaginian navigators penetrated
to Britain ; they discovered the passage round the Cape two
thousand years before Vasco da Gama’s time. The Greek sailor
dared not adventure himself outside the Black Sea, the Adriatic
and the Mediterranean. Greek trade, too, was essentially mari¬
time. Ports visited by Greek vessels were often the starting
points of trade-routes into the interior ; the traffic along those
routes was left in the hands of the natives (see e.g, Herod, iv. 24).
One service, the importance of which can hardly be overestimated,
whs rendered to civilization by the Greek traders—the invention
of geography. The science of geography is the invention of the
Greeks. The first maps were made by them (in the 6th century);
and it was the discoveries and surveys of their sailors that made
map-making possible.
445
Closely connected with the history of Grade trade is the
history of Greek colonization. The period of colonization, in
its narrower sense, extends from the middle of the ■
8th to the middle of the 6th century. Greek coloniza- tt9m
tion is, however, merely a continuation of the process
which at an earlier epoch had led to the settlement, first of
Cyprus, and then of the islands and coasts of the Aegean. From
the earlier settlements the colonization of the historical period
is distinguished by three characteristics. The later colony
acknowledges a definite mttropolis (“mother-city”); it is
planted by a definite oecist (oUurnjt)• it has a definite date
assigned to its. foundation. 1 It would be a mistake to regard
Greek colonization as commercial in origin, in the sense that the
colonies were in all cases established as trading-posts. This
was the case with the Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements,
most of which remained mere factories ; and some of the Greek
colonies (e.g. many of those planted by Miletus on the shores
of the Black Sea) bore this character. ’Hie typical Greek colony,
however, was neither in origin nor in development a mere
trading-post. It was, or it became, a polis, a city-state, in which
was reproduced the life of the parent state. Nor was Greek
colonization, like the emigration from Europe to America and
Australia in the 19th century, simply the result of over-popula¬
tion. The causes were as various as those which can be traced
in the history of modern colonization. Those which were
established for the purposes of trade may be compared to the
factories of the Portuguese and Dutch in Africa and the Far East.
Others were the result of political discontent, in some form or
shape; these may be compared to the Puritan settlements
in New England. Others again were due to ambition or the
mere love of adventure (see Herod, v. 42 ffi, the career of
Dorieus). But however various the causes, two conditions
must always be presupposed—an expansion of commerce and
a growth - of population. Within the narrow limits of the city-
state there was a constant tendency for population to become
redundant, until, as in the later centuries of Greek life, its
growth was artificially restricted. Alike from the Roman
colonies, and from those founded by the European nations
in the course of the last few centuries, the Greek colonies are
distinguished by a fundamental contrast. It is significant that
the contrast is a political one. The Roman colony was in a
position of entire subordination to the Roman state, of which it
formed a port. The modem colony was, in varying degrees,
in political subjection to the home government. The Greek
colony was completely independent; and it was independent
from the first. The ties that united a colony to its metropolis'
were those of sentiment and interest; the political.tie did not
exist. There were, it is true, exceptions. The colonies estab¬
lished by imperial Athens closely resambled the colonies of
imperial Rome. The cleruchv (q.v.) formed part of the Athenian
state ; the clcruchs kept their status as citizens of Athens and
acted as a military garrison. And if the political tie, in the
proper sense, was wanting, it was inevitable that political
relations should spring out of commercial or sentimental ones.
Thus we find Corinth interfering twice to save her colony Syracuse
from destruction, and Megara bringing about the revolt of
Byzantium, her colony, from Athens. Sometimes it is not easy
to distinguish political relations from a political tie (e.g. the
relations of Corinth, both in the Persian and Peloponnesian
Wars, to Ambracia and the neighbouring group of colonies).
When we compare the development of the Greek and the modem
colonies we shall find that the development of the former was
even more rapid than that of the latter. In at least three
respects the Greek settler was at an advantage as compared
with the colonist of modem times. The differences of race, of
colour and of climate, with which the chief problems of modem
colonization are connected, played no part in the history of the
Greek settlements. The races amongst whom the (keeks planted
1 The dates before the middle of the 7th century are in most cases
artificial, e.g. those given by Thucydides (book vi.) for the earlier
Sicilian settlements. See J. P. Mahaffy, Journal of Hellenic Studies,
ii. 164 it.
446
themselves were in some cases on a similar level of culture.
Where the natives were still backward or barbarous, they came
of a stock either closely related to the Greek, or at least separated
from it by no great physical differences. We need only contrast
the Carian, the Sicel, the Thracian or even the Scythian, with
the native Australian, the Hottentot, the Red Indian or the
Maori, to apprehend the advantage of the Greek. Amalgama¬
tion with the native races was easy, and it involved neither
physical nor intellectual degeneracy as its consequence. Of the
races with which the Greeks came in contact the Thracian was
far from the highest in the scale of culture ; yet three of the
greatest names in the Great Age of Athens are those of men who
had Thracian blood in their veins, viz. Themistocles, Cimon
and the historian Thucydides. In the absence of any distinction
of colour, no insuperable barrier existed between the Greek and ■
the hellcnized native. The demos of the colonial cities was
largely recruited from the native population, 1 nor was there
anything in the Greek world analogous to the “ mean whites ”
or the “ black belt.” Of hardly less importance were the
climatic conditions. In this respect the Mediterranean area is
unique. There is no other region of the world of equal extenl
in which these conditions are at once so uniform and so favourable.
Nowhere had the Greek settler to encounter a climate which
was either unsuited to his labour or subversive ot his vigour.
That in spite of these advantages so little, comparatively
speaking, was effected in the work of Helimination before
the epoch of Alexander and the Diadochi, was the effect of a
single counteracting cause. The Greek colonist, like the Greek
leader, clung to the shore. He penetrated no farther inland
than the sea-breeze. Hence it was only in islunds, such as
Sicily or Cyprus, that the process of Hellenization was complete.
Elsewhere the Greek settlements formed a mere fringe along the
mast,.
To the 7th century there belongs another movement of high
importance in its bearing upon the economic, religious and
literary development of Greece, as well as upon its
lyrtnit. constitutional history. This movement is the rise of
the tyrannis. In the political writers of a later age the
word possesses a clear-cut connotation. From other forms
of monarchy it is distinguished by a twofold differentiation.
The tyrannus is an unconstitutional ruler, and his authority
is exercised over unwilling subjects. In the 7th and 6th centuries
the line was not drawn so distinctly between the tyrant and the
legitimate monarch, liven Herodotus uses the words “ tyrant ”
and “ king ” interchangeably (c.g. the princes of Cyprus arc
called “kings ” in v. no and " tyrants ” in v. ioq), so that it
is sometimes difficult to decide whether a legitimate monarch
or a tyrant is meant (e.g. Aristophiiides of Tarentum, iii. 136,
or Telys of Sybaris, v. 44). But the distinction between the
tyrant and the king of the Heroic Age is a valid one. It is not
true that his rule was always exercised over unwilling subjects ;
it is true that his position was always unconstitutional. The
Homeric king is a legitimate monarch ; his authority is invested
with the sanctions of religion and immemorial custom. The
tyrant is an illegitimate ruler; his authority is not recognized,
either by customary usage or by express enactment. But the
word “ tyrant ” was originally a neutral term; it did not
necessarily imply a misuse of power. The origin of the tyrannis
is obscure. The word tyrannus has been thought, with some
reason, to he a Lydian one. Probably lioth the name and the
thing originated in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, though the
earliest tyrants of whom we hear in Asia Minor (at Ephesus and
Miletus) are a generation later than the earliest in Greece itself,
where, both at Sicyon and at Corinth, tyranny appears to date
back to the second quarter of the 7th century. It is not unusual
to regard tyranny as a universal stage in the constitutional
development of the Greek states, and as a stage that occurs
everywhere at one and the same period. In reality, tyranny
is confined to certain regions, and it is a phenomenon that is
peculiar to no one age<or oedtury. In Greece proper, before the
1 At Syracuse the demos makes common cause with the Sicel
serf-population against the nobles (Herod, vii. 155).
[HISTORY
4th century b.c., it is confined to a small group of states round the
Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs. The greater part of the Pelo-
ponnese was exempt from it, and there is no good evidence for its
existence north of the Isthmus, except at Megara and Athens.
It plays no part in the history of the Greek dries in Chalcidice
and Thrace. It appears to have been rare in the Cyclades.
The regions in which it finds a congenial soil arc two, Asia Minor
and Sicily. Thus it is incorrect to say that most Greek states
passed through this stage. It is still wider of the mark to
assume that they passed through it at the same time. There is
no “ Age of the Tyrants.” Tyranny began in the Peloponnese
a hundred years before it appears in Sicily, and it has disappeared
in the Peloponnese almost before it begins in Sicily. In the
latter the great age of tyranny comes at the beginning of the
I 5th century ; in the former it is at the end of the 7th and the
beginning of the 6th. At Athens the history of tyranny begins
after it has ended both at Sicyon and Corinth. There is, indeed,
a period in which tyranny is non-existent in the Greek states;
roughly speaking, the last sixty years of the 5th century. But
with this exception, there is no period in which the tyrant is
not to be found. The greatest of all the tyrannies, that of
Dionysius at, Syracuse, belongs to the 4th century. Nor must
it be assumed that tyranny always comes at the same stage in
the history of a constitution ; that it is always a stage between
oligarchy and democracy. At Corinth it is followed, not by
democracy but by oligarchy, and it is an oligarchy that lasts,
with a brief interruption, for two hundred and fifty years. At
Athens it is not immediately preceded by oligarchy. Between
the Eupatrid oligarchy and the rule of Peisistratus there comes
the timocracy of Solon. These exceptions do not stand alone.
The cause of tyranny is, in one sense, uniform. In the earlier
centuries, at any rate, tyranny is always the expression of
discontent ; the tyrant is always the champion of a cause.
But it would be a mistake to suppose that the discontent is
necessarily political, or that the cause which he champions i;:
always a constitutional one. At Sicyon it is a racial one
Cleisthenes is the champion of the older population against their
Dorian oppressors (see Herod, v. 67, 68). At Athens the
discontent is economic rather than political; Peisistratus is the
champion of the Diacrii, the inhabitants of the poorest region o*
Attica. The party-strifes of which we hear in the early history
of Miletus, which doubtless gave the tyrant his opportunity,
are concerned with the claims of rival industrial classes. In
Sicily the tyrant is the ally of the rich and the foe of the demos,
and the cause which he champions, both in the 5th century and
the 4th, is a national one, that of the Greek against the Cartha¬
ginian. We may suspect that in Greece itself the tyrannies of
the ‘7th century are the expression of an anti-Dorian reaction.
It can hardly be an accident that the states in which the tyrannis
is found at litis epoch, Corinth, Megara, Sicyon, Epidaurus,
are all of them states in which a Dorian upper class ruled over
a subject population. In Asia Minor the tyrannis assumes a
peculiar character after the Persian conquest. The tyrant
rules as the deputy ol the Persian satrap. Thus in the East the
tyrant is the enemy of the national cause; in the West, in Sicily,
lie is its champion.
Tyranny is not a phenomenon peculiar to Greek history.
It is possible to find analogies to it in Roman history, in the
power of Caesar, or of the Caesars ; in the despotisms of medieval
Italy ; or even in the Napoleonic empire. Between the tyrant
and the Italian despot there Is indeed a real analog)'; buf
between the Roman principate and the Greek tyrannis there are
two essential differences. In the first place, the principate was
expressed in constitutional forms, or veiled under constitutional
fictions ; the tyrant stood altogether outside the constitution.
And, secondly, at Rome both Julius and Augustus owed their
position to the power of the sword. The power of the sword,
it is true, plays a large part in the history of the later tyrants
(e.g. Dionysius of Syracuse); the earlier ones, however, had no
mercenary armies at their command. We can hardly compare
rile bodyguard of Peisistratus to the legions of the first or the
second Caesar.
GREECE
HISTORY]
GREECE
The view token of the tyrannis in Greek literature is almost
uniformly unfavourable. In this respect there it no difference
between Plato and Aristotle, or between Herodotus and the
later historians. 1 His policy is represented as purely selfish,
and his rule as oppressive. Herodotus is influenced partly by
the traditions current among the oligarchs, who had been the
chief sufferers, and partly by the odious associations which had
gathered round tyranny in Asia Minor. The philosophers write
under their impressions of the later tyrannis, and their account
is largely an a priori one. It is seldom that we find any attempt,
either in the philosophers or the historians, to do justice to the
real services rendered by the tyrants.* Their first service was
a constitutional one. They helped to break down the power
of the old aristocratic houses, and thus to create the social and
political conditions indispensable to democracy. The tyrannis
involved the sacrifice of liberty in the cause of equality. When
tyranny falls, it is never succeeded by the aristocracies which
it had overthrown. It is frequently succeeded by an oligarchy,
but it is an oligarchy in which the claim to exclusive power is
based, not upon mere birth, but upon wealth, or the possession
of land. It would he unfair to treat this service as one that
was rendered unconsciously and unwillingly. Where the tyrant
asserted the claims of an oppressed class, iie consciously aimed at
the destruction of privilege and the effaeement of class distinc¬
tions. Hence it is unjust to treat his power as resting upon
mere, force. A government which can last eighty or a hundred
years, as was the case with the tyrannies at Corinth and Sicyon,
must have a moral force behind it. It must rest upon the
consent of its subjects. The second service which the tyrants
rendered to Greece was a political one. Their policy tended to
break down the barriers which isolated each petty state from
its neighbours. In their history wc can trace a system of wide¬
spread alliances, which are often cemented by matrimonial
connexions. The Cypselid tyrants of Corinth appear to have been
allied with the royal families of Egypt, Lydia and Phrygia, as
'.veil as with the tyrants of Miletus and Epidanrus, and with
some of the great Athenian families. In Sicily we find a league
of the northern tyrants opposed to a league of the southern ;
and in each case there is a corresponding matrimonial alliance.
Anaxilaus of Rhegitim is the son-in-law and ally of Teriilus of
Himera ; Gelo of Syracuse stands in the same relation to Theron
of Agrigentum. Royal marriages have played a great part in
the politics of Europe. In the comparison of Greek and modem
history it has been too often forgotten how great a difference
it makes, and how great a disadvantage it involves, to a republic
that it has neither sons nor daughters to give in marriage. In
commerce and colonization the tyrants were only continuing
the work of the oligarchies to which they succeeded. Greek
trade owed its expansion to the intelligent efforts of the oligarchs
who ruled at Miletus and Corinth, in Samos, Aegina and Euboea ;
but in particular cases, such as Miletus, Corinth, Sicyon and
Athens, there was a further development, and a still more rapid
growth, under the t'/rants. In the same way, the foundation
of the colonies was in most eases due to the policy of the oli¬
garchical governments. They can claim credit for the colonics
of Chains and Erctria, of Mcgara, Phocaea and Samos, as well
as for the great Achaean settlements in southern Italy. The
f'ypselids at Corinth, and Thrasvbulus at Miletus, arc instances
of tyrants who colonized on a great scale.
In their religious policy the tyrants went far to democratize
Greek religion. The functions of monarchy had been largely
religious; but, while the king was necessarily a
utder^e E? est ' was not t * ie on '- v P rlest ln the community.
"•tyrant!. ’• There were special priesthoods, hereditary in par¬
ticular families, even in the monarchical period ; and
upon the fall of the monarchy, while the priestly functions of
the kings passed to republican magistrates, the priesthoods
which were in the exclusive possession of the great families
tended to become the important ones. Thus, before the rise of
tyranny, Greek religion is aristocratic. The cults recognized
1 An exception should perhaps be made in the case of Thucydides.
* The Peisistratidae come off better, however.
w
by the state are the aura of noble clans. ■ The religious pre¬
rogatives of the nobles helped to confirm their political ones,
and, as long as religion retained its aristocratic character, it was
; impossible for democracy to take root. The policy of, the tyrants
aimed at fostering popular cults which had no associations with
the. old families, and at establishing new festivals. The cult
of the wine-god, Dionysus, was thus fostered at Sicyon by
Cleisthenes, and at Corinth by the Cypsqjids; while at Athens
a new festival of this deity, which so completely overshadowed
the older festival that tt became known as the Great Dionyaia,
probably owed its institution to Peisistratus. ^Another festival,
the Punathenaea, which had been Ihstituted oijlv a few years
before his rise to power, became under his rule, and thanks to his
policy, the chief national festival of the Athenian state. Every¬
where, again, we find the tyrants the patron? of literature.
Pindar and Bacchylides, Aeschylus and Simonides found a
welcome at the court of Hiero. Polycrates was the patron of
Anacreon, Periander of Arion. To Peisistratus has been attri¬
buted, possibly not without reason, the first critical edition of
the text of Homer, a work as important in the literary history
of Greece as was the issue of the Authorized Version of the Bible
in English history. If we would judge fairly of tyranny, and of
what it contributed to the development of Greece, we must
remember how many states there were in whose history the
period of greatest power coincides with the rule of a tyrant.
This is unquestionably true of Corinth and Sicyon, as well as of
Syracuse in the 5th, and again in the 4th century ; it is probably
true of Samos and Miletus. In the case of Athens it is only the
splendour of the Great Age that blinds us to the greatness of
the results achieved by the policy of the Peisistratids.
With the overthrow of this dynasty tyranny disappears from
Greece proper for more than a century. During the century and
a half which had elapsed since its first appearance the whole
aspect of Greek life, and of the Greek world, had changed.
The development was as yet incomplete, but the lines on which
it was in proceed had been clearly marked out. Political power
was no longer the monopoly of a class. The struggle between
the “ few ” and the “ many ” had begun ; in one state at least
(Athens) the victory of the “ many ” was assured. The first
chapter in the history of democracy was already written. In
the art of war the two innovations which were ultimately to
establish the military supremacy of Greece, hoplite tactics and
the trireme, had already been introduced. Greek literature was
no longer synonymous with epic poetry. Some oi r/uttrtg
its most distinctive forms had not yet been evolved;
indeed, it is only quite at the end of the period that '
prose-writing begins ; but both lyric and elegiac poetry had been
brought to perfection. In art, statuary was still comparatively
stiff and crude ; but in other branches, ip architecture, in vase-
painting and in coin-types, the aesthetic genius of the race had
asserted its pre-eminence. Philosophy, the supreme gift of Greece
to the modem world, had become a living power. Some of her
most original thinkers belong to the 6th century. Criticism had
been applied to everything in turn: to the gods, to conduct,
and to the conception of the universe. Before the Great Age
begins, the claims of intellectual as well as of political freedom
had been vindicated. It was not, however, in Greece proper
that progress had been greatest. In the next century the centre
of gravity of Greek civilization shift* to the western side of the
Aegean; in the 6th century it must be looked for at Miletus,
rather than at Athens. In order to estimate how far the develop¬
ment of Greece had advanced, or to appreciate the distinctive
features of Greek life at this period, we must study Ionia, rather
than Attica or the Peloponnese. Almost all that is greatest and
most characteristic is to be found on the eastern side of the
Aegean. The great names in the history of science and philosophy
before the beginning of the 5th century—Thales, Pythagoras,
Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, Hecataeus;
names which are representative of mathematics, astronomy,
geography and metaphysics, are all, without exception, Ionian.
In poetry, too, the most famous names, if not so exclusively
Ionian, are connected either with the Asiatic coast or with
+4-°
GREECE
{HISTORY
the Cyclades. Against Archilochus affd Anacreon, Sappho and
Alcaeus, Greece has nothing better to set, after the age of Hesiod,
than Tvrtaeus and TheOgnis.' Reference lias already been made
to the greatness of the Ionians as navigators, as colonizers and *
as traders. In wealth and in population, Miletus, at the epoch
of the Persian conquest, must have been far ahead of any city
of European Greece. Sybaris, in Magna Graecia, can have been
its only rival outside ^onia. There were two respects, however,
in which the comparison was in favour of the mother-country.
In warfare, the superiority of the Sptrten infantry was un¬
questioned ; in politics, the Greek states showed a greater power
of combination than the lotiiun.
Finally, Ioma was the scene of the first conflicts with the
Persian. Here were decided the first stages of a struggle which
was to determine the place of Greece in the history
n/<*/oni the world. The rise of Persia under Cyrus was, as
Herodotus saw, the turning-point of Greek history.
Hitherto the Greek had proved himself indispensable to
the oriental monarchies with which he had been brought into
contact. In Egypt the power of the Saite kings rested upon the
support of their Greek mercenaries. Amasis (569 -525 b.c.), who
is raised to the throne as the leader of a reaction against the
influence of the foreign garrison, ends by showing greater favour
to the Greek soldiery and the Greek traders than all that were
before him. With Lvdia the relations were originally hostile,
the conquest of the Greek fringe is the constant aim of Lydian
policy. Greek influences, however, seem to have quickly per¬
meated Lydia, and to have penetrated to the court. Alyattes
(610-560 b.c.) marries an Ionian wife, and the succession is
disputed between the son of this marriage and Croesus, whose
mother was a Carian. Croesus (560-546 b.c.) secures the throne,
only to become the lavish patron of Greek sanctuaries and the
ally ol a Greek state. The history of Hellenism had begun.
It was the rise of Cyrus that closed the East to Greek enterprise
and Greek influences. In Persia we find the antithesis of all
that is characteristic of Greece—autocracy as opposed to liberty ;
a military society organized on an aristocratic basis, to an
industrial society, animated by a democratic spirit; an army,
whose strength lay in its cavalry, to an army, in which the foot-
soldier alone counted ; a morality, which assigned the chief
place to veracity, to a morality which subordinated it to other
virtues; a religion, which ranks among the great religions of
the world, to a religion, which appeared to the most spiritual
minds among the Greeks themselves both immoral and absurd.
Between two such races there could be neither sympathy nor
mutual understanding. In the Great Age the Greek had learned
Ptnitn t0 ^ es P’ se t * le P ers ' an , and the Persian to fear the Greek.
In the 6th century it was the Persian who despised,
and the Greek who feared. The history of the conflicts
between the Ionian Greeks and the Persian empire affords a
striking example of the combination of intellectual strength and
political weakness in the character of a people. The causes of
the failure of the Ionians to offer a successful resistance to Persia,
both at the time of the conquest by Harpagus (546-545 b.c.) and
in the Ionic revolt (499-494 B.c.), are not far to seek. The
centrifugal forces always tended to prove the stronger in the
Greek system, and nowhere were they stronger than in Ionia.
The tie of their tribal union proved weaker, even 1 time it v as
put to the test, than the political and commercial interests of
the individual states. A league of jealous commercial rivals is
certain not to stand the strain of a protracted struggle against
great odds. Against the advancing power of Lydia a common
resistance had not so much as been attempted. Miletus, the
greatest of the Ionian towns, had received aid from Chios alone.
Against Persia a common resistance was attempted. The Pani¬
onium, the centre of a religious amphictyony, became for the
moment the centre of a political league. At the time of the
Persian conquest Miletus held aloof. She secured favourable
terms for herself, and left the rest of Ionia to its fate. In the
later confiict, on the contrary, Miletus is the leader in the revolt.
The issue was determined, not as Herodotus represents it, by
the inherent indolence of the Ionian nature, but by the selfish
policy of the leading states. In the sea-fight at Lade {494, b.c.)
the decisive battle of the war, the Milesians and Chians fought
with desperate courage. Hie day was lost thanks to the treachery
of the Samian and Lesbian contingents.
The causes of the successful resistance of the Greeks to the
invasions of their country, first by Datis and Artaphernes
(490 b.c.), in the reign of Darius, and then by Xerxes in person
(480-479 b.c.), are more complex. Their success was partly
due to a moral cause. And this was realized by the Greeks
themselves. They felt (see Herod, vii. 104) that the subjects
of a despot are no match for the citizens of a free state, who
yield obedience to a law which is self-imposed. But the cause
was not solely a moral one. Nor was the result due to the
numbers and efficiency of the Athenian fleet, in the degree that
the Athenians claimed (see Herod, vii. 139), The truth is that
the conditions, both political and military, were far more favour¬
able to the Greek defence in Europe than they had been in Asia.
At this crisis the centripetal forces proved stronger than the
centrifugal. The moral ascendancy of Sparta was the deter¬
mining factor. In Sparta the Greeks had a leader whom all
were ready to obey (Herod, viii. 2). But for her influence the
forces of disintegration would have made themselves felt as
quickly as in Ionia. Sparta was confronted with immense
difficulties in conducting the defence against Xerxes. The two
■chief naval powers, Athens and Aegina, had to be reconciled
after a long and exasperating warfare (see Aegina). After
Thermopylae, the whole of northern Greece, with the exception
of Athens and a few minor states, was lost to the Greek cause.
The supposed interests of the Peloponnesians, who formed the
greater part of the national forces, conflicted with the supposed
interests of the Athenians. A more impartial view than was
possible to the generation for which Herodotus wrote suggests
that Sparta performed her task with intelligence and patriotism.
The claims of Athens and Sparta were about equally balanced.
And in spite of her great superiority in numbers, 1 the military
conditions were far from favourable to Persia. A land so moun¬
tainous as Greece is was unsuited to the operations of cavalry,
the most efficient arm of the sendee in the Persian Army, as
in most oriental ones. Ignorance of local conditions, combined
with the dangerous nature of the Greek coast, exposed their ships
to the risk of destruction ; while the composite character of the
fleet, and the jealousies of its various contingents, tended to
neutralize the advantage of numbers. In courage and discipline,
the flower of the Persian infantry was probably little inferior
to the Greek ; in equipment, they were no match for the Greek
panoply. Lastly, Xerxes laboured under a disadvantage, which
rnay .be illustrated by the experience of the British army in tire
South African War—distance from his base.
5. The Great Age (4S0-33S a.c.).— The effects of the repulse
of Persia were momentous in their influence upon Greece. The
effects upon Elizabethan England of the defeat of the Spunish
armada would afford quite an inadequate parallel. It gave
the Greeks a heightened sense, both of their own national unity
and of their superiority to the barbarian, while at the same time
it helped to create the material conditions requisite alike for
the artistic and political development of the 5th century. Other
cities besides Athens were adorned with the proceeds of the
spoils won from Persia, and Greek trade benefited both from the
reunion of Ionia with Greece, and from the suppression of piracy
in the Aegean and the Hellespont. Do these developments
justify us in giving to the period, which begins with the repulse
of Xerxes, and ends with the victory of Philip, the title of
“ the Great Age ” ? If the title is justified in the case of the 5th
century, should the 4th century be excluded from the period ?
At first sight, the difference between the 4th century and the
5th may seem greater than that which exists between the 5th
and the 6th. On the political side, the 5th century is an age
of growth, the 4th an age of decay; on the literary side, the
1 The numbers given by Herodotus (upwards of 5,000,000) arc
enormously exaggerated. We must divide by ten or fifteen to
arrive at a probable estimate oi the forces that actually crossed
the Hellespont
HISTORY)
GREECE
former is an age Of poetry, the latter an age of prose. Inspit*
of these contrasts, there is a real unity in the period which begins
with the repulse of Xerxes and ends with the death of Alexander,
as compared with any preceding (me. It is an age of maturity
in politics, in literature, and in art; and tins is tnie of no earlier
age. Norcan we say that the 5th century is, in all these aspects
of Greek life, immature as compared with the 4th, or, cm the
other hand, that the 4th is decadent as compared with the
5th. On the political side, maturity is, in one sense, reached
in the earlier century. There is nothing in the later century so
great as the Athenian empire. In another sense, maturity is
not reached tiD the 4th century. It is only in the later century
that the tendency of the Greek constitutions to conform to a
common type, democracy, is (at least approximately) realized,
and it is only in this century that the principles upon which
democracy is based are carried to their logical conclusion. In
literature, if we confine our attention to poetry, we must pro¬
nounce the 5th century the age of completed development;
but in prose the case is different. The style even of Thucydides
is immature, as compared with that of Isocrates and Plato. In
philosophy, however high may be the estimate that is formed
of the genius of the earlier thinkers, it cannot be disputed that in
Plato and Aristotle we find a more mature stage of thought.
In art, architecture may perhaps be said to reach its zenith in
the 5th, sculpture in the 4th century. In its political aspect,
the history of the Great Age resolves itself into the history of
two movements, the imperial and the democratic. Hitherto
Greece had meant, politically, an aggregate of independent
states, very numerous, and, as a rule, very small. The principle
of autonomy was to the Greek the most sacred of all
political principles; the passion for autonomy the
meat. " roost potent of political factors. In the latter half of
the 6th century Sparta had succeeded in combining
the majority of the Peloponnesian states into a loose federal
union ; so loose, however, that it appears to have been dormant
in the intervals of peace. In the crisis of the Persian invasion
the Peloponnesian League was extended so as to include all the
states which had espoused the national cause. It looked on the
morrow of Plataea and Mycale (the two victories, won simul¬
taneously, in 479 b.c., by Spartan commanders, by which the
danger from Persia was finally averted) as if a permanent basis
for union might be found in the hegemony of Sparta. The sense
of a common peril and a common triumph brought with it the
need of a common union; it was Athens, however, instead of
Sparta, by whom the first conscious effort was made to transcend
the isolation of the Greek political system and to bring the units
into combination. The league thus founded (the Delian League,
established in 477 b.c.) was under the presidency of Athens,
but it included hardly any other state besides those that had
conducted the defence of Greece. It was formed, almost entirely,
of the states which had been liberated from Persian rule by
the great victories of the war. The Delian League, even in the
form in which it was first established, as a confederation of
autonomous allies, marks an advance in political conceptions
upon the Peloponnesian League. Provision is made for an
annual revenue, for periodical meetings of the council, and for
a permanent executive. It is a real federation, though an
imperfect one. There were defects in its constitution which
rendered it inevitable that it should be transformed into an
empire. Athens was from the first “ the predominant partner."
The fleet was mainly Athenian, the commanders entirely so;
the assessment of the tribute was in Athenian hands; there
was no federal court appointed to determine questions at issue
between Athens and the other members; and, worst omission
of all, the right 'of secession was left undecided. By the middle
of the century the Delian League has become the Athenian
empire. Henceforward the imperial idea, in one form or another,
dominates Greek politics. Athens failed to extend her authority
over the whole of Greece. Her empire was overthrown; but the
triumph of autonomy proved the triumph of imperialism.
The Spartan empire succeeds to the Athenian, and, when it is
finally shattered at Leuctra (371 b.c.), the hegemony of Thebes,
. which is established oa'tes ruins, asmpmjfoai afl 'Mit wue;
Thedeoay of Theban powerpavesthewayforthe riseclMaeedon.
■ Thus throughouttltis period we can traae two toon contending
for mastery m the Qrrekpolitical system. Two caui a e divide
the allegiance of the Greek world, the cause of; empire and the
cause- of autonomy- Th*. formation of the ooefedesacy df'Deles
did not- involve the dissolution of thi Alliance between Athens
and Sparta. Forseventepi years taoro Atheas retained her
place m the league, " which Bid been established agairat the
Mede " under the presidency ofSpartAm 480 b.c. (ThucJ i.to*).
The ascendancy of Cimon and the Phikilwiofisn party at Athens
was favourable to a good understanding Detween the two states;
and at Sparta in normal times the balance inclined in 'favour
of the party whose policy it best described by the 'motto ** c^ieta
non movere.” :V > . . ■
In the end, however, the opposition of the two contending
forces proved too strong for Spartan neutrality. The fallaf
Cimon (461 b.c.) was followed by the so-called “ First
Peloponnesian War,” a conflict between Athens and
her maritime rivals, Corinth and Aegina, into, which JgwU '
Sparta was ultimately drawn. Thucydides regards 1.1
the hostilities of these years (460-454 B.c.),whicb were resumed
for a few months in 446 b.c., on the expiration df the Five Yearn!
Truce, as preliminary to those of the great Peloponnesian War
(431-404 b.c.). The real question at issue' was :in.both cases the
same. The tie that united the opponents of Athens was found
in a common hostility to the imperial'idea. It is acotnplete
misapprehension to regard the Peloponnesian War ns a mere
duel between two rival claimants for empire.. The ultimatum
presented by Sparta on the eve of the war-demanded the restora¬
tion of autonomy to the subjects of Athens. ThereisinO reason
for doubting her sincerity in presenting ibin this form. It would,
however, be an equal misapprehension to regard the. war as
merely a struggle between the cause of empire and the. oause of
autonomy. Corresponding to this fundamental contrast there
are other contrasts, constitutional, racial' and military. The
military interest of the war is largely due to thefact that Athens
was a sea power and Sparta a land one. As the war went on,
the constitutional aspect tended to become more 'marked- At
first there were democracies an the side of Sparta, ahd oligarchies
on the side of Athens. In the last stage of the war*' when
Lysander's influence was supreme, we see the forces of oligarchy
everywhere united and organized for the destruction of demo¬
cracy. In its origin the war was certainly not due to the rivalry
of Dorian and Ionian. This racial, or tribal, contrast counted
for more in the politics of Sicily than of Greece; and, though
the two great branches of the Greek race were represented
respectively by the leaders of the two sides, the allies on neither
side belonged exclusively to the one bramji or the other. Still,
it remains true that the Dorian states were, as a rale, on the
Spartan side, and the Ionian states, as a rule, 6n the Athenian
—a division of sentiment which must have helped to widen the
breach, and to intensify the animosities.
As a political experiment the Athenian empire possesses a
unique interest. It represents the first attempt to .fuse the
principles of imperialism and democracy. It is at
once the first empire in history possessed and admini- . **•.
stered by a sovereign people, and the .first' which
sought to establish a common system of democratic .
institutions amongst its subjects. 1 It was an experiment' that
failed, partly owing to the inherent strength of the oligarchic
cause, partly owing to the exclusive character of ancient citizen¬
ship. The Athenians themselves recognized that their empire
depended for its existence upon the solidarity of democratic
interests (see Thuc. iii.47; Psreido-Xenophon, de S*p. Atk. 1,14,
iii. 10). An understanding existed between the.;democratic
leaders in the subject-states and the democratic parly at .Athens*
1 It has been denied by some writers .{e.g. by A. H. JitJreonidfe)
that Athens interfered with the constitutions of the sohject-etstes.
For the view pet forward in the text, the following pass*tee way
be quoted: Aristotle, PoiiHcs (307 b 30; Isocrates, Parntyriau,
103,106, Pmatk ena icue, 34 and 68 > Xeaaphm, 4. Ji
Pl.-Xen. A Men. Comtit. L 14, iii to.
«
asdh
’ WUtfifck,
tftfrzl! 5 h (413 Bx.)gave the subjects their chance
Mfganization ei the oligarchical party throughout
wfttahpire, which was fefiected by Lysander in the kst stage
of th# war, contributed ,to the overthrow of Athenian ascendancy
hardly less than the subsidies df Persia. Had Athens aimed at
establishing a' community* of interest between herself and her
subjects, based upog a common citizenship, her empire might
have endured, would have been a policy akin to that which
secured the permanence of the Roman empire. And it was a
peii^ which found advocates when the day for it was .past (see
Aristophanes, Ly si strata, 574 if.; cf. the grunt of citizenship
to the Samians after Aagospotami, CJ.A. iv. 2, ib). But the
policy pursued by Athens in the plenitude of her power was the
reverse of the policy pursued by Rome in her treatment of the
franchise. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the fate of the
empire was sealed by the law of Pericles (451 B.c.), by which the
franchise was restricted to those who could establish Athenian
descent on both sides. It was not merely that the process of
amalgamation through intermarriage was abruptly checked;
what was more serious was that a hard and fast line was drawn,
once and for all, between the small body of privileged rulers and
the great mass of unprivileged subjects. Maine (Early Institu¬
tions, lecture 13) has classed the Athenian empire with those
of the familiar Oriental type, which attempt nothing beyond the
raising of taxes and the levying of troops. The Athenian empire
cannot, indeed, be classed with the Roman, or with the British
rule in India ; it does not, therefore, deserve to be classed with
the empires of Cyrus or of Jenghiz Khan. Though the basis of
its organization, like that of the Persian empire under Darius,
was financial, it attempted, and secured, objects beyond the
mere payment of tribute and the supply of ships. If Athens did
not introduce a common religion, or a common system of educa¬
tion, or a common citizenship, she did introduce a common type
of political institutions, and a common jurisdiction. 1 She went
some way, too, in the direction of establishing a common system
of coins, and of weights and measures. A common language
was there already. In a word, the Athenian empire marks a
definite stage of political evolution.
The other great political movement of the age was the progress
of democracy. Before the Persian invasion democracy was a
n , rare phenomenon in Greek politics. Where it was
oMrfm found it existed in an undeveloped form, and its tenure
damn- of power was precarious. By the beginning of the
crm *- Peloponnesian War it had become the prevalent form
of government. The great majority of Greek states had adopted
democratic constitutions. Both in the Athenian sphere of
influence and in the colonial world outside that sphere, demo¬
cracy was all but the only form of constitution known. It was
only in Greece proper that oligarchy held its own. In the
Peloponnese it could count a majority of the states; in northern
Greece at least a half of them. The spread of democratic insti¬
tutions was arrested by the victory of Sparta in the East, and
the rise of Dionysius in the West. There was a moment at the
end of the 5th century when it looked as if democracy was a lost
cause. Even Athens was. for a brief period under the rule of
the Thirty (404-403 b.c.). In the regions which had formed
the empire of Athens the decarchies set up by Lysander were
soon overthrown, and democracies restored in most coses, but
oligarchy oon tinned to be the prevalent form in Greece proper
until Leuctra (371 b.c.), and in Sicily tyranny had a still longer
tenure of power. By the end of the Great Age oligarchy has
almost disappeared from the Greek world, except in the sphere
of Persian influence. The Spartan, monarchy still survives ; a
lew Peloponnesian states still maintain the rule of the few ; here
1 The evidence seem* to indicate that all the more important
criminal cates throughout the empire were tried in the Athenian
courts. In civil cases Athens secured to the citizens of the Subject-
States the right of suing Athenian abacus, as well ascitiaens of other
subject-states. >
Cleisthenes, which was a democracy in the view of his contem¬
poraries, had oome to beregarded os,on aristocracy (Aristot,
Aih. Pal. 29. 3). We can trace a similar change of sentiment
in Sicily. As compared with the extreme form of constitution
adopted at Syracuse after the defeat of the Athenian expedition,
the democracies established two generations earlier, on the fell
of the iyrannis, appeared oligarchical. The changes by which
the character of the Greek democracies was revolutionized were
four in number: the substitution of sortition for election, the
abolition of a property qualification, the payment of officials
and the rise of a class of professional politicians. In the demo-
cracy of Cleisthenes no payment was given for service, whether
as a magistrate, a juror or a member of the Boule. The higher
magistracies were filled by election, and they were held almost
exclusively by the members of the great Athenian families.
For the highest office of all, the archonship, none but Penla-
cosiomtdtmni (the first of the four Solonian classes) were eligible.
The introduction of pay and the removal of the property quali¬
fication formed part of the reformsof Pericles. Sortition had been
instituted for election a generation earlier (48) b.c .). 2 What is
•perhaps the most important of all these changes, the rise of the
demagogues, belongs to the era of the Peloponnesian War.
From the time of Cleisthenes to the outbreak of the war every
statesman of note at Athens, with the exception of Themistocles
(and, perhaps, of Ephialtes), is of aristocratic birth. Down to
the fall of Cimon the course of Athenian politics is to a great
extent determined by the alliances and antipathies of the great
clans. With the Peloponnesian War a new epoch begins. The
chief office, the strategia, is still, as a rule, held by men of rank.
But leadership in the Ewlesia has passed to men of a different
class. The demagogues were not necessarily poor men. Cleon
was a wealthy man ; Eucrates, Lysicles and Hyperbolus were,
at any rate, tradesmen rather than artisans. The first “ labour
member” proper is Qeophon (411-404 b.c.), a lyre-maker.
They belonged, however, not to the land-owning, but to the in¬
dustrial classes ; they were distinguished from the older ruce of
party-leaders by a vulgar accent, and by a violence of gesture
in public speaking, and they found their supporters among the
population of the city and its port, the Peiraeus, rather than
among the farmers of the country districts. In the 4th century
the demagogues, though under another name, that of orators,
have acquired entire control of the Ecclesia. It is an age of
professionalism, and the professional soldier has his counterpart
in the professional politician. Down to the death of Pericles
the party-leader had always held office as Stratcgus. His rival,
Thucydides, son of Melesias, forms a solitary exception to this
statement. In the 4th century the divorce between the general
and the statesman is complete. The generals are professional
soldiers, who aspire to no political influence in the state, and the
statesmen devote themselves exclusively to politics, a career
for which they have prepared themselves by a professional
training in oratory or administrative work. The ruin of agri¬
culture during the war had reduced the old families to insigni¬
ficance. Birth counts for less than nothing as a political asset
in the age of Demosthenes.
But great as are the contrasts which have been pointed
out between the earlier and the later democracy, those that
distinguish the ancient conception of democracy from
the modem are of a still more essential nature. The
differences that distinguish the democracies of ancient
Greece from those of the modem world have their origin,
to a great extent, in the difference between a city-state
and a nation-state. Many of the most famous Greek states
11 After this date, and partly ia consequence of the change, the
archonship, to which sortition was applied, loses its importance.
The strategi (generals) become the chief executive officials. As elec¬
tion was never replaced by the lot in their case, the change had leas
practical meaning than might appear at first sight (See Abchon ;
Stratkgus.)
«mown
GKBBCI
bftdju wKa vf ft few *qo*r* mile*; the largest of them mia»
huger ithaa an English county. Bofcricaltfceory put thehmit
of the citizen-body at 10,000. Though thia number was exceeded
in a few cases, it is doubtful if any state, except Athens, ever
counted more than 20,000 citizens. In the nationstates of
modern times, deraocratjcgoyemjTient is possible only under the:
form of a representative system; in the city-state representative
government was unnecessary, and therefore unknown. In the
ancient type of democracy a popular chamber has no existence.
The Bcdesia is not a chamber in any sense of the term;, it is an
assembly of the whole people, which every citizen is entitled
to attend, and in which every one is equally entitled to vote and
speak. The question raised in modern political science, as to
whether sovereignty resides in the electors or their representatives,
has thus neither place nor meaning in ancient theory. In the
same way, one of the most familiar results of modern analysis,
the distinction between the executive and the legislative, finds
no recognition in the Greek writers. In a direct system of
government there can be no executive in the proper sense.
Executive functions are discharged by the ecclesia, to whose
decision the details of administration may be referred. The
position of the strategi, the chief officials in the Athenian
democracy of the 5th century, was in no sense comparable to
that of a modem cabinet. Hence the individual citizen in an
ancient democracy was concerned in, and responsible for, the
actual work of government to a degree that is inconceivable in
a modem state. Thus participation in the administrative and
judicial business of the state is made by Aristotle the differentia
of the citizen (iroAirijs «m v u jatrsyoiv KpUrtuit kui 4 f>XV*,
Aristot. Politics, p. 1275 a so). A large proportion of the citizens
of Athens, in addition to frequent service in the courts of law,
must in the course of their lives have held a magistracy, great
or small, or have acted for a year or two as members of the
Boule. 1 It must be remembered that there was nothing corre¬
sponding to a permanent civil service in the ancient state.
Much of the work of a government office would have been
transacted by the Athenian BoulE. It must be remembered,
too, that political and administrative questions of great import¬
ance came before the popular courts of law. Hence it follows
that the ordinary citizen of an ancient democracy, in the course
of his service in the Boule or the law-courts, acquired an interest
in political questions, and a grasp of administrative work, which
none but a select few can hope to acquire under the conditions
of the modem system. Where there existed neither a popular
chamber nor a distinct executive, there was no opportunity for
the growth of a party-system. There were, of course, political
parties at Athens and elsewhere—oligarchs and democrats,
conservatives and radicals, a peace-party and a war-party,
according to the burning question of the day. There was,
however, nothing equivalent to a general election, to a cabinet
(or to that collective responsibility which is of the essence of a
cabinet), or to the government and the opposition. Party
organization, therefore, and a party system, in the proper sense,
were never developed. Whatever may have been the evils
incident to the ancient, form of democracy, the “ boss,” the
caucus and the spoils-system were not among them.
Besides these differences, which, directly or indirectly, result
from the difference of scale, there are others, hardly less profound,
which are not connected with the size of the city-state. Perhaps
the most striking contrast between the democracies of ancient
and of modem times is to be found in their attitude towards
privilege. Ancient democracy implies privilege ; modem
democracy implies its destruction. In the more fully developed
democracies of the modem world (c- g. in the United States, or in
Australia), the privilege of class is unknown; in some of them
(e^. New Zealand, Australia, Norway) even the privilege of
sex has been abolished Ancient democracy was bound up with
privilege as much as oligarchy was. The transition from the
latter to theiormer was affected by enlarging the area of privilege
and by altering its basis. Ip an oligarchical state citizenship
1 For an estimate oi the nunbera annually engaged in the service
of Athena, see.Aristot, 41 *. Pol- 24 - i-
■night be oMfeed -to a* %,«f the- tee po pt lwrio n r 1 wite*
democracy 50 % might oiwoyitz - I» [former tifuftlifita-
tioe might be wealth «lend j ; in the latter ewe it might (be,
as it was at Athens, birth, «>..de*<*nt*' -on both swwj-tewa
citizen family,) But, in both earns alike, the distinction between
a privileged and an unprivileged body of tee-bee* wakkrtta
is fundamental. To the unprivileged clast belonged, not i’ray
foreignera temporarily resident ((•***) and • aliens 'permanently
domiciled (^froisot), but also thosenative-born mh a bitan txff
the state who were of foreign extraction, on one side or (Hie
other. 2 The privileges attaching to citizenship .included, -jn
addition to eligibility for office nod a vote-in the assembly, such
private rights as that of owning land Or a house, or ojf>tontractft&
a marriage with one of citizen status. The citizen, trio,, W&s
alone the recipient of all-the various forms rif pay (e.g. for attend¬
ance in the assembly, for service in the Boulf or the law-courts,
or for the celebration of the great festivals) which arif so con¬
spicuous a feature in the developed democracy Of the 4th century.
The mtiotci could not even plead in a court of law in person,
but only through a patron (vpotrnTtfi), It is inteHigftfe that
privileges so great should be jealously guarded. In the demo¬
cracies of the modern world naturalization is easy; in those
of ancient Greece admission to the franchise was rarely accorded.
In modern times, again, we are accustomed to connect democracy
with the emancipation of women. It is true that only
a few democratic constitutions grant them the suffrage;
but though, as a rule, they are denied public rights, wtmm.
the growth of popular government has been almost
every where accompanied by an extension of their private rights,
and by the removal of the restrictions imposed by law, custom
or public opinion upon their freedom of action. In ancient
Greeee the democracies were as illiberal in their policy as the
oligarchies. Women of the respectable class were condemned
to comparative seclusion. They enjoyed far less freedom in
4th-century Athens than in the Homeric Age. It is not in any
of the democracies, but in conservative Sparta, that they
possess privilege, and exercise influence.
The most fundamental of all the contrasts between democracy
in its ancient and in its modern form remains to be stated.
The ancient state was inseparable from slavery. In sltrt —
this respect there was no difference between democracy
and the other forms of government. No inconsistency was felt,
therefore, between this institution and the democratic principle.
Modem political theory has been profoundly affected by the
conception of the dignity of labour; ancient political theory
tended to regard labour as a disqualification for the exercise
of political rights. Where slavery exists, the taint of it will
inevitably cling to all labour that can be performed by the
slave. In ancient Athens (which may be taken as typical of
the Greek democracies) unskilled labour was almost entirely
slave-labour, and skilled labour was largely so. The arts and
crafts were, to some extent, exercised by citizens, but to a leas
extent in the 4th than in the 6th century. They were,, however,
chiefly left to aliens or slaves. The citizen-body of Athens in
the age of Demosthenes has been stigmatised as consisting in
great measure of salaried paupers. There is, doubtless, an
exaggeration in this. It is, however, true, both that, the system
of state-pay went a long way towards supplying the simple wants
of a southern population, and that a large proportion of the
citizens had time to spare for the service of the state. Had the
life of the lower class of citizens been absorbed in a round Of
mechanical labours, as fully as is the life of our industrial classes,
the working of an ancient democracy would have been impossible.
In justice to the ancient democracies it must be conceded that,
whole popular government carried with it neither the enfranchise¬
ment of the alien nor the cma n c f patkm'of the slave, 1 the rights
secured to both classes wen more considerable in tbe democratic
states than elsewhere. The lot of the slave, as well as that'of the
alien, was a peculiarly favourable one at Athens. The pseudo-
Xenophon in the 5th century (Dt rep.Ath-s. to-ia) and Plate
* Foreign is not used lure <ui equivalent to ■non-Heflenie. rt meant
" belonging to another state, whether Greek or barbarian." ■ r:
ij.'5-a GREECE [histo**
in t 4 se 4th ( Republic , p. 563 b), prove that the spirit of liberty,
with which Athenian life was permeated, was not without its
influence upon the position of these classes. When we read that
•critics complained of the opulence of slaves, and of the liberties
•they took, and when we are told that the slave could not be
distinguished from the poorer class of citizens either by his dress
or his look, we begin to realize the difference between the slavery
of ancient Athens and the system as it was worked on the Roman
UtijunHa or the plantations of the New World.
It had been anticipated that the fall of Athens would mean
the triumph of the principle of autonomy. If Athens had
surrendered within a year or so of the Sicilian catas-
Spmtum this anticipation would probably have been
impir*. fulfilled. It was the last phase of the struggle (412-
404 b.c.) that rendered a Spartan empire inevitable.
The oligarchical governments established by Lysander recognized
that their tenure of power was dependent upon Spartan support,
while Lysander himself, to whose genius, as a political organizer
not less than as a commander, the triumph of Sparta was due,
was unwilling to see his work undone. The Athenian empire
had never included the greater part of Greece proper; since
the Thirty Years’ 1 Peace its possessions on the mainland, outside
the boundaries of Attica, were limited to Naupactus and Plataea.
.Sparta, on the other hand, attempted the control of the entire
Greek world east of the Adriatic. Athens had been compelled
to acknowledge a dual system; Sparta sought to establish
uniformity. 1116 attempt failed from the first. Within a year
of the surrender of Athens, Thebes and Corinth had drifted into
an attitude of opposition, while Argos remained hostile. It was
not long before the policy of Lysander succeeded in uniting
against Sparta the very forces upon which she had relied when
she entered on the Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War
(304-387 b . c ,) was brought about by the alliance of all the second-
class powers —Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Argos—against the one
first-class power, Sparta. Though Sparta emerged successful
from the war, it was with the loss of her maritime empire, and
at the cost of recognizing the principle of autonomy as the basis
of the Greek political system. It was already evident, thus
early in the century, that the centrifugal forces were to prove
stronger than the centripetal. Two further causes may be
indicated which help to explain the failure of the Spartan
empire. In the first place Spartan sea-power was an artificial
creation. History seems to show that it is idle for a state to
aspire to naval supremacy unless it possesses a great commercial
marine. Athens had possessed such a marine; her naval
supremacy was due not to the mere size of her fleet, but to the
numbers and skill of her seafaring population. Sparta had no
commerce. She could build fleets more easily than she could
man them. A single defeat (at Cnidus, 391 b.c.) sufficed for
the ruin of her sea-power. The second cause is to be found in the
financial weakness of the Spartan state. The Spartan treasury
had been temporarily enriched by the spoils of the Peloponnesian
War, but neither during that war, nor afterwards, did Sparta
succeed in developing any scientific financial system. Athens
was the only state which either possessed a large annual revenue
or accumulated a considerable reserve. Under the conditions
of Greek warfare, fleets were more expensive than armies. Not
only was money needed for the building and maintenance of the
ships, but the sailor must be paid, while the soldier served for
nothing. Hence the power with the longest purse could both
build the largest fleet and attract the most skilful seamen.
The battle of Leuctra transferred the hegemony from Sparta
to Thebes, but the attempt to unite Greece under the leadership
•of Thebes was from the first doomed to failure. The
conditions were less favourable to Thebes than they
moa ^. had been to Athens or Sparta. Thebes was even more
exclusively a land-power than Sparta. She had no
revenue comparable to that of Athens in the preceding century.
Unlike Athens and. Sparta, she had not the advantage of being
identified with a political cause. As the enemy of Athens in the
5th century, she was on the side of oligarchy ; as the rival of
Sparta in the 4th, Bhe was on the side of democracy; but in her
bid for primacy she could not appeal, as Athens and Sparta
could, to a great political tradition, nor had she behind ®#,
as they had, the moral force of a great political principle. Her
position, too, in Boeotia itself was insecure. The rise of Athens
was in great measure the result of the synoecism (awoiKuryit)
of Attica. All inhabitants of Attica were Athenians. Btrt
“ Boeotian ” and “ Theban ” were not synonymous terms. The
Boeotian league was an imperfect form of union, as compared
with the Athenian state, and the claim of Thebes to the presi¬
dency of the league was, at best, sullenly acquiesced in by the
other towns. The destruction of some of the most famous Of
the Boeotian cities, however necessary it may have been in order
to unite the country, was a measure which at once impaired the
resources of Thebes and outraged Greek sentiment. It has berm
often held that the failure of Theban policy was due to the death
of EpaminondaS (at the battle of Mantmea, 362 B.c.). For this
view there is no justification. His policy had proved a failure
before his death. Where it harmonized with die spirit of the
age, the spirit of dissidence, it succeeded; where it attempted
to run counter to it, it failed. It succeeded in destroying the
supremacy of Sparta in the Peloponnese; it failed to unite the
Peloponnese on a new basis. It failed still more signally to unite
Greece north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more
divided than it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon’s
Hellenics). It Would be difficult to overestimate the importance
of his policy as a destructive force; as a constructive force it
effected nothing. 1 The Peloponnesian system which Epami-
nondas overthrew had lasted two hundred years. Under
Spartan leadership the Peloponnese had enjoyed almost complete
immunity from invasion and comparative immunity from
stasis (faction). The Claim that Isocrates makes for Sparta is
probably well-founded ( Arcktdamus , 64-69 ; during the period
of Spartan ascendency the Peloponnesians were ei'^aifwvttrraroi
iw EAAijvw). Peloponnesian sentiment had been one of the
chief factors in Greek politics ; to it, indeed, in no small degree
was due the victory over Persia. The Theban victory at Leuctra
destroyed the unity, and with it the peace and the prosperity,
of the Peloponnese. It inaugurated a period of misery, the
natural result of stasis and invasion, to which no parallel can
be found in the earlier history (see Isocrates, Archidamus, 65,
66; the Peloponnesians were ii/*aA«r/»fvoi rats o-v/ufmpak). it
destroyed, too, the Peloponnesian sentiment of hostility to the
invader. The bulk of the army that defeated Mardonius at
Plataea came from the Peloponnese; at Chaeronea no Pelopon¬
nesian state was represented.
The question remains, Why did the city-state fail to save
Greece from conquest by Macedon ? Was this result due to the
inherent weakness either of the city-state itself, or of
one particular form of it, democracy ? It is clear, in rto *
any case, that the triumph of Macedon was the effect Mtctdoa.
of causes which had long been at work. If neither
Philip nor Alexander had appeared on the scene, Greece might
have maintained her independence for another generation or
two ; but, when invasion came, it would have found her weaker
and more distracted, and the conquerors might easily have been
less imbued with the Greek spirit, and less sympathetic towards
Greek ideals, than the great Macedonian and his son. These
causes are to be found in the tendencies of the age, political,
economic and moral. Of the two movements which characterized
the Great Age in its political aspect, the imperial and the
democratic, the one failed and the other succeeded. The failure
and the success were equally fatal to the chances of Greece in
the conflict with Macedon. By the middle of the 4th century
Greek politics had come to be dominated by the theory of the
balance of power. This theory, enunciated in its coarsest form
by Demosthenes (Pro Megalopolit. 4 trvp<j>ipti ry ri\tt ml
Aa*t8atpov(ovs AtrOtvtis that rat Qr)/ 3 al 6 \<s; cf. in Aristocrat.
102,103), had shaped the foreign policy of Athens since the end
of the Peloponnesian War. As long as Sparta was the stronger,
Athens inclined to a Theban alliance; after Leuctra she tended
in the direction of a Spartan one. At the epoch of Philip’s
1 It failed even to create a united Arcadia or a strong Messenia.
HISTORY]
GREECE 453
accession the forces were everywhere nicely balanced. The
Pelopannese was fairly equally divided between the Theban and
the Spartan interests, and central Greece was similarly divided
between the Theban and the Athenian. Farther north we get
an Athenian party opposed to an Olynthian in Chakidice, and
a republican party, dependent upon the support of Thebes,
opposed to that of the tyrants in Thessaly. It is easy to see that
the political conditions of Greece, both in the north and in the
south, invited interference from without. And the triumph of
democracy in its extreme form was ruinous to the military
efficiency of Greece. On the one side there was a monarchical
state, in which all powers, civil as well as military, were concen¬
trated in the hands of a single ruler; on the other, a constitutional
system, in which a complete separation had been effected between
the responsibility of the statesman and that of the commander. 1
It could not be doubtful with which side victory would rest.
Meanwhile, the economic conditions were steadily growing worse.
The cause which Aristotle assigns for the decay of the Spartan
state—a declining population (see Politics, p. 1270 a curuUrro
t) iroA.tr rut' AciM&u/Kmwv Sia ri)v AXiyavOpwriav )—might be
extended to the Greek world generally. The loss of population
was partly the result of war and stasis —Isocrates speaks of the
number of political.exiles from the various states as enormous *—
but it wasalso due to a declining birth-rate, and to the exposure
of infants. Aristotle, while condemning exposure, sanctions the
procuring of abortion ( Politics, 1335 b). It is probable that
both ante-natal and post-natal infanticide were rife everywhere,
except among the more backward communities. A people
which has condemned itself to racial suicide can have little
chance when pitted against a nation in which healthier instincts
prevail. The materials for forming a trustworthy estimate of
the population of Greece at any given epoch are not available;
there b enough evidence, however, to prove that the military
population of the leading Greek states at the era of the battle
of Chaeronca (338 b.c.) fell far short of what it had been at the
beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The decline in population
had been accompanied by a decline in wealth, both public and
private; and while revenues had shrunk, expenditure had
grown. It was a century of warfare ; and warfare had become
enormously more expensive, partly through the increased em¬
ployment of mercenaries, partly through the enhanced cost of
material. The power of the purse had made itself felt even in
the 5th century; Persian gold had helped to decide the issue
of the great war. In the politics of the 4th century the power
of the purse becomes the determining factor. The public
finance of the ancient world was singularly simple in character,
and the expedients for raising a revenue were comparatively few.
The distinction between direct and indirect taxation was recog¬
nized in practice, but states as a rule were reluctant to submit
to the former system. The revenue of Athens in the 5th century
was mainly derived from the tribute paid by her subjects; it
was only in time of war that a direct tax was levied upon the
citizen-body. 8 In the age of Demosthenes the revenue derived
from the Athenian Confederacy was insignificant. The whole
burden of the expenses of a war fell upon the 1200 richest
citizens, who were subject to direct taxation in the dual form of
the Trierarchy and the Eisphora (property-tax). The revenue
thus raised was wholly insufficient for an effort on a great scale ;
yet the revenues of Athens at this period must have exceeded
those of any other state.
It is to moral causes, however, rather than to political or
economic ones, that the failure of Greece in the conflict with
Macedon is attributed by the most famous Greek statesmen
of that age. Demosthenes is never weary of insisting upon the
decay of patriotism among the citizens and upon the decay
of probity among their leaders. Venality had always been
the besetting sin of (keek statesmen. Pericles’ boast as to his
1 See Demosthenes, On the Crown, 233. Philip was eArospimp,
htaT&rnt, hytuir, siiptot rirrur. .
i See Archidamus, 68; Philippas, 96. fesv tlret ewrr^rai
erpirirtSor ml tptimr is rOr v\arvpirur h is r 6 r weXcmopirUr.
• The Liturgies (eg. the Hierarchy) had much, the same effect as
a direct tax levied upon the wealthiest citizens.
own incorruptibility (Thuc. iL 60) is signifies** ** tothareputn-
tionof his contemporaries. In the age of Demostheaes the level of
public life in this respect had sunk at least as low as that which
prevails in many states of the modern world (see Demoeth. On the
Crown, 61 rapa rot's 'LAA901V, m rurlv dAA* amurtv o/Mitsts pdfid
rpoSorwv teat Supo&osu>r avv ; cf. §§ 295,296). Corruption was
certainly not confined to the Macedonian party. The best that
can be said in defence of the patriots, as well as of their opponents*
is that they honestly believed that the policy which they were
bribed to advocate was the best for their country’s interests.
The evidence for the general decay of patriotism among the mass
of the citizens, is less conclusive. The battle of Megalopolis
(331 B.c.), in which the Spartan soldiery “ went down in a blaae
of glory,” proves that the spirit of the Lacedemonian state
remained unchanged. But at Athens it seemed to contemporary
observers—to Isocrates equally with Demosthenes-—that the
spirit of the great days was extinct (see Isocr. On 4 he Peace,
47,48). It cannot, of course, be denied thatpublic opinion was
obstinately opposed to the diversion of the-Tbeoric Fund to the
purposes of the war with Philip. It was not till the year before
Chaeronea that Demosthenes succeeded in persuading . die
assembly to devote the entire surplus to the expenses of the war. 4
Nor can it be denied that mercenaries were far more hugely
employedin the 4th century than in the 5th. In justice, however,
to the Athenians of the Demosthenic era, it should be remembered
that the burden of direct taxation was rarely imposed, and Weis
reluctantly endured, in (he previous century. It must also be
remembered that, even in the 4th century, the Athenian citizen
was ready to take the field, provided that it was not a question
of a distant expedition or of prolonged service. 11 For distant
expeditions, or for prolonged service, a citizen-militia is unsuited.
The substitution of a professional force for an unprofessional
one is to be explained, partly by the change in the character of
Greek warfare, and partly by the operation of the laws of supply
and demand. There had been a time when warfare meant *
brief campaign, in the summer months against a neighbouring
state. It had come to mean prolonged operations against a
distant enemy. 8 Athens was at war, e.g. with Philip, for eleven
years continuously (357-346 b.c.). If winter campaigns in
Thrace were unpopular at this epoch, they had been hardly
less unpopular in the epoch of the Peloponnesian War. In the
days of her greatness, too, Athens had freely employed mer¬
cenaries, but it was in the navy rather than die army. In the
age of Pericles the supply of mercenary rowers was abundant,
the supply of mercenary troops inconsiderable. In the age cf
Demosthenes incessant warfare and ceaseless revolution had
filled Greece with crowds of homeless adventurers. The.supply
helped to create the demand. The mercenary was as cheap as
the citizen-soldier, and much more effective. On the whole,
then, it may be inferred that it is a mistake to regard the preval¬
ence of the mercenary system as the expression of a declining
patriotism. It would be nearer the mark to treat the transition
from the voluntary to the professional system as cause rather
than effect; as one among the causes which contributed to the
decay of public spirit in the Greek world.
6, From Alexander to the Roman Conquest (336-146 P.C,),— In
the history of Greece proper during this period the interest is
mainly constitutional. It may foe called the age of _
federation. Federation, indeed, was no novelty in
Greece. Federal unions had existed in Thessaly, in meet.
Boeotia and elsewhere, and the Boeotian league can be
traced back at least to the 6th century. Two newly-ifounded
federations, the Chalcidian and the Arcadian, play no inconsider¬
able part in the politics of the 4th century. But it is not till the
3rd century that federation attains to its full development in
Greece, and becomes the normal type of polity. The ,two great
1 His extreme caution in approaching the qneethm at an earlier
date is to be notioed. See, e.g., Olynthiacs, i. 19, * 0 -
• e.g. the two expeditions sent to Euboea, the cavalry force that
took part in the battle of Man tinea, and the army that fought at
Chaeronea. The troops in afftheke cases were citizens.
• For the altered character of warfare see De ra oet him as , Philippics,
ifl.4s.s9- -'h
454
league s of this period an the Aetolian and the Achaean. Both
Hod existed in the 4th century, but the latter, which had been
dissolved shortly before the beginning of the 3rd century,
becomes important only after its restoration in a8o b.c., about
which date the former, too, first begins to attract notice. The
interest of federalism lies in the fact that it marks an advance
beyond the conception of the city-state. It is an attempt to
solve the problem which the Athenian empire failed to solve, the
reconciliation of the claims of local autonomy with those of
national union. The federal leagues of the 3rd century possess
a further interest for the modem world, in that there can be
traced in their constitutions a nearer approach to a representative
system than is found elsewhere in Greek experience. A genuine
representative system, it is true, was never developed in any
Greek polity. What we find in the leagues is a sort of compromise
between the principle of a primary assembly and the principle
of a representative chamber. In both leagues the nominal
sovereign was a primary assembly, in which every individual
citizen had the right to vote. In both of them, however, the
real power lay with a council (/iovAij) composed of membera
representative of each of the component states. 1
The real interest of this period, however, is to be looked for
elsewhere than in Greece itself. Alexander's career is one of the
turning-points in history. He is one of the few to
whom it has been given to modify the whole future
empire. of the human race. He originated two forces which
have profoundly affected the development of civiliza¬
tion. He created Hellenism, and he created for the western
world the monarchical ideal. Greece had produced personal
rulers of ability, or even of genius; but to the greatest of these,
to Peisistratus, to Dionysius, even to Jason of Pherae, there
dung the fatal taint of illegitimacy. As yet no ruler had suc¬
ceeded in making the person of the monarch respectable.
Alexander made it sacred. From him is derived, for the West,
that “ divinity that doth hedge a king.” And in creating
Hellenism he created, for the first time, a common type of
civilization, with a common language, literature and art, as
well as a common form of political organization. In Asia Minor
he was content to reinforce the existing Hellenic elements
(cf. the case of Side, Arrian, Anabasis, i. afi. 4). In the rest of
the Bast his instrument of hellenization was the polis. He is
said to have founded no less than seventy cities, destined to
become centres of Greek influence ; and the great majority
of these were in lands in which city-life was almost unknown.
In this respect his example was emulated by his successors. The
eastern provinces were soon lost, though Greek influences
lingered on even in Bactria and across the Indus. It was only
the regions lying to the west of the Euphrates that were
effectively hellenized, and the permanence of this result was
largely due to the policy of Rome. But after all deductions have
been made, the great fact remains that for many centuries after
Alexander's death Greek was the language of literature and
religion, of commerce and of administration throughout the
Nearer East. Alexander had created a universal empire as well
as a universal culture, His empire perished at his death, but
its central idea survived-—that of the municipal freedom of the
Greek polis within the framework of an imperial system. Hellen¬
istic civilization may appear degenerate when compared with
Hellenic; when compared-with the civilizations which it super¬
seded in non-Hellenic lands, it marks an unquestionable advance.
(For the history of Greek civilization in the East, see Hellenism.)
Greece 1 left her mark upon the civilization of the West as well
as upon that of the East, but the process by which her influence
was diffused was essentially different. In the East Hellenism
came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was content to
build upon the foundations laid by Alexander. In the West
Greek influences were diffused by the Roman conquest of Greece.
It was through the ascendancy which Greek literature, philosophy
and art acquired oyer tire Roman mind that Greek culture
penetrated to the nations of western Europe. The civilization
1 It It known that the councillors Were appointed by the states
in the Aetolian league; it is only surmised in the case of the Achaean.
wmcmr
of the East remained Greek. The civilisation ofbti he ,,West
became and remained Latin, but it was a Latin crvilmtum that
was saturated with Greek influences. The ultimate division
both of the empire and the church, into two halves, finds its
explanation in this original difference of culture;
Ancient Authorities.— (I.) For the earliest periods of Greek
history, the so-called Minoan and Mycenaean, the evidence is
purely archaeological. It is sufficient here to refer to the article
Aegean Civilization, For the next period, the Heroic or
Homeric Age, the evidence is derived from the poems of Homer,
In any estimate of the value of these poems as historical evidence,
much will depend upon the view taken of the authorship, age
and unity of the poems. For a full discussion of these questions
see Homer . It cannot be questioned that the poems are evidence
for the existence of a period in the history of the Greek race,
which differed from later periods in political and social, military
and economic conditions. But here agreement ends. If, as a
generally held by German critics, the poems are not earlier than
the 9th century, if they contain large interpolations of con¬
siderably later date and if they are Ionian in origin, the authority
of the poems becomes comparatively slight. The existence of
different strata in the poems will imply the existence of incon¬
sistencies and contradictions in the evidence ; nor will the
evidence be that of a contemporary. It will also follow that the
picture of the heroic age contained in the poems is an idealized
one. The more extreme critics, e.g. Beloeh, deny that the poems
are evidence even for the existence of a pre-Dorian epoch. If,
on the other hand, the poems are assigned to the nth or lath
century, to a Peloponnesian writer, and to a period anterior to
the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor (this
is the view of the late Dr D. B, Munro), the evidence becomes
that of a contemporary, and the authority of the poems for the
distribution of races and tribes in the Heroic Age, as well as for
the social and political conditions of the poet’s time, would be
conclusive. Homer recognizes no Dorians in Greece, except in
Crete (see Odyssry, xix. 177), and no Greek colonies in Asia
Minor. Only two explanations are possible. Either there is
deliberate archaism in the poems, or else they are earlier in date
than the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor.
II. For the period that extends from the end of the Heroic
Age to the end of the Peloponnesian War 2 the two principal
authorities are Herodotus and Thucydides. Not only „
have the other historical works which treated of this”* ro otu, ‘
period perished (those at least whose date is earlier than
the Christian era), but their authority was secondary and
their material chiefly derived from these two writers. In one
respect then this period of Greek history stands alone. Indeed,
it might be said, with hardly an exaggeration, that there is
nothing like it elsewhere in history. Almost our sole authorities
are two writers of unique genius, and they are writers whose
works have come down to us intact. For the period which ends
with the repulse of the Persian invasion our authority is Hero¬
dotus. For the period which extends from 478 to 411 we are
dependent upon Thucydides. In each case, however, a distinc¬
tion must be drawn. The Persian Wars form the proper subject
of Herodotus’s work ; the Peloponnesian War is the subject of
Thucydides’. The interval between the two wars is merely
sketched by Thucydides; while of the period anterior to the
conflicts of the Greek with the Persian, Herodotus -does not
attempt either a complete or a continuous narrative. His
references to it are episodical and accidental. Hence our know¬
ledge of the Persian Wars and of the Peloponnesian War is
widely different in character from our knowledge- of the rest of
this period. In the history of these wars the lacunae are few;
in the rest of the history they are alike frequent and serious. In
the history, therefore, of the- Persian and Peloponnesian Wars
little is to be learnt from the secondary sources. Elsewhere,
especially in the interval between the two wars, they become
relatively important.
In estimating the authority of Herodotus (g.v.) we must be
9 Strictly speaking, to 411 b.c. For the last seven years of the
war our principal authority is Xenophon, HelUniea , i., ii.
GREECE
HIBTOSTI
cartful to distinguish between the invasion of Xerxes and all 1
that is earlier. Herodotus's work was published soon after
430 b.c., ».«. about half a century after the invasion. Much of his
information was gathered in the course of the preceding twenty
years. Although his evidence is not that of an eye-witness, he
had had opportunities of meeting those who had themselves
played a part in the war, on one side or the other (*.g. Thersander
of Orchomenos, ix. 16). In any case, we are dealing with a
tradition which is little more than a generation old, and the
events to which the tradition relates, the incidents of the struggle
against Xerxes, were of a nature to impress themselves indelibly
upon the minds of contemporaries. Where, on the other hand,
he is treating of the period anterior to the invasion of Xerxes,
he is dependent upon a tradition which is never less than two
generations old, and is sometimes centuries old. His informants
were, at best, the sons or grandsons of the actors in the wars
(e.g. Archias the Spartan, iii. 55). Moreover, the invasion of
Xerxes, entailing, as it did, the destruction of cities and sanctu¬
aries, especially of Athens and its temples, marks a dividing
line in Greek history. It was not merely that evidence perished
and records were destroyed. What in reference to tradition is
even more important, a new consciousness of power was awakened,
new interests were aroused, and new questions and problems
came to the front. The former things had pwsed away ; all
things were become new. A generation that is occupied with
making history on a great scale is not likely to busy itself with
the history of the past. Consequently, the earlier traditions
became faint and obscured, and the history difficult to recon¬
struct. As we trace back the conflict between Greece and
Persia to its beginnings and antecedents, we are conscious that
the tradition becomes less trustworthy as we pass back from
one stage to another. The tradition of the expedition of Datis
and Artaphemes is less credible in its details than that of the
expedition of Xerxes, but it is at once fuller and more credible
than the tradition of the Ionian revolt. When we get back to
the Scythian expedition, we can discover but few grains of
historical truth.
Much recent criticism of Herodotus has been directed against
his veracity as a traveller. With tnis we arc not here concerned.
The criticism of him as an historian begins with Thucydides.
Among the references of the latter writer to his predecessor are
the following passages: i. 21 ; i. 22 ad fin.; i. 20 ad fin.
(cf. Herod, ix. 53, and vi. 57 ad fin.); iii. 62 § 4 (cf. Herod,
ix. 87); ii. 2 §§ 1 and 3 (cf. Herod, vii. 233); ii. 8 § 3 (cf. Herod,
vi. 98). Perhaps the two clearest examples of this criticism are
to be found in Thucydides’ correction of Herodotus’s account
of the Cylonian conspiracy (Thuc. i. 126, cf. Herod, v. 71) and
in his appreciation of the character of Themistocles—a veiled
protest against the slanderous tales accepted by Herodotus
(i. 138). In Plutarch’s tract “ On the Malignity of Herodotus ”
there is much that is suggestive, although his general standpoint,
viz. that Herodotus was in duty bound to suppress all that was
discreditable to the valour or patriotism of the Greeks, is not
that of the modem critic. It must be conceded to Plutarch
that he makes good his charge of bias in Herodotus’s attitude
towards certain of the Greek states. The question, however,
may fairly be asked, how far this bias is personal to the author,
or how far it is due to the character of the sources from which
his information was derived. He cannot, indeed) altogether be
acquitted of personal bias. His work is, to some extent, intended
as an apologia for the Athenian empire. In answer to the charge
that Athens was guilty of robbing other Greek states of their
freedom* Herodotus seeks to show, firstly, that it was to Athens
that the Greek world, as a whole, owed its freedom from Persia,
and secondly, that the subjects of Athens, the Ionian Greeks,
were unworthy to be free. This leads him to be unjust both
to the services of Sparta and to the qualities of the Ionian race.
For his estimate of the debt due to Athens see vii. 139. For
bias against the lonkna see especially iv. 14a (cf. Thuc. vi. 77) j
cf. also i. 143 and 146* vi. 12-14 (Lade), vi. it* ad fin. A
striking example of his prejudice in favour of Athens is furnished
by vi. 91. At a moment when Greece rang with the crime of
4>S*
Athens faiexpeflfagtlW'AegiaeMutff^ heefanufdk
to trace in their expulsion the-vengeance ad heawo for an net
of sacrilege nearly sixty years earlier (see Atenis). As a rule*
however,’ the bias apparent in his narrative tedueto the souroca
from which it is derived. Writing at Athens, in the 1 first years
of the Peloponnesian War, he can hardly help seeing tile past
through an Athenian medium. It was mevitable tbatmudl
of what he heard should come to him from Athenian informants*
and should be coloured by Athenian prejudices. We May’thus
explain the leniency which he shows towards Argos and Thessaly,
the old allies of Athens, in marked contrast to his treatment' of
Thebes, Corinth and Aegina, her deadliest foes. For Algol
cf. vii. 152 ; Thessaly, vii. 172-174 ; Thebes, vii. 13s, vii. 233;
ix. 87; Corinth (especially the Corinthian generar-AdeimarrtUS,
whose son Aristeus was the most active enemyof Athens at the
outbreak of the Peloponnesian War), vii.'s, vii. «, yiii. 99 and
61, vii. 94; Aegina, ix. 78-80 and 85. In his intimacy With
members of the great Alcmaeonid house we probably have the
explanation of his depreciation of the services'of Themistocles, as
well as of his defence of the family from the charges brought
against it in connexion with Cylon and with the incident of the
shield shown on Pentelicus at the time of Marathon (v. 7*, vi.
121-124). His failure to do justice to the Cypselid tyrants of
Corinth (v. 92), and to the Spartan king Cleomenes, is'to be
accounted for by the nature of his sources—in the fomier case,
the tradition of the Corinthian oligarchy; in the latter, accounts,
partly derived from the family of the exiled king Deraaratu* and
partly representative of the view of the ephorate. Much of the
earlier history is cast in a religious mould, e.g. the Story'of the
Mermnad kings of Lydia in book i., or of the fortunes Of the
colony of Cyrene (iv. 145-167). In such cases we cannot fail
to recognize the influence of the Delphic priesthood. Grote
has pointed out that the moralizing tendency observable in
Herodotus is partly to be explained by the fact that much of hi*
information was gathered from priests and at temples, and that
it was given in explanation of votive offerings, or of the fulfilment
of oracles. Hence the determination of the sources of his narrative
has become one of the principal tasks of Herodotean criticism. In
addition to the current tradition of Athens, the family tradition
of the Alcmaeonidae, and the stories to be heard at Delphi and
other sanctuaries, there may be indicated the Spartan tradition,
in the form in which it existed in the middle of the jth century ;
that of his native Halicarnassus, to which is due the prominence
of its queen Artemisia; the traditions of the Ionian cities,
especially of Samos and Miletus (important both for the history
of the Mermnadae and for the Ionian Revolt); and those current
in Sicily and Magna Graecia, which were learned during hi*
residence at Thurii (Sybaris and Croton, v. 44, 45; Syracuse and
Gela, vii. 153-167). Among his more special sources we can
point to the descendants of Demaratus, Who still held, ait the
beginning of the 4th century, the principality in the Troad
which had been granted to their ancestor by Darius (Xen. Hrii.
iii. 1. 6), and to the family of the Persian general Artkbazue,
in which the satrapy of Dascyllum (Phrygia) was hereditary ip
the jth century. 1 His use of written material is more difficult
to determine. It is generally agreed that 'the 1 list of Persian
satrapies, with their respective assessments of tribute (iii. 89-97 ),
the description of the royal road from Sardi* to Susa (v. 52-54),
and of the march of Xerxes, together With the list of the con¬
tingents that took part in the expedition (vii. 26-131), are all
derived from documentary and authoritative sources. From
previous writers (e.g. Dionysius of Miletus, Hecataeos, ChaftW
of Lampsacus and Xanthus the Lydian) it is probable that Tie
has borrowed little, though the fragments are' too scanty to
permit Of adequate comparison. His references to monuments,
dedicatory offerings, inscriptions and oracle* are frequent! '
The chief defects Of Herodotus are his failure to grasp the
principles of historical criticism, to understand the nature of
military operations, and to appreciate the importance of
1 Possibly some of bis information about Persia* affairs guy hay*
been derived, at first or second hand, from Z> yros.son of Megabyzus,
whose flight to Athens is mentioned in iii. 160. • • 1
GREECE
[HISTORY
GREECE
456
chronology. In place of historical criticism we find a crude
rationalism (e.g. ii. 45 . vii. >*9. viii. 8 ). Having no conception of
the distinction between occasion and cause, he is content to nna
the explanation of great historical movements in trivial incidents
or personal motives. An example of this is furnished by lus
account of the Ionian revolt, in which he fails to discover the
real causes either of the movement or of its result. Indeed, it
is clear that he regarded criticism as no part of his task as an
historian. In vii. 152 he states the principles which have guided
him— iyi> Si o<f> *ihm Xiytiv to Xtyojstm, ir€i0«rftu yt ptv ov
ravrairrwi ofpelXot, sat pc u rovro to CTO? c^rroi *S iravra Xoyov.
In obedience to this principle he again and again gives two or
more versions of a story. We are thus frequently enabled to
arrive at the truth by a comparison of the discrepant traditions.
It would, have been fortunate if all ancient writers who lacked
the critical genius of Thucydides had been content to adopt the
practice of Herodotus. His accounts of battles are always
unsatisfactory. The great battles, Marathon, Thermopylae,
Salamis and Plataea, present a series of problems. This result
is partly due to the character of the traditions which he follows—
traditions which were to some extent inconsistent or contra¬
dictory, and were derived from different sources; it is, however,
in great measure due to his inability to think out a strategical
combination or a tactical movement. It is not too much to say
that the battle of Plataea, as described by Herodotus, is wholly
unintelligible. Most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless
chronology. Even in the case of the 5th century, the data
which he affords are inadequate or ambiguous. The interval
between the Scythian expedition and the Ionian revolt is
described by so vague an expression as /wra 51 ov iroXXbv \povov
av«»s kokiov fjv (v. 28). In the history of the revolt itself,
though he gives us the interval between its outbreak and the
fall of Miletus («kt<j> irii, vi. 18), he does not give us the interval
between this and the battle of Lade, nor does he indicate with
sufficient precision the years to which the successive phases of
the movement belong. Throughout the work professed syn¬
chronisms too often prove to be mere literary devices for facilitat¬
ing a transition from one subject to another (cf. e.g. v. 81 with
89, 90 ; or vi. 51 with 87 and 94). In the 6th century, as Grote
pointed out, a whole generation, or more, disappears in his
historical perspective (cf. i. 30, vi. 125, v. 94, iii. 47> 4 $,
v. 113 contrasted with v. 104 and iv. 162). The attempts to
reconstruct the chronology of this century upon the basis of the
data afforded by Herodotus (e.g. by Beloeh, Rheinisches Museum,
xlv., 1890, pp. 465-473) have completely failed.
, In spite of all such defects Herodotus is an author, not only
of unrivalled literary charm, but of the utmost value to the
historian. If much remains uncertain or obscure, even in the
history of the Persian Wars, it is chiefly to motives or policy,
to topography or strategy, to dates or numbers, that uncertainty
attaches. It is to these that a sober criticism will confine itself.
Thucydides is at once the father of contemporary history and
the father of historical criticism. From a comparison of i. x,
i. 22 and v. 26, we may gather both the principles to
Tkvcytf- jjg ftdhered j n the composition of his work and
tlie conditions under which it was composed. It is
seldom that the circumstances of an historical writer have been
to favourable for the accomplishment of his task. Thucydides
was a njontemporary of the Twenty-Seven Years’ War in the
fullest sense of the term. He bad reached manhood at its out¬
break, and he survived its close by at least half-a-dozen years.
And he was more than a,me re contemporary. As a man of high
birth, a member of the Periclean circle, and the holder of the
chief political office in the Athenian state, the strategic, he was
not only familiar with the business of administration and the
conduct of military operations, but he possessed in addition
a personal knowledge of those who played the principal part in
the political life of the age. His exile in the year 424 afforded
frim opportunities mf visiting the scenes of distant operations
(e.g. Sicily) and of coming in contact with the actors on the other
side. He himself tells us that he spared no pains to obtain the
best information available in each case. He also tells us that
fc
he began collecting materials for his work from the very beginning
of the war. Indeed, it is probable that much of books i.-v.'a*
was written soon after the Peace of Nicies (421), just as it is
passihle that the history of the Sicilian Expedition (books vi.
and vii.) was originally intended to form a separate work. To
the view, however, which has obtained wide support in recent
years, that books i.-v. 22 and books vi. and vii. were separately
published, the rest of book v. and book viii. being little more than
a rough draught, composed after the author had adopted the
theory of a single war of twenty-seven years' duration, of which
the Sicilian Expedition and the operations of the years 431-421
formed integral parts, there seem to the present writer to be
insuperable abjections. The work, as a whole, appears to have
been composed in the first years of the 4th century, after his
return from exile in 404, when the material already in existence
must have been revised and largely recast. There are exceed¬
ingly few passages, such as iv. 48. 5, which appear to have been
overlooked in the process of revision. It can hardly be
questioned that the impression left upon the reader’s mind is
that the point of view of the author, in all the books alike, is
that of one writing after the fall of Athens.
The task of historical criticism in the case of the Peloponnesian
War is widely different from its task in the case of the Persian
Wars. It has to deal, not with facts as they appear in the
traditions of an imaginative race, but with facts as they appeared
to a scientific observer. Facts, indeed, are seldom in dispute.
The question is rather whether facts of importance are omitted,
whether the explanation of causes is correct, or whether the
judgment of men and measures is just. Such inaccuracies as
have been brought home to Thucydides on the strength, e.g. of
epigraphic evidence, are, as a rule, trivial. His most serious
errors relate to topographical details, in cases where he was
dependent on the information of others. Sphacteria (see Pylos)
(see G. B. Grundy, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi., 1896, p. 1)
is a case in point. Nor have the difficulties connected with the
siege of Plataea been cleared up either by Grundy or by others
(see Grundy, Topography of the Battle of Plataea, &c., 1894).
Where, on the contrary, he is writing at first hand his descrip¬
tions of sites are surprisingly correct. The most serious charge
as yet brought against his authority as to matters of fact relates
to his account of the Revolution of the Four Hundred, which
appears, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the documentary
evidence supplied by Aristotle's Constitution of Athens (q.v.). It
may be questioned, however, whether the documents have
been correctly interpreted by Aristotle. On the whole, it is
probable that the general course of events was such as Thucydides
describes (see E. Meyer, Forschungen, ii. 406-436), though he
failed to appreciate the position of Theramenes and the Moderate
party, and was clearly misinformed on some important points of
detail. With regard to the omission of facts, it is unquestionable
that much is omitted that would not be omitted by a modem
writer. Such omissions are generally due to the author’s con¬
ception of his task. Thus the internal history of Athens is
passed over as forming no part of the history of the war. It
is only where the course of the war is directly affected by the
course of political events (*4. by the Revolution of the Four
Hundred) that the internal history is referred to. However
much it may be regretted that the relations of political parties
are not more fully described, especially in book v., it cannot be
denied that from his standpoint there is logical justification
even for the omission of the ostracism of Hyperbolus. There
are omissions, however, which are not so easily explained.
Perhaps the most notable instance is that of the raising of the
tribute in 425 b.c. (see Delian League).
Nowhere is the contrast between the historical methods of
Herodotus and Thucydides more apparent than in .the treatment
of the causes of events. The distinction between the occasion
and the cause is constantly present to the mind of Thucydides,
and it is his tendency to make too little rather than too much
of the personal factor. Sometimes, however, it may be doubted
whether his explanation of the causes of an event is adequate or
correct. In tracing the causes of the Peloponnesian War itself,
HISTORY]
GREECE
Hf
modem writers are disposed to allow more weight to the com¬
mercial rivalry of Corinth; while in the case of the Sicilian
expedition, they would actually reverse his judgment (iL 65 bit
XurfXioi' rXoit os ov roewrov yyibfiqt bfidprrjfia ijv vpbt ovs
erpronv). To us it seems that the very idea of the expedition
implied a gigantic miscalculation of the resources of Athens and of
the difficulty of the task. His judgments of men and of measures
have been criticized by writers of different schools and from
different points of view. Grote criticized his verdict upon Cleon,
while be accepted his estimate of the policy of Pericles. More
recent writers/ on the other hand, have accepted his view of
Cleon, while they have selected for attack his appreciation alike
of the policy and the strategy of Perides. He has£een charged,
too, with failure to do justice to the statesmanship of Aldbiades. 1
There are cases, undoubtedly, in which the balance of recent
opinion will be adverse to the view of Thucydides. There are
many more in which the result of criticism has been to establish
his view. That he should occasionally have been mistaken in
his judgment and his views is certainly no detraction from his
claim to greatness.
On the whole, it may be said that while the criticism of
Herodotus, since Grote wrote, has tended seriously to modify
our view of the Persian Wars, as well as of the earlier history,
the critidsm of Thucydides, in spite of its imposing bulk, has
affected but slightly our view of the course of the Peloponnesian
War. The labours of recent workers in this field have borne
most fruit where they have been directed to subjects neglected
by Thucydides, such as the history of political parties, or the
organization of the empire (G. Gilbert’s Innere Gcschichte Athens
im Zeitalter its pel. Krieges is a good example of such work).
In regard to Thucydides’ treatment of the period between the
Persian and Peloponnesian Wars (the so-called Pentecontaiteris)
it should be remembered that he does not profess to give, even
in outline, the history of this period as a whole. The period is
regarded simply as a prelude to the Peloponnesian War. There
is no attempt to sketch the history of the Greek world or of
Greece proper during this period. There is, indeed, no attempt
to give a complete sketch of Athenian history. His object is to
trace the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the causes that
made the war inevitable. Much is therefore omitted not only
in the history of the other Greek states, especially the Pelo¬
ponnesian, but even in the history of Athens. Nor does Thucyd¬
ides attempt an exact chronology. He gives us a few dates
(e.g. surrender of Ithome, in the tenth year, i.,103; of Thasos,
in the third year, i. 101; duration of the Egyptian expedition
six years, i. no; interval between Tanagra and Oenophyta
61 days, i. 108; revolt of Samos, in the sixth year after the
Thirty Years’ Truce, i. 115), but from these data alone it would
be impossible to reconstruct the chronology of the period. In
spite of all that can be gleaned from our other authorities, our
knowledge of this, the true period of Athenian greatness, muBt
remain slight and imperfect as compared with our knowledge
of the next thirty years.
Of the secondary authorities for this period the two principal
ones are Diodorus (xi. 38 to xii. 37) and Plutarch. Diodorus
is of value chiefly in relation to Sicilian affairs, to which
Dtodonu. j evo t es about a third of this section of his work
and for which he is almost our sole authority. His source for
Sicilian history is the Sicilian writer Timaeus (q.v.), an author
of the 3rd century b.c. For the history of Greece Proper during
the Pentecontaetia Diodorus contributes comparatively little
of importance. Isolated notices of particular events (c.g. the
Synoecism of Elis, 471 b.c., or the foundation of Amphipolis,
437 b.c,), which appear to be derived from a chronological writer,
may generally be trusted. The greater part of. his narrative
is, however, derived from Ephorus, who appears to have had
before him little authentic information for this period of Greek
history other than that afforded by Thucydides’ work. Four of
Plutarch’s Lives are concerned with this period, viz. Tkemislocles,
Aristides, Cimon and Pericles. From the Aristides little can
) For a defence of Thucydides' judgment on all three statesmen,
see E. Meyer, Forschungen, ii. 296-379.
be gained. Plutarch, in this biogtephy, appean to be tnainly
dependent upon Idomeneus of Lampeacus, an excessively untrust¬
worthy writer of the 3rd. century b.c., who is .probably
to be credited with the invention of the oligarchical .
conspiracy at the time of the battle of Flataea (ch. 13), and, of
the decree of Aristides, rendering all four classes of, citizens
eligible for the archonship (ch. 227. The Cimen, on the sfts
hand, contains much that is valuable; auch aa, s-p. the account
of the battle of the Eurymedoa (chs. 12 and 13). To the Pertcles
we owe several quotations from the Old Comedy. Two other
of the £io«, Lycurgus and Solon, are amongst our most important
sources for the early history of Sparta and Athens respectively.
Of the two (besides Perides) which relate to the Peloponneeian
War, Aldbiades adds little to what can begamed from Thucydides
and Xenophon; the Nicias, on the other,hand, supplements
Thucydides’ narrative of the Sicilian expedition with many
valuable details, which, it may safely be assumed,-Are derived
from the contemporary historian, Philistus of Syracuse.
Amongst the most valuable material afforded by Plutarch are
the quotations, which occur in almost all the Lives, from the
collection of Athenian decrees (pyina-ftartur o-vvaywys')) formed
by the Macedonian writer Cra.terus, in the 3rd century »<c.
Two other works may be mentioned in connexion with the
history of Athens. For the history of the Athenian Constitution
down to the end of the 5th century nx. Aristotle’s
Constitution of Athens is our chief authority.
The other Constitution of Athens, erroneously attributed
to Xenophon, a tract of singular interest both on literary and
historical grounds, throws a good deal of light on the internal
condition of Athens, and on the system of government, both of
the state and of the empire, in the age of the Peloponnesian War,
during the earlier years of which it was composed.
To the literary sources for the history of Greece, especially of
Athens, in the 5th century b.c. must be added the epigraphic.
Few inscriptions have been discovered which dale ,
back beyond the Persian Wars. For the latter half thm.
of the sth century they are both numerous and im¬
portant. Of especial value are the series of Quota-lists, from
which can be calculated the amount of tribute paid by the
subject-allies of Athens from the year 454 b.c. onwards. The
great majority of the inscriptions of this period are of Athenian
origin. Their value is enhanced by the fact that they relate, as
a rule, to questions of organization, finance and administration,
as to which little information is to be gained from the literary
sources.
For the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars
Busolt, Griechische Gcschichte, iii. 1, is indispensable. Hill’s
Sources of Greek History, ax. 478-431 (Oxford, 1897) is excellent.
It gives the most important inscription* in a convenient form.
III. The 4thCenturylo the Death of Alexander .—Of the historians
who flourished in the 4th century the sole writer whose works
have come down to us is Xenophon. It is a singular
accident of fortune tliat neither of the two authors,
who at once were most representative of their age and did most
to determine the views of Greek history current in subsequent
generations, Ephorus (q.v.) and Theopompus (q.v.), should be
extant. It was from them, rather than from Herodotus, Thucyd¬
ides or Xenophon that the Roman world obtained its knowledge
of the history of Greece in the past, and its conception of its
significance. Both were pupils of Isocrates, and both, therefore,
bred up in an atmosphere of rhetoric. Hence their popularity
and their influence. The scientific spirit of Thucydides was alien
to the temper of the 4th century, and hardly more congenial to
the age of Cicero or Tacitus. To the rhetorical spirit, which is
common to both, each added defects peculiar to himself. Theo¬
pompus is a strong partisan, a sworn foe to Athens and to
Democracy. Ephorus, though a military historian, is ignorant
of the art of war. He is also incredibly careless and uncritical.
It is enough to point to his description of the battle of tht
Eurymedon (Diodorus xi. 60-62), in which, misled by an epigram,
which he supposed to relate to this engagement (it really refers
to the Athenian victory off Salamis m Cyprus, 449 a.c.),ht
xn. 150
* 5 #
makes the coast of Cyprus the scene of Cimon’s naval victory,
and -find* no difficulty in putting it on the some day as the
victory on shore on the banks of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia.
Only a few fragments remain of either writer, but Theopompus
(g.».) was largely used by Plutarch in several of the Lives,
while Ephorus continues to be the main source of Diodorus’
history, as far as the outbreak of the Sacred War (Fragments of
Ephorus in Muller’s Fwgmenta historr'corum Graecorutn, vol. i.;
of Theopompus in HeUenica Oxyrhynchia, cum Theopompt
et Cratippi fragmentis, ed. U. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt,
1909). •
It may be at least claimed for Xenophon (q.v.) that he is free
from all taint of the rhetorical spirit. It may also be claimed
for him that, as a witness, he is both honest and well-informed.
But, if there is no justification for the charge of deliberate
falsification, it cannot be denied that he had strong political
prejudices, and that his narrative has suffered from them. His
historical writings are the Anabasis, an account of the expedition
of the Ten Thousand, die HeUenica and the Agesilaus, a eulogy
of the Spartan king. Of these the Hellenica is far the most
important for the student of history. It consists of two distinct
parts (thougn there is no ground for the theory that the two
parts were separately written and published), books i. and ii.,
and books iii. to vii. The first two books are intended as a
continuation of Thucydides’ work. They begin, quite abruptly,
in the middle of the Attic year 411/10, and they carry the
history down to the fall of the Thirty, in 403. Books iii. to vii.,
the Hellenica proper, cover the period from 401 to 362, and give
the histories of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies down to
the death of Epaminondas. There is thus a gap of two years
between the point at which the first part ends and that at which
the second part begins. The two parts differ widely, both in
their aim and in the arrangement of the material. In the first
part Xenophon attempts, though not with complete success,
to follow the chronological method of Thucydides, and to make
each successive spring, when military and naval operations were
resumed after the winter’s interruption, the starting-point of a
fresh section. The resemblance between the two writers ends,
however, with the outward form of the narrative. All that is
characteristic of Thucydides is absent in Xenophon. The
latter writer shows neither skill in portraiture, nor insight into
motives. He is deficient in the sense of proportion and of the
distinction between occasion and cause. Perhaps his worst
fault is a lack of imagination. To make a story intelligible
it is necessary sometimes to put oneself in the reader’s place,
and to appreciate his ignorance of circumstances and events
which would be perfectly familiar to the actors in the scene
or to contemporaries. It was not given to Xenophon, as it was
to Thucydides, to discriminate between the circumstances that
are essential and those that are not essential to the comprehen¬
sion of the story. In spite, therefore, of its wealth of detail,
his narrative is frequently obscure. It is quite clear that in the
trial of the generals, e.g., something h omitted. It may be
supplied as Diodorus has supplied it (xiii. 101), or it may be
supplied otherwise. It is probable that, when under cross-
examination before the council, the generals, or some of them,
disclosed the commission given to Theramenes and Thrasybulus.
The important point is that Xenophon himself has omitted to
supply it. As it stands his narrative is unintelligible. In the
first two books, though there are omissions (e.g. the loss of
Nisaea, 409 B.c.), they are not so serious as in the last five, nor
is the bias so evident. It is true that if the account of the rule
of the Thirty given in Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens be
accepted, Xenophon must have deliberately misrepresented
the course of events to the prejudice of Theramenes. But it is
at least doubtful whether Aristotle’s version can be sustained
against Xenophon’s, though it may be admitted, not only that
there are mistakes as to details in the latter writer’s narrative,
but that less than justice is done to the policy and motives
of the “ Buskin," -/The HeUenica was written, it should be
remembered, at Corinth, after 362. More than forty years had
thus elapsed since the events recorded in the first two books,
GREECE [hwtory
' and after so long an interval accuracy of detail, even where the
detail is of importance, is not always to be expected. 1 Is , the
second part the chronological method is abandoned. A subject
once begun is followed out to its natural ending, so that sections
of the narrative which are consecutive in order are frequently
parallel in point of date. A good example of this will be found
m book iv. In chapters 2 to 7 the history of the Corinthian
war is carried down to the end of 390, so far as the operations
on land ore concerned, while chapter 8 contains an account of
the naval operations from 394 to 388. In this second part'of the
HeUenica the author’s disqualifications for his task are more
apparent than in the first two books. The more he is acquitted
of bias in his«election of events and in his omissions, the more
clearly does he stand convicted of lacking all sense of the propor¬
tion of things. Down to Leuctra (371 B.c.) Sparta is the centre
of interest, and it is of the Spartan state alone that a complete
or continuous history is given. After Leuctra, if the point of
view is no longer exclusively Spartan^ the narrative of events
is hardly less incomplete. Throughout the second part of the
HeUenica omissions abound which it is difficult either to explain
or justify. The formation of the Second Athenian Confederacy
of 377 b.c., the foundation of Megalopolis and the restoration
of the Messenian state are all left unrecorded. Yet the writer
who passes them over without mention thinks it worth while
to devote more than one-sixth of an entire book to a chronicle
of the unimportant feats of the citizens of the petty state of
Phlius. Nor is any attempt made to appraise the policy of
the great Theban leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The
former, indeed, is mentioned only in a single passage, relating
to the embassy to Susa in 368; the latter does not appear on
the scene till a year later, and receives mention but twice before
the battle of Mantinea. An author who omits from his narrative
some of the most important events of his period, and elaborates
the portraiture of an Agesilaus while not attempting the bare
outline of an Epaminondas, may be honest; he may even
write without a consciousness of bias ; he certainly cannot rank
among the great writers of history.' 1
For the history of the 4th century Diodorus assumes a higher
degree of importance than belongs to him in the earlier periods.
This is partly to be explained by the deficiencies of
Xenophon’s HeUenica, partly by the fact that for the 0 on “'
interval between the death of Epaminondas and the accession of
Alexander we have in Diodorus alone a continuous narrative
of events. Books xiv. and xv. of his history include the period
covered by the Hellenica. More than half of book xiv. is devoted
to the history of Sicily and the reign of Dionysius, the tyrant of
Syracuse. For this period of Sicilian history he is, practically,
ouf sole authority. In the rest of the book, as well as in book xv.,
there is much of value, especially in the notices of Macedonian
history. Thanks to Diodorus we are enabled to supply many
of the omissions of the HeUenica. Diodorus is, e.g., our sole
literary authority for the Athenian naval confederation of 377.
Book xvi. must rank, with the Hellenica and Arrian’s Anabasis,
as one of the three principal authorities for this century, so far,
at least, as works of an historical character are concerned. It is
our authority for the Social and the Sacred Wars, as well as
for the reign of Philip. It is a curious irony of fate that, for
what is perhups the most momentous epoch in the history
of Greece, we should have to turn to a writer of such inferior
capacity. For this period his material is better and his import¬
ance greater: his intelligence is as limited as ever. Who but
Diodorus would be capable of narrating the siege and capture
of Methone twice over, once under the year 354, and again under
the year 35 x (xvi. 31 and 34: cf. xii. 35 and 42; Archidamus (q.v.)
dies in 434, commands Peloponnesian army in 431); or of giving
three different numbers of years (eleven, ten and nine) in three
different passages (chs. 14, 23 and 59) for the length of the
1 On the discrepancies between Xenophon's account of the Thirty,
and Aristotle’s, see G. Busdt, Hermes (1898), pp. 71-86.
* The fragment of the New Historian (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. v.)
affords exceedingly important material for the criticism of Xenophon's
narrative. (See Thsopokpus.)
HISTORY 1 )
GREECE
Sacred War; or of asserting the conclusion of peace between
Athens and Philip in 340, after the failure of his attack on
Perinthus and Byzantium? Amongst the subjects which are
omitted is the Peace of Philocrates. For the earlier chapters,
which bring the narrative down to the outbreak of the Sacred War,
Ephorus, as in the previous book, is Diodorus’ main source.
His source for the rest of the book, i.t. for the greater part of
Philip’s reign, cannot be determined. It is generally agreed that
it is not the Philippica of Theopompus.
For the reign of Alexander our earliest extant authority is
Diodorus, who belongs to. the age of Augustus. Of the others,
Hutortens Q* Curtius Rufus, who wrote in Latin, lived in the
ofAhx- reign of the emperor Claudius, Arrian and Plutarch
"*«■*» in the 2nd century a.d. Yet Alexander’s reign is
'***■• one of the best known periods of ancient history.
The Peloponnesian War and the twenty years of Roman
history which begin with 63 B.c. are the only two periods
which we can be said to know more fully or for which we
have more trustworthy evidence. For there is no period of
ancient history which was recorded by a larger number of
contemporary writers, or for which better or more abundant
materials were available. Of the writers actually contemporary
with Alexander there were five of importance—Ptolemy, Aristo-
bulus, Callisthenes, Onesicritus and Nearchus ; and all of them
occupied positions which afforded exceptional opportunities
of ascertaining the facts. Four of them were officers in
Alexander’s service. Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, was
one of the somatophylaces (we may, perhaps, regard them as
corresponding to Napoleon’s marshals); Aristobulus was also
an officer of high rank (sec Arrian, Anab. vi. 29. 10); Nearchus
was admiral of the fleet which surveyed the Indus and the
Persian Gulf, and Onesicritus was one of his subordinates. The
fifth, Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied Alexander
on his march down to his death in 327 and was admitted to the
circle of his intimate friends. A sixth historian, Clcitarchus,
was possibly also a contemporary; at any rate he is not more
than a generation later. These writers had at their command a
mass of official documents, such us the jimrlktwi v/nguplStt —the
Gazette and Court Circular combined—edited and published
after Alexander’s death by his secretary, Eumenes of Cardia;
the oTatf/W, or records of the marches of the armies, which were
carefully measured at the time; and the official reports on the
conquered provinces. That these documents were made use of
by the historians is proved by the references to them which are
to be found in Arrian, Plutarch and Strabo; e.g. Arrian, Anab.
vii. 25 and 26, and Plutarch, Alexander 76 (quotation from the
fiatrlktioi irpypeplRts); Strabo xv. 7 23 (reference to the a-raOpul),
ii. 69 (reports drawn up on the various provinces). We have,
in addition, in Plutarch numerous quotations from Alexander's
correspondence with his mother, Olympias, and with his officers.
The contemporary historians may be roughly divided into two
groups. On the one hand there are Ptolemy and Aristobulus,
who, except in a single instance, are free from all suspicion of
deliberate invention. On the other hand, there are Callisthenes,
Onesicritus and Clcitarchus, whose tendency is rhetorical.
Nearchus appears to have allowed full scope to his imagination
in dealing with the wonders of India, but to have been otherwise
veracious. Of the extant writers Arrian (q.v.) is incomparably
the most valuable. His merits are twofold. As the commander
of Roman legions and the author of a work on tactics, he com¬
bined a practical with a theoretical knowledge of the military art,
while the writers whom he follows in the Anabasis are the two
most worthy of credit, Ptolemy and Aristobulus. We may well
hesitate to call in question the authority of writers who exhibit
an agreement which it would be difficult to parallel elsewhere
in the case of two independent historians. It may be inferred
from Arrian’s references to them that there were only eleven
cases in all in which he found discrepancies between them.
The most serious drawback which can be alleged against them
is an inevitable bias in Alexander’s favour. It would be only
natural that they should pari over in silence the worst blots on
their great commander’s fame. Next in value to the Anabasis
459
comes Plutarch'* Life of Alexander, the merits of which; hdweuwy
are not to be gauged by the influence which, it has exercisedupba
literature, lire Lift is a valuable supplement to the Astabasisi
partly because Plutarch, as he is writing biography lather than
history (for his conception of the difference 'between the two
see' the famous preface, Life of Al e xan der, ch. i.) is concerned
to record all that will throw light upon Alexander's character
(e.g. his epigrammatic sayings and quotations from hi* tetters)';
partly because he tells us much about his early life, before he
became king, while Arrian tells us nothing. It is unfortunate
that Plutarch writes in an uncritical spirit; it 1 »■ hardly less
unfortunate that he should have formed no clear conception
and drawn no consistent picture of' Alexander’s character.
Book xvii. of Diodorus and the Historiae Alexander of Curtius
Rufus are thoroughly rhetorical m spirit. It is probable that
in both cases the ultimate source is the work of Clitarchus.
It is towards the end of the 5th century that a fresh Source
of information becomes available in the speeches of the orators,
the earliest of whom is Antiphon (d. 4rr bx\). Lysias
is of great importance for the history of the Thirty , n tan.
(see the speeches against Eratosthenes and Agoratus).
and a good deal may be gathered from Andocides with regard
to the last years of the 5th and the opening years of the next
century. At the other end of this period Lycurgue, Hyperides
and Dinarchus throw light upon the time of Philip and Alexander.
The three, however, who are of most importance to the historian
are Isocrates, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Isocrates (?.».),
whose long life (436-338) more than spans the interval
between the outbreak of the Peloponnesian Wbt and lloentmk
the triumph of Macedon at Chaemnea, is one of the “
most characteristic figures in the Greek world of his day. To
comprehend that world the study of Isocrates is indispensable;
for in an age dominated by rhetoric he is the prince of rhetoricians.
It is difficult for a modem reader to do him justice, so alien is
his spirit and the spirit of his age from ours. It must be allowed
that he is frequently monotonous and prolix ; at the same time
it must not be forgotten that, as the most famous representative
of rhetoric, he was read from one end of the Greek world to the
other. He was the friend of Evagoraa and Archidamus, of
Dionysius and Philip; he was the master of Aeschines and
Lycurgus amongst orators and of Ephorus and Theopompus
amongst historians. No other contemporary writer has left
so indelible a stamp upon the style and the sentiment of his
generation. It is a commonplace that Isocrates is the apostle
of Fanheilenism. It is not so generally recognized that he is the,
prophet of Hellenism. A passage in the Panegyrieus (§ 50
Sxrrt r& t<3v 'EAAtjtw ampa pjnri rofi ytyont akkk rijt Stavoiae
SoKtiv that xat pakkov 'KAAjjvat Kakturftai Taut rijs jraiSnxrnst
rijs yperepas y robs rijs ituivys <f>v<rtws'pxrtxavras) is the key
to the history of the next three centuries. Doubtless he had no
conception of the extent to which the East was to be hellenized.
He was, however, the first to recognize that it would be hellenized
by the diffusion of Greek culture rather than of Greek blood. His
Fanheilenism was the outcome of his recognition of the new
forces and tendencies which were at work in the midst of a new
generation. When Greek culture was becoming more and more
international, the exaggeration of the principle of autonomy
in the Greek political system was becoming more and more
absurd. He had sufficient insight to be aware that the price
paid for this autonomy was the domination of Persia; a domina¬
tion which meant the servitude of the Greek states across the
Aegean and the demoralization of Greek political life at home.
His Panhellenism led him to a move liberal view of the distinction
between what was Greek and what was not than was possible
to the intenser patriotism of a Demosthenes. In his later orations
he has the courage not only to pronounce that the day of Athens
as a first-rate power is past, but to see in Philip, the needful
leader in the crusade against Persia. The earliest and greatest of
his political orations is the Panegyrieus, published in 380 b.c.,
midway between the peace of Antalcida* and Leuctra, It is
his apologia for Panhellenism. To the period of the Social War
belong the De pace (355 b.c.) and the Areopagiticue (354 BX.);
46 o
both , of great value as evidence for the internal conditions of
Athdiu at the beginning of the struggle with Macedon. The
PlaMbeus (373 *.c.) and the Arckidamus (366 b.c.) throw light
upon the politics of Boeotia and the Peloponnese respectively.
The Panaihmaicus (339 b.c.), the child of his old age, contains
little that may not be found in the earlier orations. The
Philippus (346 B.c.) is of peculiar interest, as giving the views
of the Macedonian party.
Not the least remarkable feature in recent historical criticism
is the reaction against the view which was at one time almost
Dmot _ universally accepted of the character, statesmanship
tbtna. an d authority of the orator Demosthenes (?.».).
During the last quarter of a century his character and
statesmanship have t>een attacked, and his authority impugned,
by a series of writers of whom Holm and Beloch are the best
known. With the estimate of his character and statesmanship
we are not here concerned. With regard to his value as an
authority for the history of the period, it is to his speeches, and
to those of his contemporaries, Aeschines, Hypereides, Dinarchus
and I.ycurgus, that we owe our intimate knowledge, both of
the working of the constitutional and legal systems, and of the
life of the people, at this period of Athenian history. From this
point of view his value can hardly be overestimated. As a
witness, however, to matters of fuct, his authority can no longer
be rated as highly as it once was, e.g. by Schaefer and by Grote.
The orator’s attitude towards events, both in the past and in the
present, is inevitably a different one from the historian’s. The
object of a Thucydides is to ascertain a fact, or to exhibit it in
its true relations. The object of a Demosthenes is to make
a point, or to win his case. In their dealings with the past the
orators exhibit a levity which is almost inconceivable to a modern
reader. Andocides, in a passage of his speech On the Mysteries
(§ *° 7 )> speaks of Marathon as the crowning victory of Xerxes’
campaign; in his speech On the Peace (§ 3) he confuses Miltiades
with Cimon, and the Five Years’ Peace with the Thirty Years’
Truce. Though the latter passage is a mass of absurdities and
confusions, it was so generally admired that it was incorporated
by Aeschines in his speech On the Embassy (§§ 172-176). If such
was their attitude towards the past; if, in order to make a point,
they do not hesitate to pervert history, is it likely that they
would conform to a higher standard of veracity in their state¬
ments as to the present—as to their contemporaries, their rivals
or their own actions ? When we compare different speeches of
Demosthenes, separated by an interval of years, we cannot fail
to observe a marked difference in his statements. The farther
he is from the events, the bolder are his mis-statements. It is
oniy necessary to compare tire speech On the Crown with that On
the Embassy, and this latter speech with the Philippics and
Olynthiacs, to find illustrations. It has come to he recognized
that no statement as to a matter of fact is to be accepted, unless
it receives independent corroboration, or unless it is admitted
by both sides. The speeches of Demosthenes may be conveniently
divided into four classes according to their dates. To the pre-
Philippic period belong the speeches On the Symmories (354 B.c.),
On Megalopolis (352 b.c.), Against Aristocrales (35 x b.c.), and,
perhaps, the speech On Rhodes (? 351 b.c.). These speeches
betray no consciousness of the danger threatened by Philip’s
ambition. The policy recommended is one based upon the
principle of the balance , of power. To the succeeding period,
which ends with the peace of Philocrates (346 b.c.), belong the
First Philippic and the three Olynthiacs. To the period between
the peace of Philocrates and Chaeronea belong the speech On
the Peace (346 B.C.), the Second Philippic (344 b.c.), the speeches
On the Embassy (344 b.c.) and On the Chersonese (341 b.c.), and
the Third Philippic. The masterpiece of his genius, the speech
On the Crown, wu delivered in 330 b.c., in the reign of Alexander.
Of the three extant speeches of Aeschines (q.v.) that On the
Embassy is-of great value, as enabling us to correct the mis¬
statements of D< 'osthenes. For the period from die death of
Alexander to the'fall of Corinth (323-146 b.c.) our literary
authorities are singularly defective. For die Diadochi Diodorus
(books xviii.-xx.) is our chief source. These books form the
[HISTORY
most valuable part of Diodorus’ work. They are mainly .based
upon the work of Hieronymus of Cardia, a writer who combined
exceptional opportunities for ascertaining the truth (he was in
the service first of Eumenes, and then of Antigonus) with an
exceptional sense of its importance. Hieronymus ended his
history at the death of Pyrrhus (272 B.C.), but, unfortunately,
book xx. of Diodorus' work carries us no farther than 303 b.c.,
and of the later books we have but scanty fragments. The
narrative of Diodorus may be supplemented by the fragments
of Arrian’s History of the events after Alexander's death (which
reach, however, only to 321 b.c.), and by Plutarch’s Lives of
Eumenes and of Demetrius. For the rest of the 3rd century and
the first half of the 2nd we have his Lives of Pyrrhus, of Aratus,
of Philopoemen, and of Agis and Cleomenes. For the period
from 220 b.c. onwards Polybius (q.v.) is our chief authority (see
Rome : Ancient History, section “ Authorities ”). In a period
in which the literary sources are so scanty great weight attaches
to the epigraphic and numismatic evidence.
Hibliooh apii v.-—The literature which deals with, the history of
Greece, in its various periods, departments and aspects, is of so vast
a bulk that all that can be attempted here is to indicate the most im¬
portant and most accessible works.
General Histories 0/ Greece. —Down to the middle of the 19th
century the only histories of Greece deserving of mention were the
products of English scholarship. The two earliest of these were
.published about the same daw, towards the end of the 18th century,
nearly three-quarters of a century before any history of Greece,
other than a mere compendium, appeared on the Continent. John
Gillies' History of Greece was published in 1786, Clifford's in 1784.
Both works were composed with a political bias and a political object.
Gillies was a Whig. In the dedication (to George III.) he expresses
the view that " the History of Greece exposes the dangerous turbu¬
lence of Democracy, and arraigns the despotism of Tyrants, while
it evinces the inestimable benefits, resulting to Liberty itself, from
the steady operation of well-regulated monarchy." Mitford was
a lory, who thought to demonstrate the evils of democracy from
the example of the Athenian state. His History, in spite of its bias,
was a work of real value. More than fifty years elapsed between
Mitford's work and Thirlwall's. Connop Tliirlwall, fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge, afterwards bishop of St David’s, brought a
sound judgment to the aid of ripe scholarship. His History of Greece,
published in 1835-1838 (8 vote.), is entirely tree from the controversial
tone of Mitford's volumes. Ten years later (1846) George Grote
published the first volumes of his history, which was not completed
(in 12 veils.) till 1856. Grote, like Mitford, was a politician—an
ardent Radical, with republican sympathies. It was in order to
refute the slanders of the Tory partisan that he was impelled to
write a history of Greece, which should do justice to the greatest
democracy of the ancient world, the Athenian stato. Thus, in the
case of three of these four writers, the interest in thuir subject was
mainly political. Incomparably the greatest of these works is
Crete's. Grote had his faults and his limitations. His prejudices
are strong, and hi9 scholarship is weak; he had never visited Greece,
and he knew little or nothing of Greek art; and, at the time he wrote,
the importance of coins and inscriptions was imperfectly appre¬
hended. In spite of every defect, however, his work is the greatest
history of Greece that lias yet been written. It is not too much to
say that nobody knows Greek history till he has mastered Grote.
No history of Greece has since appeared in England on a scale at all
comparable to that of Crete's work. The most important of the
more recent ones is that by J. B. Bury (1 vol., 1900), formerly fellow
of Trinity College, Dublin, afterwards Regius Professor of Modern
History at Cambridge. Mitford and Bury end with the death of
Alexander; Gillies and Grote carry on the narrative a generation
farther; while Thirlwall's work extends to the absorption of Greece
in the Roman Empire (146 B.C.).
While in France the Histoire ies Grecs (ending at 146 B.c.) of
Victor Duruy (new edition, 2 vols., 1883), Minister of Public Instruc¬
tion under Napoleon III., is the only one that need be mentioned,
in Germany there has been a succession of histories of Greece since
the middle of the 19th century. Kortiim's Geschichte Griechcnlands
(3 vols., 1854), a work of little merit, was followed by Max Dunckcr's
Geschichte der Griechen (vqls. 1 and 2 published in 1856 ; vols. 1 and
2, Neue Folge, which bring the narrative down to the death of
Pericles, in 1884; the two former volumes form vols. 5, 6 and 7
of his Geschichte des AUcrtesms), and by the Griechischc Geschichte
of Ernst Curtius (3 vols., 1857-1867). An English translation of
Dunckcr, by S. F. Alleyne, appeared in 1883 (2 vols., Bentley),
and of Curtius, by A. W. Ware (5 vols., Bentley, 1868-1873). Among
more recent works may be mentioned the Griechischc Geschichte of
Adolf Holm (4 vols., Berlin, 1886-1894 ■ English translation by F.
Clarke, 4 vols., Macmillan, 1894-1898), and histories with the same
title by Julius Beloch (3 vols., Strassburg, 1893-1904) and Georg
Busolt (2nd ed., 3 vote- Gotha, 1893-1904). Holm catties on the
narrative to 30 b.c., Beloch to 217 b.c., Busolt to Chaeronea
GREECE
HISTORY] GREECE *6*
(3 j8 b.c.). 1 Busolts work is antirely diflereirt in character from nay
other history of Greece. The writer's object is to refer in the notes
(which constitute five-sixths of the book) to the views of every writer
in any language upon every controverted question. It is absolutely
indispensable, as a work of reference, for any serious study of Greek
history. The ablest work since Grote's is Eduard Meyer's Geschichte
d*s Allerlums, of which j vols. (Stuttgart and Berlin, r884-1903)
have appeared, carrying the narrative down to the death of Epami-
nondas (36a b.c.). Vols. 2-5 are principally concerned with Greek
history. It must be remembered that, partly owing to the literary
finds and the archaeological discoveries of the last thirty years,
and partly owing to the advance made in the study of epigraphy
and numismatics, all the histories published before those of Busolt,
Beloch, Meyer and Bury are out of date.
Works bearing on the History of Greece .— Earlier works and editions
are omitted, except in the case oi a work which has not been super¬
seded.
Introductions .— C. Wachsmuth, Einlettung in das Stadium der
alien Geschichte (1 vol., Leipzig, 1895) ; K. Meyer, Forschungen zur
alien Geschichte (2 parts, Halle, 1892-1800; quite indispensable) ;
J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians (London, 1009),
Constitutional History and Institutions. —G. F. Schumann, Grie-
chische Altertiimer (2 vols.. Berlin, 1835-1850; vol. 1., tr. by E. G.
Hardy and J. S. Mann, Rivingtons, 1880); G. Gilbert, Griechische
Staatsaltertitmer (2nd ed., 2 vols., Leipzig, 1893; vol. i. tr., by E. J.
Brooks and T. Nicklin, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895); K. F. Hermann,
Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitdten (6th ed., 4 vols., Freiburg,
1882-1895) : 'wan Muller, Handbook der klasstschen Altertums-
uiissenschaft (9 vols., N&rdlingen, 1886 in progress; several of ihe
volumes are concerned with Greek history) ; J. H. Lipsius, Das
attische Recht und Rechisverfahren (Leipzig, 1905, in progress) ;
A. H. I. Greenidge, Handbook 0/ Greek Constitutional History (1 vol.,
Macmulan, 1896) ; I’auly-Wissowa, Realencvhlopddte der hiassischen
Altertumswissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1804 folL).
Geography. —li. H. Bunbury, History 0/ Ancient Geography
amongst the Greeks and Romans (2nd ed., 2 vols., Murray, 1883),
W. M. Leake, Travels tn the Morea (3 vols., 1830), and Travels in
Northern Greece (4 vols., 1834) ; H. F. Tozer, Lectures on the Geography
of Greece (1 vol., Murray, 1873), and History of Ancient Geography
(1 vol., Cambridge, 1897) ; J. R Maliafly, Rambles and Studies in
Greece (3rd ed., r vol., Macmillan, 1887, an admirable book); C.
Bursian, Geographic von Grierhenland (2 vols., Leipzig, 1872); H.
Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdhunde der Griechen
(4 parts, Leipzig, 1887-1893); Ernst Curtius, Peloponnesos (2 vols.,
Gotha, 1830-1851).
Epigraphy and Numismatics.—Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum
(Berlin, 1875, in progress), Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum (Berlin,
1892, in progress). The following selections of Greek inscriptions may
be mentioned : E. F. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Manual of Greek Historical
Inscriptions (new ed., r vol., Oxford, 1901); W. Dittenbcrger, Svlloge
inscriptionum Graecarum (2nd ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1898); C. Michel,
Recueil d'inscriptions grecques (Paris, 1900). Among works on
numismatics the English reader may refer to B. V. Head, Historia
numorum (1 vol., Oxford, i»8y) ; G. F. Hill, Handbook of Greek and
Roman Coins (1 vol., Macmillan, 1899), as well as to the British
Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins. In French tile most important
general work is the Monnaies grecques of F. Imhoof-Blumer (Paris,
1883).
Chronology, Trade , War, Social Life, 6-e,—H. F. Clinton, Fasti
Hellenici (3rd ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1841, a work of which English
scholarship may well be proud; it is still invaluable for the stiidy
of Greek chronology); B. Buchsenschiitz, Besite und Enverb im
griechischem Altertume (1 vol., Halle, 1869; this is still the best
book on Greek commerce); J. Beloch, Die Bcvolkerung der griechisch-
romischen Welt (I vol., Leipzig, 1886); W. Riistow and H. K6chly,
Geschichte dee griechischen Kriegswesens (1 vol., Aarau, 1852); J. P
Mthafly, Social Life in Greece (2nd ed., r vol., 1875). (E. M. W.)
b. Post-Classical: 146 b.c.-a.d. 1800
I. The Period of Roman Rule.— (i.) Greece under the
Republic (146-27 b.c.). After the collapse of the Achaean
League (q.v.) the Senate appointed a commission to reorganize
Greece as a Roman dependency. Corinth, the chief centre of
resistance, was destroyed and its inhabitants sold into slavery.
In addition to this act of exemplary punishment, which may
perhaps have been inspired in part by the desire to crush a
commercial competitor, steps were taken to obviate future
insurrections. The national and cantonal federations were
dissolved, commercial intercourse between cities was restricted,
and the government transferred from the. democracies to the
propertied dasses, whose interests were bound up with Roman
supremacy. In other respects few changes were made in existing
institutions. Some favoured states like Athens and Sparta
retained their full sovereign rights as dvitates liberae, the other
1 VoL iii. goes down to the end of toe Peloponnesian War.
cities continued to enjoy local self-government. The ownership
of the land was not greatly disturbed by cettfiscatians', 'and
though a tribute upon it was levied,' this impwt'tnay not have
been universal. Genera) powers of supervision were entrusted
to the governor of Macedonia, who could reserve eases of high
treason for his decision, and in case of need send troops into the
country. But although Greece Was in the prwinda Of the
Macedonian proconsul, in the sense of belonging to-his sphere of
command, its status was in fact more favourable than that of
other provincial dependencies.
This settlement was acquiesced in by the Greek people, who
had come to realize the hopelessness of further resistance. 'The
internal disorder which was arising from the numerous disputes
about property rights consequent upon the political revolutions
was checked hy the good offices of the historian Polybius, whom
the Senate deputed to mediate between the litigants. The
pacification of the country eventually became so complete that
the Romans withdrew the former restrictions upon intercourse
and allowed some of the leagues to revive. But its quiet was
seriously disturbed during the first Mithradatic War (88-84 B.C.),
when numerous Greek states sided with Mithradates (q.v.).
The success which the invader experienced in detaching the
Greeks from Rome is partly to be explained by the skilful way
in which his agents incited the imperialistic ambitions of
prominent cities like Athens, partly perhaps by his promises
of support to the democratic parties. The result of the war was
disastrous to Greece. Apart from the confiscations and exactions
by which the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla punished the
disloyal communities, the extensive and protracted campaigns
left Central Greece in a ruinous condition. During the last
decades of the Roman republic European Greece was scarcely
affected by contemporary wars nor yet exploited by Roman
magistrates in the same systematic manner as most other
provinces. Yet oppression by officials who traversed Greece
from time to time and demanded lavish entertainments Mid
presentations in the guise of viaticum or aurum coronaritm was
not unknown. Still greater was the suffering produced by the
rapacity of Roman traders and capitalists: it is recorded that
Sicyon was reduced to sell its most cherished art treasures in
order to satisfy its creditors. A more indirect but none the less
far-reaching drawback to Greek prosperity was the 'diversion
of trade which followed upon the establishment of direct com¬
munication between Italy and the Levant. The most lucrative
source of wealth which remained to the European Greeks was
pasturage in large domains, an industry which almost exclusively
profited the richer citizens and so tended to widen the breach
between capitalists and the poorer classes, and still further to
pauperize the latter. The coast districts and islands also
sufiered considerably from swarms of pirates who, in the absence
of any strong fleet in Greek waters, were able to obtain a firm
footing in Crete and freely plundered the chief trading places
and sanctuaries; the most notable of such visitations was
experienced in 69 b.c. by the island of Delos. This evil came to
an end with the general suppression of piracy in the Mediter¬
ranean by Pompey (67 B.C.), but the depopulation which it had
caused in some regions is attested by the fact that the victorious
admiral settled some of his captives on the desolated coast
strip of Achaea.
In the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Greeks
provided the latter with a large part of his excellent fleet. In
48 b.c. the decisive campaign of the war was fought on Greek
soil, and the resources of the land were severely taxed by the
requisitions of both armies. As a result of Caesar's victory'at
Pharsalus, the whole country fell into his power; the treatment
which it received was on the whole lenient, though indivildual
cities were punished severely. After the murder of Caesar the
Greeks supported the cause of Brutus (4* b.c.). hut were too
weak to render any considerable service. In 39 B.c. the Pelo-
ponnese for a short time was made over to Sextus Pompeius.
During the subsequent period Greece remained in the hands of
M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who imposed further exactions in
order to defray the cost of his ware. The extensivele vie# which
[HISTORY
GREECE
462
he made in 31 b.c. for his campaign against Octavian, and the
contributions which his gigantic army required, exhausted the
country’s resources so completely that a general famine was
prevented only by Octavian’s prompt action after the battle of
Actium in distributing supplies of grain and evacuating the land
with all haste. The depopulation which resulted from the civil
wars was partly remedied by the settlement of Italian colonists at
Corinth and Patrae by Julius Caesar and Octavian ; on the other
hand, the foundation of Nicopolis (q.v.) by the latter merely had
the effect of transferring the people from the country to the city.
(ii.) The Early 'Roman Empire (27 b.c.-a.d. 323).—Under the
emperor Augustus Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia;
the rest of Greece was converted into the province of Achoea,
under the control of a senatorial proconsul resident at Corinth.
Many states, including Athens and Sparta, retained their rights
as free and nominally independent cities. The provincials were
encouraged to send delegates to u communal synod (koiv<>v iw
’Ax«*W) which met at Argos to consider the general interests
of the country and to uphold national Hellenic sentiment; the
Delphic amphictyony was revived and extended so as to represent
in a similar fashion northern and central Greece.
Economic conditions did not greatly improve under the
empire. Although new industries sprang up to meet the needs
of Koman luxury, and Greek marble, textiles and |
coBdJ^ table delicacies were in great demand, the only cities
<ton.* which regained a reully flourishing trade were the
Italian communities of Corinth and Patrae. Commerce
languished in general, and tire soil was mainly abandoned to
pasturage. Though certain districts retained a measure of
prosperity, e.g. Thessaly, Phocis, Elis, Argos and Laconia, huge
tracts stood depopulated and many notable cities had sunk
into ruins; Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus never recovered
from the effects of former wars and from the withdrawal of
their surviving inhabitants into Nicopolis. Such wealth as
remained was amassed in the hands of a few great landowners
and capitalists; the middle class continued to dwindle, and
large numbers of the people were reduced to euming a precarious
subsistence, supplemented by frequent doles and largesses.
The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most
attractive feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the
European Hellenes had relapsed into a quiet and resigned
frame of mind which stands in sharp contrast on the one hand
with the energy and ability, and on the other with the vulgar
intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no future before
them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in contemplation
amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered by the
undisguised respect with which the leading Homans of the age
treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could
degenerate into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds
its climax in the diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the
“ barbarians,” it prevented the nation from sinking into some
of the worst vices of the age. A healthy Bocial tone repressed
extravagant luxury and the ostentatious display of wealth, and
good taste long checked the spread of gladiatorial contests
beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most widespread
abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of emperors,
was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an
essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony,
but,it. never absorbed the energies of the people in the same
way aa it did in Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture,
the Greeks continued to set great store by classical education,
and in Athens they possessed an academic centre which gradually
became the chief university of the Koman empire. The highest
representatives of this type of old-world refinement are to be
found in .Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of Chaeroneia
(«•»•)•
The relations between European .Greece and Rome were
practically confined to the sphere of scholarship. The Hellenes
had solar lost their warlike qualities that they supplied scarcely
any recruits to the army. They retained too much local patriot¬
ism to qrowd into the official careers of senators or imperial
servants. Although in the 1st century ajj. the astute Greek
man of affairs and the Gratculus eturiens of Juvenal abounded
in Rome, both these classes were mainly derived from the
less pure-blooded population beyond the Aegean.
The influx of Greek rhetoricians and professors into Italy
during the and and 3rd centuries was balanced by the large
number of travellers who came to Greece to frequent its sanatoria,
and especially to admire its works of art; the abundance in
which these latter were preserved is strikingly attested in the
extant record of Pausanias (about a.d. 170).
The experience of the Greeks under their earliest governors
seems to have been unfortunate, for in a.d. 15 they petitioned
Tiberius to transfer the administration to an imperial
legate. This new, arrangement was sanctioned, but
only lasted till a.d. 44, when Claudius restored the tnUaa'
province to the senate. The proconsuls of the later
1st and 2nd centuries were sometimes ill qualified for their posts,
but cases of oppression are seldom recorded against them.
The years 66 and 67 were marked by a visit of the emperor Nero,
who made a prolonged tour through Greece in order to display
his artistic accomplishments at the various national festivals. In
return for the flattering reception accorded to him he bestowed
freedom and exemption from tribute upon the country. But
this favour was almost neutralized by the wholesale depredations
which he committed among the chief collections of art. A
scheme for cutting through the Corinthian isthmus and so
reviving the Greek carrying trade was inaugurated in his presence,
but soon abandoned.
As Nero’s grant of self-government brought about a recrudes¬
cence of misplaced ambition and party strife, Vespasian revoked
the gift and turned Achaea again into a province, at the same
time burdening it with increased taxes. In the 2nd century a
succession of genuinely phil-Hellenic emperors made serious
attempts to revive the nation's prosperity. Important material
benefits were conferred by Hadrian, who made a lengthy visit to
Greece. Besides erecting useful public works in many cities,
he relieved Achaea of its arrears of tribute and exempted it from
various imposts. In order to check extravagance on the part
of the free cities, he greatly extended the practice of placing
them under the supervision of imperial functionaries known as
eorrectores. Hadrian fostered national sentiment by establishing
a new pan-Hellenic congress at Athens, while he gave recognition
to the increasing ascendancy of Hellenic culture at Rome by
his institution of the Athenaeum.
In the 3rd century the only political event of importance was
the edict of Caracalla which threw open the Roman citizenship
to large numbers of provincials. Its chief effect in Greece was
to diminish the preponderance of the wealthy classes, who
formerly had used their riches to purchase the franchise and so
to secure exemption from taxation. The chief feature of this
period is the renewal of the danger from foreign invasions.
Already in 175 a tribe named Costoboci had penetrated into
central Greece, but was there broken up by the local militia.
In 253 a threatened attack was averted by the stubborn resistance
of Thessalonica. In 267-268 the province was overrun by
Gothic bands, which captured Athens and some other towns,
but were finally repulsed by the Attic levies and exterminated
with the help of a Roman fleet.
(iii.) The Late Roman Empire .—After the reorganization of the
empire by Diocletian, Achaea occupied a prominent position
in the “ diocese ’’ of Macedonia. Under Constantine I. it was
included in the “ prefecture ” of Illyricum. It was subdivided
into the “ eparchies ” of Hellas, Peloponnesus, Nicopolis and
the islands, with headquarters at Thebes, Corinth, Nicopolis
and Samos. Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia. A
complex hierarchy of imperial officials was now introduced and
the system of taxation elaborated so as to yield a steady revenue
to the central power. The levying of the land-tax was imposed
upon the htKarpomi or “ ten leading men,” who, like the Latin
deeuriones, were entrusted henceforth with the administration
in most cities. The tendency to reduce all constitutions to the
Roman municipal pattern became prevalent under ‘the rulers
of this period, and the greater number of them was stereotyped
GREECE
HISTORY]
by the general regulation* of the Codex Theodoaianus (438).
Although the elevation of Constantinople to the rank of capital
waa prejudicial to Greece, which felt the competition of the
new centre of culture and learning and had to part with numerous
work* of art destined to embellish its privileged neighbour, the
general level of prosperity in the 4th century was rising. Com¬
mercial stagnation was checked by a renewed expansion of
trade consequent upon the diversion of the trade routes to
the east from Egypt to the Euxine and Aegean Seas. Agri¬
culture remained in a depressed condition, and many small
proprietors were reduced to serfdom; but the fiscal interests
of the government called for the good treatment of this class,
whose growth at the expense of die slaves was an important
step in the gradual equalization of the entire population under the
central despotism which restored solidarity to the Greek nation.
This prosperity received a sharp set-back by a series of un¬
usually severe earthquakes in 375 and by the irruption of a host
of Visigotlis under Alaric (305-396), whom the imperial officers
allowed to overrun the whole land unmolested and the local
levies were Unable to check. Though ultimately hunted down
in Arcadia and induced to leave the pruvince, Alaric had time
to execute systematic devastations which crippled Greece for
several decades. The arrears of taxation which accumulated
in consequence were remitted by Theodosius II. in 428.
The emperors of the 4th century made several attempts to
stamp out by edict the old pagan religion, which, with its
accompaniment of festivals, oracles and mysteries, still main¬
tained an outward appearance of vigour, and, along with the
philosophy in which the intellectual classes found comfort,
retained the affection of the Greeks. Except for the decree of
Theodosius I. by which the Olympian games were interdicted
(394), these measures had no great effect, and indeed were not
rigorously enforced. Paganism survived in Greece till about
600, but the interchange of ideas and practices which the long-
continued contact with Christianity had effected considerably
modified its character. Hence the Christian religion, though
slow in making its way, eventually gained a sure footing among
a nation which accepted it spontaneously. The hold of the
Church upon the Greeks was strengthened by the judicious
manner in which the clergy, unsupported by official patronage
and often out of sympathy with the Arian emperors, identified
itself with the interests of the people. Though in the days when
the orthodox Church found favour at court corruption spread
among its higher branches, the clergy as a whole rendered
conspicuous service in opposing the arbitrary interferences of
the central government mid in upholding the use of the Hellenic
tongue, together with some rudiments of Hellenic culture.
The separation of the eastern and western provinces of the
empire ultimately had an important effect in restoring the
language and customs of Greece to their predominant position
in the Levant. This result, however, was long retarded by the
romanizing policy of Constantino and his successors. The
emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries had no regard for Greek
culture, and Justinian I. actively counteracted Hellenism by
propagating Roman law in Greece, by impairing the powers of
the self-governing cities, and by closing the philosophical schools
at Athens (529). In course uf time the inhabitants had so far
forgotten their ancient culture that they abandoned the name
of Hellenes for that of Romans ( Rhomaioi ). For a king time
Greece continued to be an obscure and neglected province, with
no interests beyond its church and its commercial operations,
and its culture declined rapidly. Its history for some centuries
dwindles into a record of barbarian invasions which, in addition
to occasional plagues and earthquakes, seem to have been the
only events found worthy of record by the contemporary
chroniclers.
In the 5th century Greece was only subjected to brief raids
by Vandal pirates (466-474) and Ostrogoths (48s). In Justinian's
reign irruptions by Huns and Avars took place, but led to no
far-reaching results. The emperor had endeavoured to strengthen
the country’s defences by repairing the fortifications of cities
and frontier posts (530), but his policy of supplanting the local
guards by imperial troops and so tendering the natives incapable
of self-defence was ill-advised; fortunately it waa saner carried
out with energy, and so die Greek militias were occasionally
able to render good service against invaders.
Towards the end of the century mention is'made for die first
time of an incursion by Slavonie tribes (581). These invaders
are to be regarded as merely the forerunners of a- ■■■
steady movement of immigration by which* con-
siderable part of Greece passed for a time into foreign that.
hands. It is doubtful how far the newcomers won
their territory by force of aarms ; in view of the desolation of
many rural tracts, which had long been in progress are result
of economic changes, it seems probable that numerous settle¬
ments were made on unoccupied land and (jitf hot c h allenge
serious opposition. At any rate the effect upon the Greek popula¬
tion was merely to accelerate its emigration from the interior
to the coastland and the cities. The foreigners, consisting mainly
of Slovenes and Wends, occupied the mountainous inland,
where they mostly led a pastoral life ; the natives retained some
strips of plain and dwelt secure in their walled towns, among
which the newly-built fortresses of Monemvasia, Corone and
Calamata soon rose to prosperity.' The Slavonic element, to
judge by the geographical names in that tongue which survive
in Greece, is specially marked in N.W. Greece and Peloponnesus ;
central Greece appears to have been protected against them
by the fortress-square of Chalcis, Thebes, Corinth and Athehs.
For a long time the two nations dwelt side by side without either
displacing the other. The Slavs were too rude and poor, and
too much distracted with cantonal feuds, to make any further
headway; the Greeks, unused to arms and engrossed in com¬
merce, were content to adopt a passive attitude. The central
government took no steps to dislodge the invaders, until in 783
the empress Irene sent an expedition which reduced most of
the tribes to pay tribute. In 810 a desperate attempt by the
Slavs to capture Patrae was foiled; henceforth their power
steadily decreased and their submission to the emperor was
made complete by 850. A powerful factor in their subjugation
was the Greek clergy, who by the 10th century had christianised
and largely hellentzed all the foreigners save a remnant in the
peninsula of Maina.
II. The Byzantine Period.— In the 7th century the Greek
language made its way into the imperial army and civil service,
but European Greece continued to have httle ■ voice in the
administration. The land was divided into four " themes ”
under a yearly appointed civil and military governor. Imperial,
troops were stationed at the chief strategic points, while the
natives contributed ships for naval defence. During the dispute
about images the Greeks were the backbone of the image¬
worshipping party, and the iconoclastio edicts of Leo III. kd
to a revolt in 727 which, however, was easily crushed by the
imperial fleet; a similar movement in 823, when the Greeks
sent 350 ships to aid a pretender, met with the same fate. The
firm government of the Isaurian dynasty seems to have benefited
Greece, whose commerce and industry again became flourishing.
In spite of occasional set-backs due to the depredations of
pirates, notably the Arab corsairs who visited the Aegean from
the 7th century onwards, the Greeks remained the chief carriers
in the Levant until the rise of the Italian republics, supplying
all Europe with its silk fabrics.
In the roth century Greece experienced a renewal of raids
from the Balkan tribes. The Bulgarians made incursions after
929 and sometimes penetrated to the Isthmus; but they mostly
failed to capture the dries, and in 995 their strength was broken
by a crushing defeat on the Spercheius at the hands of the'
Byzantine army. Yet their devastations greatly thinned tire
population of northern Greece, and after 1084’ Thessaly was
occupied without resistance by nomad tribes of'<Ylachs. 'In
1084 also Greece waa subjected to the first attack from the new
nations of the west, when the Sicilian Normans gained a footing
in the Ionian islands. The same people made a notablt raid upon
the seaboard of Greece in 1145-1146, and‘Sacked the cities of
Thebes and Corinth; The Venetians also appear as rivals of
{HKltHMr
GREECE
464
the Greeks, and after 1122 their encroachments in the Aegean
Sea never ceased. ; ,
In apite of these attacks, the country on the whole maintained
its prosperity. The travellers Idrisi of Palermo (1153) “td
Benjamin of Tudela (1161) testily to the briskness of commerce,
which induced many foreign merchants to take up their residence
in Greece. But this prosperity revived an aristocracy of wealth
which used its riches and power for purely selfish ends, and under
the increasing laxity of imperial control the archontcs or municipal
rulers often combined with the clergy in oppressing the poorer
classes. Least -of all were these nobles prepared to become the
champions of Greece against foreign invaders at a time when they
alone could have organized an effectual resistance.
III. The Latin Occupation and Turkish Conquest. —The
capture oi Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine
empire by the Latins (1204) brought in its train an invasion of
Greece by Frankish barons eager for new territory. The
natives, who had lung forgotten the use of arms and dreaded
no worse oppression from their new masters, submitted almost
without resistance, and only the N.W. comer of Greece, where
Michael Angelin, a Byzantine prince, founded the “ despotat ”
of Epirus, was saved from foreign occupation. The rest of the
country was divided up between a number of Frankish barons,
chief among whom were the dukes of Achaea (or Peloponnese)
and “ grand signors ” of Thebes and Athens, the Venetians, who
held naval stations at different points and the island of Crete,
and various Italian adventurers who mainly settled in the
Cyclades. The conquerors transplanted their own language,
customs and religion to their new possessions, and endeavoured
to institute the feudal system of land-tenure. Yet recognizing
the superiority of Greek civil institutions they allowed the
natives to retain their law and internal administration and con¬
firmed proprietors in possession of their land on payment of a
rent; the Greek church was subordinated to the Roman arch¬
bishops, but upheld its former control over the people. The
commerce and industry of the Greek cities was hardly affected
by the change of government.
Greek history during the Latin occupation loses its unity and
has to be followed in several threads. In the north the “ despots' ’
of Epirus extended their rule to Thessaly and Macedonia, but
eventually were repulsed by the Asiatic Greeks of Nicaea, and
after a derisive defeat at Pelagonia (1259) reduced to a small
dominion round lannina. Thessaly continued to change masters
rapidly. Till 1308 it was governed by a branch line of the
Epirote dynasty. When this family died out it fell to the Grand
Catalan Company ; in 1350 it was conquered along with Epirus
by Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. About 1397 it was annexed
by the Ottoman Turks, who after 1431 also gradually wrested
Epirus from its latest possessors, the Beneventine family of
Tocco (1390-1469).
The leading power in central Greece was the Burgundian
house de la Roche, which established a mild and judicious govern¬
ment in Boeotia and Attica and in 1261 was raised to ducal rank
by the French king Louis IX. A conflict with the Grand Catalan
Company resulted in a disastrous defeat of the Franks on the
Boeotian Cephissus (1311) and the occupation of central Greece
by the Spanish mercenaries, who seized for themselves the barons’
fiefs and installed princes from the Sicilian house of Aragon as
“ dukes of Athens and Neopatras ” (Thessaly). After seventy-
five years of oppressive rule and constant wars with their
neighbours the Catalans were expelled by the Peloponnesian
baron Nerio Aeciaiuoii. The new dynasty, whose peaceful
government revived its subjects’ industry, became tributary to
the Turks about 1415, but was deposed by Sultan Mahommed II.,
who annexed central Greece in 1456,
The conquest of the Peloponnese was effected by two French
knights, William -Champlitte and Geoffrey ViUehardouin, the
latter of whom founded a dynasty of “ princes of all Achaea.”
The rulers of this line were men of ability, who controlled their
barons and spiritual* vassal* with a firm hand and established
good order throughout their province. The Franks of the
Moran maintained as high • standard of culture as their com¬
patriots at home, while the natives grew rich enough from their
industry to pay considerable taxes without discontent. The
climax of tire Villehardouins’ power was attained under Prince
William, who subdued the last independent cities of the coast
and the mountaineers of Maina (1246-1248). In 1259, however,
the same ruler was involved in the war between the rulers of
Epirus and Nicaea, and being captured at the battle of Pela¬
gonia, could only ransom himself by the cession of Laconia
to the restored Byzantine empire. This new dependency after
1349 was treated with great care by the Byzantine monarchs,
who sought to repress the violence of the local aristocracies by
sending their kinsmen to govern under the title of “ despots."
On the other hand, with the extinction of the ViUehardouin
dynasty the Frankish province fell more and more into anarchy;
at the same time the numbers of the foreigners were constantly
dwindling through war, and as they disdained to recruit them
by intermarriage, the preponderance of the native element
in the Morea eventually became complete. Thus by 1400 the
Byzantines were enabled to recover control over almost the
whole peninsula and apportion it among several “ despots."
But the mutual quarrels of these princes soon proved fatal to
their rule. Already in the 14th century they had employed
Albanians and the Turkish pirates who harried their coasts as
auxiliaries in their wars. The Albanians largely remained as
settlers, and the connexion with the Turks could no longer be
shaken off. In spite of attempts to fortify the Isthmus (1415) an
Ottoman army penetrated into Morea and deported many
inhabitants in 1423. An invasion of central Greece by the despot
Constantine was punished by renewed raids in 1446 and 1450.
In 1457 the despot Thomas withheld the tribute which he had
recently stipulated to pay, but was reduced to obedience by an
expedition under Mahommed II. (1458). A renewed revolt in
1459 was punished by an invasion attended with executions and
deportations on a large scale, and by the annexation of the
Morea to Turkey (1460).
IV. The Turkish Dominion till iSao .—Under the Ottoman
government Greece was split up into six sanjaks or military
divisions: (1) Morea, (2) Epirus, (3) Thessaly, (4) Euboea,
Boeotia and Attica, (5) Aetolia and Acamania, (6) the rest of
central Greece, with capitals at Nauplia, Jannina, Trikkala,
Negropont (Chalkis), Karlili and Lepanto; further divisions
were subsequently composed of Crete and the islands. In each
sanjak a number of fiefs was apportioned to Turkish settlers,
who were bound in return to furnish some mounted men for
the sultan’s army, the total force thus held in readiness being
over 7000. The local government was left in the hands of the
archontes or primates in each community, who also undertook
thd farming of the taxes and the policing of their districts. Law
was usually administered by the Greek clergy. The natives
were not burdened with large imposts, but the levying of the
land-tithes was effected in an inconvenient fashion, and the
capitation-tax to which all Christians were subjected was felt
as a humiliation. A further grievance lay in the requisitions
of forced labour which the pashas were entitled to call for; but
the most galling exaction was the tribute of children for the
recruiting of the Janissaries (g.v.), which was often levied with
great ruthlcsaness. The habitual weakness of the central govern¬
ment also left the Greeks exposed to frequent oppression by the
Turkish residents and by their own magistrates and clergy.
But the new rulers met with singularly little opposition. The
dangerous elements of the population had been cleared away by
Mahommed’s executions; toe rest were content to absorb
their energies in agriculture and commerce, which in spite of
preferential duties and capitulations to foreign powers largely
fell again into the hands of Greeks. Another important instru¬
ment by which the people were kept down was their own clergy,
whom the Turkish rulers treated with marked favour and so
induced to acquiesce in their dominion.
In the following centuries Greece was often the theatre of
war in which toe Greeks played but a passive part. Several
wan with Venice (1463-79,1498-1504) put the Turks ia posses¬
sion of the last Italian strongholds on the mainland. But toe
1
HISTORY]
GREECE
issue was mainly fought out tin tea; the conflicts which had
never ceased in the Aegean since the coming of the Italians
now grew fiercer than ever; Greek ships and:sailors were
frequently requisitioned for the Turkish fleets, and the damage
done to the Greek seaboard by the belligerents and by fleets of
adventurers and corsairs brought about the depopulation of
many islands and coast-strips. Hie conquest of the Aegean
by the Ottomans was completed by 1570 ; but Venice retained
Crete till 1669 and never lost Corfu until its cession to France
in 1797.
In 1684 the Venetians took advantage of the preoccupation of
Turkey on the Danube to attack the Morea. A small mercenary
army under Francesco Morosini captured the strong places
with remarkable ease, and by 1687 had conquered almost the
whole peninsula. In 1687 the invaders also captured Athens
and Lepanto ; but the former town had soon to be abandoned,
and with their failure to capture Negropont (1688) the Venetians
were brought to a standstill. By the peace of Karlowitz {1699)
the Morea became a possession of Venice. The new rulers, in
spite of the commercial restrictions which they imposed in favour
of their own traders, checked the impoverishment and decrease
of population (from 300.000 to 86,000) which the war had
caused. By their attempts to cooperate with the native magis¬
trates and the mildness of their administration they improved
the spirit of their subjects. But they failed to make their
government popular, and when in 1715 the Ottomans with
a large and well-disciplined army set themselves to recover
the Morea, the Venetians were left without support from the
Greeks. The peninsula was rapidly recaptured and by the peace
of Passarowitz (1718) again became a Turkish dependency.
The gaps left about this time in the Greek population were
largely made up by an immigration from Albania.
The condition of the Greeks in the 18th century showed a
great improvement which gave rise to yet greater hopes. Already
mthe 17th century the personal services of the subjects had
been commuted into money contributions, and since 1676 the
tribute of children fell into abeyance. The increasing use of
Greek officials in the Turkish civil service, coupled with the
privileges accorded to the Greek clergy throughout the Balkan
countries, tended to recall the consciousness of former days of
predominance in the Levant. Lastly, the education of the
Greeks, which had always remained on a comparatively high
level, was rapidly improved by the foundation of new schools
and academies.
The long neglect which Greece had experienced at the hands
of the European Powers was broken in 1764, when Russian
agents appeared in the country with promises of a speedy
deliverance from the Turks. A small expedition under Feodor
and Alexis Orlofi actually landed in the Morea m 1769, but failed
to rouse national sentiment. Although the Russian fleet gained
a notable victory off Chesme near Chios, a heavy defeat near
Tripolitza ruined the prospects of the army. The Albanian
troops in the Turkish army subsequently ravaged the country
far and wide, until in 1779 they were exterminated by a force
of Turkish regulars. In 1774 a concession, embodied in the
treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, by which Greek traders were allowed
to sail under the protection of the Russian flag, marked an
important step in the rehabilitation of the country as an inde¬
pendent power. Greek commerce henceforth spread swiftly
over the Mediterranean, and increased intercourse developed a
new sense of Hellenic unity. Among the pioneers who fostered
this movement should be mentioned Constantine Rhigas, the
“ modern Tyrtaeus,” and Adamantios Coraes (q.v.), the reformer
of the Greek tongue. The revived memories of ancient Hellas
and the impression created by the French revolution combined
to give the final impulse which made the Greeks strike for
freedom. By i860 the population of Greece had increased to
1,000,000, and although aoo/>oo of these were Albanians, the
common aversion to the Moslem united the two races. The
military resources of the country alone remained deficient, tot
the aruutiali or localrailiUas, which had never been quite dis¬
banded since Byzantine times, were at last suppressed by Aii
46 $
Pasha of Iannina and found but* poor substitute m the klophts
who henceforth spring into prominence. But at tha firet sign
of weakness in the Turkish dominion the Greek nation was
ready to rise, and the actual outbreak of revolt had become
merely a question of time. > -
Authorities. —General: G. Finlay, History 0] Greece (ed. Tozer,
Oxford, 1877), especially (rail. 1 ., iv., v.; K. Paparrhigopoolce,
'Imefla toS 'XXXennt Un vs (4th ed., Athens, 1 903), veil. ii.-v.;
Hijtoirs de la civilisation heUiuique (Paris, 1878); R- v. Scala,
Das Gricchentum seit Alexander dem Grossen (Leipzig and Vienna,
1904) ; and specially W. Miller, The Latins in the Levant (1908).
Special—(a) The Roman period : Strabo, bks. viii.-x.; PauaaiUaa,
Descriptio Graectae ; G. F. Hertz berg, Die Gesetuckie Grie c tU n ta nds
unter dee Herrsckaft dee Rimer (Halle, 1866-1873); ,$p. Lampros,
‘Ifrropla. rfa 'EXXdAot (Athens, 1888 sqq.), vol. .lit; A. Holm,
History of Greece (Eng. trans., London. 1894-1898), vol. lv., chi.
19, 24, 26, 28 seq.; Th. Mommsen, The Provinces of the Roman
Empire (Eng. trans., London, 1886, ch. 7); ]. P. Mahftfly, The
Greek World under Roman Sway, from Polybius to Pintaech (London,
1890); W. Miller, " The Romans in Greece “ (Wsstminster Review,
August 1903, pp- 186-210); L. Friedl&nder, " Griechenland unter
den RSmem (Deutsche Rundschau, 1899, pp. 231-274, 404-430).
(A) The Byzantine and Latin periods: G. F. Hertz berg, Getehuhle
Griecheniauds seit dem Absterben des antihen Lebene (Gotha, J876-
1879), vols. i., ii.; C. Hop!, Geschichte Griecheniauds im Mitts loiter
(Leipzig, 1868); J. A. Bucnon, Histoire des conquttes et de Titablisse-
merit des Francais dans tes Flats de I'ancisnne Grice (Paris, 1846);
G. Schmitt, The Chronicle of Morea (London, 1904); W. Miller,
" The Princes ol the Pelopomiese ” (Quarterly Itevuw, July 1903,
pp. 109-133); D. Bikelas, Seven Essays on Ckristieoi Greece (Paisley
and London* r890); La Grice bysantine et moderne (Paris, 1893),
pp. r-193. (e) The Turkish and Venetian periods: Hertzberg,
of. cit., vol. iii.; K. M. Bortholdy, Geschichte Gritchenlanis von der
iiroberung Konstantrnopels (Leipzig, 1870), bhk. i. and ii., pp. 1-135 ;
K. N. Sathas, TovacoKparevnirv 'EXXiii (Athens, 1869) ; w. Miller,
" Greece under the Turks ” [Westminster Review, August and
September 1904, pp. 193-210, 304-320 ; English Historical Review,
1904, pp. 64b - b68) : L. Ranke, " Die Venetioaer in Morea"
( Hislortsch-poMische Zeitschrift, ii. 405-302). ( 4 ) Special subjects!
Religion. E. Hatch, The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon
the Christian Church (London, 1890). Ethnology. J. P. Fallmerayer,
Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea wdhrend des MittelaHers (Stuttgart
and Tubingen, 1830); S. Zampelios, Uapl TyyHr r»<XXyi>uri)f Igebnfrn
(Athens, 1857); A. Pbilippson, " Zur Ethnographic des Peloponnes ”
Peterman*’s Mitteilungcn 36 (1890), pp. 1-11, 33-41]; A. Vaailjev,
"Die Slaveri in Griechenland " [Vuanttjshy Vremennih, St Petersburg,
5 (1898), pp. 404-438, 626-670].
See also Roman Empire, Later ; Athens. (M. O. B. C.)
c. Modern History: 1800-1908,
At the beginning of the 19th century Greece was still under
Turkish domination, but the dawn of freedom was already
breaking, and a variety of foroes were at work which
prepared the way for the acquisition of national
independence. The decadence of the Ottoman empire, run*?.
which began with the retreat of the Turks from Vienna
in 1683, was indicated in the 18th century by the weakening of
the central power, the spread of anarchy in the provinces, the
ravages of the janissaries, and the establishment of practically
independent sovereignties or fiefs, such as those of Mebemet
of Bushat at Skodra and of Ali Pasha of Tepelen ait Iannina ;
the 19th century witnessed the first uprisings of the Christian
populations and the detachment of the outlying porthmt of
European Turkey. Up to the end of the 18th century none of
the subject races had risen in spontaneous revolt against the
Turks, though in some instances they rendered aid to the sultan’s
enemies; the spirit of the conquered nations had been broken
by ages of oppression. In some of the remoter and more moun¬
tainous districts, however, the authority of the Turks had never
been completely established; in Montenegro a small fragment
of the Serb race maintained its independence; among the Greeks,
the Mainotes m the extreme south of the Morea and the Sphakiote
mountaineers in Crete had never been completely subdued.
Resistance to Ottoman rule was maintained sporadically in the
mountainous districts by the Greek Uephls or brigands, the
counterpart of the Slavonic haidtsks, and by the pirates of the
Aegean; the armatoles or bodies of Christian warriori, recognized
by the Turks as a local police, often differed little in their
proceedings from the brigands whom they' were appointed to
pursue.
*66
GREECE
Of the series of insurrections which took place in the 19th
century, the first in order of time was the Servian, which broke
■ ( out in 1804 ; the second was the Greek, which began
tSmuut. ® *8*i. In both these movements the influence of
Russia played a considerable part. In the case of
the Servians Russian aid was mainly diplomatic, in that of the
Greeks it eventually took a more material form. Since the days
of Peter the Great, the eyes of Russia had been fixed on Con¬
stantinople, the great metropolis of the Orthodox faith. The
policy of inciting the Greek Christians to revolt against their
oppressors, which was first adopted in the reign of the empress
Anna, was put into practical operation by the empress Catharine
II., whose favourite, Orlov, appeared in the Aegean with a fleet
in 1769 and landed in the Morea, where he organized a revolt.
The attempt proved a failure ; Orlov re-embarked, leaving the
Greeks at the mercy of the Turks, and terrible massacres took
place at Tripolitza, Lemnos and elsewhere. By the treaty of
Kutchuk-Kainarji (July 21, 1774) Russia obtained a vaguely-
defined protectorate over the Orthodox Greek subjects of Turkey,
and in 1781 she arrived at an arrangement with Austria, known
as the “ Greek project,” for a partition of Turkish territory
and the restoration of the Byzantine empire under Constantine,
the son of Catharine II. The outbreak 01 the French Revolution
distracted the attention of the two empires, but Russia never
ceased to intrigue among the Christian subjects of Turkey. A
revolt of the inhabitants of Suli in 1790 took place with her
connivance, and in the two first decades of the 19th century
her agents were active and ubiquitous.
The influence of Hhe French Revolution, which pervaded
all Europe, extended to the shores of the Aegean. The Greeks,
Oiv*t who had hitherto been drawn together mainly by a
rerein- common religion, were now animated by the sentiment
ilaauiy of nationality and by an ardent desire for political
mtirity. f ree( j oro The national awakening, as in the case of
the other subject Christian nations, was preceded by a literary
revival. Literary and patriotic societies, the Philhellenes, the
Philomousi, came into existence; Greek schools were founded
everywhere; the philological labours of Corags, which created
the modern written language, furnished the nation with a mode
of literary expression; the songs of Rhigas of Velestino fired
the enthusiasm of the people, in 1815 was founded the cele¬
brated Philiki Hetaerea, or friendly society, a revolutionary
organization with centres at Moscow, Bucharest, Triest, and in
all the cities of the Levant; it collected subscriptions, issued
manifestos, distributed arms and made preparations for the
coming insurrection. The revolt of Ali Pasha of Iannina against
the authority of the sultan in 1820 formed the prelude to the
Greek uprising; this despot, who had massacred the Greeks
by hundreds, now declared himself their friend, and became
a member of the Hetaerea. In March 1822 Alexander Ypsi-
lanti, a former aide-de-camp of the tsar Alexander I., and
president of the Hetaerea, entered Moldavia from Russian
territory at the head of a small force; in the same month
Archbishop Germanos of Patras unfurled the standard of revolt
at Kalavryta in the Morea.
For the history of the prolonged struggle which followed
see Greek War op Independence. The warfare was practically
brought to a close by the annihilation of the Egyptian
jJJJJ'JJ,' fleet at Navarino by the fleets of Great Britain, France
iTrunt and Russia on the 20th of October 1828. Nine months
previously, Count John Capo dTstria (?.»>.), formerly
minister of foreign affairs of the tsar Alexander, had been
elected president of the Greek republic for a period of seven
years (January 18,2828). By the protocol of London (March 22,
1829) die Greek mainland south of a line drawn from the Gulf
of Arta to the Gulf of Volo, the Morea and the Cyclades were
declared a principality tributary to the sultan under a Christian
prince. The limits drawn by the protocol of London were
confirmed by the treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 2829),
by which Greece was constituted an independent monarchy.
The governments of Russia, France and England were far
from sharing the enthusiasm which the gallant resistance of the
[HISTORY
Greeks had excited among the peoples of Europe, and which
inspired the devotion of Byron, Cochrane, Sir Richard Church,
Fabvier and other distinguished Philhellenes; jealousies
S revailed among the three protecting powers, and the newly-
berated nation was treated in a niggardly spirit; its narrow
limits were reduced by a new protocol (February 3,1830), which
drew the boundaiy line at the Aspropotamo, the Spercheios and
the Gulf of Lamia. Capo d’lstna, whose Russian proclivities
and arbitrary government gave great offence to the Greeks, was
assassinated by two memhers of the Mavromichalis family
(October 9, 1831), and a state of anarchy followed. Before his
death the throne of Greece had been offered to Prince Leopold
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians, who
declined it, basing his refusal on the inadequacy of the limits
assigned to the new kingdom and especially the exclusion of
Crete.
By the convention of London (May 7, 1832) Greece was
declared an independent kingdom under the protection of
Great Britain, France and Russia with Prince Otto,
son of King Louis I. of Bavaria as king. The frontier <e "
line, now traced from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Lamia,
was fixed by the arrangement of Constantinople (July 21,1832).
King Otto, who had been brought up in a despotic court,
ruled absolutely for the first eleven years of his reign; he
surrounded himself with Bavarian advisers and Bavarian troops,
and his rule was never popular. The Greek chiefs and politicians,
who found themselves excluded from all influence and advance¬
ment, were divided into three factkms which attached themselves
respectively to the three protecting powers. On the 15th of
September 1843 a military revolt broke out which compelled the
king to dismiss the Bavarians and to accept a constitution. A
responsible ministry, a senate nominated by the king, and a
chamber elected by universal suffrage were now instituted.
Mavrocordatos, the leader of the English party, became the first
prime minister, but his government was overthrown at the
ensuing elections, and a coalition of the French and Russian
parties under Kolettes and Metaxas succeeded to power. The
warfare of factions was aggravated by the rivalry between the
British and French ministers, Sir Edmond Lyons and M.
Piscatory ; King Otto supported the French party, and trouble
arose with the British government, which in 1847 despatched
warships to enforce the payment of interest on the loan con¬
tracted after the War of Independence. A British fleet subse¬
quently blockaded the Peiraeus in order to obtain satisfaction
for the claims of Patifico, a Portuguese Jew under British
protection, whose house had been plundered during a riot. On
the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Turkey in 1853
the Greeks displayed sympathy with Russia; armed bands
were sent into Thessaly, and an insurrection was fomented in
Epirus in the hope of securing an accession of territory. In
order to prevent further hostile action on the part of Greece,
British and French fleets made a demonstration against the
Peiraeus, which was occupied by a French force during the
Crimean War. The disappointment of the national hopes
increased the unpopularity of King Otto, who had never
acquiesced in constitutional rule. In 1862 a military revolt
broke out, and a national assembly pronounced his deposition.
The vacant throne was offered by the assembly to Duke Nicholas
of Leuchtenberg, a cousin of the tsar, but the mass of the people
desired a constitutional monarchy of the British type; a
plebiscite was taken, and Prince Alfred of England was elected
by an almost unanimous vote. The three protecting powers,
however, had bound themselves to the exclusion of any member
of their ruling houses. In the following year Prince William
George of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gluckshurg, whom
the British government had designated as a suitable candidate,
was elected by the National Assembly with the title “ George I.,
king of the Hellenes.” Under the treaty of London (July 13,
1863) the change of dynasty was sanctioned by the three protect¬
ing powers, Great Britain undertaking to cede to Greece the
seven Ionian Islands, which since 1815 had formed a common¬
wealth under British protection.
HISTORY]
GREECE
On the iqth of October 1863 the new sovereign arrived hi
Athens, and in the following June the British authorities handed
ova- the Ionian Islands to a Greek commissioner.
*hnot George thus began his reign under the most
On 1**/. favourable auspices, the patriotic sentiments of the
Greeks being flattered by theacquisitionof newterritory.
He was, however, soon confronted with constitutional difficulties;
party spirit ran riot at Athens, the ministries which he appointed
proved short-lived, his counsellor, Count Sponneck, became
the object of violent attacks, and at the end of 1864 he was
compelled to accept an ultra-democratic constitution, drawn
up by the National Assembly. This, the sixth constitution voted
since die establishment of the kingdom, is that which is still in
force. In the following year Count Sponneck left Greece, and
the attention of the nation was concentrated on the affairs of
Crete. The revolution which broke out in that island received
moral and material support from the Greek government, with
the tacit approval of Russia; military preparations were
pressed forward at Athens, and cruisers were purchased, but the
king, aware of the inability of Greece to attain her ends by
warlike means, discouraged a provocative attitude towards
Turkey, and eventually dismissed the bellicose cabinet of
Koumoundouros. The removal of a powerful minister command¬
ing a large parliamentary majority constituted an important
precedent in the exercise of the royal prerogative; the king
adopted a similar course with regard to Delyannes in 1892 and
1897. The relations with the porle, however, continued to grow
worse, and Hobart Pasha, with a Turkish fleet, made a demonstra¬
tion off Syra. The Cretan insurrection was finally crushed in
the spring of 1869, and a conference of the powers, which
assembled that year at Parts, imposed a settlement of the
Turkish dispute on Greece, but took no steps on behalf of the
Cretans. In 1870 the murder of several Englishmen by brigands
in the neighbourhood of Athens produced un unfavourable
impression in Europe; in the following year the confiscation
of the Laurion mines, which had been ceded to a Franco-Italian
company, provoked energetic action on the part of France and
Italy. In 1875, after acute constitutional crisis, Charilaos
Trikoupes, who but ten months previously had been imprisoned
for denouncing the crown in a newspaper article, was summoned
to form a cabinet. This remarkable man, the only great states¬
man whom modem Greece has produced, exercised an extra¬
ordinary influenoe over his countrymen for the next twenty
years; had he been able to maintain himself uninterruptedly
in power during that period, Greece might have escaped a long
succession of misfortunes. His principal opponent, Theodore
Delyannes, succeeded in rallying a strong body of adherents,
and political parties, hitherto divided into numerous factions,
centred around these two prominent figures.
In 1877 the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War produced a
fever of excitement in Greece ; it was felt that the quarrels
of the party leaders compromised the interests of the
?**' country, and the populace of Athens insisted on the
last."' formation of a coalition cabinet. The “ great ” or
“oecumenical” ministry, as it was called, now came
into existence under the presidency of the veteran Kanares; in
reality, however, it was controlled by Trikoupes, who, recognising
the unpreparedness of the country, resolved on a pacific policy.
The capture of Plevna by the Russians brought about the fall
of the “oecumenical” ministry, and Koumoundouros and
Delvannes, who succeeded to power, ordered the invasion of
Thessaly. Their warlike energies, however, were soon checked
by the signing of the San Stefano Treaty, in which the claims
of Greece to an extension of frontier were altogether ignored.
At the Berlin congress two Greek delegates obtained a hearing
on the proposal of Lord Salisbury. The congress decided that
the rectification of'the frontier should be left to Turkey and
Greece, the mediation of the powers being proposed in case of
non-agreement; it was suggested, however, that the rectified
frontier should extend from the valley of the Peneus on the east
to the mouth of the Kahunas, opposite the southern extremity
of Corfu, on the west. In 1879 a Greco-Turkish commission
for the delimitation met first at Prevesa, anil subsequently at
Constantinople, but its conferences were without result, the
Turkish commissioners declining the boundary suggested at
Berlin. Greece then Invoked the arbitration of the powen(,
and the settlement of the question was undertaken by Is confer¬
ence of ambassadors at Berlin (1880). The line approved by
the conference was practically that suggested by the congress;
Turkey, however, refused to'accept it, and the Greek army was
once more mobilised. It was evident, however, that nothing
could be gained by an appeal to arms, this powers not being
prepared to apply coercion to Turkey. By a convention signed
at Constantinople in July 1881, the demarcation was entrusted
to a commission representing the six powers and the two
interested parties. The line drawn ran • weatwards'from a point
between the mouth of the Peneus and Platamona'to the summits
of Mounts Kritiri and Zygos, thence following the course of
the river Arta to its mouth. An area of 13,395 stjuare Kilometres,
witha population of 300,000 souls, was thus addea to the kingdom,
while Turkey was left in possession of Iannina, Metrovo and
most of Epirus. The ceded territory was occupied by Greek
troops before the close of the year.
In 1882 Trikoupes came into power at the head of a strong
party, over which he exercised an influence and authority
hitherto unknown in Greek political life. With the ,
exception of three brief intervals (May 1885 to May
1886, October 1890 to February 1892, and a few
months in 1893), he continued in office for the next
twelve years. The reforms which he introduced during this period
were generally of an unpopular character, and were loudly
denounced by his democratic rivals ; most of them were cancelled
during the intervals when his opponent Delyannes occupied the
premiership. The same want of continuity proved fatal to the
somewhat ambitious financial programme which he now inaugur¬
ated. While pursuing a cautious foreign policy, and keeping
in control the rash impetuosity of his fellow-countrymen, he
shared to the full the national desire for expansion, but he looked
to the development of the material resources of the country
as a necessary preliminary to the realization of the dreams of
Hellenism. With this view he endeavoured to attract foreign
capital to the country, and the confidence which he inspired.In
financial circles abroad enabled him to contract a number of
loans and to better the financial situation by a series of con¬
versions. Under A stable, wise, and economical administration
this far-reaching programme might perhaps have been carried
out with success, but the vicissitudes of party politics and the ■
periodical outbursts of national sentiment rendered its realization
impossible. In April 1885 Trikoupes fell from power, and a
few months later the indignation excited in Greece by the revolu¬
tion of Philippopolis placed Delyannes bnce more at the head
of a warlike movement. The army and fleet were again
mobilized with a view to exacting territorial compensation
for the aggrandizement of Bulgaria, and several conflicts with
the Turkish troops took place on the frontier. The powers,
after repeatedly inviting the Delyannes cabinet to disarm,
established a blockade of Peiraeus and other Greek ports (8th
May 1886), France alone declining to co-operate in this measure.
Delyannes resigned (nth May) and Trikoupes, who succeeded
to power, issued a decree of disarmament (25th May). Hostilities,
however, continued on the frontier, and the blockade was not
raised till 7th June. Trikoupes had now to face the serious'
financial situation brought about by the military activity of his
predecessor. He imposed heavy taxation, which the people,
for the time at least, bore without murmuring, and he continued
to inspire such confidence abroad that Greek securities maintained
their price in the foreign market. It was ominous, however,
that a loan which he issued in 1890 was only partially covered.
Meanwhile the Cretan-difficulty hid become once more a source
of trouble to Greece. In 1889 Trikoupes was grossly deceived
by the Turkish government, which, after inducing him to
dissuade the Cretans from opposing the occupation of certain
fortified posts, issued a finnan annulling many important
provisions in tbe constitution of the island. The indignation
[BISTORT
GREECE
468
in Greece wu intense, and popular discontent was increased
by the' success of the Bulgarians in obtaining the exequatur of
tne sultan for a number of bishops in Macedonia. In the
autumn of 1890 Trikoupes was beaten at the elections, and
Delyannes, who had promised the people a radical reform of
the taxation, succeeded to power. He proved unequal, however,
to cope with the financial difficulty, which now became urgent;
and the king, perceiving that a crisis was imminent, dismissed
him and recalled Trikoupes. The hope of averting national
bankruptcy depended on the possibility of raising a loan by
which the rapid depreciation of the paper currency might be
arrested, but foreign financiers demanded guarantees which
seemed likely to prove hurtful to Greek susceptibilities; an
agitation was raised at Athens, and Trikoupes suddenly resigned
(May 1893). His conduct at this juncture appears to have been
due to some misunderstandings which had arisen between him
and the king. The Sotiropoulos-Rhalles ministry which followed
effected a temporary settlement with the national creditors,
but Trikoupes, returning to power in the autumn, at once
annulled the arrangement. He now proceeded to a series of
arbitrary measures which provoked the severest criticism
throughout Europe and exposed Greece to the determined
hostility of Germany. A law was hastily passed which deprived
the creditors of 70 % of their interest, and the proceeds of the
revenues conceded to the monopoly bondholders were seized
(December 1893). Dong negotiations followed, resulting in an
arrangement which was subsequently reversed by the German
bondholders. In January 1895 Trikoupes resigned office, in
consequence of a disagreement with the crown prince on a
question of military discipline. His popularity had vanished,
his health was shattered, and he determined to abandon his
political career. His death at Cannes (mh April 1896), on the
eve of a great national convulsion, deprived Greece of his
masterly guidance and sober judgment at a critical moment
in her history.
His funeral took place at Athens on 23rd April, while the city
was still decorated with flags and garlands after the celebration
Natiau- °* t * le Olympic games. The revival of the ancient
mu»t festival, which drew together multitudes of Greeks
•gitMtiam, from abroad, led to a lively awakening of the national
,S9t • sentiment, hitherto depressed by the economic mis¬
fortunes of the kingdom, and a secret patriotic society, known
as the Etkniki Hetaerea, began to develop prodigious activity,
enrolling members from every rank of life and establishing
branches in all parts of the Hellenic world. The society had
been founded in 1894, by a handful of young officers who con¬
sidered that the military organization of the country was
neglected by the government; its principal aim was the pre¬
paration of an insurrectionary movement in Macedonia, which,
owing to the activity of the Bulgarians and the reconciliation
of Prince Ferdinand with Russia, seemed likely to be withdrawn
for ever from the domain of Greek irredentism. The outbreak
of another insurrection in Crete supplied the means of creating
a diversion for Turkey while the movement in Macedonia was
being matured; arms and volunteers were shipped to the
island, but the society was as yet unable to force the band of the
government, and Delyannes, who had succeeded Trikoupes in
1895, loyally aided the powers in the restoration of order by
advising the Cretans to accept the constitution of 1896. The
appearance of strong insurgent bands in Macedonia in the
summer of that year testified to the activity of the society and
provoked the remonstrances of the powers, while the spread
of its propaganda in the army led to the issue of a royal rescript
announcing grand military manoeuvres, the formation of a
standing camp, and the rearmament of the troops with a new
weapon (6th December). The objects of the society were
effectually furthered by the evident determination of the porte
to evade the application of the stipulated reforms in Crete; the
Cretan Christians lost patience, and indignation was widespread
in Greece. Emissaries of the society were despatched to the
island, and affairs were brought to a climax by an outbreak
at Canea on 4th,February 1897. The Turkish troops fired on
the Christians, thousands of whom took refuge on the warthips
of the powers, and a portion of the town was consumed by fire.
Delyannes now announced that the government had
abandoned the policy of abstention. On the 6th two warships
were despatched to Canea, and on the 10th a torpedo
flotilla, commanded by Prince George, left Peiraeus
amid tumultuous demonstrations. The ostensible object /**)!;
of these measures was the protection of Greek subjects
in Crete, and Delyannes was still anxious to avoid a definite
rupture with Turkey, but the Ethnike Hetaerea had found
means to influence several members of the ministry and to alarm
the king. Prince George, who had received orders to prevent
rire landing of Turkish reinforcements on the island, soon with¬
drew from Cretan waters owing to the decisive attitude adopted
by the commanders of the international squadron. A note was
now addressed by the government to the powers, declaring
that Greece could no longer remain a passive spectator of events
in Crete, and on the 13th of February a force of 1500 men, under
Colonel Vassos, embarked at Peiraeus. On the some day a
Greek warship fired on a Turkish steam yacht which was convey¬
ing troops from Candia to Sitia. Landing near Canea on the
nightof the 14th, Colonel Vassos issued a proclamation announc¬
ing the occupation of Crete in the name of King George. He
had received orders to expel the Turkish garrisons from the
fortresses, but his advance on Canea was arrested by the inter-
national occupation of that town, and after a few engagements
with the Turkish troops and irregulars he withdrew into the
interior of the island. Proposals for the coercion of Greece were
now put forward by Germany, but Great Britain declined to
take action until an understanding had been arrived at with
regard to the future government of Crete. Eventually (2nd
March) collective notes were addressed to the Greek and Turkish
governments announcing the decision of the powers that (1)
Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to
Greece ; (1) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the appli¬
cation of the reforms, Crete should be endowed with an effective
autonomous administration, calculated to ensure it a separate
government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at
the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet within
the space of six days, and Turkey was warned that its troops
must for the present be concentrated in the fortified towns and
ultimately withdrawn from the island. The action of the powers
produced the utmost exasperation at Athens; the populace
demanded war with Turkey and the annexation of Crete, and
the government drew up a reply to the powers in which, while
expressing the conviction that autonomy would prove a failure,
it indicated its readiness to withdraw some of the ships, but
declined to recall the army. A suggestion that the troops might
receive a European mandate for the preservation of order in
the island proved unacceptable to the powers, owing to the
aggressive action of Colonel Vassos after his arrival. Meanwhile
troops, volunteers and munitions of war were hurriedly
despatched to the Turkish frontier in anticipation of an inter¬
national blockade of the Greek ports, but the powers contented
themselves with a pacific blockade of Crete, and military pre¬
parations went on unimpeded.
While the powers dallied, the danger of war increased ; on
29th March the crown prince assumed command of the Greek
troops in Thessaly, and a few days later hostilities
were precipitated by the irregular forces of the Ethnikl Tarkty.
Hetaerea, which attacked several Turkish outposts
near Grevena. According to a report of its proceedings, subse¬
quently published by the society, this invasion received the
previous sanction of the prime minister. On 17th April Turkey
declared war. The disastrous campaign which followed was of
short duration, and it was evident from the outset that the
Greeks had greatly underrated the military strength of their
opponents (see Geeco-Tukzish War). After the evacuation
of Larissa on the 24th, great discontent prevailed at Athens;
Delyannes was invited by the king to resign, but refusing to do
so was dismissed (29th April). His Successor, Rhafies, after
recalling the army from Crete (9th May) invoked the mediation
HISTORY]
GREECE 4-6 9
of the powers.and «n armistice ms'Concluded on the 19th of
that month. Thus ended an unfortunate enterprise, which
was undertaken in the . hope that discord among the powers
would lead to a European war and the dismemberment of Turkey.
Greek interference in Crete had at least the result of compelling
Europe to withdraw the island' for ever from Turkish rule. The
conditions of peace put forward by Turkey included a war
indemnity of £10,000,000 and the retention of Thessaly; the
latter demand, however, was resolutely opposed by Great
Britain, and the indemnity was subsequently reduced to
£4,000,000. The terms agreed to by the powers were rejected
by Rhalles; the chamber, however, refused him a vote of
confidence and King George summoned Zaimes to power
(October 3). The definitive treaty of peace, which was signed
at Constantinople on the 6th of December, contained a provision
for a slight modification of the frontier, designed to afford
Turkey certain strategical advantages; the delimitation was
carried out by a commission composed of military delegates of
the powers and representatives of the interested parties. The
evacuation of Thessaly by the Turkish troops was completed
in June 1898. An immediate result of the war was the institution
of an international financial commission at Athens, charged with
the control of certain revenues assigned to the service of the
national debt. The state of the country after the conclusion of
hostilities was deplorable; the towns of northern Greece and
the islands were crowded with destitute refugees from Thessaly ;
violent recriminations prevailed at Athens, and the positiun of
the dynasty seemed endangered. A reaction, however, set in,
in consequence of an attempt to assassinate King George (28th
February 1898), whose great services to the nation in obtaining
favourable terms from the powers began to receive general
recognition. In the following summer the king made a tour
through the country, and was everywhere received with
enthusiasm. In the autumn the powers, on the initiative of
Russia, decided to entrust Prince George of Greece with the
government of Crete; on 26th November an intimation that
the prince had been appointed high commissioner in the island
was formally conveyed to the court of Athens, and on 21st
December he landed in Crete amid enthusiastic demonstrations
(see Crete).
In April 1899 Zaimes gave way to Theotokes, the chief of
the Trikoupist party, who introduced various improvements in
the administration of justice and other reforms includ-
ing a measure transferring the administration of the
frauWe*. army from the minister of war to the crown prince.
In May 1901 a meeting took place at Abbazia, under the
auspices of the Austro-Hungarian government, between King
George and King Charles of Rumania with a view to the conclusion
of a Graeco-Rumanian understanding directed against the growth
of Slavonic, and especially Bulgarian, influence in Macedonia.
The compact, however, was destined to be short-lived owing
to the prosecution of a Rumanian propaganda among the
semi-Hellenized Vlachs of Macedonia. In November riots took
place at Athens, the patriotic indignation of the university
students and the populace being excited by the issue of a transla¬
tion of the Gospels into modern Greek at the suggestion of the
queen. The publication was attributed to Panslavist intrigues
against Greek supremacy over the Orthodox populations of
the East, and the archbishop of Athens was compelled to resign.
Theotokes, whose life was attempted, retired from power, and
Zaimes formed a cabinet. In 1902 the progress of the Bulgarian
movement in Macedonia once more caused great irritation in
Greece. Zaimes, having been defeated at the elections in
December, resigned, and was succeeded by Delyannes, whose
popularity had not been permanently impaired by the misfortunes
of the war. Delyannes now undertook to carry out extensive
economic reforms) and introduced a measure restoring the
control of the army to the ministry of war. He failed, however,
to carry out his programme, and, being deserted by a section
of his followers, resigned in June 1903, when Theotokes again
became prime minister. The new cabinet resigned within a
mon th owing to the outbreak of disturbances in the currant¬
growing districts, and RhaUes took office for the second time
(July 8). The Bulgarian insurrection in Macedonia during the
autumn caused, great excitement in Athens, and RhaUes adopted
a policy of friendship with Turkey (see SUciDONiA). The
co-operation of the' Greek party in Macedonia withtbe Turkish
authorities exposed it to the vengeance of the insurgents, and
in the following year a number of Greek bands 1 irere sent into
that country. The campaign of retaliation was continued in
subsequent years.
In December Rhalles, who had lost the support of the
Delyannist party, was replaced by Theotokes, who promulgated
a scheme of army reorganization, introduced varioua^_. .
economies and imposed fresh taxation. In December
the government was defeated on a vote of confidence
and Delyannes once mere became prime minister, obtaining a
considerable majority in the elections which followed (Much
1905), but on the 13th of June he was assassinated. He was
succeeded by Rhalles, who effected a settlement of the currant
question and cultivated friendly relations with Turkey in regard
to Macedonia.
In the autumn anti-Greek demonstrations in Rumania led
to a rupture of relations with that country. In December the
ministry resigned owing to an adverse vote of the chamber,
and Theotokes formed a cabinet. The new government, as a
preliminary to military and naval reorganization, introduced
a law directed against the candidature of military officers for
parliament. Owing to obstruction practised by the military
members of the chamber a dissolution took place, and at the
subsequent elections (April 1906) Theotokes secured a large
majority. In the autumn various excesses committed against
the Greeks in Bulgaria in reprisal for the depredations of the
Greek bands in Macedonia caused great indignation in Greece,
but diplomatic relations between the two countries were not
suspended. On the 26th of September Prince George, who had
resigned the high commissionership of Crete, returned to Athens ;
the designation of his successors was accorded by the protecting
powers to King George as a satisfaction to Greek national senti¬
ment (see Crete). The great increase in the activity of the
Greek bands in Macedonia during the following spring and summer
led to the delivery of a Turkish note at Athens (July 1907),
which was supported by representations of the powers.
In October 1908 the proclamation by the Cretan assembly of
union with Greece threatened fresh complications, the cautious
attitude of the Greek government leading to an agitation in the
army, which came to a head in 1909. On the 18th of July a
popular demonstration against his Cretan policy led to the'
resignation of Theotokes, whose successor, Rhalles, announced
a programme of military and economical reform. The army,
however, took matters into its own hands, and on the 23rd of
August Rhalles was replaced by Mavromichales, the nominee of
the “ Military League.” For the next six months constitutional
government was practically superseded by that of the League,
and for a while the crown itself seemed to be in danger. The
influence of the League, however, rapidly declined ; army and
navy quarrelled ; and a fresh coup d'etat at the beginning of 1910
failed of its effect, owing to the firmness of the king. On the 7th
of February Mavromichales resigned, and his successor, Dra-
goumis, accepting the Cretan leader Venezefo’s suggestion of a
national assembly, succeeded in persuading the League to
dissolve (March 29) on receiving the king’s assurance that such
an assembly would be convened. On the 31st, accordingly,
King George formally proclaimed the convocation of a national
assembly to deal with the questions at issue.
Authorities. —Finlay, History of Greece (Oxford, 1877); K. N.
Sathas, M«aiwrortj (7 vols., Venice, 1872-1894).; and
Mrijpcia 'EWpetsf/t Urnplat. Documents inedits relati/s A I’histoire iu
moyen Age (9 vols., Paris, 1880-1890); Sp. Trikonpes, 'hrropla rtp
UXXij»i*f)» iwtmirrAnm (4 vols., 3rd ed., Athens, 1888); K.
PaparrhegopouloB, 'Imptu reP 'KXXi)»uwP tlrtv » (3 vols., 4th ed.,
Athens, 1903); J. Philemon, Ao Klpuer IvropucAr , ntpl rip 'EXXe*urf;i
iraraerAeim (Athens, 1839-1861); P. Kontoyannes, 01 "KXXsrri ««ri
rir TptjTO* hrl klumptvris ‘Puenroi/pKieir riXeper (Athens, 1903)
D. G. Rampouroghn, 'l&ropta r£v 'Ath/rahm. Tevgewgerla, 1458-1687
(z vols., Athens, 1889-1890); and Urptsua rfolertpiat rOr 'Airprek lev.
GREEK ART
470
(3 vote. Athens, 1889-1892) : G. E. Mavrogiannes, 'Imepla rur 'lerLm
1797-1813 (2 vote, Athens, 1889); P, Karolides. 'Imepla, reO
ir a torn, 1812-1892 (Athens, 1891-1893); E. Kyriakides, 'ImapU
to® rvyxptvov EXXijuir^oC, 1832-1892 (2 vote, Athens, 1892); G.
Konstantin ides, 'I mopla r&> ’Afhjy&v dxb XpttrroO yerrfyrtui peypl to® i8ai
( 2 nd ed., Athens, 1894); D. Bikelas, La Grice byxantme et modeme
(Paris, 1893). (J.D. B.)
GREEK ART. It is proposed in the present article to give a
brief account of the history of Greek art and of the principles
embodied in that history. In any broad view of history, the
products of the various arts practised by a people constitute an
objective and most important record of the spint of that people.
But all nations have not excelled in the same way: some have
found their best expression in architecture, some in music, some
in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two
ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and
secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they
have remained to our days among the greatest instructors of
mankind. The three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting
were brought by them into a focus; and by their aid they pro¬
duced a visible splendour of public life such as has perhaps been
nowhere else attained.
The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and
the learning with which these have been discussed is so ample,
that it is hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present
any complete account of either. Rather we shall be frankly
eclectic, choosing for consideration such results of Greek art
as are most noteworthy and most characteristic. In some cases
it will be possible to give a reference to a more detailed treat¬
ment of particular monuments in these volumes under the
heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural
detail is relegated to Architecture and allied architectural
articles. Coins (see Numismatics) and gems (see Gems) are
treated apart, as are vases (Ceramics), and in the bibliography
which closes this article an effort is made to direct those who
wish for further information in any particular branch of our
subject.
1. The Rediscovery of Greek Art .—The visible works of Greek
architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of
Greece and Asia Minor until the Homan conquest. And in spite
of the ravages of conquering Roman generals, and the more
systematic despoilings of the emperors, we know that when
Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the Antonines, it was from
coast to coast a museum of works of art of all ages. But the tide
soon turned. Works of originality were no longer produced, and
a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of previous
ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from
the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in
Greece, the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and
with the taking of Constantinople by the Franks in 1204 the last
great collection of works of Greek sculpture disappeared. But
while paintings decayed, and works in metal were melted down,
many marble buildings and statues survived, at least in a
mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof against
decay.
With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant
remains of Greek and Roman art; as early as the 15th century
collectionsof ancient sculpture,coins and gems began to be formed
in Italy ; and in the 16th the enthusiasm spread to Germany and
France. The earl of Arundel, in the reign of James I., was the
first Englishman to collect antiques from Italy and Asia Minor:
his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.
Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and
works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and
the discovery of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the
history of ancient art.
But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues,
and the great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them
inspiration for their paintings and bronzes, the first really
critical appreciation of Greek art belongs to Winekelmann
( Geschichte itr Kunst its AUerlums, 1764). The monuments
accessible to Winekelmann were but a very small proportion of
those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior merit:
* '
but he was the first to introduce the historical'method into the
treatment of ancient art, and to show how iti embodied the
ideas of the great peoples of the ancient world He was suc¬
ceeded by Lessing, and the waves of thought and feeling set
in motion by these two affected the cultivated class in all nations,
—they inspired in particular Goethe in Germany and Lord Byron
in England.
The second stage in die recovery of Greek art begins with the
permission accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to re¬
move to England the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon
and other buildings of Athens. These splendid works, after
various vicissitudes, became the property of the English nation,
and are now the chief treasures of the British Museum. The
sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists, accustomed
only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and a new
epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and
German savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were
conspicuous, recovered the glories of the temples of Aegina and
Bassae. Leake and Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through
the length and breadth of Greece, identifying ancient sites and
studying the monuments which were above ground. Ross re¬
constructed the temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis of Athens
from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion.
Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the
remains of remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley
of the Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows
brought to London the remains of noteworthy tombs, among
which the so-called Harpy Monument and Nereid Monument
take the first place. Still more important were the accessions
derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton, who in the
years 1852-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored
the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of
Demeter at Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also
made fruitful excavations.
The next landmark is set by the German excavations at
Olympia (1876 and foil.), which not only were conducted with
a scientific completeness before unknown, and at great cost, but
also established the principle that in future all the results of
excavations in Greece must remain in the country, the right of
first publication only remaining with the explorers. The dis¬
covery of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only certain
original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has fur¬
nished a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art.
In emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia,
the Greek archaeological society methodically excavated the
Athenian acropolis, and were rewarded by finding numerous
statues and fragments of pediments belonging to the age of
Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was in full bud.
More recently French explorers have made a very thorough
examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recover¬
ing almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of
Athens and of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century
Ionian work, and adorned with extremely important sculpture.
No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and
Delphi remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all
parts of the counter, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number
of other ancient sites, striking and important monuments have
come to light. And at the same time monuments already known
in Italy and Sicily, such as the temples of Paestum, Selinus and
Agrigentum have been re-examined with fuller knowledge and
better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence of Turkish
role, has remained a country where systematic exploration is
difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished at Ephesus,
Priene, Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as
the reliefs of the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the
splendid sarcophagi from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show
what might be expected from methodic investigation of the
wealthy Greek cities of Asia.
From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a
rich harvest of works of art of the highest class, such as have
already been found in the excavations on that site in the past;
and the building operations at Rome are constantly bringing
GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
GREEK ART
to light fine statues brought from Greece in the time of the
Empire, which are now placed in the collections of- the Capitol
and the Baths of Diocletian.
The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its comple¬
ment and corrective much labour in the gnat museums of
Europe. As museum work, apart from exploration taxis to
dilettantism and pedantry, so exploration by itself does not
produce reasoned knowledge. When a new building, a great
original statue, a series of vases is discovered, these have-to be
fitted in to the existing frame of our knowledge; and it is by
such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged. In all
the museums and universities of Europe me fresh examination
of new monuments, the study of style and subject, and attempts
to work outpoints in the history of ancient art, are incessantly
going on. Such archaeological work is an important element in
the gradual education of the world, and is fruitful, quite apart
from the particular results attained, because it encourages a
method of thought. Archaeology, dealing with things which
can be seen and handled, yet being a species of historic study,
lies on the borderland between the province of natural science
and that of historic science, and furnishes a bridge whereby the
methods of investigation proper to physical and biological study
may pass into the human field.
These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but
more particularly in papers in learned journals (see bibliography),
such as the Mitteilungen of the German Institute, and the English
Journal of Hellenic Studies.
An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer
notion of the recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art.
To begin with architecture. Each of the palmary sites of
which we have spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek
temples. At Olympia there is the Heraeum, earliest of known
temples of Greece proper, which clearly shows the process
whereby stone gradually superseded wood as a constructive
material. At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as to
he able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or
Siphnians) and of the Athenians. The former (see fig. 17) is a
gem of early Ionic art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the
place of columns, and adorned with the most delicate tracery
and fine reliefs. On the Athenian acropolis very considerable
remains have been found of temples which were destroyed by
the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site in 480 B.c.
And recently the ever-renewed study of the Erechtheum has
resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and
trustworthy than any previously made.
In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many
and too important to be mentioned at any length. One instance
may serve to mark the rapidity of our advance. When the
remains of the Mausoleum were brought to London from the
excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in 1856 we knew from
Pliny that four great sculptors, Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and
Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture ; but we knew of these
artists little more than the names. At present we possess many
fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction
of Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we
have identified a group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the
Ganymede of Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from
Epidaurus which we know from inscriptional evidence to be
either the works of Timotheus or made from his models. Any one
can judge how enormously our power of criticizing the Mausoleum
sculptures, and erf comparing them with contemporary monu¬
ments, has increased.
In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such
fresh illumination. Many important wall-paintings of the Roman
age have been found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no
certain or even probable work of any great Greek painter. We
have to content ou'sselves with studying the colouring of reliefs,
such as those of the sarcophagi at Constantinople, and the
drawings on vases, hi order to.get some notion of the composition
and drawing of painted <C8 hcs in the great age of Greece. As
to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have
cone in considerable quantities'from Egypt, they stand at a far
47*
knrer level than even the paintings of Pon^iih Tbe «uatber of
our vase-paintings, however,' increases steadily, and whole
classes, such as the early vases of Ionia, are being marked off
from the crowd, and so becoming available for use in illustrating
the history of Hellenic civilisation. -
-The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently'pro¬
gressive, It has over the study of Greek literature the immense
advantage that its materials -increase far more rapidly. And it
is becoming more and'moiie evident that a sound and methodic
study of Greek art is quite as indispensable as a foundation for
an artistic and archaeological education as the study of Greek
poets and orators is as a basis of literary education. The extreme
simplicity and thorough rationality of Greek art .make it an
unrivalled field for the training and exercise of the faculties
which go to the making of the art-critic and arirhistorian.
s. The General Principles 0/ Greek Art .—Before proceeding
to sketch the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is
desirable briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it
(see also P. Gardner’s Grammar of Greek Art). ■
As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular language,
the grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before
the works in poetry and prose can be read, so Greek worics of art
are composed in what may be called an artistic language. To
the accidence of a grammar may be compared the mere technique
of sculpture and painting: fo the syntax of a grammar corre¬
spond the principles of composition and grouping of individual
figures into a relief or picture. By means of the rules of this
grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which
belonged to him as a personal or a racial possession.
We may mention first some of the more external conditions
of Greek art; next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited
for itself.
No nation is in its works wholly free from the domination of
climate und geographical position : least of all a people so keenly
alive to the influence of the outer world as the Greeks. They
lived in a land where the soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable
to vegetation than that of western Europe, while on all sides
the horizon of the land was bounded by hard and jagged lines
of mountain. The sky was extremely clear and bright, sunshine
for a great part of the year almost perpetual, and storms, which
are more than passing piles, rare. It was in accordance with these
natural. features that temples and other buildings should be
simple in form and bounded by clear lines. Such forms as
the cube, the oblong, the cylinder, the triangle, the pyramid
abound in their constructions. Just as in Switzerland the gables ,
of the chalets match the pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of
the mountains, so in Greece, amid barer hills of less elevation,
the Greek temple looks thoroughly in place. But its construction
is related not only to the surface of th« land, but also to the
character of the race. M. Emile Boutmy, in his interesting
Philosophic de l'architecture en Grice, has shown how the temple
is a triumph of the senses and the intellect, not primarily
emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and
design. It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of
balance, of symmetry, of a mathematical proportion-of parts and
correctness of curvature which belong to the Greek artist.
The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from
its plan. Primarily it was the abode of the deity, whose Statue
dwelt in it as men dwell in their own houses. Hence the cella
or naos is the central feature of the building. Here was placed
the inaage to which worship was brought, while the treasures
belonging to the god were disposed partly in the cella itself,
partly in a kind of treasury which often existed, as in the
Parthenon, behind the cella. There was in lame templet a
porch of approach, the pronaas, and another behind, the opisthe.
domes. Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to,
regular services or a throng of worshippers. Procession* and
festivals took (dace in the open air, in the streets and fields, and
men entered the abodes of the gods at most in groups arid
families, commonly alone. Thus when a place had been found
for the statue, which stood for the presence of the god, for the:
small altar of incense, for the implements of cult and the gifts of
GREEK ART
470
(3 vote. Athens, 1889-1892) : G. E. Mavrogiannes, 'Imepla rur 'lerLm
1797-1813 (2 vote, Athens, 1889); P, Karolides. 'Imepla, reO
ir a torn, 1812-1892 (Athens, 1891-1893); E. Kyriakides, 'ImapU
to® rvyxptvov EXXijuir^oC, 1832-1892 (2 vote, Athens, 1892); G.
Konstantin ides, 'I mopla r&> ’Afhjy&v dxb XpttrroO yerrfyrtui peypl to® i8ai
(2nd ed., Athens, 1894); D. Bikelas, La Grice byxantme et modeme
(Paris, 1893). (J.D. B.)
GREEK ART. It is proposed in the present article to give a
brief account of the history of Greek art and of the principles
embodied in that history. In any broad view of history, the
products of the various arts practised by a people constitute an
objective and most important record of the spint of that people.
But all nations have not excelled in the same way: some have
found their best expression in architecture, some in music, some
in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two
ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and
secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they
have remained to our days among the greatest instructors of
mankind. The three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting
were brought by them into a focus; and by their aid they pro¬
duced a visible splendour of public life such as has perhaps been
nowhere else attained.
The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and
the learning with which these have been discussed is so ample,
that it is hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present
any complete account of either. Rather we shall be frankly
eclectic, choosing for consideration such results of Greek art
as are most noteworthy and most characteristic. In some cases
it will be possible to give a reference to a more detailed treat¬
ment of particular monuments in these volumes under the
heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural
detail is relegated to Architecture and allied architectural
articles. Coins (see Numismatics) and gems (see Gems) are
treated apart, as are vases (Ceramics), and in the bibliography
which closes this article an effort is made to direct those who
wish for further information in any particular branch of our
subject.
1. The Rediscovery of Greek Art .—The visible works of Greek
architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of
Greece and Asia Minor until the Homan conquest. And in spite
of the ravages of conquering Roman generals, and the more
systematic despoilings of the emperors, we know that when
Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the Antonines, it was from
coast to coast a museum of works of art of all ages. But the tide
soon turned. Works of originality were no longer produced, and
a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of previous
ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from
the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in
Greece, the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and
with the taking of Constantinople by the Franks in 1204 the last
great collection of works of Greek sculpture disappeared. But
while paintings decayed, and works in metal were melted down,
many marble buildings and statues survived, at least in a
mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof against
decay.
With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant
remains of Greek and Roman art; as early as the 15th century
collectionsof ancient sculpture,coins and gems began to be formed
in Italy ; and in the 16th the enthusiasm spread to Germany and
France. The earl of Arundel, in the reign of James I., was the
first Englishman to collect antiques from Italy and Asia Minor:
his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.
Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and
works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and
the discovery of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the
history of ancient art.
But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues,
and the great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them
inspiration for their paintings and bronzes, the first really
critical appreciation of Greek art belongs to Winekelmann
( Geschichte itr Kunst des AUerlums, 1764). The monuments
accessible to Winekelmann were but a very small proportion of
those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior merit:
but he was the first to introduce the historical'method into the
treatment of ancient art, and to show how iti embodied the
ideas of the great peoples of the ancient world He was suc¬
ceeded by Lessing, and the waves of thought and feeling set
in motion by these two affected the cultivated class in all nations,
—they inspired in particular Goethe in Germany and Lord Byron
in England.
The second stage in die recovery of Greek art begins with the
permission accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to re¬
move to England the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon
and other buildings of Athens. These splendid works, after
various vicissitudes, became the property of the English nation,
and are now the chief treasures of the British Museum. The
sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists, accustomed
only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and a new
epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and
German savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were
conspicuous, recovered the glories of the temples of Aegina and
Bassae. Leake and Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through
the length and breadth of Greece, identifying ancient sites and
studying the monuments which were above ground. Ross re¬
constructed the temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis of Athens
from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion.
Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the
remains of remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley
of the Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows
brought to London the remains of noteworthy tombs, among
which the so-called Harpy Monument and Nereid Monument
take the first place. Still more important were the accessions
derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton, who in the
years 1852-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored
the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of
Demeter at Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also
made fruitful excavations.
The next landmark is set by the German excavations at
Olympia (1876 and foil.), which not only were conducted with
a scientific completeness before unknown, and at great cost, but
also established the principle that in future all the results of
excavations in Greece must remain in the country, the right of
first publication only remaining with the explorers. The dis¬
covery of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only certain
original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has fur¬
nished a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art.
In emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia,
the Greek archaeological society methodically excavated the
Athenian acropolis, and were rewarded by finding numerous
statues and fragments of pediments belonging to the age of
Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was in full bud.
More recently French explorers have made a very thorough
examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recover¬
ing almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of
Athens and of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century
Ionian work, and adorned with extremely important sculpture.
No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and
Delphi remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all
parts of the counter, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number
of other ancient sites, striking and important monuments have
come to light. And at the same time monuments already known
in Italy and Sicily, such as the temples of Paestum, Selinus and
Agrigentum have been re-examined with fuller knowledge and
better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence of Turkish
role, has remained a country where systematic exploration is
difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished at Ephesus,
Priene, Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as
the reliefs of the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the
splendid sarcophagi from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show
what might be expected from methodic investigation of the
wealthy Greek cities of Asia.
From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a
rich harvest of works of art of the highest class, such as have
already been found in the excavations on that site in the past;
and the building operations at Rome are constantly bringing
GREEK ART
Plat* I.
I'ho to, Urofi.
Fig. 50.—HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON.
Photo, lirogi
(Nat. Mus., Naples.)
Fig. 51— FARNESE BULL (Naples.)
Photo, AhAosoh.
Fig. 52.— LAOCOON GROUP. (Vatican.)
Photo, AnAtrum.
Fig. j 3 .— GANYMEDE OF LEOCHARES. (Vatican.)
Plate II.
GREEK ART
Photo, Antic non.
Fig. 54.—FLAYING OF
MAKSYAS. (Vh.i.a Al-
Baxi, Romr.)
Photo, Seehah,
Fig. 57.- HERMES OF ALCA-
MEN ES. (Cons tanti son.E.)
Fla. j8.-THESF.US AND
AMAZON (ERETRIAV
Photo, MoH'/ll
Fig. 5y.—DRUM OF COLUMN' FROM EPHESUS.
(Brit. Mi's.)
Photo, Hot,twin ConMgr.
Fig. 60.—YOUNG HERMES.
(Mrs. of Finis Arts, Boston.)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
GREEK ART
elsewhere came thus into being. But lrom the point of view of
art, by far the most important class of portraits conristed of
athletes who had won victories at some of the great games of
Greece, at Olympia, Delphi or elsewhere. Early in the 6th
century the custom arose of setting up portraits of athletic
victors in the great sacred places. We have records of number¬
less such statues executed by all the greatest sculptors. When
Fausanias visited Greece he found them everywhere far too
numerous for complete mention.
It is the custom of studying and copying the forms of the
finest of the young athletes, combined with the Greek habit of
complete nudity during the sports, which lies at the basis of
Greek excellence in sculpture. Every Bculptor had unlimited
opportunities for observing young vigorous bodies in every
pose and in every variety of strain. The natural sense of beauty
which was an endowment of the Greek race impelled him to copy
and preserve what Was excellent, and to omit what was ungainly
or poor. Thus there existed, and in fact there was constantly
accumulating, a vast series of types of male beauty, and the
public taste was cultivated to an extreme delicacy. And of
course this taste, though it took its start from athletic customs,
and was mainly nurtured by them, spread to all branches of
portraiture, so that elderly men, women, and at last even children,
were represented in art with a mixture of ideality and fidelity
to nature such as has not been reached by the sculpture of any
other people.
The statues of the gods began either with stiff and ungainly
figures roughly cut out of the trunk of a tree, or with the
monstrous and symbolical representations of Oriental art. In
the Greece of late times there were still standing rude pillars,
with the tops sometimes cut into a rough likeness to the human
form. And in early decoration of vases and vessels one may
find Greek deities represented with wings, carrying in their hands
lions or griffins, bearing on their heads lofty crowns. But as
Greek art progressed it grew out of this crude symbolism. In
the language of Brunn, the Greek artists borrowed from Oriental
or Mycenaean sources the letters used in their works, but with
these letters they spelled out the ideas of their own nation.
What the artists of Babylon and Egypt express in the character
of the gods by added attribute or symbol, swiftness by wings,
control of storms by the thunderbolt, traits of character by
animal heads, the artists of Greece work more and more fully
into the sculptural type ; modifying the human subject by the
constant addition of something which is above the ordinary level
of humanity, until we reach the Zeus of Pheidias or the Demeter
of Cnidus. When the decay of the high ethical art of Greece
sets in, the gods become more and more warped to the merely
human level. They lose their dignity, but they never lose their
charm. *
The decorative sculpture of Greece consists not of single
figures, but of groups ; and in the arrangement of these groups
the strict Greek laws of symmetry, of rhythm, and of balance,
come in. We will take the three most usual forms, the pediment,
the metope and the frieze, all of which belong properly to the
temple, but are characteristic of all decoration, whether of tomb,
trophy or other monument.
The form of the pediment is triangular; the height of the
triangle in proportion to its length being about i: 8. The
conditions of space are here strict and dominant; to comply
with them requires some ingenuity. To a modem sculptor the
problem thus presented is. dinost insoluble; but it was allowable
in ancient art to represent figures in a single composition as
of various sizes, in correspondence not to actual physical
measurement but to importance. As the more important figures
naturally occupy the midmost place in a pediment, their greater
size comes in conveniently.' And by placing some of the persons
of the group in a'standing, some in a seated, some in a reclining
position, it oan be so contrived that their heads are equidistant
from the upper line of the pediment.
The statues in a Greek pediment, which are after quite an
early period usually executed in the round, fall into three, five
or seven groups, according to the size of the whole. As examples
473
to fflustrete tM* exposition we take the tito pediments' of the
temple at Olympia, the meet complete which have come down to
tie,' which are represented in figs. 33 and 341" The east pediment
represents the preparation for the chariot race between Pelcps
and Oenomaus. Tne central group consists of five figures, Zeus
standing between the two pairs of competitors and their wives.
In the comers recline the two river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus,
who mark the locality; and the two sides are tilled up with the
closely corresponding groups of the chariots of Oenotmau* and
Pelops with their grooms and attendants. Every figure to the
left of Zeus balances a corresponding figure on his right, and all
the lines of the composition slope towards a point above the
apex of the pediment.
In the opposite or western pediment is represented the battle
between Lapiths and Gentaurs which broke out at the marriage
of Pcirithous in Thessaly. Here we have no less than nine groups.
In the midst is Apollo. On each side of him is a group of three,
a centaur trying to carry off a woman and a’ Lapith striking at
him. Beyond these on each side is a struggling pair, next once
more a trio of two combatants and a woman, ana finally in each
comer two reclining female figures, the outermost apparently
nymphs to mark locality. A careful examination of these
compositions will show the reader more clearly than detailed
description how clearly in this kind of group Greek artists
adhered to the rules of rhythm and of balance.
The metopes were the long series of square spaces which ran
along the outer walls of temples between the upright triglyphs
and the comice. Originally they may have been left open and
served as windows ; but the custom came in as early as the 7th
century, first of filling them in with painted boards or slabs of
stone, and next of adorning them with sculpture. The metopes
of the Treasury of Sicyon at Delphi (Plate IV. fig. 66) are as
early as the first half of the 6th century. This recurrence of a
long series of square fields for occupation well suited the genius
and the habits of the sculptor. As subjects he took the successive
exploits of some hero such as Heracles or Theseus, or tin con¬
temporary groups of a battle. His number of figures was
limited to two or three, and these figures had to be worked into
a group or scheme, the main features of which were determined
by artistic tradition, but which could be varied in a hundred 1
ways so as to produce a pleasing and in some degree novel result.
With metopes, as regards shape, we may compare the reliefs
of Greek tombs, which also usually occupy a space roughly
square, and which also comprise but a few figures arranged
in a scheme generally traditional. A figure standing giving
his hand to one seated, two roan standing hand in hand, or a
single figure in some vigorous pose is sufficient to satisfy the
simple but severe taste of the Greeks- ,,
In regard to friezes, which are long reliefs contsuning'figures
ranged between parallel lines, there is more variety of custom.
In temples the height of the relief from the background varies
according to the light in which it was to stand, whether direct
or diffused. Almost all Greek friezes, however, are oi great
simplicity in arrangement and perspective. Locality is at most
hinted at by a few stones or trees, never actually portnfyed-
Thert is seldom more than one line of figures, in combat or pro¬
cession, their heads all equidistant from the top line of the
frieze. They are often broken up into groups; and when this is
the case, figure will often balance figure on either side of a central
point almost as rigidly as in a pediment. An example of this
will be found in the section of the Mausoleum frieze shown in
fig. 7 °» Hate IV. Some of the friezes executed by Greek artists
for semi-Greek peoples, such as those' adorning the tomb at
Trysa in Lycia, have two planes, the figures in the background
being at a higher level.
The rules of balance and symmetry in composition which are
followed in Greek decorative art are still more to he- discerned
in the paintings of vases, which must serve, in the absence of
more dignified compositions, to enlighten us as to the methods
of Greek painters. Great painters would not, of course, be bound
by architectonic rule in the same degree as the mere workmen
who painted vases. Nevertheless we must never forget that
GREEK!; ART [general principles
Greek Minting of the earlier ages was of extreme simplicity: which represent the defeat erf one of these by the others. the
It did not represent localities, save by some slight hint; it had . vanquished has commonly fallen on hrs knees, but stall defends
next to no perspective; the colours used were but very few himself. There is a scheme for the leading away of a captive
even down to the days of Apelles. Most of the great pictures of woman; the captor leads her by the hand looking back at her,
which we hear consisted of but one or two figures ; and when while a friend walks behind to ward off pursuit. Such schemes
several figures were introduced they were kept apart and are constantly varied in detail, and often very skilfully varied j
separately treated, t h ou gh, of course, not without relation to but the Greek artist uses schemes as a sort of shorthand, to
one another. Idealismand ethical purpose must have pre- show as clearly as possible what he meant. They serve the
dominated in painting as in sculpture and in the drama and same purpose as the mask in the acting of a play, the first
in the writing of his'tory.
We will take from vases a few simple groups to illustrate the look for.
glance at which will tell the spectators what they have to
laws of Greek drawing ; colouring we cannot illustrate.
No doubt the great painters of Greeoe were not so much under
The fields offered to the draughtsman on Greek vases naturally the dominion Of these schemes as the very inferior painters of
follow the form of the vase; but they may be set down as vases. They used the schemes for their own purposes instead
approximately round, of being used by tbem. But as great poets do not revolt against
square or oblong. To the restrictions of the sonnet or of rhyme, so great artists in
each of these spaces the Greece probably found recognized conventions more helpful
artist carefully adapts than hurtful.
his designs. In fig. i we Students of Greek sculpture and vases must be warned not
have a characteristic to suppose that Greek reliefs and drawings can be taken as
adaptation to circular direct illustrations of Homer or the dramatists. Book illustra-
form by the vase painter tion in the modem sense did not exist in Greece. The poet and
Epictetus. the painter pursued courses whioh were parallel, but never in
In the early period of actual contact Each moved by the traditions of his own craft
painting all the space not The poet took the accepted tale and enshrined it in a setting
occupied by the figures of feeling and imagination. The painter took the traditional
is filled with patterns schemes which were current, and altered or enlarged them,
or accessories, or even adding new figures and new motives, but not attempting to set
animals which have no aside the general scheme. But varieties suitable to poetry were
_ connexion with the sub- not likely to be suitable in painting. Thus it is but seldom that
(Br/t. Jifiu. a/vam, hi. pl »i. 2). j ec t (fig. y), later a vase-painter seems to have had in Iris mind, as he drew, passages
Fig. 1. Kylix by Epictetus. an( j more developed art, of the Homeric poems, though these might well be familiar to
as in this example, the outlines of the figures are so arranged him. And almost never does a vase-painting of the 5th century
as to fill the space.
show any sign of the influence of the dramatists, who were
When the space is square we have much the same problem bringing before the Athenian public on the stage many of the
as is presented by the metope spaces of a temple. In the case tales and incidents popular with the vase-painter. Only on
of both square and oblong fields the laws of balance are carefully vases of lower Italy of the 4th century and later we can occasion-
observed. Thus if there is an even number of figures in the ally discern something of Aeschylean and Euripidean influence
scheme, two of them will form a sort of centre-piece, those on in the treatment of a myth; and even in a few cases we may
either side balancing one another. If the number of figures discern teat the vase-pamter lias taken suggestions direct from
is uneven, either there will be a group of three in the midst, or the actors in the theatre.
the midmost figure will be so contrived that he belongs wholly 3. Historic Sketch.—We propose next to trace in brief outline
to neither side, but is the balance between them. These remarks the history of Greek art from its rise to its decay. We begin
will be made clear by figs. 3 and 3, which repeat the two sides with the rise of a national art, alter the destruction of the
From WUntr VcrtcfthlMHr. 1890, PI. viii., hr jvrnniuion of the Director of the K, K. Ctttrr. Arched. fnttftuL
Fig. 2. Vase Drawings.
of an amphora, one of Which bears a Assign of three figures, the
other of tour.
The Greek artist net only adhered to the architectonic laws
of and symmetry, but he thought in schemes. Certain
group arrangements had a recognized signification. There are
M-hsmea for warriors fighting on equal terms, and schemes
Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations of early Greece by the
irruption of tribes from the north, that is to say, about 800 b.c.,
and we stop with the Roman age of Greeoe, after which Greek
art works in the service of the conquerors (see Roman A*t).
The period 800-50 b.c. we divide into four sections: (1) the
period down to the Persian Wars, 800-480 b.c. ; (*) Hie period
800-480 B.C.]
GREEK ART
47*
of the earfyschools of ttrt, 480-400. b.c. ; {3) the period of the
later great schools, 400-300 b.c. ; (4) the period of Hellenistic
art, 300-30 b.c. In dealing with these successive periods we
confine our sketch to the duee greater branches of representative
art, architecture, sculpture and painting, which in Greece are
closely connected. The lesser arts, of pottery, gem-engmving,
coin-stamping and the like, are treated of under the heads of
Ceramics, Gem, Numismatics, &c., while the more technical
treatment of architectural construction ate dealt with under
Architecture and allied architectural articles. Further, for
brief accounts of the chief artists the reader is referred to bio¬
graphical articles, under such heads as Pbiidus, Praxiteles,
Apelles. We treat here only of the main course of art in its
historic evolution.
Period 1 . 800-480 a.c .—The fact is now generally allowed
that the Mycenaean, or as it is now termed Aegean, civilization
was for the most part destroyed by an invasion from
lartMhm A# north. This invasion appears to have been
gradual; its racial character is much in dispute.
Archaeological evidence abundantly proves that it Bras the
conquest ota more by a less rich and civilized race. In the graves
of the period' (900-600 b.c.) we find none of the wealthy spoil
which has made celebrated thetombs of Mycenae and Vaphio(?.v.),
The character of the pottery and the bronze-work which is found
in these later graves reminds us of the art of the necropolis
of Hallstatt in Austria, and other sites belonging to what is
called, the bronze age of North Europe. Its predominant
characteristic is the use of geometrical forms, the lozenge, the
triangle, the maeander, the circle with tangents, in place of the
elaborate spirals and plant-forms which mark Mycenaean ware.
For this reason the period from the 9th to the 7 th century in
Greece passes by the name of “ the Geometric Age.” It is
commonly held that in the remains of the Geometric Age we
may trace the influence of the Dorians, who, coming in as a
hardy but uncultivated race, probably of purer Aryan blood
than the previous inhabitants of Greece, not only brought to an
end the wealth and the luxury which marked the Mycenaean
age, but also replaced an art which was in character essentially
southern by one which belonged rather to the north and the
west. The great difficulty inherent in this view, a difficulty
which has yet to be met, lies in the fact that some of the most
abundant and characteristic remains of the geometric age which
we possess come, not from Peloponnesus, but from Athens and
Boeotia, which were never conquered by the Dorians.
The geometric ware is for the most part adorned with painted
patterns only. Fig. 4 is a characteristic example, a small two-
handled vase from Rhodes in the Ashmolean Museum,
ammttne ^ gjojjunent 0 f which consists in zigzags, circles
with tangents, and lines of water birds, perhaps swans.
Sometimes, however, especially in the case of large vases from
the cemetery at Athens, which adjoins the Dipylon gate, scenes
Fig. 4.— Geometric 'Tate' from Rhodes. (Ashmolean hft* seum 0
from Greek life are deputed, from daily life, not from legend or
divine myth. Especially scenes from the lying-in-state and the
burial of the dead are prevalent An excerpt from a Dipylon
vase (fig. 3) shows a dead man on his couch surrounded by
mourners, male and female. Both sexes are apparently repre¬
sented naked, and are distinguished very simply; some of them
hold branches to sprinkle the corpse or to keep away flies. It
wffibeseen how primitive wad conventional fetiw-dnwmg of
this age, presenting a wonderful contrast to the free drawtag
and modelling of the Mycenaean age. In the same graves with
the pottery are sometimes found plaques of gold or bronze, sad
towards the end of the geometric age throe sometimes ,pm.
scenes from mythology, treated with the greatest simplicity.
Mon. d. Inst. lx. 39.
Fig. 5.—Corpae with Mourner*.
For example, in the museum of Berlin are the contents of a
tomb found at Corinth, consisting mainly of gold work of geo¬
metric decoration. But in the same tomb were alio found gold
plates or plaques of repousal work bearing subjects from Greek
iSE 4 , 8.
Fig. 6 . —Gold Plaques: Corinth;
legend. Two of these are shown in fig. &. On one Theseus is
slaying the Minotaur, while Ariadne stands by gpd encourages
the hero. The tele could not have been toid in a simpler Or more
straightforward way. On the other we have an armed warrior
with his charioteer in a'
chariot drawn hy two
horses. The treatment of
the human body is here
more advanced than on
the vases of the Dipylon.
On the site of Olympia,
where Mycenaean remains
are not found, but the
earliest monuments show
the geometric style, a
quantity of. dedications
in bronze have been
found, the decoration of
which belongs to this
style. Fig. 7 shows the
handle of a tripod from?
Olympia, which is
adorned with geometric
patterns and surmounted J3 .
by the figure of a hone. ^ 7 ._„ an< i te of Tripod.
It was about the 6th
century that the genius of the Greeks, almost suddenly, as it
seems to ns, emancipated itself from the thraldom of tradition,
and passed beyond the limit* with which fhe nations of the
east and west had hitherto been content, in a free and
bold effort towards the ideal. Thus the 6th > century marks
476
GREEK ART
[800-480 ?,&
the stage in art in which it may be said to have become
definitely Hellenic. The Greek* still borrowed many of their
decorative forms, either from the prehistoric remains in their
own country or, through Phoenician agency, from the old-world
empires of Egypt and Babylon, but they used those forms freely
to express their own meaning. And gradually, in the course of
the century, we see both in the painting of vases and in sculpture
a national spirit and a national style forming under the influence
of Greek religion and mythology, Greek athletic training, Greek
worship of beauty; We must here lay emphasis on the fact,
which is sometimes overlooked in an age which is greatly given
to the Darwinian search after origins, that it is one -thing to
trace bade to its original sources the nascent art of Greece, and
quite another thing to follow and to understand its gradual
embodiment of Hellenic ideas and civilization,' The immense
success with which the veil has in late years been lifted from the
prehistoric age of Greece, and the, clearness with which we can
discern the various strands woven into the web of Greek art,
have tended to fix our attention rather on what Greece possessed
in common with all other peoples at the same early stage of
civilization than on what Greece added for herself to this common
stock. In many respects the art of Greece is incomparable—one
of the great inspirations which have redeemed the world from
mediocrity and vulgarity. And it is the searching out and
appreciation of this unique and ideal beauty in all its phases,
in idea and composition and execution, which is the true task
of Greek archaeological science.
In very recent years it has been possible, for the first time,
to trace the influence of Ionian painting, as represented by vases,
loaiaa on r ' se art - The discoveries at Naucratis and
vmn. Daphnae in Egypt, due to the keenness and pertinacity
of W. M. Flinders Petrie, threw new light on this matter.
It became evident that when those cities were first inhabited
by Ionian Greeks, in the 7th century, they used pottery of
several distinct but allied
styles, the most notable
feature of which was the
use of the lotus in decora¬
tion, the presence of con¬
tinuous friezes of animals
and of monsters, and the
filling up of the back¬
ground with rosettes,
lozenges and other forms,
fig. 8 shows a vase found
in Rhodes which illus¬
trates this Ionian decora¬
tion. The sphinx, the
deer and the swan are
prominent on it, the last-
named serving as a link
between the geometric
ware and the more
brilliant and varied ware
of the Ionian cities. The
assignment of the many
species of early Ionic ware
57 ‘ to various Greek localities,
-WO. K—jug from Rhodes. Miletus, Samos, Phocaea
ani^dnpj fifties, is a work of great difficulty, which now closely
occupies the attention of archaeologists. For the results of
their stadAeif the reader is referred to two recent German works,
Bohlau’s ttof iomschen und italischen Nehropolen, and Endt’s
Beitrdge zufiomsdun Vasenmalcrei. The feature which 1 is most
interesting in this pottery from our present point of view is the
way in which representations of Greek my th and legend gradually
make their way, and relegate the mere decoration of the vases to
borders and neck. One of the earliest examples of representation
of a really Greek subject is the contest of Menelausand Euphorbus
on a plate found in Rhodes. On the vases of Melos, of the 7th
century, which *re, however, not Ionian, but rather Dorian in
character, we have a certain number of mythological scenes,
battles of Homeric'heroes and the like. One of these is shown m
fig. 9. It represents Apollo in a chariot drawn by winged hones,
playing on the lyre, and accompanied by a pair of Muses, meeting
his sister Artemis. It is notable that Apollo is bearded, and that
Artemis holds her stag by the horns, much in the manner of the
deities on Babylonian cylinders ; in the other hand she carries
an arrow; above is a line of water birds.
Some sites in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining, such cities
as Samos, Camirus in Rhodes, and the Ionian colonies on the
Godm, Mtl. Tongt/Hut, 4.
Fig. 9.—Vase Painting : Melos.
Black Sea, have furnished us with a mass of ware of the Ionian
class, but it seldom bears interesting subjects ; it is essentially
decorative. For Ionian ware which has closer relation to Greek
mythology and history we must turn elsewhere. The cemeteries
of the great Etruscan cities, Caere in particular, have preserved
for us a large number of vases, which are now generally recognized
as Ionian in design and drawing, though they may in some cases
be only Italian imitations of Ionian imported ware. Thus has
been filled up what was a blank page in the history of early
Greek art. The Ionian painting is unrestrained in character,
characterized by a licence not foreign to the nature of the Ace,
and wants the self-control and moderation which belong to
Doric art, and to Attic art after the first.
Some of the most interesting examples of early Ionic painting
are found on the sarcophagi of Clazomenac. In that city in
archaic times an exceptional custom prevailed of burying the
dead in great coffins of terra-cotta adorned with painted scenes
from chariot-racing, war and the chase. The British Museum
possesses some remarkable specimens, which are published' in
A. S. Murray’s Terra-Cotta Sarcophagi of the British Museum.
On qne of them he sees depicted a battle between Cimmerian
invaders and Greeks, the former accompanied to the field by
their great war-dogs. In some of the representations of hunting
on these sarcophagi the hunters ride in chariots, a way of hunting
quite foreign to the Greeks, but familiar to us from Assyrian
wall-sculptures. We know that the life of the Ionians before
the Persian conquest was refined and not untinged with luxury,
and they borrowed many of the stately ways of the satraps of
the kings of Assyria and Persia.
Fig. 10 Shows a curious product of the Ionian workshops, a
fish of solid gold, adorned with reliefs which represent a flying
Tuttwtafler, r>. VtUirtftltU.
Fig. 10.—Fish of Gold.
eagle, lions pulling down their prey, and a monstrous sea-god
among his fishes. This relic is the more valuable on account of
the spot where it was found—-Vettersfelde in Brandenburg. It
GREEK ART
Plat* III.
Photo. Gtraudon.
Fig. 6i.— WINGED VICTORY
OF SAMOTHRACE. (Louvre.)
fl
J'A/tffl, Gfmuifm.
H
1
Fig. 62.—WINGED VICTORY OF
M
SAMOTHRACE. (Louvre.)
Photo, Anderson.
Fig. 63.- HEAD OF WARRIOR,
lie;. 64.—MARSYAS OF MYRON.
RESTORED, FROM TEGKA.
(Lateran Mus.)
' ' %
* C' 8 '
f'y ' ■
! ■' I** >
Mm
■m
Photo , Mansell .
Fig. 65.—EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON; LEFT AND RIGHT ENDS. (Brh. Mug.)
XII 476
Flo. 66.—METOPE OF THE TREASURY OF SJCYON
AT DELPHI.
(From Fomlli s Ac Delphi by permission ol A. F'ontemoing.)
Fir.. 67.—GREEK PAINTING OF WOMAN’S HEAD.
(From Complex liendus ol St. Petersburg, 1865. PI. 1.)
>00-4*0 B.C.]
GREEK ART
m
furnishes a proof that the influence and perhaps the eommeroe
of the Greek colonies on ths Black Sea spread far to the north
through the countries of the Scythians and other barbarians.
The fish dates from the 6th century b.c.
' We may compare some of the gold ornaments from Camirus
in Rhodes, which show an Ionian tendency, perhaps combined
with Phoenician elements. On one of them (fig. ri) we see
a centaur with human forelegs holding up a fawn, on the other
the oriental goddess
whom the Greeks identi¬
fied with their Artemis,
winged, and flanked by
lions. This form was
given to Artemis on the
Corinthian chest of
Cypselus, a work of art
preserved at Olympia,
and carefully described
for us by Pausanias.
From Ionia the style
of vase-painting which
has been called by various
names, but may best be
termed the “ orientali
ing,” spread to Greece
proper. Its main home
nere was in Corinth; and
small Corinthian un¬
guent-vases hearing
figures of swans, lions, monsters and human beings, the intervals
between which are filled by rosettes, are found wherever
Corinthian trade penetrated, notably in the cemeteries of
Sicily. For the larger Gqrinthian vases, which tore more
elaborate scenes from mythology, we must again turn to the
graves of the cities of Etruria. Here, besides the Ionian
ware, of which mention has already been made, we find
pottery of three Greek cities clearly defined, that of Corinth,
that of Chalcis in Euboea, and that of Athens. Corinthian
and Chalcidian ware is most readily distinguished by means
of the alphabets used in the inscriptions which have
distinctive forms easily to be identified. Whether in the style
of the paintings coming from the various cities any distinct
differences may to traced is a far more difficult question, into
which we cannot now enter. The subjects are mostly from heroic
legend, and are treated with great simplicity and directness.
There is a manly vigour about them which distinguishes them
at a glance from the laxer works of Ionian style. Fig. 12 shows
a group from a Chalcidian vase, which represents the conflict
Brit. Mm.
Fig. 11. —Gold Ornaments from
Camirus.
Mon. d. hut. i. 51.
Fig. 12.—Fight over the Body of Achilles.
over the dead body of Achilles. The corpse of the hero lies in
the midst, the arrow in his heel. The Trojan Glaucus tries to
draw away the body by means of a rope tied round the ankle,
but in doing so is transfixed by the spear of Ajax, who charges
under the protection of the goddess Athena. Paris on the Trojan
side shoots an arrow at Ajax.
In fig. ij, from a Corinthian vase, Ajax falls on his sword in
the presence of his colleagues, Odysseus and Diomedes. The short
stature of Odysseus is a well-known Homeric feature. These
vases are black-figured; the heroes are painted in silhouette on
the ted ground Of the vases. Their names «re . appended in
archaic Greek totters. • •• ’• > f>
The early history of vase-painting at Athens is complicated.
It -was only by degrees that the geometric Kyis gave way to,
or developed into, what is known as the black-figured
style. It would seem that until the age of Peisistratus; >
Athens was not notable in the world of art,. and! nothing could
be ruder than some- of the vases of Athens m the ytheeatury.
Mus. NapoUon t 66.
Eiq. 13.—Suicide of Ajax.
for example that here figured, on one side of which are,represented
the winged Harpies(fig. I4)and on the other Perseus accompanied
by Athena flying from & .pursuit of the Gorgons, This vase
retains in its decoration some features of geometric style; but
the lotus and rosette, the lion and sphinx which appear on it,
belong to the wave of Ionian influence. Although it involves a
departure from strict chronological order, it will be well here to
follow the course of development in pottery at Athens until the
end of our, period. Neighbouring cities, and especially. Corinth,
seem to have exercised a strong influence at Athena about the
Arch. /.tit. 1SS3, 9.
Fig. 14.—Harpies: Attic Vase.
7th century. We have even a class of vases called by archae¬
ologists Corintho-Attic. But in the course of the 6fh century
there is formed at Athens a distinct and marked black-figured
style. The most remarkable example of this ware is the so-called
Francois vase at Munich, by Curias and Ergotimus, which
contains, in most careful and precise rendering, ‘a number of
scenes from Greek myth. One of these vases is dated, since it
bears the name and the figure of Callias in his chariot (Af«m.
ieW Inst. iii. 45), and this Callias won a victory at Olympia in
564 b.c. Fig. 15 shows the reverse of a somewhat later blade-
figured vase of the Panathenaic class, given at Athens as a
prize to the winner of a foot-race at the Panathenaea, with the
foot-race (staditn) represented on it A large number of Athenian
vases of the 6th century have reached ns, which bdar the signa¬
tures of the potters who made, or the artists who painted them ;
lists of these will be found in lhe useful wtnfk of Klein, Griechisdte
Vasm mit M sitter signalmen. The recent excavation* on tbe
[8oo-48o,»x.
47 «
GREEK ART
Acnmotii have proved the erroneousnes* of the view, strongly
maintaW/l by Brunn, that the mass of the black-figured vases
were of «late and imitative fabric. We now know that, with a
few exceptions, vases of this class are not later than the early
part of the 5th century. The same excavations have also
proved that red-figured vase-painting, that is, vase-painting
in which the background was blocked out with black, and the
figures left in the natural colour of the vase originated at Athens
in the last quarter of the 6th century. We cannot here give a
< T A . I J a, A . » • «-
Mim. 4, /«*.«. 4SH. . .
Pro. 15.—Phot-race: PmnathenalcVass.
detailed account of the beautiful series of Athenian vases of this
fabric. Many of the finest of them are in the British Museum.
As an example, fig. 16 presents a group by the painter Pamphaeus,
representing Heracles wrestling with the river-monster Achelous,
which belongs to the age of the Persian Wars. The dear precision
of the figures, the vigour of the grouping, the correctness of the
anatomy and the delicacy of the lines are all marks of distinction.
The student of art will perhaps find the nearest parallel to these
vase-pictures in Japanese drawings. The Japanese artists are
very inferior to the Greek in their love and understanding of
the human body, but equal them in freshness and vigour of
design. At the same time began the beautiful series of white
Witntr Voritftil&tttr, 1 ). 6 .
Fig. x6 .—Ueracles and Achelous.
vases made at Athens for the purpose of burial with the dead,
and found in great quantities in the cemeteries of Athens, of
Eretria, of Gela in Sicily, and of some other dties. They are
well represented in the British Museum and that of Oxford.
We now return to the early year* of the 6th century, and
proceed to trace, by the aid of recent discoveries, the rise of
architecture and sculpture. The Greek temple in its character
aad form gives the due to the whole character of Greek art.
It is the abode of the deity, who is represented by his sacred
image 5 surd the flat surfaces of the temple offer a great field
to the sculptor for the depicting of sacred legend. The process
of discovery has emphasised the line which divides Ionian from
Dorian architecture and art. We will speak first of the temples
and the sculpture of Ionia. The Ionian* were a people far mem
susceptible than were the Dorians to oriental influences. The
dress, the art, the luxury of western Asia attracted them with
irresistible force. We may suspect, as Brunn has suggested,
that Ionian artists worked in the great Assyrian and Fenian
palaces, and that the reliefs which adorn the walls of those
palaces were in part their handiwork. Some of the great temples
of Ionia have been excavated in recent years, notably those of
Apollo at Miletus, of Hera at Samos, and of Artemis at Ephesus.
Very little, however, of the architectureof the 6th-century temples
of those sites has been recovered. Quite recently, however, the
French excavators at Delphi have successfully restored the
treasury of the people of Cnidus, which is quite a,gem ^
of Ionic style, the entablature being supported in front
not by pillars but by two maidens or Corae, and a frieze running
all round the building above. But though this building is of
Ionic type, it is scarcely in the technical sense of
Ionic style, since the columns have not Ionic
capitals, but are carved with curious. reliefs. The
Ionic capital proper is developed in Asia by degrees (see
Abchitecturjs and Capitaj. ; also Ferrot and Chipiez, Hist,
de Vart, vii. ch. 4).
The .Doric temple is not wholly of European origin. One
of the earliest examples it, the old temple of Assus in Troas.
Yet it was developed mainly in Heflas and the west. The most
ancient example is the Heraeum at Olympia, next to which come
the fragmentary temples of Corinth and of Selinus in Sicily.
With the early Doric temple we are familiar from examples
which have survived in fair preservation to our own days at
Agrigentum in Sicily, Foes turn in Italy, and other sites.
Of the decorative sculpture ’which adorned these early temples
we have more extensive r e mains than wa have of actual con¬
struction. It will be best to spesik of them under their districts.
On the coast of Asia Minor, the most extensive series of archaic
decorative sculptures which has come down to us is that which
adorned the temple of Assus (fig. 18). These were placed in a
unique position on the temple, a long frieze running along the
entablature, with representations of wild animals, of centaurs,
of Hercules seizing Achelous, and of men feasting, scene succeed¬
ing scene without much order or method. The only figures from
Miletus which can be considered as belonging to the original
temple destroyed by Darius, are the dedicated seated stutues,
some of which, brought away by Sir Charles Newton, are now
preserved at the Britkh Museum. At Ephesus Mr Wood has
been more successful, ami has recovered considerable fragments
800-480 B.C.]
GREEK ART
of the temple of Artemi*, to which, as Herodotus tells ns, Croesus
presented many columns. The lower part of one of three oOhunns,
bearing * 1 figures in relief of early Ionian style, has been put
together at the British Museum; and remains of inscriptions
recording the presentation by Croesus are still to be traced.
Reliefs mom a cornice of somewhat later date are also to be
found at die British Museum. Among the Aegean islands,
i[l i 1 i'si 111 iji-'.ii i^i; ij *»*■ ilfciniiMiUS' 1 1 r. *i
jrVi, l|
f!
I!
1' rom Parrot nd Chiptac, pi
I lachette & Co.
rmiuion of Chapman atul Hull, Ltd., and
Fig. 18.— Rectarntfoa of the Temple at Ass us.
Debs has furnished us With .the most important remains of early
art. French excavators have there found a very early atatue of
a woman dedicated by one'Nicandra to Artemis, a figure which
may be instructively compared with another from Samus,
dedicated to Hera by Cheramues. The Delian statue is in shape
like a flat beam; the Samian, which is headless, is like a round
tree. The arms of the Delian figure are rigid to the sides; the
Samian lady has one arm clasped to her breast. A great im¬
provement on these helpless and inexpressive figures is marked
by another figure found at Delos, and connected, though perhaps
incorrectly, with a basis recording the execution of a statue by
Archermus and Micciades, two sculptors who stood, in the
middle of the 6th century, at the head of a sculptural school at
Chios. The representation (fig. 19) is of a running or flying
figure, having six wings, like the seraphim in the vision of
early sculpture of Athens, we And reasoato think that the Chian
school had great influeneeitt that city in the day* of Peisistratus.
At Athens, in the age 650^480, we may trace twa rjuite distinct
periods of architecture and sculpture. In the earlier of the two
periods, a rough limestone was used alike for the walls 1f fT _,„
and the sculptural decoration of temples; in the Ku / P<un .
later period it was superseded by marble, whether
native or imported. Every visitor to the muse«rm„ of the
Athenian acropolis stands astonished at the recent^? to covered
groups which decorated the pediments of Athenian 1 temples
A then. MittmU x. 337. V -
Fio. 20.—Athenian Pediment: Heracles andHydra.
before the age of Peisistratus—groups of large life, rudely cut
in soft stone, of primitive workmanship, and painted with bright
red, blue and green, in a fashion which makes no attempt to
follow nature, but only to produce a vivid restilt. The two
largest in scale of these groups seem to have belonged to the
pediments of the early 6th-century temple of Athena. On other
smaller pediments, perhaps belonging to shrinetpf Heracles
and Dionysus, we have conflicts of Heracles with triton or with
other monstrous foes. It is notable how fond the Athenian artists
of this early time are of exaggerated muscles and of monstrous
forms, which combine the limbs of men and of animals; the
measure and moderation which mark developed Greek art are
as completely absent as are skill in execution or power of group¬
ing. Fig. 20 shows a small pediment m which appears in relief
Bio. 19.—Kike of Delos, restored.
Isaiah, and dad inkng drapery. It may be a statue of Nike or
Victory, who is arid to have been represented in winged form
by Archermus. The figure, with its neatness and precision of
work, its expressive face and strong outlines, certainly marks
great progress in the art of sculpture. When we examine tire
Atkin, Mitttil. xxii. 3 .
Fio. at_Padimsnt: Atbsna end Giant
the slaying of the I^rnaculpdrobjr Heracles. The hero strikes
at the many-headed wet e ewn a kfr somewhat ina,. vv.opdMy,
with his club. Iolaus, Ids usual eonmuntet Mp.'JjtoNNMpf
the chariot which awaits Heracles after his Victory. 'On We
extreme left a huge crab comes to the aid of the hydra.
There can be little doubt that Athens owed its great start, in
art to the influence of the court of Peisistratus, at which artists
of all kinds were welcome. We can trace a gradual transforma¬
tion in sculpture, in which the influence of the. Chian and other
progressive schools of sculpture is visible, ootonly in the sub¬
stitution of island marble for native stone, but in increased
grace and truth to nature, in the toning down of glaring colour,
and the appearance of taste in composition. A tr an si tion
[800-480 H.C.
4#o
GREEK ART
between, the older and the newer is furnished by the well-known
statue bf the calf-bearer, an Athenian preparing to sacrifice a
calf to the deities, which is nude of marble of Hymettus, and in
robust clumsiness of forms is not far removed from the lime¬
stone pediments. The sacrificer has been
commonly spoken of as Hermes or Theseus,
but he seems rather to be an ordinary
human votary.
In the time of Pcisistratus or his sons a
peristyle of columns was added to the old
temple of Athena; and this necessitated
the preparation of fresh pediments. These
'were of marble. In one of them was re¬
presented the battle between gods and
giants; in the midst Athena herself strik¬
ing at a prostrate foe (fig. ax). In these
figures no eye can fail to trace remarkable
progress. On about the same level of art
are the charming statues dedicated to
Athena, which were set up in the latter half
of the 6th century in the Acropolis, whose
graceful though conventional forms and
delicate colouring make them one of the
great attractions of the Acropolis Museum.
We show a figure (fig. 22) which, if it be
rightly connected with the basis on which
it stands, is the work of the sculptor
Fig. 22.—Figure by Antenor, who was also author of a celebrated
Antenor, restored. g roU p representing the tyrant - slayers,
Harmodius and Aristogiton. To the same age belong many
other votive reliefs of the Acropolis, representing horsemen,
scribes and other votaries of Athena.
From Athens we pass to the seats of Dorian art. And in
doing so we find a complete change of character. In place of
* goddesses' and female figures, we find nude
tie forma. In,place of Ionian softness and elegance,
we find hard, rigid outlines, strong muscular develop¬
ment,.* greater love of and faithfulness to the actual,,human
form —the influence of the palaestra rather than of the harem.
To the known series
of archaic male
figures, recent years
have added many
examples. We may
especially mention u
series of figures from
the temple of Apollo
Ptoos In Boeotia,
probably represent¬
ing the god himself.
Still tttox* note¬
worthy are two
colossal nude figures
of Apollo, remarkable
both for force and
for rudeness, found
at Delphi, the in¬
scriptions of which
prove them to be
the work of an
Arrive sculptor.
(Plate V. fig. 76.)
From Crete we have
acquired the upper
and Aristogiton, set up by the people of Athens, and made . by
the sculptors Critius and Nesiotea. These figures were hard and
rigid in outline, but showing some progress in the treatment of
the nude. Copies are preserved in the museum of Naples (Plate I.
fig. 50). It should be observed that one of the heads does not
belong.
Next in importance to Athens, as a find-spot far works of
early Greek art, ranks Olympia. Olympia, however, did not
suffer like Athens from sudden violence, and the n ..
explorations there have brought to light a continuous
series of remains, beginning with the bronze tripods stUaiu.
of the geometric age already mentioned and ending
at the barbarian invasions of the 4th oeritury a.d, Notable
among the 6th-century stone-sculpture of Olympia are the
pediment of the treasury of
the people of ’Megara, in
which is represented a battle
of gods and giants, and
huge rude head of Hera (fig. ,
24), which seems to be part of
the image worshipped in the;
Heraeum. Its flatness am|,
want of style sire noteworixyv'
Among the temples of Greece
proper the Heraeum of
Olympia stands almost alone
for antiquity and interest, its
chief rival, besides the temples
of Athens, being the other,
temple of Hera at Argos, ,It
appears to have been origin¬
ally constructed of wood, for
which stone was by slow
degrees, part by part, sub¬
stituted. In the time of
Pausanias one of the pillars
was still of oak, and at the
present day the varying diameter of the columns and other
structural irregularities bear witness to the process of constant
renewal which must have taken place. The early small
bronzes of Olympia form an important series, figures of deities
standing or striding, warriors in their armour, athletes with
exaggerated muscles, and
Flu. 24.—Head of Hera: Olympia,
( j
' ‘
r
Fig, 23.—Bust from Crete.
women draped in the
Ionian fashion, which did
not become unpopular in
Greece until after the
Persian Wan. Excava¬
tions at Sparta have re¬
vealed interesting monu¬
ments belonging to the
worship of ancestors,
which seems in the con¬
servative Dorian states of
Greece to have been more
strongly developed than
elsewhere. On some of
these stones, which doubt¬
less belonged to the family
cults of Sparta, we see
the ancestor seated hold¬
ing a wine-cup, accom¬
panied by his faithful
horseordog; on some we
see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (fig. 25),
Fig. 25.—Spartan Tombstone: Berlin.
part of a draped figure (fig. 23), whether male or female is not see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (tig. 25),
certain, which should be an example of the early Daedalid > ready to receive the gifts of their descendants who appear
■ ■ -• . — J - J - «--*■ — in the comer of the relief on a much smaller scale. The male
figure holds a wine-cup, in allusion to the libations of wine
made at the tomb. The female figure holds her veil and the
pomegranate, the recognized food of the dead. A huge
serpent stands erect behind the pair. The style of these
sculptures is as striking as the subjects; we see lean, rigid
school, whence the art of Peloponnesus was derived; but we
can scarcely venture to treat it as a characteristic product of
that school; rathrt tlie likeness to the dedication of Nicandra
is striking. .
Another remarkable piece of Athenian sculpture, of the time
of the Persian Wars, is the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius
GREEK ART
Plate V.
Fig. 74—AGIAS AT DLLPHI.
(From Fomlles de Delphes, by
prrmission ot A. Fontt'inoing.)
FIg. 75—CORA (KORf) OF ERECHTHEUM.
(Athens.)
Fig. 76—APOLLO AT DELPHI.
(From Fnuilles de Delphi*, by
; it mi si ion of A, Fontemoiu^.)
Platk VI.
GREEK ART
Fig. 8o.—DORY l’HORUSOFl'OI.Y- Fig. 8j.—ANTIOCH SKATED ON A ROCK. Fig. 82.—HERMES OF PRAXI-
CLJTUS. (Nat. Mvs., Nai>lus.) (Vatican.) TELES. (Olymtia.)
486-4OO S.G.]
GREEK? MIT
forms with Bevere outline carved in ft 'very, 'low relief,
the surface of which is not rounded but flat. Hie name of
Selinus in Sicily, an early Megarian colony, has tong been associ¬
ated with some of the most curious of early sculptures, the
metopes of ancient temples, representing the exploits "of Heracles
and of Perseus. Even more archaic metopes have in recent
years been brought to light, one representing a seated sphinx,
one the journey of Europa over the sea on the bade of the
amorous bull (fig. 26), a pair of dolphins swimmiiw beside her.
In simplicity and in rudeness of work these relief remind us
of the limestone pediments of Athens (fig. 20), but yet they are
of another and a severer style ; the Ionian laxity is wanting.
The recent French excavations at Delphi add a new and
important chapter to the history of 6th-century art. Of three
Mati. treasure-houses, those of Sicyon, Cnidus and Athens,
the sculptural adornments have been in great part
recovered. These sculptures form a series almost covering the
century 570-470 b.c., and include representations of some myths
of which we have hither¬
to had no example. We
may say here a few
words as to the sculpture
which has been dis¬
covered, leaving to the
article Dklphi an
account of the topo¬
graphy and the bu ildings
of the sacred site. Of
the archaic temple of
Apollo, built as Hero¬
dotus tells us by the
Alcmaeonidaeof Athens,
the only sculptural re¬
mains which have come
down to us are some
fragments of the pedi-
mental figures. Of the
treasuries which con-
t. , „ _ „ tained the offerings of
flu. 26,-Metope ; Europa on Bull: the pjouB at t)ie
most archaic of which
there are remains is that belonging to the people of Sicyon.
To it appertain a set of exceedingly primitive metopes.
One represents Idas and Dioscuri driving off cattle (Plan* IV.
fig. 66); another, the ship Argo; another, Europa on the bull,
others merely animals, a ram or a boar. The treasury of the
people of Cnidus (or perhaps Siphnos) is in stylq some half a
century later (see fig. 17). To it belongs a long frieze representing
a variety of curious subjects: a battle, perhaps between Greeks
| Castor and ftoUuvjNitaphM holding the winds, in sacks. .Tba
Treasury of the Athenians, erected at the time,of. the Persian
Wars, was adorned with metopes of - singularly dearreut and
beautiful style, but veCy fragmentary, representing the deed*
of Heracles and Theseus. . 1 ! '"
We have yet to speak of the most interesting agd important of
all Greek archaic sculptures, the pediments of the temple at
Aegina (q.v.). These groups of nude athletes (fighting •
over the corpses of their comrades are preserved at
Munich, and are familiar to artists and students. But the very
fruitful excavations of Professor Furtwiingler,have put them in
quite a new light. Furtwiingler (Aegina: Ileiligtum der Afhaia)
has entirely rearranged these pediments, in a way which removes
the extreme simplicity and rigour of the composition, and
introduces far greater variety of attitudes and motive. We
repeat here these new arrangements (figs. 27 and 28), the reasons
for which must be sought in Furtwiingler's. great publication.
The individual figures are not much altered, as the restorations of
Thorwaldsen, even when incorrect, have now a prescriptive right
of which it is not eusy to deprive them. Beside the pediments of
Aegina must be set the remains of the pediments of the temple
of Apollo at Eretria in Kuboca, the chief group of which (Plate II.
fig. 58), Theseus carrying off an Amazon, is one of the most
finely executed works of early Greek art.
Period 11 . 4S0-400 i<x .—The must marvellous phenomenon
in the whole history of art is the rapid progress made by Greece
in painting and sculpture during the 5th oentury B.c. As in
literature the 5th century takes us from the rude peasant plays
of Thespis to the drama of Sophocles and Euripides; as in
philosophy it takes us from Pythagoras to Socrates; so in
sculpture it covers the space from the primitive works made for
tlie Peisistratidae to some of the most perfect productions of the
chisel.
In architecture the 5th century is ennobled by the Theseum,
the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the temples of Zeus at
Olympia, of Apollo at Phigalia, and many other central
shrines, as well as by the Hall of the Mystae at Eleusis '
and the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Some of the most
important of the Greek temples of Italy and Sicily, such as thoso
of Segesta and Selinus, date from the same age. It is, however,
only of their sculptural decorations, carried out by the greatest
masters m Greece, that we need here treat in any detail.
it is the ride in the history of art that innovations and technical
progress are shown eurlier in the casa of painting than in that of
sculpture, a fact easily explained by the greater ease
and rapidity of the brush compared with the chisel. Palntla *-
That this was the order of development in Greek art cannot be
doubted. But our means for judging of the painting of the
jth century are very slight. The noble paintings of such masters
■aafiawAngMi Aagun^c’ jwrmi»*v»n «*' A iKaOJ-U*
Fig. 27.—Restoration of West Pediment, Aegina.
and Trojans, with, gods and goddesses looking on; a gjganto-
machy in which the figures of Poseidon, Athena, Hera, Apollo,
Artemis and Cyhele can be made out, with their opponents,
who are armed like Greek hoplites; Athena and Heracles in a
chariot 7 tito carrying off of the daughters of Leucippus by
< & ' ~’..v
bmm rurtoangiar-s Aepaa.tar f — ls . a at A N<kM>
Fig, 28.— Restoration o i East Pediment, Aegina.
as Polygnotus, Micon and Panaanus, which once adorned the
walls of the great porticoes of Athens and Delphi, have dis¬
appeared. There remain only the designs drawn rather
painted on the beautiful vases of the age, which in some degree
help us to realize, not the cotouring or the charm of contemporary
xii. 16
Platk VI.
GREEK ART
Fig. 8o.—DORY l’HORUSOFl'OI.Y- Fig. 8j.—ANTIOCH SKATED ON A ROCK. Fig. 82.—HERMES OF PRAXI-
CLJTUS. (Nat. Mvs., Nai>lus.) (Vatican.) TELES. (Olymtia.)
460-400 B.C.J
GREEK ART 4 #$
The schools of Euphronius, Hienj and Dunis belong to the age stood Zeus the supreme whiter. On one side of hha stood
of the Persian wars. With the middle of the century the works Oenomaus with his wife Sterope, on the other Bsteps-'and Hippo-
of these makers are succeeded by unsigned vases of most beautiful dameia, the daughter of Genomatls, whose position St once
design, some of them showing the influence of Polygnotus. In indicates that she is on the side of the newcomer, whatever her
the later years of the century, when the empire of Athens was parents may feel. Next on either side are the four-hors* chariots
approaching its fall, drawing becomes laxer and more careless, of- the two competitors, that of Oenomaus in .th* charge-of his
and in the treatment of drapery we frequently note the over- perfidious groom Myrtihis, who oontrivad -that it should break
elaboration of folds, the want of simplicity, which begin to mark down in the running, that of Pelops tended by his grooms,
contemporary sculpture. These changes of style can only be At either end, where the pediment narrows to a point, rwoUnro a
Fig. 33.—East l'ediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.
satisfactorily followed in the vase rooms of the British Museum,
or other treasuries ot Greek art (see also A. B. Walters, History
of Ancient Pottery ; and the article Ceramics).
Among the sculptural works of this period the first place may
he given to the great temple of Zeus at Olympia. The statue by
Pheidias which once occupied the place of honour in
otywpia : that temple, and was regarded as the noblest monu-
^teus!" 0i meat °* Greek religion, has of course disappeared, nor
are we able with confidence to restore it. But the plan
of the temple, its pavement, some of its architectural ornaments,
remain. The marbles which occupied the pediments and the
metopes of the temple have been in large part recovered, having
been probably thrown down by earthquakes and gradually buried
in the alluvial soil. The utmost ingenuity and science of the
archaeologists of Germany have been employed in the recovery
of the composition of these groups; and although doubt remains
as to the places of some figures, and their precise attitudes, yet
we may fairly say that we know more about the sculpture of
river god, at one end Alpheus, the chief strewn of Qfympiu, at
the other end his tributary Cladeus. Only one figttSC remains,
not noticed in the careful description of PauggajM/.the figure
of a handmaid kneeling, perhaps one of the attenourtsof Sterope.
Our engraving gives two conjectural restorations of the pediment,
that of Treu and that of Kekule, which differ principally in the
arrangement of the comers of the composition ; the position
of the central figures and of the chariots can scarcely be called
in question. The moment chosen is one, not of action, but of
expectancy, perhaps of preparation for sacrifice. The arrange*
ment is undeniably stiff and formul, and in the figures we note
none of the trained perfection of style which belongs to the
sculptures of the Parthenon, an almost contemporary tqmpie.
Faults abound, alike in the rendering of drapery and in the
representation of the human forms, and the sculptor has
evidently trusted to the painter who was afterwards to colour
Iris work, to remedy some of his clumsiness, or to make elcar ^he
ambiguous. Nevertheless there is «.the whole a rfasgjHy, a
Fig. 34.—West Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.
the Olympian temple of Zeus titan about the sculpture of any
other great Greek temple. The exact date of these sculptures
is not certain, but -we may with some confidence give them to
470-460 n.c. (In speaking of them we shall mostly follow the
opinion of Dr Treu, whose masterly work in vol. iii. of the great
German publication on Olympia is a model of patience and of
science.) In the eastern pediment (fig. 33), as Pausanias tells
u$, were represented the preparations for the qhariot-raee
between Oenomaus and Pelops, the -result of which was to
determine whether Pelops shquld find death or a bride and a
kingdom. In the midst, invisible to the contending heroes.
sobriety, and a simplicity, which reconcile us to the knowledge
that this pediment was certainly regarded.in antiquity as a noble
work, fit to adorn even the palace of Zeus. In the other, the
western pediment (fig. 34), the subject is the riot of the Centaurs
when they attended the wedding of Peirithous in Thessaly, and,
attempting to carry off the bride and her comrades, were slain
by Peirithous and Theseus. In the midst of tfie pediment,
invisible like Zeus in the eastern pediment, stands Apollo, while
on either side of him Theseus and Peirithous attack the Ceqtavrs
with weapons hastily snatched, Our jllttsjtrgtipp gives tWp
possible arrangements. The monsters are in various attitudes
[480-4OO B.C.
484
GREEK ART
of attempted violence, of combat and defeat; with each grapples
one Of the Lapith heroes in the endeavour to rob them of their
prey. In the comets of the pediment recline female figures,
perhaps attendant slaves, though the farthest pair may best be
identified as local Thessalian nymphs, looking on with the
calmness of divine superiority, yet not wholly unconcerned in
what is going forward. Though the composition of the two
pediments differs notably, the one bearing the impress of a
parade-like repose, the other of an overstrained activity, yet
OtympU, iu. 45,
Flu. 35.—Metope: Olympia; restored.
the style and execution are the same in lmth, and the short¬
comings must be attributed to the inferior skill of a local school
of sculptors compared with those of Athens or of Aegina. It
even appears likely that the designs also belong to a local school.
Patisanias, it is true, tells us that the pediments were the work
of Alcamenes, the pupil of Pheidias, and of Paeonius, a sculptor
of Thrace, respectively: but it is almost certain that he was
misled by the local guides,
who would naturally be
anxious to connect the
sculptures of their great
temple with well-known
names.
The metopes of the
temple are in the same style
of art as the pediments, but
the defects of awkwardness
and want of mastery are
less conspicuous, because
the narrow limits of the
metope exclude any elabo¬
rate grouping. The sub¬
jects are provided by the
twelve lalwiirs of Heracles;
the figures introduced in
each metope are but two or
at most three; and the
action is simplified as much
as possible. The example
while Atlas, whom he has
relieved of his usual burden, approaches bringing the apples
widt h it was the task of Heracles to procure.
Another of the fruits of the excavations of Olympia is the
floating Victory by, Paeonius, unfortunately faceless (fig. 36),
which was set up in all probability in memory of the victory Of
the Athenians and their Messenian allies at Sphacteria in 425 b.c.
The inscription 1 states that it was dedicated by the Mcssenians
shown (fig. 35) represents
Heracles holding up the
skv on a cushion, with the
(Vrmfi*, ili. <8.
]‘1 g. 361— Niki of Paeonius; restored,
friendly aid of a Hesperid nymph,
and people of Naupactus from the spoils of their enemies, but
the name of the enemy is not mentioned in the inscription.
The statue of Paeonius, which comes floating down through the
air with drapery borne backward, is of a bold and innovating
type, and we may trace its influence in many works of the next
agei
Among the discoveries at Delphi none is so striking and
valuable to us as the life-size statue in bronze of a charioteer
holding in his hand the reins. This is maintained
by M. Homolle to he part of a chariot-group set up
by Polyzalus, brother of Golo and Hiero of Syracuse,
in honour of a victory won in the chariot-race at the Pythian
games at Delphi (fig. 37). The charioteer is evidently a high-born
youth, and is clad in the long chiton wliich was necessary to
protect a driver of a chariot from the rush of air. The date
would be about 480-470 B.c. Bronze groups representing
victorious chariots with their drivers were among the nobles;
and most costly dedications of antiquity ; the present figure
is our only satisfactory representative of them. In style the
figure is very notable, tall and slight beyond all contemporary
examples. The contrast between the conventional decorousness
of face and drapery and the lifelike accuracy of hands and
Af/tit fliers, Piot , t&)7, 16.
Kic. 37.—Bronze Charioteer: Delphi.
feet is very striking, and indicates the clashing of various
tendencies in art at the time when the great style was formed
in Greece.
The three great masters of the 5th century, Myron, Pheidias
and Polyclitus are all in some degree known to us lrom their
works. Of Myron we have copies of two works, the Marsvas
(Plate III. fig. 64) and the Discobolus. The Marsyas (a copy in
the Lateran Museum) represents the Satyr so named in the
grasp of conflicting emotions, eager to pick up the flutes which
Athena has thrown down, but at the same time dreading her
displeasure if he does so. The Discobolus lias usually been
judged from the examples in the Vatican and the British Museum,
in which the anatomy is modernized and the head wrongly put on.
We have now photographs of the very superior replica in the
lAncelotti gallery at Rome, the pose of w-hirh is much nearer
to the original. Our illustration represents a restoration made
at Munich, by combining the Lancelotti head with the Vatican
body (Plate IV. fig. 68);
Of the works of Pheidias we have unfortunately no certain
copy, if we except the small replicas at Athens of his Athena
Parthenos. The larger of these (fig. 38) was found in 1880:
it is verv clumsy, and the wretched device by which a pillar
is introduced to support the Victory in the hand of Athena can
scarcely be supposed to have belonged to the great original.
Tempting theories have been published by Furtwiingler ( Master¬
pieces of Greek Sculpture) and other archaeologists, which
identify copies of the Athena Lemnia of Pheidias, his Pantarces,
480-400 B.C.]
GREEK ART
4 #5
Fig. 3b.—statuette ol Athena i’arthenos.
his Aphrodite, Urania and other statues ; but doubt hangs over
all these attributions.
A more pertinent and more promising question is, how far
we may take the decorative sculpture of the Parthenon, since
Lord Elgin’s time the pride of the British Museum, as the
actual work of Pheidias, or as done from his designs. Here
again we have no conclusive evidence ; but it appears from the
testimony of inscriptions that the pediments at all events were
not executed until after Pheidias’s death.
Of course the pediments and frieze of the Parthenon (?.».),
whose work soever they may be. stand at the head of all Greek
decorative sculpture.
Whether we regard the
grace of the composi¬
tion, the exquisite finish
of the statues in the
round, or the delightful
atmosphere of poetry
and religion which sur¬
rounds these sculptures,
they rank among the
masterpieces of the
world. The Greeks
esteemed them far below
the statue which the
temple was made to
shelter; but to us, who
have lost the great
figure in ivory and gold,
thecarvingsof thecusket
which once contained it
are a perpetual source of
instruction and delight.
The whole is repro¬
duced by photography
in A. S. Murray’s Sculptures of the Parthenon.
An abundant literature has sprung up in regard to these
sculptures in recent years. It will-suffice here to mention the
discussions in Furlwangler’s Masterpieces, and the vety ingenious
attempts of Sauer to determine by a careful examination of the
bases and backgrounds of the pediments as they now stand how
the figures must have been arranged in them. The two ends
of the eastern pediment (Plate 111 . fig. 6j) are the only fairly
well-preserved part of the pediments.
Among the pupils of Pheidias who may naturally be supposed
to have worked on the sculptures of the Parthenon, the most
notable were Ahumenes and Agoracritus. Some fragments
remain of the great statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus by Agoracritus.
And an interesting light has been thrown on Alcamenes by the
discovery at Pergamum of a professed copy of his Hermes set
up at the entrance to the Acropolis at Athens (Plate II.
fig. 57), The style of this work, however, is conventional
and archaistic, and we can scarcely regard it as typical of the
master.
Another noted contemporary who was celebrated mainly for
his portraits was Cresilas, a Cretan, Several copies of his
portrait of Pcrides exist, and testify to the lofty and idealizing
style of portraiture in this great age.
We possess also admirable sculpture belonging to the other
important temples of the Acropolis, the Erechtheum and the
temple of Nike. The temple of Nike is the earlier, being possibly
a memorial of the Spartan defeat at Sphacteria. The Krecli- :
theum belongs to the end of our period, and embodies the I
delicacy and. finish of the conservative school of sculpture at :
Athens just as the Parthenon illustrates the ideas of die more
progressive schoul. The reconstruction of the Erechtheum has
been a task which has long occupied the attention of archaeo¬
logists (see the paper by Mr Stevens in the American Journal
of Archaeology, ipofi). Our illustration (Plate V. fig. 75) shows
one of the Corae or maidens who support the entablature of the
south porch of the Erechtheum in her proper setting. This
use of the female figure in place of a pillar is based on old Ionian
precedent (see fig, 17) and is not altogether happy; but the
idea is carried out with remarkable skill, the perfect repose
and solid strength of the maiden being emphasized.
Beside Pheidias of Athens must be placed the greatest of early
Argive sculptors, Polyclitus. His two typical athletes, the
Doryphorus or spear-bearer (Plate VI. fig. 80) and the Diadu-
menus, have long been identified, and though the copies are not
first-rate, they enable us to recover the principles of the master’s
art.
Among the bases discovered at Olympia, whence the statues
had been removed, are three or four which bear the name of
Polyclitus, and the definite evidence furnished by_. „
these bases as to the position of the feet of the
statues which they once bore has enabled archaeologists,
especially Professor Furtwangler, to identify copies of those
statues among known works. Also newly discovered copies of
! Polyclitan works have made their appeuram e. At Delos there
has been found a copy qL the Diadumentis, which is of much
finer work than the stati#in the British Museum from Vaison.
1 The Museum of Pine Arts at Boston, U.S.A., has secured a very
beautiful statue of a young Hermes, who but for the wings on
the temples might pass as a boy athlete of Tohclitan style
(Piute II. fig. 60). In fact, instead of relying as regards the
manner of Polyclitus on Roman copies of the Ijorypnoras and
Diudumenus, we have quite a gallery of athletes,’ boys and men,
who all claim relationship, nearer or more remote, to the school
of the great Argive master, it might, have been hoped that the
excavations, made under the leadership of Professor Waldstein
at the Argive Heraeum, would have enlightened us as to the
style of Polyclitus, just as the sculptures of the Parthenon
are the best monument of Pheidias, so it might seem likely that
the sculptural decoration of the great temple which contained
the Hera of Polyclitus would show us at large how his school
worked in marble. Unfortunately the fragments of sculpture
from the Heraeum are few. The most remarkable is a female
head, which may perhaps come from a pediment (fig. 39). But
archaeologists are not in agreement whether jt is in style Poly-
Hig. 30. — Female Head: Heraeum.
clitan or whether it rather resembles in style Attic works. Other
heads and some highly- finished fragments of bodies come
apparently from the metopes of the same temple. (See , also
article Aroob.)
Another work of Polyclitus was his Amazon, made it is said
in competition with hia great contemporaries, pheidias, Cresilas
and Phradmon, all of whose Amazons were preserved in the
great temple of Artemis at Ephesus. In our museums are many
statues of Amazons representing 5th century originals. These
have usually been largely restored, and- it is no easy matter to
discover their original type. Professor Michuelis has recovered
f+Ott-JOO B.C.
486 GREEK ART
successfully three types (fig. 40). The attribution of these is a
matter of controversy. The first has been given to the chisel
of Polyclitus: the second seems to represent the Wounded
Amazon of f’resilas ; the third has by some archaeologists been
given to Pheidias. ft does not represent a wounded amazon,
but one alert, about to leap upon her horse with the help of a
spear as a leaping pole.
We can devote little more than a passing mention to the
sculpture of other temples and shrines of the later 5th century,
which nevertheless deserve careful study. The frieze
from'the temple of Apollo at Phigalia, representing
(\ utaur and Amazon battles, is familiar to visitors of the British
Mu-sriim, where, however, its proximity to the remains of the
In.. 40.—Types of Amazons (Michaelis.)
Parthenon lays stress upon the faults of grouping and execution
which this frieze presents. It seems to have been executed by
local Arcadian artis(4. More pleasing is the sculpture of the
Ionic tomb Nereid monument, brought by Sir Charles
Fellows fro«lj!j^fci. Here we have not only a aeries of bands
of relief which ran round the tomb, but also detached female
figures, whence ‘the name which it bears is derived. A recent 1
view sees m these Women with their fluttering drapers- not
nymphs of the sea, but personifications of sea-breezes.
The serial of known Lycian tombs has been in recenl years
enriched tlatough the acquisition by the museum of Vienna of
the sculptured friezes which adorned a heroon near Gcul Bushi.
In the midst Of the enclosure was a tomb, and the walls of the
enclosure itself were adorned within and without with a great
series of reliefs, mostly of mvthologic purport. Many subjects
which but rarely oepur in early Greek art, the siege of Troy, the
adventure of tie Seven against Thebes, the carrying off of the
daughters of Leucippus, Ulysses shooting down the Suitors, arc
here represented in detail. Professor Benndorf, who has pub¬
lished thus# sculptures in an admirable volume, is disposed to
see io them :<ie influence of the Thaaian painter Polvgnotus.
Any one can ere their kinship to painting, and their subjects
recur in seme of the gMKt frescoes painted by Polvgnotus,
Micon and otheirs for the Athenians. Like other Lytsian sculp¬
tures, they contain non-Hellenic elements ; in fart Lycia forms
a link of the chain which extends from the wall-paintings of
Assyria to works like the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus,
but is not embodied in the more purely idealistic works of the
highest Greek art. The date of the Vienna tomb is not much
later than the middle of the 5th century. A small part of the
frieze of this monument is shown in fig. 41. It will be seen that
in this fragment there are two scenes, one directly above the other.
In the upper line Ulysses, accompanied by his son Tetemachus,
is in the art of sheading the suitors, who are reclining at table
in the midst of a feast; a cup-hearer, possibly Melamthius, is
escaping by a door behind Ulysses. In the lower line is the
central group of a frieze which represents the hunting of the
Calvdonian boar, which is represented, as is usual in the best time
of Greek art, as an ordinary' animal and no monster.
Archaeologists have recently begun to pay more attention
to an interesting branch of Greek art which had until recently
lieen neglected, that of sculptured portraits. The
known portraits of the 5th century now include “ n
Pericles, Herodotus. Thucydides, Anarrcon, Sophocles, Euripides,
Socrates and others. As might be expected in a time when style
in sculpture was so strongly pronounced, these portraits, when not
later unfaithful copies, are notably idea). They represent the
great men whom they portray not in the spirit of realism.
Details are neglected, expression is not elaborated j the sculptor
tries to represent what is permanent in his subject rather-'than
what is temporary. Hence these portrait* do not ieent to belong
to a particular time of life ; they only represent a man in the
perfection of physical force and' mental energy. And the race
or type is clearly shown through individual traits.. In same
cases it is still disputed whether statues of th» age represent
deities or mortals, so notabJeaw the repose and dignity which
even human figures acquire Under the hands of 5th-centnry
masters. The Pericles after Crttilas in the British Museum,
and the athlete-portraits of Potyditus, are good examples.
Period 1 U. ./on-too m .J—the high ideal level attained by-
Greek art at the end of the 5th century' is maintained in the 4th.
There cannot he any question of decay in it save at Athens,
where undoubtedly the loss of religion and the decrease of
national prosperity acted prejudicially-. But in Peloponnesus
the time was one of expansion; several new and important cities,
such as Messene, Megalopofis and Mantinea, arose under the
: protection of Epaminontlas. And in Asia the Greek cities were
! still prosperous and artistic, as were the cities of Italy and Sfcfly
j which kept their independence. On the whole we find during
this age some diminution of the freshness and simplicity of art;
Fig, 41.- -Odysseus and Suitors ; Hunting of Boai
it works less in the sen-ice of the gods and more in that of private
patrons; it becomes less ethical and more sentimental and
emotional. On the other hand, there can he no doubt that
technique both in painting and sculpture advanced with rapid
strides; artists had a greater mastery- of tlieir materials, and
ventured on a wider range of subject.
In the 4th centun- no new temples of importance rose at
Athens; the Acropolis had taken its final form: hut at Messene,
Tegea, Epidatirus and elsewhere, very admirable buildings arose.
The remains of the temple at Tegea are of wonderful beauty
and finish ; as are those of the theatre and the so-called Thtius
of Epidaurus. In Asia Minor vast temples of the Ionic order
arose, especially' at Miletus and Ephesus. The colossal pillars
of Miletus astonish the visitors to the Louvre; while the
sculptured columns of Ephesus in the British Museum (Plate II.
fig. 59) show a high level of artistic skill. The Mausoleum
erected about 350 b.c. at Halicarnassus in memory of Mautolus,
king of Caria, and adorned with sculpture by the most noted
400-300 b.c.]
GREEK ART
48*
artists of the day, was reckoned one of the wonders of the world.
Jt has been in part restored in the British Museum. Mr Oldfield’s
conjectural restoration, published in Arehatologia for 1895,
though it has many rivals, surpasses them all in the lightness
of the effect, and in close correspondence to the description by
Pliny. We show a small part of the sculptural decoration,
representing a battle between Greeks and Amazons (Plate IV.
fig. 70), wherein the energy of the action and the careful balance
of figure against figure are remarkable. We possess also the
fine portraits of Mausolus himself and his wife Artemisia, which
stood in or on the building, as well as part of a gigantic chariot
with four horses which surmounted it.
Another architectural work of the 4th century, in its way a
gem, is the structure set up at Athens by Lysicrates, in memory
of a choragic victory. This still survives, though the reliefs
with which it is adorned have suffered severely from the weather.
The 4th century is the brilliant period of ancient painting.
It opens with the painters of the Asiatic School, Zeuxis and Par-
rhasius and Protogenes, with their contemporaries Nicias and
Apollodorus of Athens, Timanthes of Sicyon or Cythnus, and
Nat. Mus., Naples.
Flo. 42.—Greek Drawing of Women playing at Knucklebones.
"Euphranor of Corinth. It witnesses the rise of a great school
at Sicyon, under Eupompus and 1 ‘amphilus, which was noted
for its scientific character and the fineness of its drawing, and
which culminated in Apelles, the painter of Alexander the Great,
and probably the greatest master of the art in antiquity. To
each of these painters a separate article is given, fixing then-
place in the history of the art. Of their paintings unfortunately
we can form but a very inadequate notion. Vase-paintings,
which in the 5th century give us some notion at least of con¬
temporary drawing, are less careful in the 4th century. Now
and then we find on them figures admirably designed, or success¬
fully foreshortened; but these are rare occurrences. The art
of the vase decorator has ceased to follow the methods and
improvements of contemporary fresco painters, and is pursued
as a mere branch of commerce.
But very few actual paintings of the age survive, and even
these fragmentary remains have with time lost the freshness of
their colouring; nor are they in any case the work of a note¬
worthy hand. We reproduce two examples. The first is from
a stone of the vault of a Crimean grave (Plate IV. fig. 67). The
date of the grave is fixed to the 4th century by ornaments found
hi it, among which was a gold coin of Alexander the Great. The
the
Pnzl-
Miss.
representation is probably of Demeter or her pnes&ess, her hair
bound with poppies and other floweis. The original is of luge
sbse. The other illustration (fig. 42) represents the remains of
drawing on marble, representing a group of women pla
knucklebones. It was found at Herculaneum. Though si|
by one Alexander of Athens, who was probably a worker ol
Roman age, Professor Robert is right in maintaining that
Alexander only copied a design of the age of Zeuxis and Par-
rhasius. In fact the drawing and grouping is so closely like that
of reliefs of about 400 b.c. that the drawing is of great historic
value, though there be no colouring. Several other drawings
of the same class have been found at Herculaneum, and on the
walls of the Transtiberine Villa at Rome (now in the Terme
Museum).
Until about the year 1880, our knowledge of the great Greek
sculptors of the 4th century was derived mostly from the
statements of ancient writers and from Roman
copies, or what were supposed to be copies, of
their works. We are now in a far more satisfactory
position. We now possess an original work of Praxiteles, and
sculptures executed under the immediate direction of, if not from
the hand of, other great sculptors of that age—Soopas, Timotheus
and others. Among all the discoveries made at Olympia, none
has become so familiar to the artistic world as that of the Hermes
of Praxiteles. It is the first time that we have become possessed
of a first-rate Greek original by one of the greatest of sculptors.
Hitherto almost all the statues in our museums have been either
late copies of Greek-works of art, or else the mere decorative
sculpture of temples and tombs, which was by the ancients
themselves but little regarded. But we can venture without
misgiving to submit the new Hermes to the strictest examination,
sure that in every- line and touch we have the work of a great
artist. This is more than we can say of any of the literary
remains of antiquity—poem, play or oration. Hermes is repre¬
sented by the sculptor (fig. 43
and Plate VI. fig. 82) iu the act
of carrying the young child
Dionysus to the nymphs who
were charged with his rearing.
On the journey he pauses and
amuses himself by holding out to
the child-god a bunch of grapes,
and watching his eagerness to
grasp them. To the modem eye
the child is not a success; only
the latest art of Greece is at home
in dealing with children. But the
Hermes, strong without exoessive
muscular development, and grace¬
ful without leanness, is a model
of physical formation, and his
face expresses the perfection of
health, natural endowment and
sweet nature. The statue can
scarcely be called a work of
religious art in the modem or
Christian sense of the word
religious, but from the Greek
point of view it is religious, as
embodying the result of the har¬
monious development of all human faculties and life in accord¬
ance with nature.
The Hermes not only adds to our knowledge of Praxiteles,
but also confirms the received views in regard to him. Already
many works in galleries of sculpture had been identified as
copies of statues rtf his school. Noteworthy among these are,
the group at Munich representing Peace nursing the infant
Wealth, from an original by Cephisodotus, father of Praxiteles ;
copies of the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles, especially one m
the Vatican which is here illustrated (Plate V. fig. 71); copies
of the Apollo slaving a lizard (Sauroctonus), of a Satyr (in the
Capitol Museum), and others. These works, which are noted
Olymfl*, III. 5 j.
Flo. 43.— Hermes of Praxiteles;
restored.
[ 40 O-J 00 B.C.
488 GREEK ART
for their softness and charm, make us understand the saying of
ande.nt critics that Praxiteles and Scopes were noted for the
pathos of their works, as J’heidias and Polyclitus for the ethical
quality of those they produced. But the pathos of Praxiteles
is of a soft and dreamy character; there is no action, or next
to none; and the emotions which he rouses are sentimental
rather than passionate. Scopus, as we shall see, was of another
mood. The discovery of the Hermes has naturally set archae¬
ologists searching in the museums of Europe for other works
which may from their likeness to it in various respects be set
down as Praxitelean in character, in the case of many of the
great sculptors of Greece—Strongylion, Silanion, Calamis and
others—it is of little use to search for copies of their works,
since we have little really trustworthy evidence on which to
base our inquiries. But in the case of Praxiteles we really stund
on a safe level. Naturally it is impossible in these pages to give
any sketch of the results, some almost certain, some very doubtful,
of the researches of archaeologists in quest of Praxitelean works.
But we may mention a few works which have been claimed
by good judges as coming from the master himself. Professor
Brunn claimed a* work of Praxiteles a torso of a satyr in the
Louvre, in scheme identical with the well-known satyr of the
Capitol. Professor Furtwiingler puts m the same category a
delicately beautiful head of Aphrodite at Pctworth. And his
translator, Mrs Strong, regards the Aberdeen head of a young
man in the British Museum as the actual work of Praxiteles.
I ortainly this last head does not suffer when placed beside the
Olympian head of Hermes. At Mantinea has been found a basis
whereon stood a group of Latona and her two children, Apollo
and Artemis, made by Praxiteles. This base bears reliefs
representing the musical contest of Apollo and Marsyas, with the
Muses as spectators, reliefs very pleasing in style, and quite
in the manner of Attic artists of the 4th century. But of course
wo must not ascribe them to the hand of Praxiteles himself;
great sculptors did not themselves execute the reliefs which
adorned temples and other monuments, hut reserved them for
their pupils. Yet the gracaful figures of the Muses of Mantinea
suggest how much was due to Praxiteles in determining the tone
TO chwaCtor^Of Athenian art in relief in the 4th century.
Exactly ifut'seib* style which marks them belongs also to a mass
of sepulchral monuments at Athens, and such works as the
Sidonian sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, to be presently
mentioned.
Excavation on the site of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegca
has resulted in' the recovery of works of the school of Scopas.
<f mt , Pausanias tells us that Scopas was the architect of
the temple, and so important in the case of a Greek
temple is the sculptural decoration, that we can scarcely
doubt that the sculpture also of the temple at Tegea was
under the supervision of Scopas, especially as he was more
noted as a sculptor than as an architect In the pediments
of the temple were represented two scenes from mythology,
the hunting of the Calydonian hoar and the combat between
Achilles and Telephut, To one or other of these scenes lielong
several heads of local marble discovered on the spot, which are
Very striking from their extraordinary life and animation,
unfortunately they ate ’So much injured that they can scarcely
be made intelligible except by the help of restoration; we
therefore engrave one of them, the helmeted head, as restored
by a German sculptor (Plate III. fig. 63). The strong bony
frame of this head, and its depth from front to back, are not
less noteworthy than the parted lips and deeply set and strongly
shaded eye ; the latter features impart to the head a vividhess
of expression such as we have found in no previous work of Greek
art, but which sets the key to the developments of art which
take place in the Hellenistic age. A draped torso of Atalanta
from the same pediment has been fitted to one of these heads.
Hitherto Scopas was known to us, setting aside literary records,
only as one of the sculptors who had worked at the Mausoleum.
.'Indent critics and travellers, however, bear ample testimony to
his fame, and the wide range of his activity, which extended to
northern Greece, Peloponnete and Ask Minor. His Maenads
and his Tritons and other beings of the sea were much copied in
antiquity. But perhaps he reached his highest level in statues
such as that of Apollo as leader of the Muses, clad in long drapery.
The interesting precinct of Aesculapius at Epidaurus has
furnished us with specimens of the style of an Athenian con¬
temporary of Scopas, who worked with him on the
Mausoleum. An inscription which records the sums
spent on the temple of the Physidan-god, informs us LncbJn,.
that the models for the sculptures of the pediments, and
one set of acroteria or roof adornments, were the work of Timo-
theus. Of the pedimental figures and the acroteria considerable
fragments have been recovered, and we may with confidence
assume that at all events the models for these were by Timotheus.
It is strange that the unsatisfactory arrangement whereby a
noted sculptor makes models and some local workman the
figures enlarged from those models, should have been tolerated
by so artistic a people as the Greeks. The subjects of the pedi¬
ments appear to have been the common ones of battles between
Greek and Amazon and between Lapith and Centaur. VYc
possess fragments of some of the Amazon figures, ono of which,
striking downwards at the enemy, is here shown (fig. 44). ’lheir
attitudes are vigorous and alert: but the work shows no delicacy
of detail. Figures of
Nereids riding on
h-irses, which were
found on the same site,
may very probably be
roof ornaments (acro¬
teria) of the temple.
We have also several
figures of Victory,
which probably were
acroteria on some
smaller temple, per¬
haps that of Artemis.
A base found at
Athens, sculptured
with figures of horse¬
men in relief, bears the
name of Bryaxis, and
was probably made hv
a pupil of his. Prob¬
able conjecture assigns
to Leochares the
originals copied in the
Ganymede of the Vatican, home aloft by an eagle (Plate I.
fig. 53) and the noble statue of Alexander the Great at Muniih
(see Leochares). Thus we may fairly say that we are now
acquainted with the work of all the great sculptors who worked
on the Mausoleum—Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheus;
and are in a far more advantageous position than were the'
archaeologists of 1880 for determining the artistic problems
connected with that noblest of ancient tombs.
Contemporary with the Athenian school of Praxiteles and
Scopas was the great school of Argos and Sicyon, of which
Lysippus was the most distinguished member. Lysippus con¬
tinued the academic traditions of Polyclitus, but he was far
bolder in his choice of subjects and more innovating in style.
Gods, heroes and mortals alike found in him a sculptor who knew
how to combine fine ideality with a vigorous actuality. He
was at the height of his fame during Alexander's life, and the
grandiose ambition of the great Macedonian found him ample
employment, especially in the frequent representation of himself
and his marshals.
We have none of the actual works of Lysippus; but our best
evidence for his style will be found in the statue of Agias an
athlete (Plate V, fig. 74) found at Delphi, and shown by an
inscription to be a marble copy of a bronze original by Lysippus.
The Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (man scraping himself with a
strigil) (Plate VI. fig. 79) has hitherto been regarded as a copy
from Lysippus; but of this there is no evidence, and the style
of that statue belongs rather to the 3rd century than the +th.
4OO-3OO B.C.
GREEK ART
The Agios, on the other hand, is in style contemporary with the
works of 4th-century sculptors.
Of the elaborate groups of combatants with which Lysippus
enriched such centres as Olympia and Delphi, or of the huge bronze
statues which he erected in temples and shrines, we can form no
adequate notion. Perhaps among the extant heads of Alexander
the one which is most likely to preserve the style of Lysippus
is the head from Alexandria in the British Museum (Plate II.
fig. 56), though this was executed at a later time.
Many noted extant statues may be attributed with probability
to the latter part of the 4th or the earlier part of the 3rd century.
We will mention a few only. The celebrated group at Florence
representing Niobe and her children falling before the arrows of
Apollo and Artemis is certainly a work of the pathetic school,
and may be by a pupil of Praxiteles. Niobe, in an agony of
grief, which is in the marble tempered and idealized, tries to
protect her youngestdaughter from destruction (Plate VI. fig. 78).
Whether the group can have originally been fitted into the gable
of a temple is a matter of dispute.
Two great works preserved in the Louvre are so noted that it is
but necessary to mention them, the Aphrodite of Melos (Plate
VI. fig. 77), in which archaeologists are now disposed to see the
influence of Scopas,and the Victory of Somothrace (Plate III. figs.
61 and 6a), an original set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes after a
naval victory won at Salamis in Cyprus in 306 b.c. over the
fleet of Ptolemy, king of Egypt.
Nor can we pass over without notice two works so celebrated
as the Apollo of the Belvidere in the Vatican (Plate II. fig. 55),
and the Artemis of Versailles. The Apollo is now by most
archaeologists regarded as probably a copy of a work of Leochares,
to whose Ganymede it bears a superficial resemblance. The
Artemis is regarded as possibly due to some artist of the same
age. But it is by no means clear that we have the right to
remove either of these figures from among the statues of the
Hellenistic age. The old theory of Preller, which saw in them
copies from a trophy set up to commemorate the repulse of the
Gauls at Delphi in 278 b.c., has not lost its plausibility.
This may he the most appropriate place for mentioning the
remarkable find made at Sidon in 1886 of a number of sarcophagi,
which once doubtless contained the remains of kings
pitr/of Sidon. They are now in the museum of Constanti-
s!Saa. nople, and are admirably published by Hamdy Bey
und T. Reinach (Vne Necropole royale a Sidon, 1892-
1896). The sarcophagi in date cover i* considerable period.
The earlier are made on Egyptian models, the covers shaped
roughly in the form of a human body or mummy. The later,
however, are Greek in form, and are dearly the work of skilled
Greek sculptors, who seem
to have been employed by
the grandees of Phoenicia
in the adornment of their
last resting-places. Four
of these sarcophagi in par¬
ticular claim attention,
and in fact present us
with examples of Greek
art of the 5th and 4th
centuries in several of its
aspects. To the 5th
century belong the tomb
of the Satrap, the reliefs of
which bring before us the
activities and glories of
some unknown king, and
the I.yrian sarcophagus,
Fio. 45.—Tomb of Mourning Women: so called from its form,
^P n - which resembles that of
tombs found in Lycia, and which is also adorned with reliefs
which have reference to the past deeds of the hero buried in the
tomb, though these deeds are represented, not in the Oriental
manner directly, but in the Greek manner, clad in mythological
forms. To the 4th century belong two other sarcophagi. One
489
of these is called the Tomb of Mourning Women. On all sides
of it alike are ranged a series of beautiful female figures, separated
by Ionic pillars, each in a somewhat different attitude, though all
attitudes denotinggrief (fig. 45)- The pediments at the ends of the
cover are also closely connected with the mourning for the loss of
a friend and protector, which is the theme of the whole decoration
of the sarcophagus. We see depicted in them the telling of the
news of the death, with the results in the moumfvfi attituae of the
two seated figures. The mourning women must be taken, not
as the representation of any persons in paHiaihuybut generally
as the expression of the feeling of a city. Such figures are familiar
to us in the art of the second Attic school; we could easily find
parallels to the' sarcophagus among the 4th-century sepulchral
reliefs of Athens. We can scarcely be mistaken in 'attributing
the workmanship of this beautiful sarcophagus to Some sculptor
trained in the school of Praxiteles. Ana it is a conjecture full of
probability that it once contained the body of Strata, king of
Sidon, who ruled about 380 b.c., and who was prttmtps or public
friend of the Athenians.
More celebrated is the astonishing tomb called that of
Alexander, though there can be no doubt that, although it
commemorates the victories and exploits of Alexander, it wae
made not to hold his remains, but thoee of some ruler of Sidon
who was high in his favour. Among all the monuments of anti¬
quity which have come down to us, none is more admirable than
this, and none more characteristic of the Greek genius. We give,
in two lines, the composition which adorned one of the sides of
this sarcophagus. It represents a victory of Alexander, probably
that of the Granicus (fig. 46). On the left we see the Macedonian
king charging the Persian horse, on the right his general
Parmenio, and in the midst a younger officer, perhaps Clefcui.
Mingled with the chiefs are foot-soldiers, Greek and Macedonian,
with whom the Persians are mingled in unequal fray. What
most strikes the modem eye is the remarkable freshness and
force of the action and the attitudes. Those, however, who
have seen the originals have been specially impressed with the
colouring, whereof, of course, our engraving gives no hint, but
which is applied to the whole surface of the relief with equal
skill and delicacy. There are other features in the relief on
which a Greek eye would have dwelt with special pleasure—the
exceedingly careful symmetry of the whole, the balancing of
figure against figure, the skill with which the result of the battle
is hinted rather than depicted. The composition is one in which
the most careful planning and the most precise calculation are
mingled with freedom of hand and expressiveness in detail.
The faces in particular show more expression than would be '
tolerated in art of the previous century. We are unable as yet
to assign an author or even a school to the sculptor of this
sarcophagus ; he comes to us as a new and striking phenomenon
in the history’ of ancient art. The reliefs'which adorn the other
rides of the sarcophagus are almost equally interesting. On
one side we see Alexander again, in the company of a Persian
noble, hunting a lion. The short sides also show us scenes of
fighting and hunting. In fact it can scarcely be doubted that
if we had but a clue to the interpretation of the reliefs, they
would be found to embody historic events of the end of the 4th
century. There are but a few other works of art, such as the
Bayeux tapestry and the Column of Trajan, which bring con¬
temporary histoTy so vividly before our eyes. The battles with
the Persians represented in some of the sculpture of the Parthenon
and the temple of Nike at Athens are treated conventionally
and with no attempt at realism ; but here tne ideal and the actual
are blended into a work of consummate art, which is at the same
time, to those who can read the language of Greek art, a historic
record. The portraits of Alexander the Great which appear on
this sarcophagus are almost contemporary, and the moat
authentic likenesses of him which we possess. The great Mace¬
donian exercised so strong an influence on contemporary art
that a multitude of heads of the age, both of gods and men, and
even the portraits of his successors, show traces of his type.
We have yet to mention what are among the most charming
and the most characteristic products of the Greek chisel, the
xn. 16 a
490
GREEK ART
[300-50 B.C.
beautiful tombs, adorned with seated or standing portraits or
withreliefs, which were erected in great numbers on all the main
roads of Greece. A great number of these from the Dipylon
cemetery are preserved in the Central Museum at Athens, and
from
great
llamdy et K'-imtcli. JVAre/e/e t) S'iiOw, V\ ...
Fkj. 46.—Battle of The Gracious : Sarcophagus from Sidon.
impress all visitors by the gentle sentiment and the charm of
grouping which they display (Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of
Hellas).
Period II'. joo-.so nx .—There ran lx- no question but that
the period which followed the death of Alexander, commonly
railed the age of Hellenism, was one of great artivity and expan¬
sion in architecture. The number of cities founded by himself
and his immediate successors in Asia and Kgypl was enormous.
The remains of these cities have in a few eases (Ephesus.
Pergamum, Assus, Prime, Alexandria) been partially excavated.
But the adaptation of Greek architecture to the needs of the
semi-Greek peoples included in the dominions of the kings of
Egypt, Syria and Pergamum is too vast a subject for us to enter
upon here (see Architecture).
Painting during this age ceased to be religious. It was no
longer for temples and public stoae that artists worked, but for
private persons ; especially they mude frescoes for the decoration
of the walls of houses, and panel pictures for galleries set up hv
rich patrons. The names of very few painters of the Hellenistic
ape have rome down to ,us. There can lie no doubt that the
character of the art declined, and there were no longer produced
great works to he thij pride of cities, or to form an embodiment
for all future time of the qualities of a deity or the circumstances
of scenes mythical or historic. But at tho same time the mural
paintings of Pompeii and other works of the Roman age, which
are usually more or less nearly derived from Hellenistic models,
prove that in technical matters painting continued to progress.
Colouring became more varied, groups more elaborate, per¬
spective was worked out with greater accuracy, and imagination
shook itself free from many of the conventions of early art.
Pompeian painting; however, must be treated of under Roman,
not under Greek art. We figure a single example, to show the
elaboration of painting at Alexandria and elsewhere, the wonder¬
ful Pompeian mosaic (fig. 47), which represents the victory of
Alexander at Issus. This work being in stone has preserved its
colouring ; and it stands at a far higher level of art than ordinary
Pompeian paintings, which are the work of mere house-decorators.
This on the. contrary is
certainly copied
the work of a
master. It is instructive
to compare it with the
sarcophagus illustratid
in fig. 46, which it excels
in perspective and in
the freedom of indi
I'idual figures, though
the composition is much
less careful and precise.
Alexander charges from
the left (his portrait
being the least success¬
ful part of the picture),
and hears down a young
Persian ; Darius in his
chariot flees towards the
right; in the foreground
a young knight is trying
to manage a restive
horse. It will be ob¬
served how very simple
is the indication of
locality : a few stones
and a broken tree stand
for rocks and woods.
Among the original
sculptural creations of
the early Hellenistic
age, a prominent place
is claimed by the statue
of Fortune, typifying
thecityof Antioch (Plate
VI. fig. 81), a work of Eutychides, a pupil of Lysippus. Of
this wc possess a small copy, which is sufficient to show how
worthy of admiration was the original. Wc have a h-autiful
embodiment of the personality of the city, seated on a rock,
holding ears of corn, while the river Orontes, embodied in a
young male figure, springs forth at her feet.
This is, so far as we know, almost the only work of the earlv
part of the 3rd century which shows imagination. Sculptors
often worked on a colossal scale, producing such monsters as
the colossal Apollo at Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindus,
which was more than 100 ft. ill height. But they did not show
freshness or invention ; and for the most part content themselves
From ft photograph hy fl. Brogf.
Fir,. 47.—Mosaic of the Battle of Issus (Naples).
with varying the types produced in the great schools of the 4th
century. The wealthy kings of Syria, Egypt and Asia Minor
formed art galleries, and were lavish in their payments; but
it has often been proved in the history of art that originality
cannot be produced by mere expenditure,
./TV,
' v ^|r t* f
( S ' " "' .
f •/ * <■*«'*
'fvV
, v r. ■
am r ♦
Fig. 4H.—Head of Auytus: Lycos ura
300-50 B.c,]
A great artist, whose date has been disputed, but who is
now assigned to the Hellenistic age, Datnophon of Messene,
is known to us from his actual works. He set up in the shrine
of the Mistress (Despoena) at Lycosura in Arcadia a great
group of figures consisting of Despoena, Demeter, Artemis
and the Titan Anytus. Three colossal heads found on the spot
probably belong to the three last-mentioned deities. We
illustrate the head of Anytus, with wild disordered hair and
turbulent expression (fig. 48). Dr Dorpfeld has argued, on
architectural grounds, that
shrine and images alike
must be given to a later
time than the 4th century;
and this judgment is now
confirmed by inscriptional
and other evidence.
In one important direc¬
tion sculpture certainly
made progress. Hitherto
Greek sculptors had con¬
tented themselves with
studying the human body
whether in rest or motion,
from outside. The dissec¬
tion of the human body,
with a consequent increase
in knowledge of anatomy,
became usual at Alexandria
in the medical school which
flourished under the Ptole¬
mies. This improved ana¬
tomical knowledge soon
reaeted upon the art of
sculpture. Works such as
the Fighter of Agasias in the Louvre (Plate IV. fig. 69), and in a
less degree- the Apoxyomenus (Plate VI. fig. 79), display a
remarkable internal knowledge of the human frame, such as
could only come from the habit of dissection. Whether this
was really productive of improvement in sculpture may he
doubted. But it is impossible to withhold one’s admiration
from works which show an astonishing knowledge of the body
of man down to its bony framework, and a power and master)’
of execution which have never since been surpassed.
With amiraev in the portrayal of men’s bodies goes of necessity
a more naturalistic tendency in portraiture. As we have seen,
the art of portraiture was at a high ideal level in the Pheidian
age ; and even in the age of Alexander the Great, notable men
were rendered rather according to the idea than the fact. To a
base and mechanical naturalism Greek art never at any time
descended. But from 300 b.c. onwards we have a marvellous
series of portraits which may he termed rather characteristic
than ideal, which are very minute in their execution, and delight
in laying emphasis on the havoc wrought by time and life on
the faces of noteworthy men. Such are the portraits of Demos¬
thenes, of Antisthenes, of Zeno and others, which exist in our
galleries. And it was no long step from these actual portraits
to the invention of characteristic types to represent the great
men of a past generation, such as Homer and Lycnrgus, or to
form generic images to represent weatherbeaten fishermen or
toothless old women.
Our knowledge of the art of the later Hellenistic age has
received a great accession since 1875 through the systematic
labours directed by the German Archaeological Insti-
AUmrtt w hich have resulted in recovering the remains
jfaniiinf. of Peigamum, the fortress-city which was the capital
of the dynasty of the Philetaeri. Among the ancient
buildings of Pergamum none was more ambitious in scale and
striking in execution than the great altar used for sacrifices to
Zeus, a monument supposed to be referred to in the phrase of
the Apocalypse “ where Satan's throne is.” This altar, like many
great sacrificial altars of later Greece, was a vast erection to
which one mounted by many steps, and its outside was adorned
GREEK ART
49 *
with a frieze which represented oh a gigantic scale, in the style
of the and century b.c., the battle between the gods and the
giants. This enormous frieze (see Peroampm) is now one of the
treasures of the Royal Museums of Berlin, and it cannot fail to
impress visitors by the size of the figures, the energy of the action,
1 and the strong vein of sentiment which pervades the whole,
■ giving it a certain air of modernity, though the subject is strange
I to the Christian World. In early Greek art the giants where
I they oppose the gods are represented as men armed' in full
panoply, “in shining armour, holding long spear* in their
hands,” to use the phrase in which Hesiod describes them.
But in the Pergamene frieze the giants are strange cotflpoUnds,
having the heads and bodies of wild and fierce barbarians,
sometimes also human legs, hut sometimes in the place of legs
two long serpents, the heads of which take with the giants them¬
selves a share in the battle. Sometimes also they are winged.
The gods appear in the forms which had been gradually made
for them in the course of Greek history, but they are usually
accompanied by the animals sacred to them in cultus, between
which and th<> serpent-feet of the giants a weird combat goes on.
We can conjecture the source whence the Pergamene artist
derived the shaggy hair, the fierce expression, the huge muscles
of his giants (fig. 49) ; proliably these features came originally
from the Galatians, who at the time had settled in Asia Minor,
and were spreading the terror of their name and the report of
their savage devastations through all Asia Minor. The victory
over the giants clearly stands for the victory of Greek civilization
over Gallic harharism ; and this meaning is made more emphatic
because the gods are obviously inferior in physical force to their
opponents, indeed, a large proportion of the divine combatants
are goddesses. Yet everywhere the giants are overthrown,
writhing in pain on the ground, or transfixed by the -WCaponB of
their opponents; everywhere the gods are victorious, yet in the
victory retain much of their divine calm. The piecing together
of the frieze at Berlin has been a labour of many years; it is
now complete, and there is
a special museum devoted to
it. Some of the groups have
become familiar to students
from photographs, especially
the group which represents
Zeus slaying his enemies with
thunderbolts, and the group
wherein Athena seizes by the
hair an overthrown opponent,
who is winged, while Victory
runs to crown her, and be¬
neath is seen Gaia, the earth-
goddess who is the mother of
the giants, rising out of the
ground, and mourning over
her vanquished and tortured
children. Another and smaller
frieze which also decorated
the altar-place gives us scenes
from the history of Telephus,
who opposed the landing of _
^ a ™.F of Agamemnon in p IG . ^.—Giant from Great Altar
Asia Minor and was over- Pergamum.
thrown by Achilles. This
frieze, which is quite fragmentary, is put together by Dr Schneider
in the Jahrbnch of the German Archaeological Institute for 1900.
Since the Renaissance Rome has continually produced a crop
of works of Greek art of all periods, partly originate brought
from Greece by conquering generals, partly copies, such as the
group at Rome formerly known as Paetus and Arrta, and the
overthrown giants and barbarians which came from.the elaborate
trophy set up by Attalus at Athens, of which copies exist in
many museums. A noted work of kindred school is the group
of Laocoon and his sons (Plate I. fig. 52), signed by Rhodian
sculptors of the ist century b.c., which has been perhaps more
j discussed than any work of the Greek chisel, and served as a peg
♦95
GREEK FIRE
for the aesthetic theories of Lessing and Goethe. In our days
the histrionic and strained character of the group is regarded as
gMatfy diminishing its interest, in spite of the astounding skill
and knowledge of the human body shown by the artists. To
the same school belong the late representations of Marsyas
being flayed by the victorious Apollo (Plate II. fig. 54), a some¬
what repulsive subject, chosen by the artists of this age as a
means for displaying their accurate knowledge of anatomy.
On what a scale some of the artists of Asia Minor would work
is shown us by the enormous group, by Apollonius and Tauriscus
of Tralles, which is called the Eamesc Bull (Plate I. fig. 51), and
which represents how Diroe was tied to a wild bull by her step¬
sons Zethus and Amphion.
The extensive excavations and alterations which have taken
place at Rome in recent years have been very fruitful; the
4w» results may be found partly in the palace of the
Conservatori on the Capitol, partly in the new museum
of the Terme. Among recently found statues none excel in
interest some bronzes of large size dating from the Hellenistic age.
In the figure of a seated boxer (Plate V. fig. 72), in scale somewhat
exceeding life, attitude and gesture are expressive. Evidently
the boxer has fought already, and is awaiting a further conflict
His face is cut arid swollen; on his hands are the terrible caestus,
here made of leather, and not loaded with iron, like the caestus
described by Virgil. The figure is of astounding force; but
IhoMgh the fare is brutal and the expression savage, in the sweep
of the limbs there is nobility, even ideal beauty. To the last the
Greek artist could not set aside his admiration for physical
perfection. Another bronze figure of more than life-size is that
of a king of the Hellenistic age standing ieuning on a spear. He
is absolutely nude, like the athletes of Polyclitus. Another
large bronze presents us with a Hellenistic type of Dionysus.
Besides the bronzes found in Rome we may set those recently
found in the sea on the coast of Cythera, the contents of a ship
sailing from Greece to Rome, and lost on the way. The date of
these bronze statues has been disputed. In any case, even if
executed in the R om a n ago, they go back to originals of the 5th
llI W centuries. The most noteworthy among them is a
beautiful athlete (Plate V. fig, 73) standing with hand upraised,
w Wph reflects the style of the Attic school of thijjjth century.
After 146 B.o. when Corinth, was destroyed and Greece became
a Roman province, Greek art, though b\ no means extinct,
worked mainly in the employ of the Roman conquerors (see
Roman A*t).
IV. Stead Bihuouraphy. 1 —I. General works on Greek Art.—
‘ Wf amy recent general histories of (.reek art aic: H. Brunn,
[■nschmhs Kunstgeschiihtc, bks. i. and ii., dealing with archaic art;
\V. Klein, Geschichte der grieckischen Kunst , no illustrations ; Verrot
et Chipiez, Histoire de Part daw* Vaniujuitt , vois. vn. and vai.
(archaic art only).
Introductory are: P. Gardner, Grammar 0/ Greek Art ; j E.
Harrison, Introductory Studies in Greek Art ; H. R. Walters, Art aj
theJSrceks.
Rueful are also : H. Brunn, Gnu litrhte dei griei hischen Kunstlcr ,
(ngp edition, x88y); J. Overbeck, Die antihen Schriftqucllen cur
Gggphic hte det bildcnden Kitnste bei den Grin hen', untranslated
P4jgages In Latin and Greek; tin- Elder Finn's Chapters on the
Dmpty oj Art, edited by K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers ; H. ,S. Tones
A wrth rr on Greek Sftfottire.
, wMn* . Ha a ffm W Greek Archaeology. — England :
Journal op rreuenie Studies ; Annual of the British School at Athens ;
Classical Review, France: Revue archiologique ; Gazette arilil-
ologtque: Bulletin de carrespondant e helleniquc. Germany: Juhr-
bnch des h. deutsihni unit. Institute', MUlrilungen des arch. Inst.
Athenieche Abteilung, ltonusche Abteiluug; Anhhe Denktndltr.
» ./akrtshrftc des K. {>s ter retch, auh . fnstttuts. Italy:
rublications ot the At tadeutta dei Ltttce. ; Afonumrnti anti chi ; Not.
an sravr ; Bulletino comunalr di Roma. Greece: Ephetneris
anhamtogihi ; Deltwn anhuialogikon ; Praktika ot the Athenian
Archaeological Society.
Dl, Greek Architecture.—General: Prrrot ct Chipiez, Histone de
hut dans ! antiquiU, vol. vii.; A. Chois*, Histoire de I'architecture,
vol. 1. ; Anderson and Spiers, Architecture ot Greece and Rome ; K.
Bontniy, Philosopkie de lerchiteclure en Grice ; R. SturRis, History o/
Arcklterinrc, vol. i. ; Vx^farquaml, Greek Architecture.
tV. Ofeek ■eulpture.—General: M. ColUgnon, Histoire de la
sculpt ure,tfterque (2 vols.): F.. A. G ardner. Handbook at Greek Sculp-
1 The'date is given when the work cannot be considered new.
lure; A. Furtwangier, Masterpieces 0/ Greek Sculpture, translated and
edited by E. Sellers; F’riederichs and Wolters, Uausieme xu r
Geschickte der gnechisch-romischen Plastik (1887) ; von Mach, Hand¬
book of Greek and Roman Sculpture, 500 plates ; H. Bulle, Der schonc
Mensch 1 n der Kunst: AUertuen, 216 plates; S. Reinach, Rlpertoire
do la stattuaure greoque et romaine, 3 vols.
V. Greek Painting and Tasea— W oltmann and Woermann, History
l _1_1 l_r , . , no , * _ _ f
la dr antique greeque (1888); P. Girard, La Peinture antique (189a);
S. Reinach, Rlpertoire des vases pemts grecs et Brusques (2 vols ) •
Furtwangier und Reichhold, " Gxieclusche Vosenmalerei," Winner
Vorlegebldtter filr archdologische Vbungen (1887-1890).
VI. Special Schools and Bites. — A. foubin, La Sculpture temme
entre let guerres midiques et Vtpoque de Hindis ; C. Waldstoin, RssI
on the Art oj Pheidias (1885) ; W. Klein, Praxiteles : G. Ferret
PraxitHc ; A. S. Murray, Sculptures oj the Parthenon ; W. Hefei'
F-Uphronios ; E. Potticr, Douris ; P. Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of
Hellas : E. A. Gardner, Ancient Athens ; A. Bfittlcher, Olympia :
Bernoulli, Griechische Ihonograpkic ; P. Gardner, The Types of Greek
Coins (1883); E. A. Gardner, Six Greek Sculptor.
VII. Books related to the so Meet—J. G. Frazer, Pausanieu’s
Description of Greece (6 vols,) ; J. Cange, Darslellung des Menschenin
der dUeren griechtschen Kunst: E. Bxucke, The Human Figure; its
Beauties and Defects ; A. Michaels, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain
(188a) ; Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum (3 voja. 1 ;
Catalogue of Greek Pose* in tie British Museum (4 vols.); j. B. Bury
History of Greece (illustrated edition) ; Baumeister, DenkmtUer&s
klassischen AUertums (3 vols.). (p. G.)
CHEER FIRE, the name applied to inflammable and
destructive compositions used in warfare during the middle
ages and particularly by the Byzantine Greeks at the sieges of
Constantinople. The employment of liquid fire is represented
on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea (429 b.c.) $e
Spartans attempted to bum the town by piling up against the
walls wood saturated with pitch, and sulphur and setting it on
fire (Time. ii. 77), and at the siege of Dclitim (424 b.c.) a cauldron
containing pitch, sulphur and burning charcoal, was placed
against the walls and urged into flame by the aid of a bellows,
the blast from which was conveyed through a hollow tree-trunk
(Thuc. iv. too). Aeneas 'factious in the following century
mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal, incense and tow,
which was packed in wooden vessels and thrown lighted upon
the decks of the enemy's ships. Later, as in receipts given by
Vegetius (r. a.ti. 350), naphtha or petroleum is added, and some
nine centuries afterwards the same substances are found forming
part of mixtures described in the later receipts (which probably
date from the beginning of the 13th century) of the collection
known us the Liber ignium of Marcus- Graecus. In subsequent
receipts saltpetre and turpentine make their appearance, and
the modem “ carcass composition," containing sulphur, tallow,
rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and crude antimony, is a repre¬
sentative of the same class of mixtures, which became known
to the Crusaders as Greek fire but were more usually called
wildfire. Greek fire, properly so-called, was, however, of a some¬
what different character, ft is said that in the reign of Con¬
stantine l’ogonatus (648-685) an architect named Callinicus,
who had fled from Heliopolis in Syria to Constantinople, prepared
a wet fire which was thrown out from siphons (tu &a two oijnnvm'
cutpcfMfccyoi' wop typor), and that by its aid the ships of the
Saracens were set on fire at Cyzicus and their defeat assured.
The art of compounding this mixture, which is also referred to
as ir up dakixmriov, or sea fire, was jealously guarded ut Con¬
stantinople, and the possession of the secret on several occasions
proved of great advantage to the city. The nature of the
compound is somewhat obscure. It has been supposed that the
novelty introduced by Callinicus was saltpetre, but this view
involves tfae difficulty that that substance was apparently not
known till the 13th century, even if it were capable of accounting
for the properties attributed to the wet fire. Lieut.-Colonel.
H. W. L. Hime, after a close examination of the available
evidence, concludes that what distinguished Greek fire from the
other incendiaries of the period was the presence of quicklime,
which was well known to give rise to a large development of
heat when brought into contact with water. The mixture, then,
was cutnposed of such materials as sulphur and naphtha with
GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF
quicklime, and took fire spontaneously when wetted—whence
the name of wet fire or sea fire ; and portions of it were “ pro¬
jected and at the same time ignited by applying the hose of a
water engine to the breech ” of the siphon, which was a wooden
tube, cased with bronze.
See Lirnt.-Col, H. W. I- Hime, Gunpowder and Ammunition, their
Origin and Progress (London, 1904).
GREEK IN DEPENDENCE, WAR OF, the name given to the
great rising of the Greek subjects of the sultan against the
Ottoman domination, which began in 1821 and ended in 1833
with the establishment of the independent kingdom of Greece.
The circumstances that led to the insurrection and the general
diplomatic situation by which its fortunes were from time to time
affected are described elsewhere (see Greece: History ; Turkey:
History). The present article is confined to a description of the
general character and main events of the war itself. If we
exclude the abortive invasion of the Danubian principalities
by Prince Alexander Vpsilanti (March 1821), which collapsed
ignominiously as soon as it was disavowed by the tsar, the
theatre of the war was confined to continental Greece, the Morea,
and the adjacent narrow seas. Its history may, broadly speaking,
be divided into three periods: the first (1821-1824), during
which the Greeks, aided by numerous volunteers from Europe,
were successfully pitted against the sultan’s forces alone: the
second, from 1824, when the disciplined troops of Mehemet Ali,
pasha of Egypt, turned the tide against the insurgents; the
third, from the intervention of the European powers in the
autumn of 1827 to the end.
When, on the and of April 1821, Archbishop Germanos, head
of the Ifetaeria in the Morea, raised the standard of the cross at
Kalavryta as the signal for a general rising of the Christian
population, the circumstances were highly favourable. In the
Morea itself, in spite of plentiful warning, the Turks were wholly
unprepared ; while the bulk of the Ottoman army, under the
scraskter Khurshid Pasha, was engaged in the long task of
reducing the intrepid Ali, pasha of lannina fsee Au, pasha of
lannina).
Another factor, and that the determining one, soon came to the
aid of the Greeks. In warfare carried on in such a country as
Greece, sea-girt and with a coast deeply indented, inland without
roads and intersected with rugged mountains, victory- as
Wellington was quick to observe--must rest with the side that
has command of the sea. Ibis was assured to the insurgents at
the outset by the revolt of the maritime communities of the
Greek archipelago. The Greeks of the islands had been accus¬
tomed from time immemorial to seafaring; their ships—some
as large as frigates - were well armed, to guard against the
Barbary pirates and rovers of their own kin ; lastly, they had
furnished the bulk of the sailors to the Ottoman navy which,
now that this recruiting ground was closed, had to be manned
hastily with impressed crews of dock-labourers and peasants,
many of whom had never seen the sea. The Turkish fleet,
“ adrift in the Archipelagq as the British seamen put it—
though greatly superior in tonnage and weight of metal, could
never be a match for the Greek brigs, manned as these were by
trained, if not disciplined, crews.
The war was begun by the Greeks without definite plan and
without any generally recognized leadership. The force with
outbreak which Germanos marched from Kalavryta against
ot tin Patras was composed of peasants armed with scythes,
lumumc- clubs and slings, among whom the “ primates ” exer-
,,oa - cised a somewhat honorary authority. The town
itself was destroyed and those of its Mussulman inhabitants
who could not escape into the citadel were massacred ; but the
citadel remained in the hands of the Turks till i8a8. Mean¬
while, in the south, leaders of another stamp had appeared:
I'etros, bey of the M&ina (q.v.) chief of the MavrOmichales, who
at the head of his clan attacked Kalamata and put the Mussul¬
man inhabitants to the sword j and Kolokottones, a notable
brigand onOe in the service of the Ionian government, who—
fortified by a vision of the Virgin—capttired Karytaena afid
slaughtered its infidel population. Encouraged by these
*95
successes the revolt spread rapidly ; within thrte weeks tore
was not a Mussulman left id the open counby, ahd the feitihants
of the once dominant class were closely besieged in the fohifled
towns by hosts of wild peasants and brigands. The flames Of
revolt now spread across .the Isthmus of Corinth: early in April
the Christians of Dervenokhoria rose, and the whole of Boeotia
and Attica quickly followed suit; at the beginning of May the
Mussulman inhabitants of Athens were blockaded in the Acro¬
polis. In the Morea, meanwhile, a few Mussulman fortresses still
held out: Coron, Modoh, Navarino,Patr*s, Nauplia, Monemvasia,
Tripolitsa. One by one they fell, and everywhere were repeated
the 3ame scenes of butchery. The horrors eofcoinated in the
capture of Tripolitsa, the capital of the vilayet. In the Sept¬
ember this was taken by storm ; Kolokotrones rode, in triumph
to the citadel over streets carpeted with the dead; and the
crowning triumph of the Cross was celebrated by d cold-blobdfed
massacre of 2000 prisoners of all ages and both sexeS. Ibis
completed the success of the insurrection in the Morea, where
only Patras, Nauplia, and one or two lesser fortresses remained to
the Turks.
Meanwhile, north of the Isthmus, the fortunes of War had been
less one-sided. In the west Khurshid's lieutenant, Omar
Vrioni (u Mussulman Greek of the race of the Palaeolqgi), had
inflicted a series of defeats on the insurgents, recaptured Levadia,
and on the 30th of June relieved the Acropolis; hut the rout
of the troops which Mahommed Pasha was bringing to his aid
by the Greeks in the defile of Mount Oeta, and the news of the fall
of Tripolitsa, forced him to retreat, and the campaign of 1821
ended with the retirement of the Turks into Thessaly.
The month of April had witnessed the revolt of the principal
Greek islands, Spetsae an the 7th, I’sara on the 23rd, Hydra
on the 28th and Samos on the 30th. Their fleets were divided
into squadrons, of which one, under Tom hazes, was deputed
to watch for the entrance of the Ottomans into the archipelago,
while the other under Andreas Miaoulis (q.v.) sailed to blockade
Patras and watch the eoasts of Epirus. At sea, as on land, the
Greeks opened the campaign with hidebus atrocities, almost
their first exploit being the capture of a vessel carrying to Mecca
the sheik-ul-lslam and his family, whom they murdered With
every aggravation of outrage.
These inauspicious lieginnings, indeed, set the whole tone of
the war, which was frankly one of mutual extermination. On
both sides the combatants were barbarians, without
discipline or competent organization. At sea the
Greeks rapidly developed into mere pirates, and even attbenr.
Miaoulis, for all his high character and courage, was
often unable to prevent liis captains from sailing home at critical
moments, when pay or booty failed. On land tHe presence of
a few educated Phanariots, such as Dcpctrios Ypsilantl or
Alexander Mavroeordato, was powerless to inspire the rode
hordes with any sense of order or of humanity in watfare ; While
every lull in the fighting, due to a temporary check to the Turks,
was the signal for internecine conflicts due to the rivalry Of
leaders who, with rare exceptions, thought more of their personal
power and profit than of the cause of Greece.
This cause, indeed, was helped more by the impolitic re¬
prisals of the Turks than by the heroism of the insurgents. All
Europe stood aghast at the news of the execution' of
tfie Patriarch Gregorios of Constantinople (April it, ■
1821) and the wholesale massacres that followed,
culminating as these did in the extermination -of the
prosperous community of Scio (Chios) in March J822. The
cause of Greece was now that of Christendom, of the Catholic
and Protestant West, as of the Orthodox East. European
Liberalism, too, gagged and fettered under Mettemich’s g Mp ,
“ system,” recognized in the Greeks the champions ami tbe
of its own cause; while even Conservative states- rfatur
men, schooled in the memories of ancient Hellas,
saw in the struggle a fight of civilization against
barbarism. This latter belief, Which was, moreover, flattering
to their vanity, the Greek leaders were astute enough to tester ;
the propaganda of Atiamantios Coraft (q.v.) had done Its
GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF
494
work; and wily brigands, like Odysseus of Ithaka, assuming
the style and trappings of antiquity, posed as the champions
of classic culture against the barbarian. All Europe, then,
hailed with joy the exploit of Constantine Kanaris, who on the
night of June r8~iy succeeded in steering a fire-ship among the
Turkish squadron off Scio, and burned the flag-ship of the
capudan-pasha with 3000 souls on board.
Meanwhile Sultan Mahmud, now wide awake to the danger,
had been preparing for a systematic effort to suppress the
rising. The threatened breach with Russia had been avoided
by Mettemich’s influence on the tsar Alexander; the death of
Ali of lanninu had set free the armv of Khurshid Pasha, who now,
as srraskirr of Kumelia, was charged with the task of reducing
the Morea. In the spring of 1X22 two Turkish armies advanced
southwards: one, under Omar Vrioni, along the coast of Western
Hellus, the. other, under Ali, pasha of Drama (Dramali), through
Boeotia and Attieu. Omar was held in check by the mud
Bxfdi. ramparts of Missolonghi; but Dramali, after exacting
tiomot fearful xengeance for the massacre of the Turkish
nrmmmH, garrison of the Acropolis at Athens, crossed the
t»i2. isthmus and with the over-confidence of a conquering
burburiau advanced to the relief of the hard-pressed garrison
of Nauplia. H- crossed the perilous defile of Dervenaki un¬
opposed ; and at the news of his approach most of the members
of the Greek government assembled at Argos fled in panic terror.
Demetrius Ypsilanti, however, with a few hundred men joined
the Mainnte Karavanni in the castle of Larissa, which crowns
the acropolis of ancient Argos. This held Dramali in check,
and gave Kolokotrones time to collect an army. The Turks,
in the absence of the fleet which was to have brought them
supplies, were forced to retreat (August 6); the Greeks, inspired
with new courage, awaited them in the pass of Dervenaki, where
the undisciplined Ottoman host, thrown into confusion by an
avalanche ul boulders hurled upon them, was annihilated. In
Western Greece the campaign had an outcome scarcely less
disastrous for the Turks. The death of Ali of lannina had been
followed by the suppression of the insurgent Suliotes and the
advance of Omar Vrioni southwards to Missolonghi; but the
town held out gallantly, a Turkish surprise attack, on the 6th of
January 182,5, was beaten off, and Omar Vrioni had to abandon
the siege and retire northwards over the pass of Makrynoros.
The victorious outcome of the year's fighting had a disastrous
effect upon the Greeks. Their victories had been due mainly
to the guerilla tactics of the leaders of the type of
•maagYht Kolokotrones ; Mavrocordato, whose character and
orMta. antecedents had marked him out as the natural head
of the new Greek state, in spite of his successful
defence of Missolonghi, had been discredited by failures else¬
where ; and the Greeks thus learned to despise their civilized
advisers and to underrate the importance of discipline. The
temporary removal of the common peril, moreover, let loose all
the sectional and personal jealousies, which even in face of the
enemy hnd been with difficulty restrained, and the year 1823
witnessed the first civil war between the (.reek parties. These
internecine feuds might easily have proved fatal to the cause
of Greece. In the Archipelago Hydriotes and Spetsiotcs were
at daggers drawn; the men of Psara were at open war with
those of Samos ; all semblance of discipline and cohesion had
vanished from the Greek fleet. Hod Khosrev, the new Ottoman
admiral, been a man of enterprise, he might have regained the
command of the sea and, with it, that of the whole situation.
Hut tho fate of his predecessor had filled him with a lively terror
of Kanaris and his fire-ships; he contented himself with a
CmmpMtrm cruiae rtmn d the coasts of Greece, and was happy
or mjj. to return to safety under the guns ol the Dardanelles
without having accomplished anything beyond throw¬
ing supplies and troops into Coron, Modon and Patras.
On land, meanwhile, the events of the year before practically
repeated themselves.. In the west an army of Mussulman anil
Catholic Albanians, under Mustai Pasha, advanced southwards.
On the night of the 21st of August occurred the celebrated
exploit of Marko iBotzaris and his Suliotes ; a successful surprise
attack on the camp of the Ottoman vanguard, in which the
Suliote leader fell. The jealousy of the Aetolian militia for the
Suliotes, however, prevented the victory being decisive; and
Mustai advanced to the siege of Anatoliko, a little town in the
lagoons near Missolonghi. Here he was detained until, on the
nth of December, he was forced to raise the siege and retire
northwards. His colleague, Yussuf Pasha, in East Hellas fared
no better; here, too, the Turks gained some initial successes,
but in the end the harassing tactics of Kolokotrones and his'
guerilla bands forced them back into the plain of the Kephissos.
At the end of the year the Greeks were once more free to renew
their internecine feuds.
Just when these feuds were at their height, in the autumn
of 1823. the most famous of the Philhellenes who sacrificed
themselves for the cause of Greece. Lord Byron, arrived in
Greece.
The year 1824 was destined to be a fateful one for the Greek
cause. The large loans raised in Europe, the first instalment
of which Byron had himself brought over, while
providing the Greeks with the sinews of war, provided
them also with fresh material for strife. To the
struggle for power was added a struggle for a share of
this txxrty, and a second civil war broke out, Kolokotrones
leading the attack on the forces of the government. Early in
18:5 the government was victorious ; Kolokotrones was in
prison; and Odysseus, the hero of so many exploits and so
many crimes, who had ended by turning traitor and selling his
services to the Turks, had been captured, imprisoned in the
Acropolis, and finally assassinated by his former lieutenant
Gouras (July 16, 1824). But a new and more terrible danger
now threatened Greece. Sultan Mahmud, despairing of sup¬
pressing the insurrection by his own power, had reluctantly
summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, whose
well-equipped fleet and disciplined army were now i nttrr , u .
thrown into the scale against the Greeks. Already, tion at
in June 1823, the pasha’s son-in-law Hussein Bey •<
had landed in Crete, and by April of the following AU -
year had reduced the insurgent islanders to submission. Crete
now became the base of operations against the Greeks, On the
iqth of June Hussein appeared before Kasos, a nest of pirates
of evil reputation, which he captured and destroyed. The same
day the Egyptian fleet, under Ibrahim Pasha, sailed from
Alexandria. Khosrev, too, emboldened by this new sense of
support, ventured to sea, surprised and destroyed Psara (July 2),
and planned an attack on Samos, which was defeated by Miaoulis
and his fire-ships (August 16, 17). On the 1st of September,
howfjv.er, Khosrev succeeded in effecting a junction with Ibrahim
off Budrun, and two indecisive engagements followed with the
united Greek fleet on the 5th and 10th. The object of Ibrahim
was to reach Suda Bay with his transports, which the Greeks
should at all costs have prevented. A first attempt was defeated
by Miaoulis on the 16th of November, and Ibrahim was compelled
to retire and anchor off Rhodes ; but the Greek admiral wa-
unable to keep his fleet together, the season was far advanced,
his captains were clamouring for arrears of pay, and the Greek
fleet sailed for Nauplia, leaving the sea unguarded. On the
5th of December Ibrahim again set sail, and reached Sud.;
without striking a blow. Here he completed his preparations,
and, on the 24th of February 1825, landed at Modon in the'
Morea with a force of 4000 regular infantry and 500 cavalry.
The rest followed, without the Greeks making any effort to
intercept them.
The conditions of the war were now completely changed.
The Greeks, who had been squandering the money provided
by the loans in every sort of senseless extravagance,
affected to despise the Egyptian invaders, but they
were soon undeceived. On the 21st of March Ibrahim Mml.
had laid siege to Navarino, and after some delay a
Greek force under Skourti, a Hydriote sea-captain, was sent to
its relief. The Greeks had in all some 7000 men, Suliotes,
Albanians, armaloli from Rumelia, and some irregular Bulgarian
and Vlach cavalry. On the 19th of April they were met by
GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF 495
Ibrahim at Krommydi with 2000 regular infantry, 400 cavalry
and four guns. The Greek entrenchments were stormed at the
point of the bayonet by Ibrahim’s fellahin at the first onset; the
defenders broke and fled, leaving 600 dead on the field. The
news of this disaster, and of the fall of Pylos and Navarino that
followed, struck terror into the Greek government; and in
answer to popular clamour Kolokotrones was taken from prison
and placed at the head of the army. But the guerilla tactics
of the wily klepht were powerless against Ibrahim, who marched
northward, and, avoiding Nauplia for the present, seized
Tripolitsa, and made this the base from which his columns
marched to devastate the country far and wide.
Meanwhile from the north the Ottomans were making another
supreme effort. The command of the army that was to operate
Hnhu ‘ n west Hellas had been given to Reshid “ Kutahia,”
••KuiMhiM" pasha of Iannina, an able general and a man of deter-
tnhfu mined character. On the 6th of April, after bribing
the Albanian clansmen to neutrality, he passed the
lmm * ‘ defile of Makrynoros, which the Greeks had left
undefended, and on the 7 th of May opened the second siege of
Missolonghi. For twelve months the population held out, re¬
pulsing the attacks of the enemy, refusing every offer of honour¬
able capitulation. This resistance was rendered possible by the
Greek command of the sea, Miaoulis from time to time entering
the lagoons with supplies ; it came to an end when this command
was lost. In September 1825 Ibrahim, at the order of the sultan,
had joined Reshid before the town ; piecemeal the outlying
forts and defences now fell, until the garrison, reduced by
starvation and disease, determined to hazard all on a final sortie.
This took place on the night of the 22nd of April 1826 ; but a
mistaken order threw the ranks of the Greeks into disorder,
and the Turks entered the town pell-mell with the retreating
crowd. Only a remnant of the defenders succeeded in gaining
the forests of Mount Zygos, where most of them perished.
The fall of Missolonghi, followed as this was by the submission
of many of the more notable chiefs, left Reshid free to turn his
attention to East Hellas, where Gouras had been ruling
fuakic as a P rac tically independent chief and in the spirit
of a brigand. The peasants of the open country
welcomed the Turks as deliverers, and Reshid’s conciliatory
policy facilitated his march to Athens, which fell at the first
assault on the 25th of August, siege being at once laid to the
Acropolis, where Gouras and his troops had taken refuge.
Round this the war now centred ; for all recognized that its
fall would involve that of the cause of Greece. In these straits
the Greek government entrusted the supreme command of the
troops to Karaiskakis, an old retainer of Ali of Iannina, a master
of the art of guerilla war, and, above all, a man of dauntless
courage and devoted patriotism. A first attempt to relieve the
Acropolis, with the assistance of some disciplined troops under
the French Colonel Fabvier, was defeated at Chaidan by the
Turks. The garrison of the Acropolis.was hard pressed, and the
death of Gouras (October 13th) would have ended all, had not
his heroic wife taken over the command and inspired the defenders
with new courage. For months the siege dragged- on, while
Karaiskakis fought with varying success in the mountains, a
final victory at Distomo (February 1827) over Omar Vrioni
securing the restoration to the Greek cause of all continental
Greece, except the towns actually held by the Turks.
It was at this juncture that the Greek government, reinforced
bv a fresh loan from Europe, handed over the chief command
at sea to Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald, ?.»,), and
•atf*”"* that of the land forces to General (afterwards Sir
Church. Richard) Church, both Miaoulis and Karaiskakis
consenting without demur to serve under them.
Cochrane and Church at once concentrated their energies on the
task of relieving the Acropolis. Already, on the 5th of February,
General Gordon had landed and entrenched himself on the hill
of Munychia, near the ancient Piraeus, and the efforts of the
Turks to dislodge him had failed, mainly owing to the fire of
the steamer “Karteria” commanded by Captain Hastings.
When Church and Cochrane arrived, a general assault on the
Ottoman camp was decided on. This was preceded, on the
25th of April, by an attack, headed by Cochrane, on the Turkish
troops established near the monastery of St Spiridion, the result
of which was to establish communications between the Greeks
at Munychia and Phalerum and isolate Reshid’s vanguard on
the promontory of the Piraeus. The monastery held out for
two days longer, when the Albanian garrison surrendered on
terms, but were massacred by the Greeks as they were marching
away under escort. For this miserable crime Church has, by
some historians, been held responsible by default; it is clear,
however, from his own account that no blame rests upon him
(see his MS. Narrative, vol. i. chap. ii. p. 34). The assault on
the Turkish main camp was fixed for the 6th of May ; but,
unfortunately, a chance skirmish brought on an Engagement
the day before, in the course of which Karaiskakis was killed,
an irreparable loss in view of his prestige with the wild armaioli.
The assault on the following day was a disastrous failure. The
Greeks, advancing prematurely over broken ground
and in no sort of order, were fallen upon in flank by JJSErfsi
Keshid’s horsemen, and fled in panic terror. The Athene.
English officers, who in vain tried to rally them,
themselves only just escaped by scrambling into their boats
and putting off to the war-vessels, whose guns checked the
pursuit and enabled a remnant of the fugitives to escape.
Church held Munychia till the 27th, when he sent instructions
for the garrison of the Acropolis to surrender. On the 5th of
une the remnant of the defenders marched out with the
onours of war, and continental Greece was once more in the
power of the Turks. Had Reshid at once advanced over the
Isthmus, the Morea also must have been subdued; but he
was jealous of Ibrahim, and preferred to return to Iannina to
consolidate his conquests.
The fate of Greece was now in the hands of the Powers, who
after years of diplomatic wrangling had at last realized that
intervention was necessary if Greece was to be saved .
for European civilization. The worst enemy of the
Greeks was their own incurable spirit of faction ; in
the very crisis of their fate, during the siege of Missolonghi, rival
presidents and rival assemblies struggled for supremacy, and a
third civil war had only been prevented by the arrival of Cochrane
and Church. Under their influence a new National Assembly
met at Troezene in March 1827 and elected as president Count
Capo d’ Istria (?.».), formerly Russian minister for foreign affairs;
at the same time a new constitution was promulgated which,
when the very life of the insurrection seemed on the point of
flickering out, set forth the full ideal of Pan-Hellenic dreams.
Anarchy followed ; war of Rumeliotes against Moreotes, of chief
against chief; rival factions bombarded each other from the
two forts at Nauplia over the stricken totfn, and in derision of
the impotent government. Finally, after months of inaction,
Ibrahim began once more his systematic devastation of the
country. To put a stop to this the Powers decided to intervene
by means of a joint demonstration of their fleets, in order to
enforce an armistice and compel Ibrahim to evacuate the Morea
(Treaty of London, July 6, 1827). The refusal of Ibrahim to
obey, without special instruction from the sultan, led to the
entrance of the allied British, French and Russian fleet into the
harbour of Navarino and the battle of the 20th of October 1827
(see Navarino). This, and the two Campaigns of the Russo-
Turkish war of 1828-29, decided the issue.
Authorities. —There is no trustworthy history of the war, based
on all the material now available, and all the existing works must be
read with caution, especially those by eye-witnesses, who were too
often prejudiced or the dupes of the Greek factions. The best-known
works are : G. Finlay, Hist, of the Greek Revolution (2 vols., London,
1861); T. Gordon, Hist, of the Greek Revolution (London, 1833);
C. W. P. Mendelssohn - Barthoidy, Geschichtr Griechenlands, &c.
( Staatengeschichle der neuesten Zeitj (2 vols., Leipzig, 1870-1874) :
F. C. H. L. PouquevUle, Histoire do la rlglniration at ta Grice, & -c.
(4 vola., Paris, 1824),—the author was French resident at the court
of Ali of Iannina and afterwards consul at Patras; Count A.
Prokescli-Osten, GeschicUe its Abfails der Griechen vom tilrhischen
Reich, &c. (6 vols., Vienna, 1867), the last four volumes consist¬
ing of pUces justiftcatives of much value. See also W. Alison
Phillips, The War of Greek Independence (London and New York,
49 6 GREEK LANGUAGE
1897), a' sketch compiled mainly from the above-mentioned works;
Splridionos Tricuupi, 'Imopia t$» ’KXkijwih iraraerdnut (Athens,
18«I) • ], Philemon, AmI<u» w«pt tv< 'Etoorutit iravaerdirem
(Athens, 1859), i« four parts: (r) History o ( the Hetaeria Phllike,
(a) The heralding of the war and the rising under Ypsilanti, (3 and 4)
The insurrection in Greece to 1823, with many documents. Of great
value also are the 29 volumes of Correspondence and Papers of Sir
Ricliard Church, now in the British Museum (Add. MSS. 36,543-
i(i 571). Among these is a Narrative by Church of the war in Greece
during his tenure of the command (vols. xxi.-xxiii., Nos. 36,363- i
30 5O3), which contains the material for correcting many errors re- ,
pea ted ui most works on the war, notably the strictures of Fmlay and ;
others 011 Church's conduct before Athens. I'or further references
see the bibliography appended to W. Alison Phillips’s chapter on
■■ Greece and the Balkan Peninsula" in the Cambridge Modern
History, x. 803. (W. A. P.)
r.RBEK LANGUAGE. Greek is one of the eight main
branches into which the Indo-European languages (q.v.) are
divided. The urea in which it is spoken has been curiously
constant throughout its recorded history. These limits are,
roughlv speaking, the shores of the Aegean, on both the
European and the Asiatic side, and the intermediate islands j
(one of the mo t archaic of Greek dialects lieing found on the j
eastern side in the island of Cyprus), and the Greek peninsula ;
generally from its southern promontories as far as the
mountains which shut in Thessaly on the north. Beyond
Mt. Olympus and the Cambunian mountains lay Macedonia,
in which a closely kindred dialect was spoken, so closely
related, indeed, that O. Hoffmann has argued (Die Makedoneti,
Gdttingen, 1906) that Macedonian is not only Greek, but
a part of the great Aeolic dialect which included Thessalian
to the south and Lesbian to the east. In the north-west,
Greek included many rude dialects little known even to the j
ancient Greeks themselves, and it extended northwards beyond j
Aetolia und Ambracia to southern Epirus and Thesprotia. 1
In the Homeric age the great shrine of Pelasgian Zeus was at
Itodona. but, by the time of Thucydides, Aetolia and all north j
of it had come to lie looked upon as the most, backward of Greek
lands, where men lived a savage life, speaking an almost unin¬
telligible language, and eating raw flesh (dyeoicrniTaToi Sr y\mnrav
kuI M/uKpdyot. Thuc. iii. 04, of the Aetolian Eurytanes). The
Greeks themselves had no memory of how they came to occupy
this land. Their earliest legends connected the origin of their
race with Thessaly and Ml. Pindits, but Athenians and Arcadians
also boasted themselves of autochthonous race, inhabiting a
country wherein no man had preceded their ancestors. The
Greek language, at any rate as it has come down to us, is
remarkably perfect, in vowel sounds being the most primitive
of any of the Indo-European languages, while its verb system
has no rival in completeness except in the earliest Sanskrit of
the Vedio literature. Its noun system, on the other hand, is
much less complete, its cases being more broken down than
those of the Aryan, Armenian, Slavonic and Italic families.
The most remarkable characteristic of Greek is one conditioned
by the geographical aspect of the land. Few countries are so broken
up with mountains as Greece. Not only do mountain ranges as
eniewherc on the F.uropean continent ruii east and west, but other
ranges cross them from north to south, thus divtding the [lortions
of Greece at some distance from the sea into hollows without outlet,
every valley being separated for a considerable part of the year
from contact with every other, and inter communication at all
seasons living rendered difficult. Thus till external coercion from
Macorlon came into play it was never possible to establish a great
central government controlling tin* Greek mainland. The geo¬
graphical situation of the islands in the Aegean equally led to the
isolation of one little territory from another. To these geographical
considerations may be added the inveterate desire of the Greeks
to make the rb\is, the city state, everywhere and at all times an
indciicndent unit, a desire which, originating in the geographical
conditions, even accentuated the isolating effect of the natnral
features of the country Thus at one time in the little island of
Amorgos there were no less than three separate and independent
political units. The inevitable result of geographical and jwlitical
division was the maintenance of a great number of local character¬
istics in language, differentiating in this respect also each political
community from its sparest neighbours. It was only natural that
the inhabitants of a country so little adapted to maintain a numerous
population should have early lent off swarms to other lands. The
earliest stage of colonization lies m the borderland between myth
and history. The Greeks themselves knew that a population had
preceded them in the islaMs of the Cyclades which they identified
with the Cariaus of Asia Minor (Herodotus i. 171; Thucydidea i.
4, 8). The Bame population indeed appears to have preceded them
on the mainland of Greece, for there are similar place-names in Carat
and in Greece which have no etymology in Greek. Thus the ending! -
of words like Parnassus and Halicarnassus seem identical, and the
common ending of place-names in KifnrBos, n/nfidisrSos, 4 c,
seems to be the same in origin with the common ending of Asiatic
names in -nda, Almda, Karyanda, &c. Probably the earliest portion
of Asia Minor to be colonized by the Greeks was the north-west, to
which came settlers Irom Thessaly, when the early inhabitants were
driven out by tire Thesprotians, who later controlled Thessaly. The
name Aeolis, which after times gave to the N.W. of Asia Minor,
was the- old name for Thessaly (Hut. vii, 176). These Thesprotians
were of the same stock as the Dorians, to whose invasion of the
IVloponnese tiie later migration, which carried the Ionians to Asia
and the Cypriot Greeks to Cyprus, in all probability was due. From
tuc north Aegean probably the Dorians reached Crete, where alone
their existence is recorded by Homer [Odyssey, xix. 175 if.: Diodorus
Siculus v. So. 2t; rp. Fick, Vorgrierhisrhe Ortmamen (190b),
Among the Greeks of the pre-Dorian period Herodotus distin¬
guishes various stocks. Though the name is not Homeric, both
Herodotus and Thucydides recognize an Aeolian stock which must
have spread over Thessaly and far to the west till it was suppressed
and absorbed by the Dorian stock which came in from the north¬
west. The name of Aeolis still attached in Thucydides’ time to the
western area of Calydon between the mountains and the N. side of
tlic entrance to the Corinthian gulf (iii. 102). In Boeotia the same
stock survived (Time. vii. 57 5), overlaid by an influx of Dorians,
and it came down to the isthmus; for the Corinthians, though
speaking in historical times a Doric dialect, were originally Aeoluuis
(Thuc. iv. 42). In the Peloponnese Herodotus recognizes (viii. 73)
three original stockB, the Arcadians, the Iomaus of Cynuria, and the
Achaeans. In Arcadia there is Hi lie doubt that the pre-Dorian
population maintained itself and its language, just as in the moun¬
tains of Wales, the Scottish Highlands and Connemara the Celtic
language bus maintained ftself against the Saxon invaders. By
Herodotus' time the Cynurians had been doricizcd, while the Ionians,
along the south side of the Corinthian gulf, were expelled by the
Achaeans (vii. 94, viii. 73), apparently themselves driven from their
own homes by the Dorian invasion (Strabo viii. p. 333 fin.). How¬
ever this may lie, tlic Achaeans of historical times spoke a dialect
akin to tliat of northern Elis and of the Greeks on tho north side of
the Corinthian gulf. How dose the relation may have been between
the language of the Achaeans of the Peloponnese in the Homeric age
and their contemporaries in Thessaly we have no means of ascertain¬
ing definitely, the documentary evidence for the history of the
dialects lining all very much later than Homeric times. Even in
the Homeric catalogue Agamemnon has to lend the Arcadians ships
to take them to Troy (Iliad, ii. 611). But a population speaking the
same or a very similar dialect was probably sealed on the eastern
coast, and migrated at the beginning of the Doric invasion to Cyprus.
As tins population wrote uot in the Greek alphabet but in a peculiar
syllabary and held little communication with the rest of the Greek
world, it succeeded in preserving in Cyprus a very archaic dialect
very closely akin to that of Arcadia, and also containing a consider
able number of words found in the Homeric vocabulary but lost or
modified 111 later Greek elsewhere.
On- tins historical foundation alone is it possible to understand
clearly the relal ion of the dialects in historical times. The prehistoric
movements of the Greek tribes can to some extent be realized m
their dialects, as recorded 111 their inscriptions, though all existing
inscriptions belong to a much later period. Thus from the ancient
Aeolis of northern Greece sprang the historical dialects of Thessaly
and Lesbos with the nrighlxiuring coast of Asia Minor. At an early
period the Dorians had invaded and to some extent affected the
character of the southern Thessalian and to a much greater extent
tliat of the Boeotian dialed. The dialects of Locria, Phocis and
Aetolia were a somewhat uncouth and unliterary form of Doric.
According to accepted tradition, Elis had been colonized by Oxylus
the Aetolian, and the dialect of the more northerly part of Ells, as
! already pointed out, is, along with the Achaean of the south side of
the Corinthian gulf, closely akin to those dialects north of the
Isthmus. The most southerly part of Elis—Tripliylia—has a dialect
akin to Arcadian. Apart from Arcadian the other dialects of the
Peloponnese in historical times are all Doric, though in small details
they differ among themselves. Though we are unable to check the
statements of the historians as to the area occupied by Ionic in
prehistoric timos, it is clear from the legends of the close connexion
between Athens and Troezen that the same dialect had been spoken
on both sides of the Saronic gulf, and may well have extended, as
l Herodotus says, along the eastern coast of tho Peloponnese and the
I south side of the Corinthian gulf. According to legend, the Ionians
expelled from the Peloponnese collected at Athens before they
I started on their migrations to the coast of Asia Minor. Be that as
it may, legend and language alike connected the Athenians with the
Ionians, though by the 5th century b.c. the Athenians no longer
cared to be known by the name (Hdt. i. 143). I-emnos, Imbros and
Seyms, which had long belonged to Athens, were Athenian also in
language. The great island of Euboea and all the islands of the
central Aegean between Greece and Asia were Ionic. Chios, the most
GREEK LANGUAGE
northerly Ionic island on the Asiatic coast, seems to have been onrin-
ally Aeolic, and its Ionic retained same Aeolic characteristics. The
most southerly of the mainland towns which wen originally Aeolic was
Smyrna, but this at an early date became Ionic <Hdt i. 149). The
last important Ionic town to the aouth waa Miletus, but at an early
period Ionic widened its area towards the south also and took in
Halicarnassus from the Dorians. According to Herodotus, there
were four kinds of Ionic (xaparrypn yXueer/t rtare/xr, i. 14s).
Herodotus tells us the areas in which these dialects were spoken,
but nothing of the differences between them. They were (1) Samos,
(2) Chios and Erythrac, (3) the towns in Lydia, (4) the towns in Caria.
The language of the inscriptions unfortunately is a wf. a conven¬
tional literary language which reveals no differences of importance.
Only recently has the characteristic so well known in Herodotus of r
appearing in certain words where other dialects have r ( 4 *ut for
Sirait, koD for iroP, &c.) been found in any inscription. It is, how¬
ever, clear that this was a popular characteristic not considered to
be sufficiently dignified for official documents. We may conjecture
that the native languages spoken on the Lydian and Carian coasts
had affected the character of the language spoken by the Greek
immigrants, more especially as the settlers from Athens married
Carian women, while the settlers in the other towns were a mixture
of Greek tribes, many of them not Ionic at all (Hdt. i. 140).
The more southerly islands of the Aegean and file most southerly
peninsula of Asia Minor were Doric, m the Homeric age Dorians
were only one of many peoples in Crete, but in historical times,
though the dialects of the eastern and the western ends of the island
differ from one another and from the middle whence onr most
valuable documents conic, all are Done. By Melos and Thera Dorians
carried their language to Cos, Calymnus, Cnidus and Rhodes.
These settlements, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric., grew and prospered,
and like flourishing hives themselves sent out fresh swarms to other
lands. Most prosperous and energetic of all was Miletus, which
established its trading posts in the Black Sea to the north and in the
delta of the Nile (Naucratis) to the south. The islands also sent off
their colonies, carrying their dialects with them, Paros to Thasos,
Euboea to the peninsulas of Chalcidice; the Dorians oi Megara
guarded the entrance to the Black Sea at Chalcedon and Byzantium.
While Achaean influence spread out to the more southerly Ionian
islands, Corinth carried her dialect with her colonies to the coast of
Vcamama, Leucas and Corcyra. But the greatest of all Corinthian
colonies was much farther to the west—at Syracuse in Sicily. Un¬
fortunately the continuous occupation of the same or adjacent sites
has led to the loss of almost all that is early from Corinth and from
Syracuse. Corcyra lias bequeathed to us some interesting grave
inscriptions from the 6th century n.c. Southern Italy and Sicily
were early colonized by Greeks. According to tradition Cumae was
founded not long alter the Trojan War; even if we bring the date
nearer the founding of Syracuse in 735 b.c., we have apparently no
record earlier than the first half of the 5th century B.c., though it is
still the earliest of Chalcidian inscriptions. Tarentum was a Laconian
foundation, but the longest and most important document from a
Laconian colony in Italy comes from lleraclea about the end of the
4th century B.c.—the report of a commission upon and the lease oi
temple lands with description and conditions almost of modern
precision. To Achaea belonged the south Italian towns of Croton,
Metapontnm and Sybaris. The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily
has been explained by Thucydides (in. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of
Megara, bewrays its origin in its dialect. Gela and Agrigentum no
less clearly show their descent from Rhodes. According to tradition
the great city of Cyrene in Africa was founded from Thera, itself an
offshoot from Sparta.
Chief Characteristics of the Greek Dialects
1. Arcadian and Cyprian .—As Cyprian was written in a syllabary
which could not represent a consonant by itself, did not distinguish
between voiced, unvoiced and aspirated consonants, did not represent
at all a nasal before another consonant, and did not distinguish
between long and short vowels, the interpretation of the symbols is
of the nature of a conundrum and the answer is not always certain.
Thus the same combination of two symbols would have to stand
for r6r», tU r, Sire, Joky, rivir, r,Me, r» Ip. No inscription of more
than a few words in length is found in rather dialect earlier than
the 5th century b.c. In both dialects the number of important in¬
scriptions is steadily increasing. Both dialects change final e to u,
4*6 passing into 4 * 6 . Arcadian changes the verb ending -*i into
-01. Arcadian uses J or {for an original gui-sound, which appears in
Attic Greek as ft : jifXXiv, Attic (Ji Mu, " throw." In inflexion both
agree in changing -io of masculine -4 stems into «u (Arcadian carries
this form also into the feminine -a stems), and in using locatives in
-ac and -m for the dative, such locatives being governed by the
prepositions 4*6 and 4? (before a consonant H in Arcadian). Verbs
in -aw, -fw and -«*» are declined not as -w, but as -w verbs. The final
1 of the ending of the 3rd plural present changes the preceding r
to » ftp^m, cp. Laconian (Doric) 04 gorn, Attic dipsun, Lesbian
Ipipom. Instead of the Attic rft, the interrogative pronoun appears
as eh, the initial * in Arcadian being written with a special symbol
V The pronunciation fs not certain. The original sound was gw,
as in Latin gm's, whence Attic rii and Thessalian rit. In Arcadian
me the Aeolic particle re and the Ionic as seem to be combined.
497
2. Aeolic. —Though Boeotian is overlaid with a Doric element, it
nevertheless agrees with Thessalian and Lesbian in some character¬
istics. Unlike Greek generally, they represent the original fw of the
wood for four by * before «, where Attic and other dialects have r :
wfrrogsr, Attic rtrra pit. The corresponding voiced end aspirated
sounds are similarly treated: BlXpsioi the adjective in Thessalian to
Ask0oi,and ftyior tip. They all tend to change 0 too: Aropa, "name";
sc for u in Thessalian: 'Ai-Xeur,“ Apollo"; and via Boeotian for**:
Fwla <oi«f»), " bouse." They also make the dative ptarai of the
third declension in -r**i, and the perfect participle active is declined
hire a present participle in -a*. Instead of the Athenian method of
giving the father’s name in the genitive when a citizen is described,
these dialects (especially Thessalian) tend to make an adjective:
thus instead of the Attic AypovWvyt AypovMsevi, Aeolic would
rather have A. AypiurMreun. Thessalian steads midway between
Lesbian and Boeotian, agreeing with Lesbian in the use of doable
consonants, where Attic has a single consonant, with or without
lengthening of the previous syllable: hoc, Attic -dpi for an
original Vs mi; vrdXka, Attic rrjftaj; fftvsi for an earlier (irFot, Attic
dm, Ionic (lira, Doric £y»ot. Where Attic has -Si from an earlier
-aw or -ayre, Lesbian has -ait: rah Spgan accusative in Lesbian
for older riw Spxors. Lesbian has no oxyton words according to
the grammarians, the accent being carried back to the penult or ante¬
penultimate syllabic. It has also no " rough breathing," but this
characteristic it shared with the Ionic of Asia Minor, and in the comae
of time with other dialects. The characteristic particle of the dialects
is re. which is used like the Done ira. tile Arcadian mr, and the Attic
and lomc 4 ». Thessalian and Lesbian agree in making their long
vowels close, y becoming 11 (a close i, not a diphthong), ranip,
" father." The v soond did not become it as in Attic and Ionic,
and hence when the Ionic alphabet was introduced it was spelt «v,
or when in contact with dentals un, as in irloupn-tnipa, "name,
riwixa — T&xni “chance"; the pronunciation, therefore, must have
been like the English sound in m ms, tune. Boeotian developed earlier
than other dialects the changes in . the vowels which characterize
modern Greek: «i became e, zai passing into icfi; compare ranip
and Fvnln above: o became 1 iu tyi, "has." Thessalian shows
some examples oi the Homeric genitive in -«o: toAIuko , 61 c.;
its ordinary genitive of 0- stems is in -01.
There are some poults of connexion between this group and
Arcadian-Cyprian : in both Thessalian and Cyprian the character¬
istic rr6An (Attic, 6tc., * 4 Li) and larxpa- tot 640*1 are found, and
both groups form the " contracting verbs " not in -o but in -pa¬
in the second group as in the first there is little that precedes the
5th century u.c. Future additions to our matenels may be expected
to lessen the gap between the two groups and Homer.
3. Imii-AUic. -One of the earliest vl Greek inscriptions—of the
7th century, at least—is the Attic inscription written in two lines
from right to left upon a wine goblet (oi»o)(A>i) given as a prize:
Mr rOr ipxraror vdi'Toy 1 4 raX 6 rara *affet rS« 6 fkov . par. The last
words are uncertain. Till lately early inscriptions in Ionic were
lew, hut recently an early inscription has been found at Ephesus
and a later copy ol a long early inscription at Miletus.
The most noticeable characteristic of Attic and Ionic is the change
of a into y which is universal in lomc but does not appear in Attic
alter another vowel or p. Thus both dialects used pprt\p, rip. 1 i from
an earlier odrip>, npi, bnt Attic had cirpia, * p&ypa and gvpa, not 1
vs0iy, rpy-r/xa and yivpn as in Ionic. The apparent exception ropy
is explained by the fact tliat m this word a digamma F has been lost
after p. in Doric ripFa. That the change took place after the lonians
came into Asia is shown by the word My|oi, which in Cyprian is
Ms Sat; the Medes were certainly not known to the Greeks till long
alter the conquest of loma. while Aeolic and the greater part of
Done kept F, this symbol and the sound w represented by it had
disappeared from both Ionic and Attic before existing records begin—
in other words, were certainly not in use after Boo b.c. The symbol
was known and occurs in a few isolated instances. Both dialects
agreed in changing u into *i, so that a u sound has to be represented
by ov. The short 0 tended towards «, so that the contraction of
o + o gave ov. In the same way short e tended towards t, so that the
contraction of < +t gave «, which was not a diphthong but a close
i-sound. In Attic Greek these contractions were represented by O
and E respectively till the official adoption of the Ionic alphabet at
Athens in 403 B.c. So also were the lengthened syllables which
represent in their length the loss oi an ratrlier consonant, as turn
and Srupm, Aeolic tpxrrn, bpppa, which stand for a prehistoric
*lpern and *I«r* a, containing the -a- oi the first aonst, and
rodi, Otrom, Igovoi representing an earlier t6m, olrort, <yem
(3 pi. presort) or *lxorrn (dative pi. oi present participle). Both
disjects also agreed m changing r before 1 into <r (like Aeolic), ms in
txomn above, and in the 3rd person singular of -pa verbs, rilyn,
lllun. See., and in noun stems, as in Uni tor an earlier *Ura.
-Neither dialect used the particle « or <a, bnt txith have Sr instead.
One of the effects of the change of 6 into y was that the combination
do changed in both dialects to yo, which in all Attic records and in
the later Ionic has become no by a metathesis in the quantity oi the
vowels: s 46 r, earlier roFin. " temple," is in Homeric Greek sy 4 t,
in inter Ionic and Attic rail. In the dative (locative) plural of the
-a stems, Ionic has generally -iyn on the analogy of the singular;
Attic had first the old locative form in -yn, -4*1, which survived
498 GREEK LANGUAGE
in forma which became adverbs like anil Hpin ; but
after 42b s.c. these wen replaced by -an, etifnut, dec. The Ionic
of Asia Minor showed many changes earlier than that of the Cyclades
and Euboea. It lost the aspirate very early: hence in the Ionic
alphabet H is i, not h ; it changed av and tv into no and to, and
very early replaced to a large extent the -pa by the -u verbs. This
confusion can be seen in progress in the Attic literature of the 5th
and 4lh centuries n.c., ttlsnu 1 gradually giving way to dtueruu,
while the literature generally uses forms like iplti for (impft ).
In Attica also the aspiration which survived in the Ionic of Euboea
and the Cyclades ceased by the end of the 5th century. The Ionic
of Asia Minor has io» as the genitive of i-stems; the other forms of
Ionic have -1801.
4. Jhiric .—As already mentioned, the dialects of the North-West
differ in several respects from Done elsewhere. As general character¬
istics of Doric may be noted the contractions of a + r into 4, and
of a f 0 or v into it, while the results 111 Attic and Ionic of these con¬
tractions are & and u respectively: Cruep from yiK&u, Attic Mta ;
ti pipte X |>1. pres. Iron! repau, Attic npuptr ; repAv gen. pi. of Tipid
" honour, * Attic repur. In inflection the most noticeable points are
the pronominal adverbs in locative form : roiTfi, rprel (this from a
stem limited to a few Doric dialects and the Bucolic Poets), rtilt,
Urn, dec. ; the 110111. pi of the article to/, rat, not al, al, and so
toutoi ill Selinus and Rhodes; the ist pi. of the verb in -fits,
not in -are, ip. the lathi -mas ; the aonst and future in where
other dialects liar 10 , or contraction from presents in -fw: 81* dfu,
donioiii, Done Seecdfu, Ac.; the future passive with active endings,
fsiarAydijorCrri (Rhodes), found as yet only in tile Doric islands
and in the Doric prose of Archimedes; the particles af “ if " and
»« with a similar value to the Aeolic « and the Attic-Ionic dv.
Doric hud an accentuation system different both from Aeolic and
from Ionic-Attic, but the details ol the system are very imperfectly
known.
< la older works Doric is often divided into a diatertus sevcrior and a
dialectus mills. Bui the difference is one of time rather than of
place, the peculiarities of Doric being gradually softened down till
it was ultimately merged in the lingua franca, tile noon), which in
tune engulfed all the local dialects except the descendant of Spartan,
Izakomuii. Here it is possible to mention its varieties only in the
briefest form, (a) l'he southern dialects are well illustrated in the
inscriptions of Laconia recently much increased in number by the
excavations of the British School at Athens. Apart from some brief
dedications, the earliest inscription of importance is the list of names
placed on a bronze column soon after 470 n.c. to commemorate the
tribes which had repulsed the Persians. The column, originally at
Delphi, is now at Constantinople. The most striking features of the
dialect arc the retention of f at the beginning of words, as in the
dedication from the 6th century faeuf/ftioi (Annual of British
School, xiv. 144). The dialect changed -<r- between vowels into
-A-, puha for Hilda " muse." Later it changed 6 into a sound like the
English th, which was represented by a. Before o-sounds t here and
in some other Doric dialects changed to 1: 0i6t, aiir for 8t6i " god."
I lie result o! contraction and " compensatory lengthening ” was not
« and 01. as in Attic and Ionic, but v and a : Ijpitr infinitive = Am
from •esmen ; gen. sing, of o-stems in u: del, acc. pi. in -us: glut ;
rfv was represented by 88, not f, as iu Attic-Ionic: puaiSSe .
juWij-t. The dialect has many strange words, especially in connexion
with the state education and organisation oi the boys and young men.
The Heraclcan tables from a Laconian colony in S. Italy have curious
forms m -airiri for the ilat. pi. oi the participle wpaaabrraaai =. Attic
XfidTroudi. Of the dialect of Messciua we know little, the long
inscription about mysteries from Andonia being only about 100 n.c.
From Argolis there are a considerable number of early inscriptions,
and in a later iorm of the dialect the cures recorded at the temple of
Asklepios at lipidaurus present many points oi interest. There is
also an inscription ol the bth century n.c. from the temple of
Aphaia in Aegma. F survives in the old inscriptions: FtFptpira
(=«fpijH*a); k, whether original or arising by sound change from- m(v,
persists till the iml century n.c. : harrt-r lySrera — p asriTiiyoffra rdn
vl6m=To8t Mi. The dialect ol the Jnaclius valley seems to
resemble Laconian more closely than does that of the rest of the
Argohc area. Corinth and her colonies in the earliest inscriptions pre-
servefand p ( - I .atari O) before n and I sounds, and write £ and if. by yd
and pa, the symlxils wluch are used also for tins purpose in old Attic.
In the Corcyrean and Sicilian forms ot the dialect, A before a dental
uppears as » : *owfa««'l’iAriar; and in Sicilian the perfect-active
was treated as a present Msnt for 8f8oora, Ac. From Megara
has come lately an obscure inscription from the beginning of the 5th
century ; its colony Sehnus has inscriptions from the middle of the
same Lcntury ; the inscriptions from Bysantium and its other Pontic
colonies date only from Hellenistic times. In Crete, which shows a
considerable variety of subdialects, the most important document is
the groat inscription from Gortyn containing twelve tallies of family
law, which was discovered in 1884. The local alphabet has no
sopuato symbols for * and p, and these sounds are therefore written
with « and x. As in Argive the combination >1 was kept both
medially and finally except before words beginning with a consonant •
-fv- was represented by f, later by- tt-, as in Thessalian and Boeotian :
8 x8ttoi, Attic 8x4*01; ,and finally bv -88-; A combined with a pre¬
ceding vowel into an on-diphthong: aieei, Attic dAn), cp. the English
pronunciation of talk, Ac. In Gortyn and some other towns -cl- was
assimilated to -88-, where 8 must have been a spirant like the English
th in thin ; f ol Attic Greek is represented initially by 8 , medially
by 88, but in some towns by r and tt: 8o8t (-Suit), 8un!88<»
(=>8i«dj-n»). Final consonants are generally assimilated to the
beginning of the next word. In inflection there are many local
peculiarities. In Melos and Thera some very old inscriptions have
been found written in an alphabet without Bymbols for p, x, p, t,
which are therefore written as xA, shot PA, xv, tar. The contractions
of « + « and of 0 + 0 are represented by E and O respectively. The
old rock inscriptions of Tliera are among the most archaic yet
discovered. The most characteristic feature of Rhodian Doric
is the infinitive in -pair: 16 /inr, dec. ( = Attic Seurat ), which
passed also to Gela and Agrigentum. The inscriptions from Cos
arc numerous, but too late to represent the earliest form ol the
dialect.
(8) The dialects of N.W. Doric, Locriau, Phocian, Aetoliau, with
which go Eleau and Achaean, present a more uncouth appearance
than the other Doric dialects except perhaps Cretan. Only from
Locris and Pilous come fairly old inscriptions; later a noon) was
developed, in which the documents of the Aetolian league are
written, and of which file most distinctive mark is the dative plurai
ot consonant stems in -on: dpxdrrois (--.Attic dpxovci), dyprou
(-Attic ayiiirc), Ac. Phocian and the Locriau of Opus have also
formB like Aeolic in -tern. In place of the dative in -ip, locatives in
-« are used in Locrian and Phocian. Generally north of the Corinthian
gulf the middle present participle item -ow-verbs ends in -ti/uroi ;
similar forms are found also in Elean. Locrian changed t before p
into a: rardpa for rarepa ; cf. English Kerr and Carr, sergeant and
Sargeaunt. <tt appears lor *8, and ? and F are still much in use in
the jih century n.c. Many thousands of inscriptions were found 111
the French excavations at Delphi, but nothing earlier than the jth
century n.c. in the older inscriptions the Aeolic influence—datives
in -teal, (wupa for 6 rapa- is better marked than later. In the
Laws ot the Labyad phratry (about 400 B.c.) the genitive is ui os,
but a. form in -w is also found, FqIku, which seems to be an old
ablative fossilized as an adverb. The 110m. pi. StKarrlropts is used
for the acc.; similar forms are found in Elean and Acliacau.
The more important of the older materials for Achaean come from
the Achaean colonies of S. Italy, and being scanty give us only an
imperfect view of the dialect, but it is clearly in its main feature-.
Doric. Much more remarkable is the Elean dialect known cliicfh
from inscriptions found at Olympia, some of which are as early as the
beginning of the bth century. The native dialect was replaced first
by a Doric and then by the Attic xonoj, but under the Caesars the
archaic dialect was restored. Many of its characteristics it shares
with the dialects north of the Corinthian gulf, but it changes original
« to a : pd^pri, Ac.; 8 was apparently a spirant, as in modern Greek
(--th iu English the, thine ) , and is represented by f in some of the
earliest inscriptions. Final -1 became -p; this is found also in
Laconian ; -ty- liecame -era-, but was not simplified as in Attic to
-er- : teera - Attic 8ire.
As we have seen, Ionians, Aetolians and Dorians tended to level
local peculiarities and make a generally intelligible dialect in which
treaties and other important records were framed. The language ol
literature is always of necessity to some extent a leatrij: with some
Greek writers the use oi a x out) was especially necessary. The
local dialect of Boeotia was not easily intelligible in other districts
and a writer like Pindar, whose patrons were mostly not Boeotians’
had perforce to write in a dialect that they could understand. Hence
he writes in a conventional Doric with Aeolic elements, which forms
a strong contrast to that of Corinna, who kept more or less closely
to the Boeotian dialect. For different literary purposes Greek laid
different xoivaf. A poet who would write an epic must adopt a
form of language modelled on that of Flumer and Hesiod; Alcaeus
and Sappho were the models for the low lyric, which was therefore
Aeolic ; Stesicliorus was the founder of the triumphal ode, which, as
he was a Dorian of Sicily, must henceforth be in Done, though Pindar
was an Aeolian, and its other duel representatives, Simonides and
Bacchylidos, were Ionians from Ceos. The choral ode of tragedy
was always conventional Done, and in the iambics also are Done
words like Spin, Mu, Ac. Elegy and epigram were founded on epic;
the satirical iambics ol Hipponax and his late disciple Herondas an¬
ionic. The first Greek prose was developed 111 Ionia, of which an
excellent example has been preserved to as in Herodotus. Thucy¬
dides was not an Ionian, but he could not shake himself free of the
tradition : he therefore writes rpdercu, rdereru, Ac., with -era-, which
was Ionic, but is never found in Attic inscriptions nor in the writers
who imitate the language of common life—Anstoplianes (when not
parodying tragedy, or other forms of literature or dialect), Plato and
the Orators (with the partial exception of Antiphon, who ordinarily
has -fftr-, but in the one speech actually intended for the law-courts
-it-). Similarly Hippocrates and his medical school in Cos wrote
m Ionic, not, however, in the Ionic of Herodotus, but in a language-
more akin to the Ionic not 1*4 of the inscriptions; and this dialect
continued to be used in medicine later, much as doctors now use
I-atin for their prescriptions. The first literary document written
m Attic prose is the treatise on the Constitution of Athens, which is
generally printed amongst the minor works of Xenophon, but realh
belongs to about 425 B.c. From the fragment of Aristophanes'
GREEK LANGUAGE
+99
Banqueters and Irom the first speech of Lysias “ Against Thoomnestos''
it is dear that the Attic dialect had changed rapidly in the fith and
5th con tunes b.c., and tliat much of the phraseology of Solon's laws
was no longer intelligible by 400 B.c. Among the most difficult of
the literary dialects to trace is the earliest—the Homeric dialect.
The Homeric question cannot be discussed here, and on that question
it may be said guot homines tot sententiae. To the present writer,
however, it seems probable that the poems were composed in Chios
as tradition asserted; the language contains many Aeolisms, and
the lieroes sung are, except for the Athenians (very briefly referred
to), and possibly Telamoman Ajax, not of the Ionic stock. Chios was
itself an Ionicuied Aeolic colony (Diodorus v. 81. 7). The hypothesis
of a great poet writing on the basis of earlier Aeolic lays («M«
irl/mr) in Chios seems to explain the main peculiarities of the
Homeric language, which, however, was modified to some extent
in later times first under Ionic and afterwards under Athenian
influence.
Of Dorian literature we know Uttle. The works of Archimedes
written in the Syracusan dialect were much altered in language by
tile late copyists. The most striking development of the late classical
age in Doric lands is that of pastoral poetry, which, like Spenser, is
" writ in no language," hut, on a basis of Syracusan and possibly
Coan Doric, has in its structure many elements borrowed from the
Aeolic love lyric and from epic.
From the latter part of the 5U1 century b.c. Athens became ever
more important as a literary centre, and Attic prose became the
model lor the later xois^, which grew up as a consequence of the
decay of the local dialects. For this decay there were several
reasons. If the Athenian empire had survived the Peloponnesian
War, Attic influence would no doubt soon have permeated the whole
of tliat empire. This consummation was postponed. Attic became
the court language of Macedon, and, when Alexander's conquests
led to the foundation of great new towns, like Alexandria, filled with
inhabitants from all parti of the Greek world, this dialect furnished
a basis for common intercourse. Naturally the resultant dialect
was not pure Attic. There were in it considerable traces of Ionic.
In Attica itself the dialect was less uniform tlian elsewhere even in
the 5th century sx., because Athens was a centre of empire, litera¬
ture and commerce. Like every other language which is not under
the dominion of the schoolmaster, it borrowed the names of foreign
objects which it imported from foreign lands, not only from those ol
Greek-speaking peoples, but also from Egypt, Persia, Lydia, Phoe¬
nicia, Thrace and elsewhere. The Ionians were great seafarers, and
Irom them Athens borrowed words for seacraf t and even for the tides :
d/iruTii "ebb," payia "high tidej” an Ionic word /Stixhj spelt in
Attic fashion. F'rom the Dorians it borrowed words connected with
war and sport: Xoyayli, evraybt, &c. A soldier of fortune like
Xenophon, who spent most ot his life away from Athens, introduced
not only strange words but strange grammatical constructions also
into his literary compositions. With Aristotle, not a bom Athenian
but long resident in Athens, the xoiei) may be said to have begun.
Some characteristics of Attic foreigners found it hard to acquire—
its subtle use of particles and its accent. Hence in lielleuistic Greek
particles are comparatively rare. According to Cicero, Theophrastus,
who came from as near Attica as Eretria in Euboea, was easily
detected by a market-woman as no Athenian after he had lived
thirty' years in Athens. Thoucritus, an Athenian, who was taken
prisoner in the Peloponnesian War and Uved for many years in
Epirus as a slave, was unable to recover the Athenian accent on his
return, and his family lay under the suspicion that they were an
alien’s children, as his son tells us in Demosthenes’ speech " Against
Eubulides,” In the none) there were several divisions, though the
hue between them is faint and irregular. There was a nowi) of
literary men like Polybius and of carefully prepared state documents,
as at Magnesia or Pergamum; and a different Koa>h of the vulgar
which is represented to us in its Egyptian form in the Pentateuch,
in a later and at least partially Palestinian form in the Gospels.
Still more corrupt is the language which we find in the ill-written
and ill-spelt private letters iound amongst tile Egyptian papyri.
Not out of the old dialects but out of this court) arose modem Greek,
with a variety of dialects no less bewildering than that of ancient
Greek. In one place more rapidly, in another more slowly, the
characteristics of modem Greek begin to appear. As we have seen,
in lloootia the vowels and diphthongs began to pass into the char¬
acteristic sounds of modern Greek four centuries before Christ.
Dorian dialects illustrate early the passing of the old aspirate 9 ,
the sound of which was like the final t in English bit ! into a sound like
the English th in thin, pith, which it still retains m modem Greek.
The change of 7 between voweis into a y sound was charged by the
comic poets against Hypcrholus the demagogue about 415 B.c.
Only when the Attic sound changes stood isolated amongst tlie Greek
dialects did they give way in the nuj to Ionic. Thus the forms
with -ere- instead of -rr- won the day, while modem Greek shows that
sometimes the -pg- whiob Attic shared with some Doric dialects aad
Arcadian was retained, and that sometimes the Ionic -pa-, which
was also Lesbian and partly Doric, took its place. In other cases,
where Ionic and Attic did not agree, forms came in which were
different from either: the genitives of masculine t steins were now
formed as In Doric with 1 , but the analogy of the other cases may
have been the effective force. The form robe " temple,” instead of
Ionic ri> 4 », Attic ruht, can only be Doric. 1 In the first five centuries ol
the Christian era came in the modem Greek characteristics of Itacism
and vowel contraction, of the pronunciation of nr and rr as mb
and nd and many other sound changes, the loss of the dative and the
confusion of the 1st with the 3rd declension, the dropping of the -pi
conjugation, the loss of the optative and the assimilation of the
imperfect and second aorist endings to those of the first aorist.-
There were meantime spasmodic attempts at the revival of the ok!
language. Lucian wrote Attic dialogue with a facility almost equal
to Plato; the old dialect was revived in the inscriptions of Sparta;
Balbilla, a lady-in-waiting on Hadrian's ompress, wrote epigrams
in Aeolic, and there were other attempts of the same kind. But they
were only lours de force, ejm ’AW«Jo>, whose flowers had no root
in the spoken language and therefore could not survive. Even in
the hands oi a cultivated man like Plutarch the iroouj of the zst
century a.d. looks entirely different from Attic Greek. Apart from
non-Altic constructions, which arc not very numerous, the difference
consists largely in the new vocabulary of the philosophical schools
since Aristotle, whose jargon had become part of the language of
educated men in Plutarch's time, and made a difference In the
language not unlike tliat which has been brought about in English
by the development of the natural sciences. It is hardly’necessary
to say that these clianges, whether of the xwvij or of modem Greek,
did not of necessity impair the powers of the language as an organ of
expression ; if elaborate inflection were a necessity for the highest
literary merit, then we must prefer Caedmon to Mflton and Cynewulf
to Shakespeare.
The Chief Characteristics of Grech.
As is obvious from the foregoing account of the Greek dialects,
it is not possible to speak of the early history of Greek as handed
down to us as that of a single uniform tongue. From tlic earliest
times it shows much variety of dialect accentuated by £he geo¬
graphical characteristics of the country, but arising, at least in part,
from the fact that the Greeks came into the country in separate
waves divided from one another by centuries. For the history of the
language it is necessary to take as a beginning the form of the Indo-
European language from which Greek descended, so far as it can be
reconstructed from a comparison of the individual I.E. languages
(see Indo-Eukopban Lanouaoks). The sounds of this language, so
far as at present ascertained, were the following:—
(a) 11 vowels : a, S, e, i, i, I,o,t, u, u, 0 (a short indistinct vowel).
(b) 14 diphthongs: ai, au, ei, eu, oi, cm, Si, Su, It, iu, Si, Ik, »«', »k.
(e) 20 stop consonants.
Labials: p, b, ph, bh (ph and bh being p and 6 followed by an
audible breath, not / and v).
Dentals : t, d, th, dh {th and dh not spirants like the two English
sounds in thin and then, but aspirated I and d).
Palatals 1 It, §, fch, £h {hh and eh aspirates as explained above).
Velars : q, f, qh, th (velars diner from palatals by being produced
against the soft palate instead of the root of the mouth).
Labio-vclars: eft, f’.‘, qih, t'th (these differ from the velars by being
combined with a slight labial le-sound).
(d) Spirants—
Labial: w.
Dental: s, e, post-dental f, t, interdental possibly )>, tl.
Palatal: x (Scotch ch) , y.
Velar: x (a deeply guttural y. heard now in Swiss dialects), 3.
Closely akin to w and y and often confused with them were
the semi vowels u and j.
(c) Liquids: C,r.
(/) Nasals: m (labial), « (dental), A (palatal), ti (velar), the last
three in combination with similar consonants.
(a) As far as the vowels are concerned, Greek retains the original
state of things more accurately than any other language. The sounds
of short e and short o in Attic and Ionic were close, so that e+e
contracted to a long close e represented by «, 0 + 0 to a long close 0
represented by on. In these dialects «, both long and short, was
modified to it, and they changed the long S to I, though Attic has 4
after (, 1 and p. In Greek 9 appeared regularly as a, but under the
influence of analogy often as r and 0.
(b) The. short diphthongs as a whole remained unchanged before a
following consonant. Before a following vowel the diphthong was
divided Ix-tween the two syllables, the 1 or v forming a consonant at
the beginning of the second syllable, which ultimately disappeared.
Thus from a root dheu- " run ” comes a verb Mu for Bt-fu, from
an earlier *Bev-u. The corresponding adjective is Beta “swift,”
tor lo-fo-i, from an earlier * 6 ov- o-«. The only dialect which kept
the whole diphthong in one syllable was Aeolic. The long diph¬
thongs, except at the ends of wordB, were shortened In Attic. Some
of there appear merely as long vowels, having lost their second
element in the proethnic period. Apparent long diphthongs like
those in \qrevpyla, eiffu arise by contraction ot two syllables.
(c) The consonants suffered more extensive change. The voiced
aspirates became unvoiced, so tliat bh, dh, )h, th, Ph are confused
with original ph, th, fat, qh, q*h : I.E. *bherS (Skt. bharSmi) It Gr.
ptpur: I.E. *ah(tmos (Skt. dhumas), Gr. Bvfdn ; I.E. *t}himo- (Skt.
1 Thumb, Die /riechuche Sprache im Zeiiaiter dts HeUeniemus
(1901), pp. 242-243.
* Thumb, op. cit. p. 249.
500 GREEK LANGUAGE
h*ma~), Gr. (8i/r)-xi/*o-f; I.E. (Skt. stigh-), Gr. *rlx*t;
I.E. (Skt. han^), Gr. title 0 (probably), +bvot.' The palatal
and velar nene# cannot be diHtmguished in Greek; for the differ¬
ence* between them resort must be had to languages of the ittiem-
group, such as Sanskrit, Zend or Slavonic, where the palatals appear
aa sibilants (see IndowEukopban Languages). The labio-vetor
senes present a great variety of forms in the different Greek dialects,
and in the same dialect before different sounds. Thus in Attic before
o vowels, nasals and liquids, the series apjwars as r, p, <p ; before a
and 1 vowels as r, p(d), 0; in combination with *, which led to loss
of the if by dissimilation, k, y, *. Thus Hopxu corresponds to the
Latin seauo-r, apart .from the ending; /*oi t to Latin bos (borrowed
from Sabine), English cow; ipbvoi "slaughter,” gmtpeoe, old Irish
f oHitn, " 1 wound/' Parallel to these forms with p are forms in the
talic languages except Latin and Faliscan, and in the Cymric
group of tlie Celtic languages. 'Hie dental forms r, 8, 0 stand by
themselves. Thun rt» (from tlie same root as toO, ro<, srdtite, etc.)
is parallel to the Latin quts, the Onc&n pis, old Irish cla, Welsh pwy,
"who?” “what?”; Attic rirrapts, Ionic receipts "four,” is
parallel to Latin quattum , Oscan rtropa, old Irish cethu , old Welsh
petguar; rUnt is from the sume root as rmeif. 1*'or the voiced
sound, p is much mort common than 8 before c and i sounds; thus
"life,” from tlie same root as Skt. jlvas, Latin vivus ; pi 6s
” bowstring,” Skt jyd, Ac. In Arcado-C'yprian and Aeolic, r and p
often precede c and i sounds. Thus parallel to Attic rirraprs
Lesbian lias triei vpes, Homer rlevpts, Boeotian irlrreipts; Thes-
salian plXXopai, Boeotian (iuXofiai alongside of Attic poi>\onai,
Lesbian pttXXopu.i, Doric PwXopai and also tyXopai. In Arcadian
and Cyprian the form corresponding to ns was att, in Thessalian
nit, where the labialization was lost (see the article on (j).
A gr<‘Ut variety of changi*s in the stopped consonants arose in
combination with other sounds, esjjccially {(a semivowel of tlie nature
of English v), Y (a*) and a ; -t*-, -0p became first -<ra- and later -a- in
Attic Greek, -rr- in Boeotian (tlie precise pronunciation of -era- and
-TT- is uncertain) ; Attic 6 -t6oqs, earlier b-xboaos, Boeotian b-xbrnts,
from the same stem as tlie Latin quot , quotiens ; Homeric piacros,
Attic fUffos from *petiios, Latin medius ; -xi- became -aa-,
Attic -rr-; xlaaa "pitch,” Attic vlrra from *rffqa, cp. Latin
pi % t puis, iXdaoiov, Attic tXdrrwv comparative to Aaxw. 8* and 7$
became^ f: 7 tn>s (Skt. Dyaus) iXirifa from iXiris, stem iXxi 5 -
f * aaT ^ u, ^ roIn A*.t£o"rif, stem poLOTiy- " lash.”
{d) The sound f was represented m the Greek alplialx-t by F, the
" digamma,” but in Attic and Ionic tlie sound was lost very early,
iu Aeolic, particularly Boeotian and Lesbian, it was persistent, and
so also in many Doric dialects, especially at the beginning of words.
When tlie Ionic alphabet was adopted by districts which had retained
F, it was represented by p: PpbSoe Aeolic for frhbov, i.e. FpbSor.
In Attic it disappeared, leaving no trace ; in Ionic it lengthened tlie
preceding syllable; thus in Homer vvodeLaat is scanned with 0long
Itemise the root of the verb contained F : dFn-. Attic has i^os,
but Ionic ijtiyot for &pFos. Its combination with r became -a<r-,
Attic and Boeotian -rr , in ri<ro\pt t, r^rrapps, T^rraper for I.E. qXetu-.
But the most effective of all elements m changing tlie appearance
of Greek words was the sound a. Beiore vowels at the beginning,
or Ix’tweeu vowels 111 the middle of words, it passed into an h sound,
the ” rough breathing.” Thus ixrd is the same word as tlie l*atm
sepiem , English seven ; &X-s lias tlie same stem as the Latin sal,
English sal-t ; tttw for tvhw is the same as the Latin uro ( *euso ).
Combined with } or y also it passes into h: i>nM, Skt. syuman,
baud”; s, J)orit fi8i»s } Latin sua(d)vis, linghsh sweet; cp.
Otnoio lor •foiAo^o, nibs. Lesbian *ewo5 ” temple., through •'am
froni *vo.<jFo-s connected with »alu ” dwell.” Before nasals and
liquids s was assimilated: p* i-8dw, Latin mi-ru-s, English smile;
vlpa, Latin invent, English snow ; Xiiyw, Latin laxus, English slcuk ;
flora *Air#-o of tlie same origin as English stream (where t is a
later insertion), imperfect tpptov for *csrcitom ; cp. also <piXo/upel6i/s,
dydreupos, dW^xrof.
After nasals s is usmiuilated excejh finally ; when assimilated, in all
dialects except Aeolic the previous syllable is lengthened if not
already long: Attic heipa, fpt tra for Die first aorist **ncmsa.
emensa ; but rbrs, rdrt, A:c., of the accusative pi. either remoineci
or liecamc iu Aeolic rois, raft, in Ionic and Attic roi'<s, rds, in Doric
tws, rds; cp. ri0tfj lor *tiQIv ts , (ids lor its “one” for
sem-s, then by aualogy of tlie neuter *sens. Assimilation of <r to
preceding o and X is a matter of dialect: Ionic dapclu, but Attic
Jappw, and so also the Doric of Thera: tetXaa, but lertiXa for
tvrtXer*. W1U1 nasals 1 affected tlie pluvious syllable: Texra^w
Tf*TP* w )» w h* r< * ? tlie nasal of the stem tIktup , itself forming a
syllable (see the article N for these so-called sonant nasals). Before
* original m Ixj comes n ; hence ftalvu with n, tliough from the same
root as Englisli come. Original * dcx*s not survive in Greek, but is
represented by the aspirate at the txrginning of words, Ayvor^Skt.
yajnas ; medially after consonants it disappears, affecting the
preceding consonant or eyllable where a cousonant precedes;
lictween vowels it .lisapjiiim. A sound of t)u- same kind is
indicated in Cyprian and.^ome other dialects us a glide or transition
•iound between two vowels.
(e) ib« moet remarkable feature in the treatment of the nasals is
thal when n or m forms a svlluble by it sc It its consonant character
disappears altogether and it is represented by the vowel a only :
rar 4 », Latin tenlus, «- negative particle, Latin fa, English mn -
has the same prefix as the Latin aim-piex (siji). The liquids
in similar cases show Xft or eX and f*. tit up: W-rXa-n« > , -
HpMov, Ppturfa, Dipxat. ’
The ends of words were modified in appearance by the loss of aB
stop-oonsonants and the change of final sites, drib, Latin dixit-
lisyis, Latin iugurn.
Accent .—The vowel System of Greek has been so well preserved
because it shows till late times very little in the wav of stress accent
As in early Sanskrit the acoent was predominantly a pitch accent
(see Accent),
Noun System.— The I.E. noun had three numbers, but the dual
was limited to pairs, the two hands, the two horses in the chariot
and was so little in use that the original form of the oblique cases
cannot be restored with certainty. Ionic has no dual. The I.E.
noun had the following cases : Nominative, Accusative, Genitive
AI dative. Instrumental, Locative and Native. The vocative was
not properly a case, because it usually stands outside the syntactical
construction of the sentence ; when a distinctive form appears, it is
the bare stem, and there is no form (separate from the nominative)
for the plural. Greek haB confused genitive and ablative (the dis¬
tinction between them seems to have been derived from tlie pro¬
nouns), except for the solitary Folxu^otKcde.. In an inscription
of Delphi. Tlie instrumental, locative and dative an- mixed in one
case, partly for phonetic, partly for syntactical reasons. In Arcadian,
Elean, Boeotian, and later widely in N. Greece, the locative -oi is
used for the dative. The masculine d-stems make tlie nom. in
most dialects In -as. The genitive is in -fie (with o Imrrowed from
the o-stems), which remains in Homer and Boeotian, appears in
Arcado-Cyprian as -an, and with metathesis of quantity -«» in
Ionic. The Attic form in -<w is borrowed directly from the o-stems.
In the plural the -fi and -o stems follow the article in making their
nominatives in -a. and -w instead of the original -is and -6s. The
neuter plural was in origin a collective singular, and for this reason
takes a singular verb; the plural Of Jvyfi. " yoke “ was originally
and declined like any other-astern. But through the influence
of the masculine and feminine forms the neuter took the same oblique
caseB, and like its own singular made the accusative the same as the
nominative. In the plural of -S and -6 stems, the locative in sun,
•oun was long kept apart from the instrumental-dative form fa
-an, -on.
'1 he Verb Avrisnf.-^The verb system of Greek is more complete
than that of any of the other I.F.. languages. Its only rival, the early
Vedic verb system, is already in decay when history begins, and
when the classical period of Sanskrit arrives tile moods have broken
down, and the aorist, perfect, and imperfect tenses are syntactically
confused. Throughout the Greek classical period the" moods are
maintained, but in the period of the rauo) the optative occurs less
and less and finally disappears. The original I.E. had two voices,
an active and a middle, and to these Greek has added a third, the
passive, distinguished from the middle in many verbs by separate
forms for the future and aorist, made with a syllable -thf, Tip^eopn,
trmrithiv, though in this instance, Teemjyai, the future middle, is
often used with a jiassive sense. Other forms which Greek has added
to the original system are the pluiierfect—fa form a past oi the
perfect Stem with aorist endings. It merely expressed the perfect
action in past time, and, except as derived from the i ontext, did not
IKissess tlie notion of relative time (past at a time already past),
which Attaches to the Latin forms with tlie same name. The (uture
optative was also a new formation, betraying its origin in the fact
that it is almost entirely limited to Oratin Oblique. The aorist
imperatives were also new: the history of some of them, as the second
sing. act. raDcoif, is not very cleat. The whole verb system is atlectcd
by the distinction between -6 and -mi verbs; the former or thematic
verbs have a so-called "thematic vowel" between the root and the
personal suffix, while the mi verbs attach the suffixes directly to
the root. The distinction Ir really one between monosyllabic arid
disyllabic roots. The history of tlie personal endings is not altogether
clear; the -6 verbs have in the present forms for the and and 3rd
person in -«t and which are not yet elucidated. In the middle.
Greek does not entirely agree with Sanskrit in its persona) endings,
and the original forms cannot all be restored with certainty. The
endings of the primary tenses differed from those of the secondary,
but there has been a certain amount of confusion between them.
The syntax of the verb is founded on the original I.E. distinction
of the verb forms, not by time (tense), but by forms of action, pro¬
gressive action (present and imperfect), consummated action (aorist),
state arising from action, emphatic or repeated action (perfect).
For the details of this see iNno-E uropean Languages.
Bibliography.— (i.) A grammar of Greek, which will deal fully
with the whole material of the language, is at present a desideratum,
and is hardly possible so long as new dialect material is being con¬
stantly added and while comparatively so little has been done on
the syntax of the dialects. The greatest collection of material is
to be found to the new edition of Kfihncr's Grieehische GrammUih,
Laut- nit if hormentehre. by Blass (s vols., iSt/o-iHqa); Syntax, by
Gerth (» vols., 1S96, 1900). Blass’s part is useful only for material
the explanations being entirely antiquated. The only fall historical
account oi the language (sounds, forms and Byntax) at present in
existence is K. Brugmana’s Gnechiuhe Grammatih (3rd ed., 1900)
GREEK LAW 501
Gustav Meyer'* Griechiscke lirammatih (nothing on accent or syntax),
which did excellent pioneer work when it first appeared in 1880, was
hardly brought up to date in its 3rd edition (1896), but is still useful
for the dialect and bibliographical material collected. See also
H. Hirt, Handbuch der griech. Laid- and Formenlehre (1902). Of
smaller grammars in English perhaps the most complete is that of
. Thompson (London, 1902). The grammar of Homer was bandied
y I). B. Monro (2nd ed., Oxford, 1891). The syntax has been treated
In many special works, amongst which may be mentioned W. W.
Goodwin, Syntax of the Greek Moods and Tenses (now ed,, 1889);
B. L. Gildersleeve and C. W. E, Miller, Syntax of Classical Greek from
Homer to Demosthenes, pt. i. (New York, 1901—and following);
I . M. Stahl, Kritisch-histonscher Syntax des griechischen Yerbums
(1907) ; F. E. Thompson, Attic Greek Syntax (1907). (li.) The
relations between Greek and the other I.E. languages are very well
brought out in P. Kretschmer's Einleitung m die Geschichle der
griechischen Sprache (Gottingen, 1890). For comparative grammar
see K. Brugmann and B. Delbruck, Grundriss der vergleichenien
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (the 2nd ed., begun 1897,
is still incomplete) and Brugmann's Kurte vergleichende Grammatik
(1902-1903); A. Moillet, Introduction A I'itude comparative des langues
tnao-europeennes (2nd ed., 1908). Greek compared with Latin and
English; P. Giles, A Short Manual of Comparative Philology fur Classical
Students (2nd ed., 1901, with an appendix containing a brief account
and specimens ot the dialects); Kiemanu and Goelzer, Grammoire
comparative du Grec ot du Latin (1901), a parallel grammar in 2 vols.,
specially valuable for syntax, (in.) For the dialects two works have
recently appeared, both covering m briet space the whole field:
A. Thumb, Handbuch der griechischen Dixie hie (with bibliographies
for each dialect, 1909); 0 . L>. Buck, Introduction to the Study of the
Greek Dialects, Grammar, Selected Inscriptions, Glossary (no date,
1910). Works on a larger scale have been undertaken bv R. Meistar,
by O. Hoffmann and by H. W. Smyth. For the xoirh may be
specially mentioned A. Thumb, Die gnech. Sprache in Zeitalter des
Hellenismus (1901) ; E. Mayser, Grammatik der griechischen Papyri
aus derPtolemaereeit: Loaf- und Wortlehre (190O); H. St J. Thackeray,
A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek, vol. i. (1909) ; Blass,
Grammar of blew 1 estamen/ Greek, trans. by Thackeray (1898); J. H.
Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek. I. Prolegomena (3rd
ed., 1906). (iv.) For the development from the sono) to modern
Greek : A. N. Jannaris, An Historical Greek Grammar, chiefly of the
A Hu Dialect, as written and spoken from Classical A ntiquily down
to the Present Time (igoi) ; G. N. Hatzidakis, Einleitung in die
neugnechische Grammatik (1892); A. Thumb, Handbuch der neu-
griei.hischen Volkssprachc (2nd ed. 1910). (v.) The inscriptions are
collected in Inscnptiones Graecae in the course of publication by
the Berlin Academy, those important for dialuct in the bammlung
der gnech. Diakktinschnften, edited by CoUitz and Bechtel. The
earlier parts of this collection are to some extent superseded by
later volumes of the Inscr. Graecae, containing better readings and.
new inscriptions. A good selection (too brief) is SobnBen's Jnscrip-
tinnes Graecae ad inlustrandas dtalectos selectae (3rd ed., 1910). A
serviceable luxicou for dialect words is van Herwerden's Lexicon
(,rucruin suppletorium at dialecticum (2nd ed., much enlarged, 2 vols.
19in), (vi.) The historical basis for the distribution of the Greek
dialects is discussed ul length in the histories of E. Meyer ( Geschichle
des Altertums, ii.) and G. Busolt (Grtechtsche Geschichle, i.): by Pro-
lessor ltidgeway, Early Age of Greece, i. (1901), and P. Kretschmer
in Glotta, i. 9 if. See also A. Kick, Die wrgriechischen Qrtsnamen
(1905). (vii.) Bibliographies containing the new publications on
Greek, with some account of their contents, appear from time
to time in lndogermantsche Porschungen: Anseiger (Strassburg,
Triibncr), annually in Glotta (Gottingen, Yandenhoeok und
Ituprocht), and The Year’s Work in Classical Studies (London,
Murray). (P. Gt.j
GREEK LAW. Ancient Greek law is a branch of comparative
jurisprudence the importance of which has been long ignored.
Oreakiuw J ur t sts have commonly left its study to scholars, who
ami com- have generally refrained from comparing the institu-
paratlve tions of the Greeks with those of other nations. Greek
A"'*- law has, however, been partially compared with
prudtaea. £ oman j aw> has been incidentally illustrated
with the aid of the primitive institutions of the Germanic
nations. Il may now be studied in its earlier stages in the
laws of Gortyn ; its influence may he traced in legal docu¬
ments preserved in Egyptian papyri; and it may be recognized
as a consistent .whole in its ultimate relations to Roman law in
the eastern provinces, of the Roman empire.
The existence of certain panhellenic principles of law Is implied
by the custom of settling a difference between two Greek states,
or between members of a single state, by resorting to external
arbitration. The general unity of Greek law is mainly to be
seen in , the laiws of inheritance and adoption, in laws of commerce
and contract, and in the publicity uniformly given to legal
agreements.
No systematic collection of Greek laws has come down to
tts. Our knowledge of some of the earliest notions of the subject
is derived from lie Homeric poems. For the dBtails
of Attic law we have to depend on 4* port* statements 2 Jj£o-
in the speeches of the Attic orators, and we are some- rtttee.
times enabled to check those statements by the.
trustworthy, but often imperfect, aid of inscriptions. Incidental
illustrations, of the laws of Athens may be found in the Laws
of Plato, who deals with the theory of the subject withost
exercising any influence on actual practice. The Laws of
Plato are criticized in the Politics of Aristotle, who, besides
discussing laws.in their relation to constitutions, reviews the
work of certain early Greek lawgivers. The treatise on the
Constitution of Athens includes, an account of the jurisdiction! of
the various public officials and of the machinery of the law courts,
and thus enables us to dispense with the second-hand testimony
of grammarians and scholiasts who derived their information
from that treatise (see Constitution on Athens). The works
of Theophrastus On the Laws, which, included a recapitulation of
the laws of various barbaric as well as Grecian states, are now
represented by only a few fragments (Nos. 97-106* edi. Wimmer),
Our earliest evidence is to be sought in the Homeric poems.
In the primitive society of the heroic age (as noticed by Plato)
written laws were necessarily unknown; for, “in
that early period, they had no letters; they lived turner.
by habit and by the customs of their ancestors ’’ (Louis,
680 a). We find a survival from a still more primitive time ih
the savage Cyclops, who is “ unfamiliar with dooms of law, or
rules of right ” (our* Sotos at tlSdra ours Oe/Mtrras, Od. ix. 215
and 112 f.).
Dike ( 3 Uy), assigned by Curtius (Etym. 134) to the same root as
Itiwtyu, primarily means a " way pointed out," a " comae pre¬
scribed by usage,“ hence " way " or “ fashion,” " manner " oiu.
or 11 precedent." In the Homeric poems it sometimes
signifies a " doom " of law, a legal " right," a “ lawsuit ” : while It
is rarely synonymous with " justice," as in Od. xiv 84, Where
" the gods honour justice," Tioun SIk s».
Various senses oi " right " are expressed in the same poems by
themis (tfrius), a term assigned (ii. 254) to the same root as rtOrnu.
In its primary sense themis is that which " has been laid TMamts.
down ” ; hence a ]>artif.iilar decision or ” doom.” The
plural themistes implies a liody of such precedents, " rules of right,"
which the king receives from Zeus withi his sceptre (II. ix. 99).
Themis and dike have sometimes been compared with the Roman fas
and jus respectively, the former being regarded as of divine, the
latter of human origin ; and this is more satisfactory than the latest
view (that of Hfirzel), which makes " counsel '* the primary meaning
of themis.
Thesmos (fltcnii), an ordinance (from the same root as themis), is ■
not found in " Homer," except in the last line of the _
original form of the Odyssey (xxiii. 296), where it probably vomea.
refers to the " ordinance " of wedlock. The common
tens for law, rt/wi, is first found in Hesiod, but not in a specially
legal sense (e.g. Op, 27C).
A trial for homicide is one of the scenes represented on the
shield of Achilles (It. xviii. 497-508). The folk are here to lie
seen thronging the market-place, where a strife has
arisen between two men as to the price of a man that moeuc.
has been slain. The slayer vows that he has paid all
(«i!x<to irdvr uiroSouwu), the kinsman of the slain protests
that he has received nothing (dpruVrao pjSiv IA«r6ai); both
are eager to join issue liefore an umpire, and both are favoured
by their friends among the folk, who are kept back by the heralds.
The cause is tried by the elders, who are seated on polished
stones in a sacred circle, and' in the midst there lie two talents
of gold, “ to give tn him who, among them all, sets forth the
cause most rightly ” (mj> 8 it/stv os peril tom ri Stm/v Wiv tutimStoi).
The discussions of the above passage have chiefly turned an two
points: (a) the legal questions at issue; and (2) ths destination of
the" twotalente." (1) In the ordinary view («), it issolefy a question
whether the fine or bloodrsnoney, corresponding to the Wergeld (see
Wkroeuj, Teutonic Peoples, Britain: Anglo-Saxon) ot the old
Germanic law (Grimm, RecMsaherthttmer, 661 t), has been paid or
not (This is accepted by Thonlssen. Lipsius Sidgwick and Ridge¬
way.) In the other view. (8), it is held that the slayer " claimed to
pay *' the fine, aadi the kinsman of the darn " refused to accept any.
compensation ” (so Passow and leaf, approved by Pollock). (2) The
" two talents ” (shown by Ridgeway to be a smalt sum, equal in
5 02
GREEK LAW
value to two oxen) are awarded either (a) to the litigant who ' pleads
his cause moat justly before them " (so Thonissen, Shilleto and
I.ip»ius, in accordance with the Attic use of phrases like Skip tlwtTr),
or ( b ) to the judge " who, among all the elders, gives the most
righteous judgment " («o Maine, approved by Sidgwick, Pollock,
Leaf and Ridgeway).
On this controversy, cf. Maine’s Ancient Law, chap. x. pp. 385 {.,
405 f., ed. Pollock ; Thonissen, Droit pfnal (1875), 27 ; P. M.
Laurence (on Shilleto’s view) in Journal of Philology, viii. (1870),
125 f. ; Ridgeway, ib. x. (1882), y> f . and Journal of Hellenic Studies,
viii. (18H7), 133 f.; and Leaf, ib. viii. 122 f., and in his Commentary
on Iliad, ii. (1902), 610-613 : also J. II. Jupsius in Lriptiger Sludieu,
xii. (i8yo), 225-231, criticized by H. Sidgwick in Classical Review,
viii. (1894), 1-4.
We are told elsewhere in Homer that sometimes a man accepted
blood-money from the slayer of his brother or his son, and that
the slayer remuined in the lund after paying thus penalty (II. ix.
633). As a rule the slayer found it safest to flee (Od. xxiii.
11k f.), but even so. he might be pursued by the friends of the
slain (Od. xv. 272-278). If he remained, the land was not (as
in later ages) deemed to ire polluted by his presence. In Homer,
Orestes does not Jay Clytaemestra, and he needs n. “ purifica¬
tion ” for slaying Aegisthus.
The laws of Sparta are ascribed to the legislation of Lycurgus,
whose traditional date is 884 b . c . Written laws are said to have
Qreek i*w-' ,een expressly forbidden by Lycurgus (Plutarch,
given 1 Lycurgus, 13); hence the “ laws of Sparta ” are simply
Lycurgus a body of traditional observances. We learn that all
«t Spurts. tr [ a ] s f or homicide came lief ore the Council of Elders
and lasted for several days, and that all civil causes were tried
by the ephors (q.v.). We are also told that originally the land
was equally divided among the citizens of Sparta, and that this
equality was enforced by law (Polybius vi. 45-46). Early in the
4th century the ephor Epitadeus, owing to a disagreement with
his son, enacted that every Spartan should be allowed to transfer
his estate and his allotment to any other person (Plutarch, Agt's,
5), while Aristotle, in a much-debated passage of the Politics
(ii. q. 14-15), criticizes the Spartan constitution for allowing the
accumulation of property in a few hunds, an evil aggravated by
the large number of “ heiresses ” ; “a man (he adds) may
bestow his heiress on any one he pleases; and, if he dies intestate,
this privilege descends to his heir.”
law was first reduced to writing in the 7th century b . c . A
written code is a necessary condition of just judgment, and
such a code was the first concession which the people
in tho Creek cities extorted from the ruling aristocracies.
The change was generally effected with the aid of a
single legislator entrusted with complete authority
to draw up a code.
The first communities to reach this stage of progress were
the Creek colonies in the West. The Epizephyrian l.ocrians,
Zuhucue nt ‘ar the extreme south of Italy, received the earliest
mt Loari written code from Zaleucus ((>63 b . c .), whose strict
Bplee- and severe legislation put an end to a period of strife
phyrti. auj confusion, though we know little of his laws,
except that they attached definite penalties to each offence,
and that they strictly protected the rights of property. Two
centuries later, his code wus adopted even by the
etCrtuu* Athenian colony of Thurii in south Italy (443 b.c.).
* <c- ’ Charondas, the “ disciple ” ol Zaleucus, became the
lawgiver, not only of his native town of Catana on the
cast coast of Sicily, but also of other Chalcidian colonies in
Sicily and Italy. The laws of Charondas were marked by a
singular precision, but there was nothing (says Aristotle)
that he could claim as his own except the special
mugium. procedure against false witnesses (Politics, ii. 12. 11).
In the case of judges who neglected to serve in the
law courts, he inflicted a large fine on the rich and a small fine
on the poor (ib. vi. (iv.) 13. 2). Androdafiias of Rhegium gave
laws on homicide and on heiresses to the Chalcidians
utOurtuth. °f Th™ce, while Philolaus of Corinth provided the
’ Thebans with * laws of adoption " with a view to
preventing any change in the number of the allotments of land
(ib. ii. 12.8-14).
finer
written
lewe.
Local legislation in Crete is represented by the laws of the
important city of Gortyn, which lies to the south of Ida in a
plain watered by the Lethacus. Part of that stream
forms a sluice for a water-mill, and at or near this mill otaonvn.
some fragmentary inscriptions were found by French
archaeologists in 1857 and 1879. The great inscription, to
which most of our knowledge of the laws is due, was not dis¬
covered until 1884. It had been preserved on a wall 27 ft.
long and 5 ft. high, the larger part of which was buried in the
ground, while its farthest extremity passed obliquely athwart
the bed of the mill-stream. It was necessary to divert the water
before the last four columns could be transcribed by the Italian
scholar, Federico Halbherr, whose work was completed in the
same year by the excavation and transcription of the first eight
columns by the German scholar, E. Fabricius. In the following
year Halbherr discovered more than eighty small fragments on
the neighbouring site of a former temple of the Pythian
Apollo.
These fragments, which are far earlier than the great inscription
above-mentioned, have been assigned to about 650 u,c. They
precede the introduction of coined money into Crete, the penalties
being reckoned, not in coins, but in caldrons. They deal with the
powers of the magistrates and the observances of religion, but are
mainly concerned with private matters of barter and sale, dowry
and adoption, inheritance and succession, fines for trespass and
questions of blood-money. As in the code of Zaleucus, we have a
fixed scale of penalties, including the fine of a single tripod, and rang¬
ing from one to a hundred caldrons.
The great inscription is perhaps two centuries later (r. 450 n.r.).
It consists of a number of amendments or additions to ail earlier code,
and it deals exclusively with private law, in which the family and
family property occupy the largest part. The procedure is entirely
oral; oaths and other oral testimony are alone admitted ; there are
no documentary proofs, and no record of the verdict except in the
memory of the judge or of his " remembrancer.” All the causes are
tried before a single judge, who varies according to the nature of the
suit. Where the law specially enjoins it, he is bound to give judg¬
ment (StniSSer) in accordance with the- law and the " witnesses or
oaths,” but, in other cases, he is permitted to take oath and decide
(«j drur) in view of ” the contentions of the parties,” as distinguished
from " the declarations of the witnesses.” Oilences against the
person are treated as matters of private compensation according to
a carefully graduated tan::. In certain cases the defendant may
clear himseli by an " oath of purgation " with the support of " co¬
jurors ” ibituubnu), the Hideshel/er of old Germanic law (Grimm
859 f.), who have no necessary knowledge of the facts. There is no
interference witli the exposure of infants, except in the interest of
the father (if the Child is free-born) or of the lord (in the case of serfs).
The law of debt is primitive, though less severe than that of the early
Romans. In contrast with these primitive elements we have others
which are distinctly progressive. The estates of husband, wife and
sons are regarded as absolutely distinct. Wilis are unknown, even
in their most restricted form. Elaborate provisions are made to
secure with all speed the marriage of an ” heiress ” ; she is bound to
marry the eldest of her paternal Uncles or to surrender part of her
estate, and it is only if there are no paternal uncles thnt she is
permitted to marry one (and that the eldest) of their sons. Adoption
is made by the simple procedure of mounting a block of Slone in the
market-place and making a public announcement at a time when the
citizens are assembled. The adopted son does not inherit any larger
share than that of a daughter. Any one who desires to repudiate his
adopted son makes a public announcement as before, and the person
repudiated receives, by way of nominal compensation, the gift of a
small number of staters. In these later " laws of Gortyn " we have
reached the time when payments are made, not in " caldrons,” but
in coins. In the inscription itself the laws are simply described as
" these writings."
The text oi the great inscription was first published by K. Fabricius
in Ath. Mitth. ix. (1885), 362-384 ; there is a cast of the whole in
the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. Cf. Comparetti’s
I.eggt di Gortyna (1893); Bachelor and Zittelmann in Rhein. Mus.
xl. (1885) ; Dareste, Haussoullier and Tli. Reinach, Inscr. juridiques
grecques, iii. (1894), 352-493 (with tho literature there quoted),
ling, trans. by Robv In Law Quarterly Review (1886), 135-152 ; see
also E. S. Roberts, tih. Epigraphy, t 39 t, 52 f., 325-332 ; J. W.
Hcadlam in Journal ol Hetlenu Studies, xiii. (1892-1893), 48-69;
P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, Greek Antiquities (1895), 560-574;
W. Wy.se in Whibley’s Companion to Greek Studies (i905j, 378-383 ;
and Hermann Lipsius, Zum Recht von Gortvns (Leipzig, 1909).
A Roman writer ascribes to the Athenians the very invention
of lawsuits (Aelian, Var. Hist, iii, 38), and the Athenians MhtB ,
themselves regarded their tribunals of homicide as
institutions of immemorial antiquity (Isocr. Pan eg. 40).
GREEK LAW
503
On the abolition of the single decennial archon 1 in 683 ax., his
duties were distributed over several officials holding office for
one year only. The judicial duties thenceforth discharged by
the chief arcbon {the archon), in the case of citizens,
mb/o*”* were discharged by the polemarch in the case of foreign
“nhoBi. settlers or metics (/ktoikoi) ; while the king-archon,
who succeeded to the religious functions of the ancient
kings, decided cases connected with religious observances (see
Archon). He also presided over the primitive council of the
state, which was identical with the council of the Areopagus.
It was possibly with a view to the recognition of the rights of the
lower classes that, about the middle of the 7th century b.c., the
three archons were raised to the number of nine by the institution
of the joint board of the six thesmothetae, who super-
Ihc.imo- intended the judicial system in general, kept a record
ibJtae. " of all legal decisions, and drew attention to any defects
in the laws. It is probable that in their title we have
the earliest example in Attic Greek of the use of thesmos in the
sense of “ law.”
The constitution was at this time thoroughly oligarchical.
With a view, however, to providing a remedy for the conflict
between the several orders of the state, the first code
r,co ' of Athenian law was drawn up and published by Draco
(strictly Dracon), who is definitely described as a thesmolhetis
(621). His laws were known as thesmm. The distinctive part
of his legislation was the law of homicide, which was held in
such high esteem that it was left unaltered in the legislation of
Solon and in the democratic restoration of 411 b . c . It is partly
preserved in an inscription of 409, which has been restored with
the aid of quotations from the. orators {C.l.A. i. 61 ; lnscr.jurid.
grecques, ii. 1.1-24 ; and Hicks, (!k. Hist. Insrr. No. 59). It drew
a careful distinction between different kinds of homicide. Of
the rest of Draco's legislation we only know that Aristotle
{Politics, ii. 12, 13) was struck by the severity of the penalties,
and that the creditor was permitted to seize the person of the
debtor as security for his debt.
The conflict of the orders was not allayed until both parties
agreed in choosing Solon as mediator and as archon (594 b . c .).
Solon cancelled all mortgages and debts secured on
soion. p erson 0 { the debtor, set free all who had become
slaves for debt, and forbade such slavery for the future (see
Soi.on). Thenceforth every citizen had also “ the right of appeal
to the law-courts," and the privilege of claiming legal satisfaction
on behalf of any one who was wronged. Cases of constitutional
law {inter alia) came before large law-courts numbering hundreds
of jurors, and the power of voting in these law-courts made the
people masters of the constitution (Aristotle's Constitution 0/
Athens, c. 9). Solon's legislation also had an important effect
on the law of property. In primitive times, on a man’s death, his
money or hinds remained in the family, and, even in the absence
of direct descendants, the owner could not dispose of his property
by will. Permission to execute a will was first given to Athenian
citizens by the laws of Solon. But “ the Athenian Will was only
an inchoate Testament ” (Maine’s Ancient Law, c. vi.); for this
permission was expressly limited to those citizens who had no
direct male descendants (Dem. Lept. 102 ; Plutarch, Solon, at ;
cf. Wyse on Isacus, p. 325).
The law of intestate succession is imperfectly preserved in
[Dem.] 43,§ 5* (cf. Wyse, ib. p. 562 f.). In the absence of direct
male descendants, a daughter who survived her father was
known as an zirtxAijpos, not an “ heiress, ’ but a il person who
went with the estate ” ; and, in the absence of a will, the right
or duty of marrying the daughter followed (with certain obvious
exceptions) the same rules as the right of succession to the
estate (cf. Wyse, ib. p. 348 f.).
Among the reforms of Cleisthenes (soS)was the law of
CM' ostracism {q.v.). The privileges of the Areopagus were
BatMt’ee, curtailed (while its right to try certain cases of homicide
was left untouched) by the reforms of Ephialtes (462),
1 For further information as to the evolution of the Athenian
constitution see Archon, Arropagus, BoulS, Ecclesia, Strategus,
and articles on all the chief legislators.
and of Pericles, who also restored the thirty “ local justices ”
(453), limited the franchise to those of citizen-blood
by both parents (451), and was the first to assign to CUta
jurors a fee for their services in the law-courts, which
was raised to three obols by Cleon (425).
In contrast to legislative reforms brought about by lawgivers
entrusted with special authority, such as Draco, Solon and
Cleisthenes, there was the regular and norrSal course omtanry
of public legislation. The legislative power was not cumW
exercised directly by the popular assembly (see
Ecccesia), but the preliminary consent of. that body
was necessary for the appointment of a legislative commission.
In the 5th century (e.g. in 450 and 446 b.c.) certain com¬
missioners called <rvyypa<pcis were appointed to draw up laws
which, after approval by the council, were submitted 5^.
to the assembly. The same term was Still in use graphete.
, in March 411 (Thuc. viii. 67). But in October, on M’® 0-
j the overthrow of the Four Hundred, the commissioners **■
' arc for the first time called nomothetae {ib. 97).
The procedure in ordinary legislation was as follows. At the first
meeting of the assembly in the year, the people was asked whether it
j would permit motions to be made for altering or supplementing the
existiug laws. A debate ensued, and, if such permission were grauted,
' any citizen who wished to make a motion to the above effoct was
required to publish his proposals in the market-place, and to hand
them to the secretary of the council (Houle) to be read aloud at more
than one meeting of the assembly. At the third regular meeting the
people appointed tin' legislative commissioners, who were drawn by
lot from the whole number of those then qualified to act as jurors.
The number, and the duration of the commission, were determined Id
each case by the people. The proceedings before the commission
were conducted exactly in the manner of a lawsuit. Those who
desired to see old laws repealed, altered or replaced by new laws
came forward as an users of those laws ; those of the contrary opinion,
as defenders ; and the defence was formally entrusted to public
advocates specially appointed for the purpose (evrpyopoi). The
numlier of the commissioners varied with the number or importance
of the laws in question ; there is evidence for the number loot (Dem.
xxiv. 27). If a law approved by the commission was deemed to lie
unconstitutional, the proposer was liable to be prosecuted (by a
■yptuph »aper6yor), just as in the case of the projxwer of an unconstitu¬
tional decree in the public assembly. Formal proceedings might
also be instituted against laws on the sole ground of their inexpedi¬
ency (see note on Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, p. 219, ed.
Sandys). A prosecutor who (like Aeschines in his indictment of
Ctesiphon) failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1000
drachmae (£40), and lost the right to adopt tliis procedure in future.
When a year hail elapsed, the proposer of a law or a decree was free
from personal responsibility. This was the case with Leptines, but
the law itself could still be attacked, and, in this event, five advocates
were appointed to defend it ((Ti'siuoi), cf. Dem. Lept. 144, 146.
Limits of space make it impossible to include in the present
article any survey of the purport of the extant remains of, the
laws of Athens. Such a survey would bqgin with the ntlawt
law of the family, including laws of marriage, adoption e t Athene.
and inheritance, followed by the law of property
and contracts, and the laws for the protection of life, the
protection of the person, and the protection of the constitution.
The texts have been collected and classified in Tilfy’s Corpus
juris Attici (1867), a work which can be supplemented or
corrected with the aid of Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens;
while some of the recent expositions of the subject are mentioned
in the bibliography at the end of this article. We now proceed
to notice the law of homicide, but. solely in connexion with
jurisdiction.
The general term for a tribunal is 81 xaimjptov (from Staufai),
Anglicized “ dicastery.” Of all the tribunals of Athens those
for the trial of homicide were at once the most primitive
and the least liable to suffer change through lapse , / “ o; tba
of time. In the old Germanic law all trials whatsoever ttveprimt-
were held ip the open air (Grimm 793 f.). At Athens tin trt ■
this custom was characteristic of all the five primitive
courts of homicide, the object being to prevent the
prosecutor and the judges from coming under the
same roof as one who was charged with the shedding of blood
(Antiphon, De caede Herodis, 11). The place where the trial
was held depended on the nature of the charge.
5°4
GREEK LAW
1. The reck ef the Acropolis, outride the earliest at the city-walls,
was the proper place for the trial of |wrsons charged with pre-
_ meditated homicide, or with wouadmg with intent to kuL
, *** The penalty for the former crime was death; for the latter
a napagus. . an< j j n either case, the property was confiscated.
If the votes were equal, the person accused was acquitted. The
proceedings lasted for three days, awl each side might make two
speeches. After the first speech the per so:: accused of premeditated
homicide was merciially permitted to go into exile, in which case his
p rop er ty was confiscated, and in the ordinary course he remained in
exU* for the rest of his Hie.
2. Charges of unpremeditated homicide, or of instigating another
to indict Ixxlily harm on a tlurd person, or of killing a slave or a
resident alien or a foreigner, were tried at the Palladion,
the ancient shrine of Pallas, east of the city-walls. The
punishment for unpremeditated homicide was exile
(without confiscation) until such time as the criminal had propiti¬
ated the relatives at the person slain, or (failing that) ior some
definite time. The punishment for instigating a crime was the same
as for actually committing it.
j. Trials at the Delphinion, the shrine of Apollo
hits' Delphimos, m the same quarter, were reserved for special
palalon. ca>( „, () f eI t|, eI accidental or justifiable homicide.
4. If a man already in exile tar unpremeditated homicide were
accused of premeditated homicide, or of wounding with intent to
kill, provision was made for this rare contingency by per-
Phrtalto. nutting turn to approach the shore of Attica and conduct
hie defence on board a boat, while his judges heard the
cause on shore, at a ' place of pits ' called Fhrcatto, near the
harbour of Zca If the accused were found guilty, he incurred the
proper penalty : if acquitted, he remained in exile.
5. The court in the precincts of the Prytaueum, to the north of the
Acropolis, was only of ceremonial importance. It " solemnly heard
and condemned undiscovered murderers, and animals or
inammate objects that had caused the loss of life.” 1
umum. j'| L( , UTJ j ran “ against tlte doer of the deed," and any
instrument ol death that was lound guiitv was thrown across the
frontier. The trial was held by the four " tribe-kings " (pcXojiiunXKt),
an archaic survival from before the time at Cleisthcnes. (On these
five courts see Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, c. 57, and Dem.
Aristoir. 65-70.)
In all the courts of homicide the president was the archon-basi-
leus, or king-archou, who on these occasions laid usiile his crown.
Buhatam. Originally a" these courts were under the jurisdiction of
w an ancient body of judges called the ephetae (Agilrai),
whose institution was ascribed to Draco. The transfer at the first
of the above courts to the council of the Areopagus is attributed
to Solon. In practice the jurisdiction of the ephetae (see also
AkkopaciUS) was probably confined to the courts at the Palladion
and Delphinion; but even there the rights of this primitive body
became obsolete, for trials" at the Palladion "sometimes came before
an ordinary tribunal o£ 500 or 700 jurors (Isocr. c. CaJlim. 52, 54 ;
[Dem.| r. Neaeram, to).
Except in the case of the primitive courts of homicide, the
right of jurisdiction was entrusted to the several archons until
Tlu the date of Solon (5174). When the direct jurisdiction
pnsiHnt* of the archons was impaired by Solon’s institution
oftiw 0 f the “right of appeal to the law-courts,” the
tribunal*, dignity of those officials was recognized by their having
the privilege of presiding over the new tribunals (i/yepoi-ta
iiKium/pioK). A similar position was assigned to the other
executive officers, such as the strategi (generals), the
urJtaa. board of police called the “ Eleven,” and the financial
officers, all of whom presided over cases connected
with their respective departments. In their new position
as presidents of the several courts, the archons received
plaints, obtained from both parties the evidence which
unlmn^’ t *' e . v P r °posed to present, formally presided at the
trial, and gave instructions for the execution of the
sentence. The choice of the presiding magistrate in each case
was determined by the normal duties of his offire. Thus the
n . chief archon, the official guardian of orphans and
mmb. ‘ widows, presided in all cases, public or private, con¬
nected with the family property of citizens (Aristotle,
us. c, 56). The king-arehon had* charge of all offences against
^ religion, r.g. indictments for impiety, disputes within
rtrmtuti. family as to the right to hold a particular priest¬
hood, and all actions for homicide (c. 57). The third
1 to the caw of " animals," we may compare the Mosaic law ol
Excel. xxxi. zb and the old Germanic law (Grimm 664) ; and in that
of " inanimate objects," the English law of deodands (Blackstone i.
300), repealed in 1X461 See also Frazer on Pausanias, 1 . 28. to.
archon, the polemarch, discharged in relation to resident aliens
all such legal duties as were discharged by the chief archon in
relation to citizens (c. 58). The trial of military offences
was under the presidency of the strategi, who were „othotu.
assisted by the other military officers in preparing
the case for the court. The six junior archons, the tkismothetae,
acted a-s a board which was responsible for all cases not specially
assigned to any other officials (details in c. 59).
The Forty, who were appointed by lot, four for each of the
ten tribes, acted as sole judges in petty cases where the damages
claimed did not exceed ten drachmae. Claims beyond
that amount they handed over to the arbitrators. p,rty.
The four representatives of any given tribe received
notice of such claims brought against members of that tribe. It
seems probable that they dealt with all private suits not other¬
wise assigned, but, unlike the archons, they did not prepare any
case for the court but referred it, in the first instance, to a public
arbitrator appointed by lot (c. 53). 2
The public arbitrators (Sk«ti/t«h) were a body including all
Athenian citizens in the sixtieth year of their age. The arbitrator,
on receiving the case from the four representatives
of the Forty, first endeavoured to bring the parties
to an agreement. If this failed, he heard the evidence trators.
and gave a decision. If the decision were accepted,
the ease was at an end, but, if either of the two parties insisted
on appealing to a law-court, the arbitrator placed in two caskets
(one for each party) copses of all the depositions, oaths and
challenges, and of all the laws quoted in the case, sealed them up,
and, after attaching a copy of his own decision, handed them
over to the four representatives of the. Forty, who brought the
ease into court and presided over the trial. Documents which
had not been brought before the arbitrator could not be produced
in court. The court consisted of 201 jurors when: the sum in
question was not more than 1000 drachmae (£40); in other
cases the number ol jurors was 401 (c. 53).
A small board of five appointed by kit, one for each pair of
tribes, and known as the “ introducers ” (lumyoym), brought
up certain 0 i the cases that had to be decided within
a month 01 SiW), such as actions for restitution "
of dowry, repayment of capital for setting up a business,
and cases connected with banking.
The largest and most important of the legal tribunals, the
“ dicastery ” ( par txccllence), was known as the heliaea. The
name, which is of uncertain origin; 1 denotes not only ^
the place where the court was held but also the members
of the court,—the htUasia* of Aristophanes, the dicastae, or
ovfyits jhanirrtu, of the Attic orators. During the palmy days
of the Athenian democracy, in the interval between the Persian
and the Peloponnesian wars, the total number liable to serve
as jurors is said to have been 6000 (Aristotle, u.s. 24. 3),
and this number was never exceeded (Aristoph. t esp. 661 i.).
Any Athenian citizen in full possession of his rights, and over
thirty years of age, was entitled to be placed on the list (Aristotle,
u.s. c. 63. 3). At the beginning of the year the whole body of
jurors assembled on the hill erf Ardettos looking down on the
Panathenaic Stadium, and there took a solemn oath to the
effect that they would judge according to the laws and decrees
of the Athenian people and of the council of the Five Hundred
(Houle), and that, in cases where there were no laws, they would
decide to the best of their judgment; that they would hear both
sides impartially, and vote an the case uctually before the court.
It lias been suggested that, as the normal number of a court
was 500, the maximum number of 6000 jurors was probably
divided into ten sections of 500 each, with 1000 reserves. There
is evidence in the 4th century for courts of 200,400, 500, 700 and
a Cf. R. J. Bonner, in Classical Philology (Chicago, 1907), 407-418,
who urges that- only cases belonging to the Forty were subject to
public arbitration.
” Connected either with toUitofau, " to assemble,” or 7X101, or
'HX11 (cf. Curt Wachsmuth, Stadt A then u. (1) 350-364). The first is
possibly right (ef. Rogers on Aristoph. Warps, xvii. f.) ; the second
implies that this large court was held in the open air (I.ipsius, Att.
Hecht, 172).
GREEK LAW 5^5
(in important political trials) various multiples of 500, namely,
1000, 1500, 3000 or 2500. To some of these numbers one juror
is added; it was probably added to all, to obviate the risk of
the votes being exactly equal.
The evidence as to the organization of the jurors in the early
part of the 4th century is imperfect. Passages in Aristophanes
(Ecclesiamsae, 682-688 ; Plutus, 1166 f.) imply that in 302-388
b.c. the total number was divided into ten sections distinguished
by the first ten letters of the Greek alphabet, A to K. Every
juror, on his first appointment, received a ticket of boxwood
(or of bronze) bearing his name with that of his father and his
deme, and with one of the above letters in the upper left-hand
comer. Of the bronze tickets many have been found (see
notes on Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, c. 63, and fig. 1 in
frontispiece, cd. Sandys). These tickets formed part of the
machinery for allotting the jurors to the several courts. To
guard against the possibility of bribery or other undue influence,
the allotment did not take place until immediately before the
hearing of the case. Each court contained an equal number
of jurors from each of the ten tribes, and thus represented the
whole body of the state. The juror, on entering the court
assigned him, received a counter (see fig. 3 in frontispiece, u.s.),
on presenting which at the end of the day he received his fee.
The machinery for carrying out the above arrangements is
minutely described at the end of Aristotle's Constitution of
Athens (for details, cf. Giltert, 307-300, Eng. trans., or Wyse
in Whibley’s Companion to Greek Studies, 387 f.).
The law-courts gradually superseded most of the ancient
judicial functions of the council and the assembly, but the
council continued to hold a strict scrutiny (fioKiiuuria)
diction of candidates for office or for other privileges, while
ot the the council itself, as well as all other officials, had to
council give account (evil «t>u) on ceasing to hold office. The
oteemhly collnc ‘' a * so retained the right to deal with extra-
aeeem . orf jj nar y cr j mes a g a inst the state. It was open to any
citizen to bring such crimes to the knowledge of the council in
writing. The technical term for this information, denunciation
or impeachment was eisangelia (e'urayyehla). The
getu.' council could inflict a fine of 500 drachmae (£20), or,
in important cases, refer the matter either to a law-
court, as in the trial of Antiphon (Thuc. viii. 68), or to the
ecclesia, as in that of Alcibiades (415 B.c.), and the strategi in
command at Arginusae (406; Xen. Hell. i. 7. 19). The term
thrtiyytkuL was also applied to denunciations brought against
persons who wronged the orphan or the widow, or against a public
arbitrator who had neglected his duty (Dem. Meidias, 86 f.).
A “ presentation ” of criminal information (zyio/foArj) might
be laid before the assembly with a view to obtaining its pre-
liminary sanction for bringing the case before a
judicial tribunal. Such was the mode of procedure
adopted against persons who had brought malicious, groundless
or vexatious accusations, or who had violated the sanctity of
certain public festivals. The leading example of the former
is the trial of the accusers who prompted the people to put to
death the generals who had won the Battle of Arginusae (Xen.
Hell. i. 7.34); and, of the latter, the proceedings of Demosthenes
against Meidias.
Legal actions (8iW) were classified as private (t&uu) or
public (oi)fiixruu). The latter were also described as y/Mitfuit, or
“ prosecutions,” but somey paipal werccalled “ private,”
f//"*" when the state was regarded as only indirectly injured
act* m . by a wrong dune to an mdividual citizen (Dem. xxi. 47).
A private suit could only be brought by the man
directly interested, or, in the case of a slave, a ward or an alien,
by the master, guardian or patron respectively ; and, if the suit
were successful, the s.um claimed generally went to the plaintiff.
Public actions may be divided into ordinary criminal cases, and
offences against the state. As a rule they could be instituted
by any person who possessed the franchise, and the penalty
was paid to the state. If the prosecutor failed to obtain one-fifth
of tl\e votes, he had to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae (£40)1 and
lost the right of ever bringing a similar action.
Lawsuits, whether public or private, were also distinguished
as Sunu Kara Tiros or trpds rim, according as the defeated
party could or could not be personally punished. Actions
(dywres) were also distinguished as <lyar<s rtfuyrol (“ to be
assessed ”), in which the amount of damages had to be deter¬
mined by the court, because it had not been fixed by law, and
dTt/ii/roi (“ not to be assessed ”), in which the damages had not
to be determined by the court, because they had already been
fixed by law or bv special agreement.
Among special kinds of action were dxayuyij, i<fnjyiio-ts and
irS«( is. These could only be employed when the offence
was patent and could not be denied. In the first, the person
accused was summarily arrested by the prosecutor and haled
into the presence of the proper official. In the second, the
accuser took the officer with him to arrest the culprit (Dem.
xxii. 26). In the third, he lodged an information with the
official, and left the latter to effect the capture. Gams, a,general
term for many kinds of legal “ information,” was a form of
procedure specially directed against those who injured the fiscal
interests of the state, and against guardians who neglected
the pecuniary interests of their wards. ’Airoypa^ij was an action
for confiscating property in private hands, which was claimed
as belonging to the state, the term being derived from the
claimants' written inventory of the property in question.
The ordinary procedure in all lawsuits, public or private,
began with a personal summons (ir/ioo-KAqo-w) of the
defendant by the plaintiff accompanied by two
witnesses (kAi/ti'^xs). If the defendant failed to endure.
appear in court, these witnesses gave proof of the
summons, and judgment went by default.
The action was begun by presenting a written statement of
the case to the magistrate who presided over trials of the class
in question. If the statement were accepted, court-fees were
paid by both parties in a private action, and by the prosecutor
alone in a public action. The magistrate fixed a day for the
preliminary investigation (dmn/mns), and, whenever several
causes were instituted at the same time, he drew lots to determine
the order in which they should be taken. Hence the plaintiff
was said “ to have a suit assigned him by lot ” (Attyx^veiv SGr/v),
a phrase practically equivalent to “ obtaining leave to bring att
action.” At the ilmKpuris the plaintiff and defendant both
swore to the truth of their statements. If the defendant raised
no formal protest, the trial proceeded in regular course(«v0vW«),
but he might contend that the suit was inadmissible, and, to
prove his point, might bring witnesses to confront those on the
side of the plaintiff (Uta/wipriyiia), or he might rely on argument
without witnesses by means of a written statement traversing
that of the plaintiff (Trupr^KN/'iij). The person who submitted the
special plea in bar of action naturally sppkc first, and, if he
gained the verdict, the main suit could not come on, or, at any
rate, not in the way proposed or before the same court. A
cross-action (dvTiyituifn)) might be brought by the defendant,
but the verdict did not necessarily affect that of the original
suit.
In the preliminary examination copies of the laws or other
documents tearing on the case were produced. If any such
document were in the hands of a third person, he
could be compelled to produce it by an action for that
purpose («« Ip-iftavuiv kotuotmtiv), The depositions
were ordinarily made before the presiding officer and were
taken down in his presence. If a witness were compelled to
be absent, a certified copy of his deposition might be sent
(iKpnprvpia). The depositions of slaves were not accepted,
unless made under torture, and for receiving such evidence
the consent of both parties was required. Either party could
challenge the other to submit his slaves to the t . faf
test (irpfoAijtrtt «« fldiTavav), and, in the event of the longte.
Challenge being refused, could comment on the fact
when the case came before the court. Either party could also
challenge the other to take an oath ItrpUhfrn els Spxov),
and, if the oath were declined, could similarly comment on the
fact.
GREEK LAW
$06
Mercantile cases hart to lie decided within the interval of a
month; others might be postponed for due cause. If, on the
day of trial, one of the parties was absent, his
*' representative had to show cause under oath (w-
topotrin); if the other party objected, he did so under oath
(ivBvrupocrla). If the plea for deluy were refused by the court,
and it were the defendant who failed to appear, judgment went
by default; in the absence of the plaintiff, the case was given
in favour of the defendant.
The official who had conducted the preliminary inquiry
also presided at the trial. The proceedings began with a solemn
sacrifice. The plea of the plaintiff and the formal reply of the
defendant were then read by the clerk. The court was next
addressed first by the plaintiff, next by the defendant; in some
cases there were two speeches on each side. Every' litigant was
legally required to conduct his own case. The speeches were
often composed by professional experts for delivery by the
parties to the suit, who were required to speak in person, though
one or more unprofessional supporters (crvin)yopoi) might subse¬
quently speak in support of the case. The length of the speeches
was in many cases limited by law to a fixed time recorded by
means of a water-dock (clepsydra). Documents were not
regarded as part of the speech, and, while these were being read,
the clock was stopped (Goethe found a similar custom in force
in Venice in October 17S6). The witnesses were never cross-
examined, but one of the litigants might formally interrogate
the other. The case for the defence was sometimes finally
supported by pathetic appeals on the part of relatives and
friends.
When the speeches were over, the votes were taken. In the
5th century mussel-shells (goi/urai) were used for the purpose.
Each of the jurors received a shell, which he placed in one of the
two urns, in that to the front if he voted for acquittal; in that
to the back if he voted for condemnation. If a second vote had
to be taken to determine the amount of the penalty, wax tablets
were used, on which the juror drew a long line, if he gave the
heavy penalty demanded by the plaintiff; a short one, if he de¬
rided in favour of the lighter penalty proposed by the defendant.
In the 4th century the mussel-shells were replaced by disks
of bronze. Each disk (inscribed with the words 'FHd’OE
AH M 051 A) was about 1 in.in diameter, with a short tube running
through the centre. This tube was either perforated or closed
(seefigs.fi and 7m frontispiece \<> ArkUrtk'sCimstUutitmof Athens,
ed. Sandvs), One of each kind was given to every juror, who
was required to use the perforated or the closed disk, according
as he voted for the plaintiff or for the defendant. On the
platform there were two urns, one of bronze and one of wood.
The juror placed in the hollow of his hand the disk that he
proposed to use, and closed his fingers on the extremity of the
tube, so that no one could see whether it were a perforated disk
or not, and then de|x>sited it in the bronze urn, and (with the
same precaution to ensure secrecy) dropped the unused disk into
the wooden urn. The votes were sorted by persons appointed
by lot, and counted by the president of the court, and the
result announced by the herald. For any second vote the same
procedure was adopted (Aristotle, c. 68 of Kenyon’s Berlin
text).
Pecuniary penalties were inflicted both in public and in
private suits ; personal penalties, in public suits only. Personal
penalties included sentences of death or exile, or
* different degrees of disfranchisement (un/un) with or
without confiscation. Imprisonment before trial was common,
and persons mulcted in penalties might lie imprisoned
until the penalties were paid, but imprisonment was never
inflicted as the sole penalty after conviction. Foreigners alone
cuulti lie sold into shtvery. Sentences of death were carried
out under the supervision of the board of police called the
“ Eleven.'’ In ancient times a person condemned was hurled
into a deep pit (the barathrum) in a north-western suburb of
Athens. In later times he was compelled to drink the fatal
draught of hemlock. Common malefactors were beaten to
death with dubs. ‘Fines were collected and confiscated property
sold by special officials, called vp<ucnptt and rukiyrul respec¬
tively. In private suits the sentence was executed by the state
if the latter had a share in any fine imposed, or if imprison¬
ment were part of the penalty. Otherwise, the execution of the
sentence was left to the plaintiff, who had the right of distraint,
or, if this failed, could bring an action of ejectment (Hon; «£ovAijs).
From the verdict of the heliaea there was no appeal. But,
if judgment had been given by default, the person condemned
might bring an action to prove that he was not responsible for
such default, ipqpov ( sc . Stm/v) dvriAa-yyaettr. The corre¬
sponding term for challenging the award of an arbitrator was
T7jv pq otVaz uvrikay^avtiv. He might also bring an action for
false evidence (&V17 ipevSopapTvpuov) against his opponent’s
witnesses, and, on their conviction, have the sentence annulled.
This “ denunciation ” of false evidence was technically called
tiriir/tTjl/'is and imiTKyrmiT&ui.
The large number of the jurors made bribery difficult, but,
as was first proved by Anytus (in 409), not impossible. It also
diminished the feeling of personal responsibility, while character
it increased the influence of political motives. In otttu
addressing such a court, the litigants were not above Athaaiaa
appealing to the personal interests of the general trlbuB * l ‘-
public. We have a striking example of this in the terms
in which Lysias makes one of his clients close a speech in
prosecution of certain retail corn-dealers who have incurred the
penalty of death by buymg more than 75 bushels of wheat at
one time: “ If you condemn these persons, you will be doing
what is right, and will pay less for the purchase of your com ;
if you acquit them, you will pay more ” (xxii. § 22).
Speakers were also tempted to take advantage of the popular
ignorance by misinterpreting the enactments of the law, and the
jurors could look for no aid from the officials who formally
presided over the courts. The latter were not necessarily cx|ierts,
for they owed their own original appointment to the caprice of
the lot. Almost the only officials specially elected as experts
were the strategi, and these presided only in their own courts.
Again, there was every temptation fur the informer to propose
the confiscation of the property of a wealthy citizen, who would
naturally prefer paying blackmail to running the risk of having
his case tried before a large tribunal which was under every
temptation to decide in the interests of the treasury. In con¬
clusion we may quote the opinions on the judicial system of
Athens which have been expressed by two eminent classical
scholars and English lawyers.
A translator of Aristophanes, Mr B. B. Rogers, records his opinion
" that it would be difficult to devise a judicial system loss adapted
for th» due administration ot justice ” (Preface to Wasps, xxxv. f.),
while a translator of Demosthenes, Mr C. K. Kennedy, observes that
the Athenian jurors " were persons of no legal education or learning ;
taken at haphazard from the whole body of citizens, and mostly
belonging to the lowest and poorest class. On the other hand, the
Athenians were naturally the quickest and cleverest people in the
world. Their wits were sharpened by the habit ... of taking an
active part in important debates, and hearing the most splendid
orators. There was so much litigation at Athens that they were
constantly cither engaged as jurors, or present as spectators in courts
of law ” (Private Orations, p. 3&1).
Authorities,—i. Greek Law. B. W. Lcist, Greko-iUiiisc.hr
Kecktsgcsi hichte (Jena, 1884) ; I.. Mitteis, Rciihsrtcht und Volksrecht
in den ustlichcn Provmzen drs romischen Kaiscrreichs , mit Beitrdgen cut
Kenntnis dcs griecktschen Rcchts (Leipzig, 1891) ; J. H. l.ipsrns, Von
tier Brdeutung drs grieckischen kechts (Leipzig, 1803); G. Gilbert, “Zur
Entwiclcelungsreschichte des . . , griechischen Rechtes" in Jakrb.
fiir hi. Philoiogie ( 1 -eipzig, 1896); H. j. Hitzig, Die Bedeutung des
aUgriechiscken Rechtes fiir die vereteichende Rei htswissensekaft (Stutt-
rt, 100O) ; R. Hirzel, Themis , Dike und Verwandtes (Leipzig, 1907) ;
J. Thonissen, Le Droit criminel de la Grice Ugendaire, followed by
Droit pinal de la repubhque atkintenne (Brussels, 1875).
2. Attic Law. (a) Editions of Greek texts: I. B. T 61 fy, Corpus
juris AUici (Past and Leipzig, 1868) ; Aristotle’s Constitution of
Athens, ed. Kenyon (London, 1891, Ac., and esp. ed. 4, Berlin, 1903);
ed. 4, Blass (Leipzig. 1903); text with critical and explanatory notes,
ed. Sandy* (London, 1893); Lysias, ed. Frohberger (Leipzig, 1866-
1871); lsaeus, ed. Wyse (Cambridge, 1904); Demosthenes, Private
Orations, ed. Palev and Sandvs, ed. 3 (Cambridge, 1896-1898);
Against Midias, ed. Goodwin (Cambridge, 1906): Dareste, Haus-
soullier. Th. Reinach, Inter, juridiques grecques (Paris, 1891-1904).
( b) Modern treatises: K. F. Hermann, De vestigiis institulorum
ANCIENT]
GREER LITERATURE
5©7
Atticorum per Platonis 1it legihus libros indogoadis (Marburg,
1H16): SlaatsalterMmer, ed. 6, Thumacr (Freiburg, 189a); Reehts-
alttr turner, ed. 3, Thalheiui (Freiburg, 1884); G. Busolt, Staats-
uiul RecMsaltertdmer, ed. 2 (Munich, 1892); V. von Wilamowitz-
Mailcndorff, Aristotetes und Alhen (Berlin, 1893); G. Gilbert, Gk.
Constitutional Antiquities (vol. i., F.ng. trans., pp. 376-416, London,
1803): J. H. Lipsius, (r) new ed. oi Meier and Schdmaun, Der
attache Process (Berlin, 1883-1887); (2) ed. 4 of Schumann, Gr.
Alterliimer (Berlin, 1897-1902); (3) Das attische Reohl uni Rechls-
:n /ahreu (Leipzig, 1905); Darcmberg and Saglio, Dictionnairc des
antiquitts (Paris, 1877); G. Glotz, I.a Solidaritl de la famille dans le
droit crwtinel en Grice (Paris, J904); L. Beauchet, Droit privi de la
rip. atkiu. (4 vols., Paris, 1897); C. R. Kennedy, Appendices to
transl. of Dem. vols. iii. and iv. (1856-1861); Smith's Dictionary 0/
. . . Antiquities, ed. 3 (1891) ; F. B. Jevons, in Gardner and Jevons,
Greek Antiquities (1895, pp. 526-597)W. Wyae, in WbSbtoy’s
Companion to Greek Studies (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 377-402.
(J. E. S.*)
GREEK LITERATURE.— The literature of the Greet language
is broadly divisible into throe main sections: (1) Ancient, (2)
Byzantine, (3) Modem. These are dealt with below in that
order.
I. The Ancient Greek Literature
The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) The
Early J.iterature, to about 475 B.r. ; epic, elegiac, iambic and
lyric poetry; the beginnings of literary prose. (B) The Attic
Literature, 475-300 B.r.; tragic and comic drama; historical,
oratorical and philosophical prose. ( 0 ) The Literature of. the
Decadence, 300 B.r. to a.d. 529; which may again be divided
into tlie Alexandrian period, 300-146 B.c., and the Graeco-
Roman period, 146 b.c. to a.d. 529.
For details regarding particular works or the lives of their
authors reference should be made to the separate articles devoted
to the principal Greek writers. The object of the following
pages is to sketch the literary development as a whole, to show
bow its successive periods were related to each other, and to
mark the dominant characteristics of each.
(A) The Early Literature. A process of natural growth may
be traced through all the best work of the Greek genius. The
Greeks were not literary imitators of foreign models; the forms
of poetry and prose in"which they attained to such unequalled
excellence were first developed by themselves. Their literature
had its roots in their political and social life ; it is the spontaneous
expression of that life in youth, maturity and decay; and the
order in which its several fruits are produced is not the result
of accident or caprice. Further, the old Greek literature has a
striking completeness, due to the fact that each great branch of
the Hellenic race born a characteristic part in its development.
Ionians, Acolians, Dorians, in turn contributed their share.
Each dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life
and character. Each found its appropriate work.
The Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor—a lively Rnd genial
people, delighting in adventure, and keenly sensitive to every¬
thing bright and joyous—created artistic epic poetry
ai’i at 0l!t of thc la )’ s in which minstrels sang of the old
alaieete. Achaeun wars An j amim g the Ionians arose elegiac
poetry, thc first variation on the epic type. These found a
fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible
utterance of a quick and versatile intelligence. The Aeolians of
Lesbos next created thc lyric of personal passion, in which the
traits of their race—its chivalrous pride, its bold but sensuous
f anr y_found a fitting voice in the fiery strength and tenderness
of Aeolic speech. The Dorians of the Peloponnesus, Sicily and
Magna Graecia then perfected the choral lyric for festivals and
religious worship; and here again an earnest faith, a strong
pride in Dorian usage and renown had an apt interpreter m
the massive and sonorous Doric. Finally, the Attic branch of
the Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements of all
the other kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose a
history, oratory and philosophy. It is in the Attic literature
that the Greek mind receives its most complete interpretation.
A natural affinity was felt to exist between each dialect and
that species of composition for which it had been specially used.
Htfice the dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted
with more or less thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who
were not Ionians. Thus the Aeolian Hesiod uses it in epos, the
Dorian Theognis in elegy, though not without alloy. Similarly,
the Dorian Theocritus wrote love-songs in Aeolic. All the
faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually brought
out by the co-operation of the dialects. Old Greek literature
has an-essential unity—the unity of a living organism; and this
unity comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which
is complete in its own kind.
Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems.
These are works of art which imply a long period of antecedent
poetical cultivation. - Of the pre-Homeric poetry we
have no remains,.and very little knowledge. Such n omtr fe
glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different poetry.
stages in the religion of the prehistoric Hellenes, The
first of these stages ss that in which the agencies .or forms of
external nature were personified indeed, yet with the conscious¬
ness that thc personal names were only symbols. Some very
ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may Somgt
have belonged to this stage—as the songs of Linus, j 7 />«
lalemus and Hylas. Linus, the fair youth killed by mammae.
dogs, seems to be the spring passing away before
Sirius. Such songs have been aptly culled “ songs of the seasons.
The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now defini¬
tively personified the powers which they worship. Apollo,
Demetcr, Dionysus, Gybele, have now become to them beings
with clearly conceived attributes. To this second stage belong
the hymns connected with the names of the legendary rtyane.
bards, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus, who are
themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian Muses aed
the Attic ritual of Demeter. The seats of this early sacred
poetry are not only “ Thracian t.e. on the borders of northern
Greece—but also “ Phrygian ” and “ Cretan.” It belongs,
that is, presumably to an age when the ancestors of the Hellenes
had left the Indo-European home in central Asia, but had not
yet taken full possession of the lands which were afterwards
Hellenic. Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others were
settling in the islands of the Aegean; others were passing through
the lands on its northern seaboard. If there was a period when
the Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a
religious ritual, it may be conjectured that it was not of long
duration. Already in the Iliad a secular character belongs to the
marriage hymn arid to the dirge for the dead, which in ancient
India were chanted by the priest. The bent of the Greeks was
to claim poetry and music as public joys ; they would not long
have suffered them to Temain sacerdotal mysteries. And among
the earliest themes on which the lay artist in poetry was employed
were probably war-hallads, sung by minstrels in the houses of
I the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated.
1 Such war-ballads were the materials frogi which the earliest
epic poetry of Greece was constructed. By an “ epic ” poem
the Greeks meant a narrative of heroic action in
hexameter verse. The term «rij meant at first simply .
“ verses ”; it acquired its special meaning only when
lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished from ery,
verses not set to music, but merely recited. Epic poetry is the
only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about
700 B.c. Thc early epos of Greece is represented by the Iliad
and the Odyssey, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by
some fragments of the “ Cyclic ” poets.
After the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian
emigrants who settled in the north-west of Mia Minor brought
with them the waiiike legends of their chiefs, the Ti ,"nw
Achaean princes of old. These legends lived m th toad the
ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, ami from them passed “oajtteor."
southward into Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually
shaped them into higher artistic forms. Among The seven
places which claimed to be the birthplace of Homer, that which
has the best title is Smyrna. Homer himself is called son of
Metes ’’—the stream which flowed through old Smyrna, on tne
i border between Aeotia and Ionia. The tradition is significant to
regard to the origin and character of the Iliad, for tn the Iliad we
have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art. Aprepcinderance
508
GREEK LITERATURE
of evidence is in favour of the view that the Odyssey also, at j
least in' its earliest form, was composed on the Ionian coast
of Asia Minor. According to' the Spartan account, Lvcurgus
was the first to bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric
poems, which he had obtained from the Creophylidae, a clan or
gild of poets m Samos. A better authenticated tradition connects
Athens with early attempts to preserve the chief poetical treasure
of l he nation. Peisistratus is said to have charged some learned
men with the task of collecting all “ the poems of Homer" ;
but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended under
this last phrase, or whether the province of the commission
went beyond the mere task of collecting. Nor can it be deter¬
mined what exactly it was that Solon and Hipparchus respec¬
tively did for the Homeric poems. Solon, it has been thought,
enacted that the poems should be recited from an authorized
text (i( iVo/SsAi}?); Hipparchus, that they should be recited
in a regular order (■£ ioroArj^ews). At any rate, we know that
in the 6th century B.c. a recitation of the poems of Homer was
one of the established competitions at the I'anathenaea, held
oni'e in four years. The reciter was called a rhapsadist —
properly one who weaves a long, smoothly-flowing chant, then
an epic poet who chants his own or another’s poem. The
rhapsodist did not. like the early minstrel, use the accompaniment
of the harp ; he gave the verses in a flowing recitative, bearing
in his hand a branch of laurel, the symbol of Apollo’s inspiration.
In the 5th century b . c . we find that various Greek cities had
their own editions (a! imAcrucai, Kara iroheis or Ik jrdAeoiv
USnotn) of the poems, for recitation at their festivals. Among
these were the editions of Massilia, of Chios and of Argolis.
There were also editions bearing the name of the individual
editor («1 m it acfyw)—the best known being that which
Aristotle prepared for Alexander. The recension of the poems
by Aristarchus (156 B.c.) became the standard one, and is
probably that on which the existing text is bused. The oldest
Homeric MS. extant, Venetus A of the Iliad, is of the 10th
century ; the first printed edition of Homer was that edited
by the Byzantine Demetrius Chalcondylcs (Florence, 1488).
The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the
Iliad and the Odyssey to be the work of one man, Homer, to whom
they also ascribed some extant hymns, und probably
ttomerle ml "'h more besides. Aristotle and Aristarchus seem
question. t(l have put Homer’s date about 1044 B.c., Herodotus
about 850 B.c. It was not till about 170 b.c. that the
grammarians Helianicus and Xenon put forward the view that
Homer was the author of the Iliad, but not of the Odyssey.
Those who followed them in assigning different authors to the
two poems were called the Separators ( Chorizoutes ). Aristarchus
combated “ the paradox of Xenon,” and it does not seem to
have had much acceptance in antiquity. Giovanni Battista
Vico, a Neapolitan (1668-1744), seems to have been the first
modern to suggest the composite authorship and oral tradition
of the Homeric poems ; but this was a pure conjecture in support
of his theory that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are
often mere symbols. F. A. Wolf, in the Prolegomena to his
edition (171)5), was the founder of a scientific scepticism. The
Iliad, he said (for he recognized the comparative unity and
consistency of the Odyssey), was pieced together from many
small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first committed
to writing m the time of Peisistratus. This view was in harmony
with the tone of German criticism at the time; it was welcomed
as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing
from fresh natural sources, to elaborate works of art; and it at
once found enthusiastic adherents. For the course of Homeric
controversy since Wolf the reader is referred to the article
Homkk.
The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems
founded on the legends of the Trojan war, and intended as
introductions or continuations to the 11 tad and the
pmim. Odyssey. The grammarian Proclus (a.d. 140) has
preserved the names and subjects of some of these ;
hut the fragments are very scanty. The Nestoi or Homeward
Voyages, by Agias. (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the gap of
[ANCIENT
ten years between the Iliad and the Odyssey; the Lay of TtUgonus,
by Eugammon of Cyrene, continued the story of the Odyssey
to the death of Odysseus by the hand of Telegonus, the son
whom Circe bore to him. Similarly the Cyprian Lays by Stasinus
of Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or Hegesinus) of
Salamis or Halicarnassus, was introductory to the Iliad ; the
Aethiopis and the Sack of Troy, by Arctinus of Miletus, and the
Little Iliad, by Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it.
These and many other names of lost epics—some taken also
from the Theban myths ( Thebdis, Epigoni, Oedipodea)— serve
to show how prolific was that epic school of which only two great
examples retnain. The name of epic cycle was properly applied
to a prose compilation of abstracts from these epics, pieced
together in the order of the events. The compilers were called
” cyclic ” writers; and the term has now been transferred to
the epic poets whom they used . 1
The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes
in the old wars. But in Greece proper there arose another
school of epos, which busied itself with religious lore
and ethical precepts, especially in relation to the rural "£j° dlc
life of Boeotia, This school is represented by the name
of Hesiod. The legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer
in a poetical contest at Chains in Euboea ; and it expresses the
fact that, to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two
contrasted epic types. Nothing is certainly known of his date,
except that it must have been subsequent to the maturity of
Ionian epos. He is conjecturally placed about 850-800 B.c. ;
hut some would refer him to the early part of the 7th century b . c .
His home was at Ascra, a village in a valley under Helicon,
whither his father had migrated from Cyme in Aeolis on the
coast of Asia Minor. In Hesiod’s Works and Days we have the
earliest example ot a didactic poem. The seasons and the lubours
of the Boeotian fanner’s year arc followed by a list of the days
which are lucky or unlucky for work. The Theogony, or “ Origin
of the Gods,” describes first how the visible order of nature arose
out of chaos ; next, how the gods were bom. Though it never
possessed the character of a sacred hook, it remained a standard
authority on the genealogies of the gods. So far as a corrupt
and confused text warrants a judgment, the poet was piecing
together—not always intelligently—the fragments of a very old
cosmogonic system, using for this purpose both the hymns
preserved in the temples and the myths which lived in folklore.
The epic lay in 480 lines called the Shield of Heracles —purtly
imitated from the 18th book of the Iliad-- is the work of an
author or authors later than Hesiod. In the Hesiodic poetry,
as represented by the Works and Days and the Theogony, we
see the influence of the temple at Delphi. Hesiod recognizes
the existence of W/toves—spirits of the departed who haunt
the earth as the invisible guardians of justice ; and he connects
the office of the poet with that of the prophet. The poet is one
whom the gods have authorized to impress doctrine and practical
duties on men. A religious purpose was essentially characteristic
of the Hesiodic school. Its poets treated the old legends as
relics of a sacred history, and not merely, in the Ionian manner,
as subjects of idealizing art. Such titles as the Maxims of
Cheiron and the Lay of Melampus, the seer—lost poems of the
Hesiodic school—illustrate its ethical and its mystic tendencies.
The Homeric Hymns are a collection of pieces, some of them
very short, in hexameter verse. Their traditional title is—
Hymns or Preludes of Homer and the Homeriiae. The
second of the alternative designations is the true one.
The pieces are not “ hymns ” used in formal worship, hymns.
but ‘ ‘ preludes ” or prefatory addresses (wpowjua)
with which the rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic
poetry. The “ prelude ” might be addressed to the presiding
god of the festival, or to any local deity whom the reciter wished
to honour. The pieces (of which there are 35) range in date
perhaps from 750 to 500 b.c. (though same authorities assign
dates as fate as the 3rd and 4th centuries a.u. ; see ed. by Sikes
and Allen, e.g. p. 248), and it is probable that the collection was
1 For authorities and criticisms see T. W. Alien in Classical
Quarterly (Jan. and April 1908).
ANCIENT]
GREEK LITERATURE
formed in Attica, for the use of rhapsodists. The style is that
of the Ionian or Homeric epos ; ■ hot there are also several traces
of the Hesiodic. or Boeotian school. The principal “ hymns ”
are (i) to Apollo (generally treated as two or more hymns
combined in one); (2) to Hermes ; (3) to Aphrodite ; and (4)
to Demeter. The hymn to Apollo, quoted by Thucydides (iii.
104) as Homer’s, is of peculiar interest on account of the lines
describing the Ionian festival at Delos. Two celebrated pieces
of a sportive kind passed under Homer’s name. The Mar gilts —
a comic poem on one “ who knew many things but knew them
all badly ”—is regarded by. Aristotle as the earliest germ of
comedy, and was possibly as old as 700 b.c. Only a few lines
remain. The Batracho(myo)machia, or Battle of the Frogs and
Mire probably belongs to the decline of Greek literature, perhaps
to the 2nd rentury n.r. 1 About 300 verses of it are extant.
In the Iliad and the Odyssey the personal opinions or sym¬
pathies of the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are
Traati- not declared or even hinted. Hesiod, indeed, some-
tlan from times gives us a glimpse of his own troubles or views.
I'/xMto Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet.
The message which he delivers is not from himself
the truths which he imparts have not been discovered
by his own search. He is the mouthpiece of the Delphian
Apollo. Personal opinion and feeling may tinge his utterance,
but they do not determine its general complexion. The egotism
is a single thread ; it is not the basis of the texture. Epic poetry
was in Greece the foundation of all other poetry ; for many
centuries no other kind was generally cultivated, no other could
speak to the whole people. Politically, the age was monarchical
or aristocratic ; intellectually, it was too simple for the analysis
of thought or emotion. Kings and princes loved to hear of the
great deeds of their ancestors; common men loved to hear of
them too, for they had no other interest. The mind of Greece
found no subject of contemplation so attractive as the warlike
past of the race, or so useful as that lore which experience and
tradition had bequeathed. But in the course of the 8th century
u.c. the rule of hereditary princes began to disappear. Monarchy
gave place to oligarchy, and this—often after the intermediate
phase of a tyrannis—to democracy. Such a change was neces¬
sarily favourable to the growth of reflection. The private citizen
is no longer a mere cipher, the Homeric ns, a unit in the dim
multitude of the king-ruled folk; he gains more power of
independent action, his mental horizon is widened, his life
becomes fuller and more interesting. He begins to feel the need
of expressing the thoughts and feelings that are stirred in him.
liut as yet a prose literature does not exist; the new thoughts,
like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse. The forms
of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the lambic.
The elegiac metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic
metre, obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as
to make it a verse of five feet or measures. But the
* r ' poetical capabilities of the elegiac couplet are of a
wholly different kind from those of heroic verse. i\tyos seems
to be the Greek form of a name given by the Carians and Lydians
to a lament for the dead. This was accompanied by the soft
music of the Lydian flute, which continued to be associated with
Greek cleg)’. The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by
this very fact. The flute was to the Greeks ari Asiatic instru¬
ment-string instruments were those which they made their own
—and it would hardly have been wedded by them to a species of
poetry which had arisen among themselves. The early elegiac
poetry of Greece was by no means confined to mourning for the
dead. War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy, were in turn
its themes ; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of the poet
and his friends, whatever that might be at the time. It is the
direct expression of. the poet’s own thoughts, addressed to a
sympathizing society. This is its first characteristic. The
second is that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it
still , preserves, on the whole, the tone of conversation or of
1 Others attribute it, as well as the MargiUs, to Pigrcs of Hali¬
carnassus, the supposed brother of the Carian queen Artemisia,
who fought on the side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.
narrative. Greek elegy stops short of lyric passion. English
elegy, whether funereal as in Dryden and Pope, or reflective
as in Gray, is usually true to the same normal type. Roman
elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to trench on
the lyric province. For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or
sentimental; and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early
Greek elegists,not Tyrtaeus or Theognis, but the later Alexandrian
elegists, such as Callimachus or Philetas. Catullus introduced
the metre to Latin literature, and used it with more fidelity than
his followers to its genuine Greek inspiration.
Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from
epos. But almost at the same time another species arose which
had nothing in common with epos, either in form or in
spirit. This was the iambic. The word fu/n/Soy, v ”,. c
iambus ( Imrrtiv, to dart or shoot) was used in reference
to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter; it was the
maiden Iambe, the myth said, who drew the first smile from
the mourning goddess. The iambic metre was at first used for
satire ; and it was in this strain that it was chiefly employed
by its earliest master of note, Archilochus of Paros (670 B.c.).
But it was adapted to the expression generally of any pointed
thought. Thus it was suitable to fables. Elegiac and iambic
poetry both belong to the borderland between epic and lyric.
While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic stands
nearer to the lyric, lambic poetry can express rite personal
feeling of the poet with greater intensity than elegy does; on
the other hand, it has not the lyric flexibility, self-abandonment
or glow. As we see in the case of Solon, iambic verse could
serve for the expression of that deeper thought, that more
inward self-communing, for which the elegiac form would have
been inappropriate.
But these two forms of poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and
the iambic, belong essentially to the same stage of the literature.
They stand between the Ionian epos and the lyric poetry of the
Aeolians and Dorians. The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus
and Tyrtaeus, use elegy to rouse a warlike spirit in sinking
hearts. Archilochus too wrote warlike elegy, but used it also
in other strains, as in lament for the dead. The elegy of Mimner-
mus of Smyrna or Colophon is the plaintive farewell of an ease-
loving Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom. In Solon elegy
takes a higher range ; it becomes political and ethical.* Theognis
represents the maturer union of politics with a proverbial
philosophy. Another gnomic poet was Phocylidcs of Miletus;
an admonitory poem extant under his name is probably the
work of an Alexandrine Jewish Christian. Xenophanes gives
a philosophic strain to elegy. With Simonides of Ceos it reverts,
in an exquisite form, to its earliest destination, and becomes
the vehicle of epitaph on those who fell in the Persian Wars.
Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Septonides) of Amorgus,
as by Archilochus, for Batire—but satire directed against classes
rather than persons. Solon’s iambics so far preserve the old
associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or
controversial side of his political poetry. Hipponax of Ephesus
was another iambic satirist—using the (“ limping ’’) or
choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an
iambus in the last place. But it was not until the rise of the
Attic drama that the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen.
The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final
form of that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and
iambic is still incomplete. The lyric expression is _
deeper and more impassioned. Its intimate union
with music and with the rhythmical movement of
the dance gives to it more of an ideal character. At the same
time the continuity of the music permits pauses to the voice—
pauses necessary as reliefs after a climax. Before lyric poetry
could be effective, it was necessary that some progress should
have been made in the art of music. The instrument used by
the Greeks to accompany the voice was the four-stringed lyre,
and the first great epoch in Greek music was when Tcrpander
of Lesbos (660 b.c.), by adding three strings, gave the lyre the
” The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented by lengthy
Quotations in the Constitution of Athens.
[ANCIENT
GREEK LITERATURE
510
oomptus of the octave. Further improvements are ascribed to
Olympus and Thalctas. By 500 b.c. Greek music had probably
acquired all the powers of expression which the lyric poet could
demand. The period of Greek lyric poetry may be roughly
defined as from 670 to 440 b.c. Two different parts in its
development were taken by the Aeolians and the Dorians.
The lvric poetry of the Aeolians—especially of Lesbos—was
essentially the utterance of personal feeling, and was usually
intended for a single voice, not for a chorus. Lesbos,
JJy in the 7th century b.c,, had attained some naval
and commercial importance. But the strife of oligarchy
and democracy was active ; the Lesbian nobles were often
driven by revolution to exchange their luxurious home-life
for the hardships of exile. It is such a life of contrasts and
excitements, working on a sensuous and fiery temperament,
that is reflected in the fragments of Alcaeus. In these glimpses
of war and love, of anxiety for the storm-tossed state and of
careless festivity, there is much of the cavalier spirit; if Archi¬
lochus is in certain aspects a Greek Byron, Alcaeus might be
compared to Lovelace. The other great representative of the
Aeolian lyric is Sappho, the only womun of Greek race who is
known to have possessed poetical genius of the first order.
Intensity and melody are the characteristics of the fragments
that remain to us. 1 Probably no poet ever surpassed Sappho
as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely subtle harmonies of
form and sound. Anacreon of Tens, in Ionia, may be classed
with the Aeolian lyrists in so far as the matter and form of his
work resembled theirs, though the dialect in which ho wrote was
mainly the Ionian. A few fragments remain from his hymns
to the gtxls, from love-poems and festive songs. The collection
of sixty short pieces which passes current under his name date
only trom the 10th century. The short poems wltich it comprises
are of various age and authorship, probably ranging in date
from c. 200 b.c. to A.r>. 400 or 500. They have not the pure style,
the flexible grace, or die sweetness of the classical fragments;
but the verses, though somewhat mechanical, are often pretty.
The Dorian lyric jKtetry, in contrast with the Aeolian, had
more of a public limit of a personal character, and was for tiie
most part choral. Hymns or choruses for the public
MfrMA worship of the gods, and rales to be sung at festivals on
occasions of public interest, were its characteristic
forms. Its central inspiration was the pride of the Dorians in
the Dorian past, in their traditions of worship, government and
social usage.. The history of the Dorian lyric poetry does not
present us with vivid expressions of personal character, like
those of Alcaous and .Sappho, but rather with a series of artists
whose names are associated with improvements of form. Thus
Aleman (the Doric form of Alciuueon; 660 b.c.) is said to have
introduced the balanced movement of strophe and antistrophe.
Stesichorus, of llimera in Sicily, added the epode, sung by the
chorus while stationary after these movements; Arion of
Methymna in Lesbos gave a finished form to the choral hymn
(“ dithyramb ”) in honour of Dionysus, and organized the
“ cyclic ” or circular chorus which sang it at the altar, lbycus
of Rhegium (c. 540) wrote choral lyrics after Stesichorus and
glowing love-songs in the Aeolic style.
The culmination of the lyric poetry is marked by two great
names, Simonides and Tindar. Simonides (556-468) was an
Ionian of the island ,of Ceos, but his lyrics belonged by
simoaUu f orm p, t| lc t } lor al Dorian school. Many of his subjects
Piatfar. were taken from the events of the Persian wars: his
epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylae and Salamis
were celebrated. In him the lyric art of the Dorians is interpreted
by Ionian-genius, and Athens—where part of his life was passed—
is the point at which they meet. Simonides is the first Greek
1 Since the above was written, lour considerable fragments
S neroliy assigned to Sappho have Iwen discovered : a prayer to
e Nereids lor the sale return ol her brother Charaxus; the leave-
taking ol a favourite pupil; a greeting to Atthis, one of her friends,
in Lydia ; the fourth, ranch mutilated, addressed to another pupil,
Gongyfa. They are of great beauty and throw considerable light
on the personality of Sappho and the language and metre of tier
poems.
lyrist whose significance is not merely Aeolian or Dorian but
Panhellenic. The same character belongs even more completely
to his yqunger contemporary. Pindar (518-r. 443) was bom
in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian
elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements
meet in Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most tender and
most exquisite of the lyric poets. Pindar was the boldest, the
most fervid and the most sublime. His extant fragments 2
represent almost every branch of the lyric art. But he is known
to us mainly by forty-four Epinieia, or odes of victory, for the
Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian festivals. The
general characteristic of the treatment is tliat the particular
victory is made the occasion of introducing heroic legends
connected with the family or city of the victor, and of inculcating
the moral lessons which they teach. No Greek lyric poetry
can be completely appreciated apart from the music, now lost,
to which it was set. Pindar’s odes were, further, essentially
occasional poems ; they abound in allusions of which the effect
is partly or wholly lost on us; and the glories which they cele¬
brate belong to a life which we can but imperfectly realize.
Of all the great Greek poets, Pindar is perhaps the one to whom
it is liardest for us to do justice ; yet we can at least recognize
his splendour of imagination, his strong rapidity and his soaring
flight.
Batchylides of Ceos (<-. 504-430), the youngest of the three
great lyric poets and nephew of Simonides, was known only by
scanty fragments until the discovery of nineteen poems on an
Egyptian papyrus in 1896. They consist of thirteen (or fourteen)
epinieia, two of which cclehrate the same victories as two odes
of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes for the festivals
of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable information on
the court life of the time and legendary history. Baeehylidcs.
the little “ Cean nightingale,” is inferior to his great rival Pindar,
“ the Swan of Dirce,” in originality and splendour of language,
but he writes simply and elegantly, while his excellent yriu/iui
attracted readers of a philosophical turn of mind, amongst them
the emperor Julian.
Similarly, the scanty fragments of Timotheus of Miletus
(d. 357), musical composer and poet, and inventor of the eleven¬
stringed lyre, wen- increased by the discovery in 1902 of some
2 50 fines of his “ nome ” the Per sue, written after the manner of
Terpander. The beginning is lost; the middle describes the
battle of Salamjs; the end is of a personal nature. The papyrus
is the oklest Greek MS. and belongs to the age of Alexander the
Great. The language is frequently very obscure, and the whole
is a specimen of lyric poetry in its decline.
(B) Jhe Allic Literature .—The lonians of Asia Minor, the
Aeolians and the Dorians had now performed their special parts
in the development of Greek literature. Epic poetry had inter¬
preted the heroic legends of warlike deeds done by Zeus-nourished
kings and chiefs. Then, as the individual life became more and
more elegiac and iambic poetry had become the social expression
of that life in all its varied interests and feelings. Lastly, lyric
poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold need—to be the more
intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give choral voice, at
stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the triumph or the sorrow,
of a city ora race. A new form of poetry was now to be created,
with elements borrowed from all the rest. And this was to be
achieved by the people of Attica, in whose character and
language the distinctive traits of an Ionian descent were
tempered with some of the best qualities of the Dorian stock.
The drama (q.v.) arose from the festivals of Dionysus, the
god of wine, which were held at intervals from the beginning of
winter to the beginning of spring. A troop of rustic
worshippers would gather around the altar of the god,
and sing a hymn in his honour, telling of his victories
or sufferings in his progress over the earth. “ Tragedy ” meant
“ the goat-song,” a goat (r/xlyos) being sacrificed to Dionysus
before the hymn was sung. “ Comedy,” “ the village- -
song," is the same hymn regarded as an occasion for
- Recently increased by specimens of the Purtlmuia (choral
songs for maidens) and paeans.
ANCIENT]
GREEK LITERATURE
rustic jest. Then the leader ol the chorus would assume the
part of a messenger from Dionysus, or even that of the god
himself, and recite an adventure to the worshippers, who made
choral response. The next step was to arrange a dialogue between
the leader (KOftvcpaws, coryphaeus) and one chosen member of the
chorus, hence called “the answerer” (wro/cpirrjv, hypocrites,
afterwards the ordinary word for “ actor ”). This last improve¬
ment is ascribed to the Attic Thespis (about 536 b.c.). The
elements of drama were now ready. The choral hymn to
Dionysus (the “ dithyramb ”) had received an artistic form
from the Dorians; dialogue, though only between the leader
of the chorus and a single actor, had been introduced in Attica.
Phrynichus, an Athenian, celebrated in this manner some events
of the Persian Wars; but in his “ drama ” there was still only
one actor. Choerilus of Athens and Pratinas of Fhlius, who
belonged to the same period, developed the satyric drama;
Pratinas also wrote tragedies, dithyrambs, and hyporchemata
(lively choral odes chiefly in honour of Apollo).
Aeschylus (bom 525 b.c.) became the real founder of tragedy
by introducing a second actor, and thus rendering the dialogue
independent of the chorus. At the same time the
y a». c jj 0ra j gQjjg —hitherto the principal part of the per¬
formance—became subordinate to the dialogue; and drama
was mature. Aeschylus is also said to have made various
improvements of detail in costume and the like; and it was
early in his career that the theatre of Dionysus under the acropolis
was commenced—the first permanent home of Greek drama, in
place of the temporary wooden platforms which had hitherto
been used. The system of the “ trilogy ” and the “ tetralogy ”
is further ascribed to Aeschylus,—the “ trilogy ” being properly
a series of three tragedies connected in subject, such as the
Agamemnon, Choiptunt, Eumemdes, which together form the
Oresleia, or Story of Orestes. The “ tetralogy ” is such a triad
with a “ satyric drama " added—that is, a drama in which
“ satyrs," the grotesque woodland beings who attended on
Dionysus, formed the chorus, as in the earlier dithyramb from
which drama sprang. The Cyclops of Euripides is the only
extant specimen of a satyric drama. In the seven tragedies
which alone remain of the seventy which Aeschylus is said to
have composed, the forms of kings and heroes have a grandeur
which is truly Homeric ; there is a spirit of Panhellenic patriot¬
ism such as the Persian Wars in which he fought might well
quicken in a soldier-poet; and, pervading all, there is a strain
of speculative thought which seeks to reconcile the apparent
conflicts between the gods of heaven and of the underworld by
the doctrine that both alike, constrained by necessity, are work¬
ing out the law of righteousness. Sophocles, who was
sophociea. thirty years after Aeschylus (495 B.C.), is the
most perfect aartist of the ancient drama. No one before or after
him gave to Greek tragedy so high a degree of ideal beauty,
or appreciated so finely the possibilities anti the limitations of its
sphere. He excels especially in drawing character; his Antigone,
his Ajax, his Oedipus— indeed, all the chief persons of his dramas
—are typical studies in the great primary emotions of human
nature. He gave a freer scope to tragic dialogue by adding a
third actor; and in one of his later plays, the Oedipus at Colonus,
a fourth actor is required. From the time when he won the
tragic prize against Aeschylus in 468 to his death in 405 B.C.
he was the favourite dramatist of Athens; and for us he is not
only a great dramatist, but also the most spiritual representative
of the age of Pericles. The distinctive interest of Euripides is of
another kind. He was only fifteen years younger than
Bartptde*. ^ w j, en entered on his poetical career,
the old inspirations of tragedy were already failing. Euripides
marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and is, in fact, the
mediator between the- classical and the romantic drama. The
myths and traditions with which the elder dramatists had dealt
no longer commanded an unquestioning faith. Euripides himself
was imbued with the new intellectual scepticism of the day;
and the speculative views; which were conflicting in his own mind
are reflected in his plays. He had much picturesque and pathetic
powerhe was a master of expression; and he shows ingenuity
5.1#
in devising fresh resources for tragedy—especially in hihm w p ge-
ment of the choral songs. Aeschylus is Panhellenic, Sophocles
is Athenian, Euripides is cosmopolitan. He stands nearer to the
modem world than either of his predecessors; and though with
him Attic tragedy loses its highest beauty, it acquires new
elements of familiar human interest.
In Attica, as in England, a period of rather less than fifty years
sufficed for the complete development of the tragic art. The
two distinctive characteristics of Athenian drama are its origin¬
ality and its abundance. The Greeks of Attica were not the
only inventors of drama, but they were the first people who
made drama a complete work of art. And the great tragic poets
of Attica were remarkably prolific. Aeschylus was the reputed
author of 70 tragedies, Sophocles of 113, Euripides of 92 ; and
there were others whose productiveness was equally great.
Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the payer
side, of the Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following
the gloom of winter. The process of growth was Camttr
nearly the Bame as in tragedy; but the Dorians, not
the Ionian* of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to the
comic chorus. Susarion, a Dorian of Megara, exhibited, about
580 b.c., pieces of the kind known as “ Megarian forces.”
Epicharmus of Cos (who settled at Syracuse) gave literary form
to the Doric farce, and treated in burlesque style the stories of
gods and heroes, and subjects taken from everyday life. His
Syracusan contemporary Sophron (c. 450) was a famous writer
of mimes, chiefly scenes from low-class life. The most artistic
form of comedy seems, however, to have been developed in
Attica. The greatest names before Aristophanes are those of
Cratinus and Eupolis; but from about 470 B.c. there seem* to
have been a continuous succession of comic dramatists, amongst
them l’lato Comicus, the author of 28 comedies, political satires
and parodies after the style of the Middle Comedy. A ^
Aristophanes came forward as a comic poet in 427 B.c.,
and retained his popularity for about forty years. He
presents a perhaps unique unionof bold fancy, exquisite humour,
critical acumen and lyrical power. His eleven extant comedies may
be divided into three groups, according as the licence ol political
satire becomes more and more restricted. In the Acharnians ,
Knights, Clouds, Wasps and Peace (425-421) the poet uses
unrestrained freedom. In the Birds, Lysistrata, Thcsmophori-
azusae and Frogs (4x4-405) a greater reserve may be perceived.
Lastly, in the Ecclesiassusae and the Plutus (392-388) personal
satire is almost wholly avoided. The same general tendency
continued. The so-called “ Middle Comedy ” (3^0-320) repre¬
sents the transition from the Old Comedy, or political satire, to
satire of a literary or social nature; its chief writers were Anti-
phanes of Athens and Alexis of Thurii. The “ New Comedy ”
(320-250) resembled the modem “ comedy of manners.”
Its chief representative was Menander (34^-291), the author of
105 comedies. Fragments have been discovered of seven of
these, of sufficient length to give an idea of their dramatic action.
His plays were produced on the stage as late as the timeof
Plutarch, and his yru/uu, distinguished by worldly wisdom,
were issued in the form of anthologies, which enjoyed great
popularity. Other prominent writers of this class were Diphilus,
Philemon, Posidippus and Apollodorus of Carystus. About
330 B.c. Rhinthon of Tarcntum revived the old Doric farce in
his HUarotragoediae. or travesties ol tragic stories. These
successive periods cannot be sharply dr precisely marked off.
The change which gradually passed over the comic drama was
simply the reflection of the change which passed over the political
and social fife of Athens. The Old Comedy, as we see it in the
earlier plays of Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful
engine of public criticism that has ever existed in any community.
Unsparing personality was its essence. The comic poet used
this recognized right on an occasion at once festive and sacred,
in a society where every man of any note was known by name
and sight to the rest. The same thousands who heard a policy
or a character denounced or lauded in the theatre might be
required to pass sentence on it in the popular assembly or »
the courts of law.
$u
GREEK LITERATURE
[ANCIENT
TiliCddWlopment of Greek poetry had been completed before
a prb« literature had begun to exist. The earliest name in
extant Greek prose literature is that of Herodotus;
"E"* *nd, when he wrote, the Attic drama had already
passed its prime. There had been, indeed, writers of
prose before Herodotus ; but there had not been, in the proper
sense of the term, a prose literature. The causes of this compara¬
tively late origin of Greek literary prose are independent of
the question as to the time at which the art of writing began to
be generally used for literary purposes. Epic poetry exercised
for a very long period a sovereign spell over the Greek mind.
In it was deposited all that the race possessed of history, theology,
philosophy, oratory. Even after an age of reflection had begun,
elegiac poetry, the first offshoot of epic, was, with iambic verse,
the vehicle of much which among other races would have been
committed to prose. The basis of Greek culture was essentially
poetical. A political cause worked in the same direction. In
the Eastern monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the
royal records afforded the elements of history from a remote date.
The Greek nation was broken up into small states, each busied
with its own affairs and its own men. It was the collision
lx’tween the Greek and the barbarian world which first provided
a national subject for a Greek historian. The work of Herodotus,
in its relation to Greek prose, is so far analogous to the Iliad
in its relation to Greek poetry, that it is the earliest work of art,
and that it bears a Panhellenic stamp.
The sense and the degree in which Herodotus was original
may be inferred from what is known of earlier prose-writers.
For about a century before Herodotus there had been
Bmr,y a series of writers in philosophy, mythology, geography
wr/rtr*. and history. The earliest, or among the earliest, of
the philosophical writers were I’herecvdes of Syros
(550 n.r.) and the Ionian Anaximenes and Anaximander. It
it doubtful whether Cudmus of Miletus, supposed to have been
the first prose writer, was an historical personage. The Ionian
writers, especially called Aoyoyp«<j>oi, “ narrators in prose "
(as distinguished from «rujnm>t, makers of verse), were those
who compiled the myths, especially in genealogies, or who
described foreign countries, their physical features, usages
and traditions. Hecataeus of Miletus (500 b.c.) is the best-
knmvn representative of the’logographi in both these branches.
Hcllanicus of Mytilene (450 n.c.), among whose works was a
history of Attica, appears to have made a nearer approach to
the character of a systematic historian. Other logographi were
Charon of Lampsacus; Pherecydes of Leros, who wrote on
the myths of early Attica ; Hippvs of Rhegium, the oldest writer
on Italy and Sicily ; and Acusilaus of Argos in Boeotia, author
of genealogies (see Logoc.raphi, and Greece : Ancient History ',
“ Authorities ”).
Herodotus was bom in 484 n.c. ; and his history was probably
not completed before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War
(431 B.c.). His subject is the struggle between Greece
and Asia, which he deduces from the legendary rape
of the Argive In by Phoenicians, and traces down to the
final victor)' of the Greeks over the invading host of Xerxes.
His literary kinship with the historical or geographical writers
who hud preceded him is seen mainly in two things. First,
though he draws a line between the mythological and the
historical age, he still holds that myths, as such, are worthy to
be reported, and that in certain cases it is part of his duty to
report them. Secondly, he follows the example of such writers
as Hecataeus in describing the natural and social features of
countries. He seeks to combine the part of the geographer or
intelligent traveller with his proper part as historian. But when
we turn -om these minor traits to the larger aspects of his work,
Herodotus stands forth as an artist whose conception and whose
method were his own. His history has an epic unity. Various
as are the subordinate parts, the action narrated is one, great and
complete ; and the unjty is due to this, that Herodotus refers all
events of human history to the principle of divine Nemesis.
If Sophocles had told the story of Oedipus in the Oedipus
Tyrannus alone, and had not added to it the Oedipus at Colmus,
it would have been comparable to the story of Xerxes as told Ire
Herodotus. Great as an artist, great too in the largeness of his
historical conception, Herodotus fails chiefly by lade, of insight
into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in regard
to the history of political institutions. Both his strength and
his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with
that other historian who was strictly his contemporary and
who yet seems divided from him by centuries.
Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus;
but the intellectual space between the men is so great that th.-y
seem to belong to different ages. Herodotus is the
first artist in historical writing; Thucydides is the Min'
first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of
causation—human agency, represented by the good or bad
qualities of men, and divine agency, represented by the vigilance
of the gods on behalf of justice. Thucydides concentrates his
attention on the human agency (without, however, denying the
other), and strives to trace its exact course. The subject of
Thucydides is the Peloponnesian War. In resolving to write
its history, he was moved, he says, by these considerations. It
was probably the greatest movement which had ever affected
Hellas collectively. It was possible for him as a contemporary
to record it with approximate accuracy. And this record was
likely to have a general value, over and above its particular
interest as a record, seeing that the political future was likely
to resemble the political past. This is what Thucydides means
when he calls his work “ a possession for ever.” The speeches
which he ascribes to the persons of the history are, as regards
form, his own essays in rhetoric of the school to which Antiphon
belongs. As regards matter, they are always so far dramatic
that the thoughts and sentiments are such as he conceived
possible for the supposed speaker. Thucydides abstains, as a
rule, from moral comment; but he tells his story as no one
could have told it who did not profoundly feel its tragic force ;
and his general claim to the merit of impartiality is not invali¬
dated by the possible exceptions—difficult to estimate—in the
cases of Cleon and Hyperbolus.
Strong as is the contrast between Herodotus and Thucydides,
their works have yet a character which distinguish both alike
from the historical work of Xenophon in the Anabasis
and the Hellenica. Herodotus gives us a vivid drama pHoa.
with the unity of an epic. Thucydides takes a great
chapter of contemporary history and traces the causes which
are at work throughout it, so as to give the whole a scientific
unity. Xenophon has not the grasp either of the dramatist
or of the philosopher. His work does not possess the higher
unity .either of art or of science. The true distinction of Xeno¬
phon consists in his thorough combination of the practical with
the literary character. He was an accomplished soldier, who
had done and seen much. He was also a good writer, who could
make a story both clear and lively. But the several parts of
the story are not grouped around any central idea, such as a
divine Nemesis is for Herodotus, or such as Thucydides finds
in the nature of political man. The seven books of die Hellenica
form a supplement to the history of Thucydides, beginning in
411 and going down to 362 b.c. The chief blot on the Hellenica
is the author’s partiality to Sparta, and in particular to Agesilaus.
Some of the greatest achievements of Epaminondas and Pelopidas
are passed over in silence. On the whole, Xenophon is perhaps
seen at his best, in his narrative of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand
—a subject which exactly suits him. The Cyropaedeia is a
romance of little historical worth, but with many good passages.
The Recollections of Socrates, on the other hand, derive their
principal value from being uniformly matter-of-fact. In his
minor pieces on various subjects Xenophon appears as the
eariiest essayist. It may be noted that one of the essays errone¬
ously ascribed to him—that On the Athenian Polity —is probably
the oldest specimen in existence of literary Attic prose.
His contemporaries Ctesias of Cnidus and Philistus of Syracuse
wrote histories of Persia and Sicily. In the second half of the
4th century a number of histories were compiled by literary
men of little practical knowledge, who had been trained in the
ANCIENT]
GREEK LITERATURE
rhetorical schools. Such were Ephorus of Cyme and Theopompus
of Chios, both pupils of Isocrates; and the writers of Attkides
(chronicles of Attic history), the chief of whom were Androtion
and Philochorus. Timaeus of Tauromenium was the author of
a great work on Sicily, and introduced the system of reckoning
by Olympiads.
The steps by which an Attic prose style was developed, and the
principal forms which it assumed, can be traced most clearly
in the Attic orators. Every Athenian citizen who
r * ° ry ' aspired to take part in the affairs of the city, or even
to be qualified for self-defence before a law-court, required
to have some degree of skill in public speaking ; and an
Athenian audience looked upon public debate, whether political
or forensic, as a competitive trial of proficiency in a fine art.
Hence the speaker, no less than the writer, was necessarily a
student of finished expression; and oratory had a more direct
influence on the general structure of literary prose than has ever
perhaps been the case elsewhere. A systematic rhetoric took
its rise in Sicily, where Corax of Syracuse (466 b.c.) devised his
Art of Words to assist those who were pleading before the law-
courts ; and it was brought to Athens by his disciple Tisias.
The teaching of the Sophists, again, directed attention, though
in a superficial and imperfect way, to the elements of grammar
and logic; and Gorgias of Lcontini—whose declamation, however
turgid, must have been striking—gave an impulse at Athens
to the taste for elaborate rhetorical brilliancy.
Antiphon represents the earliest, and what has been called
the grand, style of Attic prose; its chief characteristics are
a grave, dignified movement, a frequent emphasis
oraton on verbal contrasts, and a certain austere elevation.
The interest of Andocides is mainly historical; but
he has graphic power. Lysias, the representative of the “ plain
style,” breaks through the rigid mannerism of the elder school,
and uses the language of daily life with an ease and grace which,
though the result of study, do not betray their art. He is, in his
own way, the canon of an Attic style ; and his speeches, written
for others, exhibit also a high degree of dramatic skill. Isocrates,
whose manner may be regarded as intermediate between that
of Antiphon and that of Lysias, wrote for readers rather than
for hearers. The type of literary prose which he founded is
distinguished by ample periods, by studied smoothness and by
th'> temperate use of rhetorical ornament. From the middle
of the 4th century n.c. the Isocratic style of prose became
general in Greek literature. From the school of Rhodes, in which
it became more florid, it passed to Cicero, and through him it
has helped to shape the literary prose of the modem world. The
speeches of Isaeus in will-cases are interesting,—apart from
their bearing on Attic life,—because in them we see, as Dionysius
says, “ the seeds and the beginnings ” of that technical mastery
in rhetorical argument which Demosthenes carries to perfection.
Isaeus has also, in a degree, some of the qualities of
Lysias. Demosthenes excels all other masters of
Greek prose not only in power but in variety ; his
political speeches, his orations in public or private causes, show
his consummate and versatile command over all the resources
of the language. In him the development of Attic prose is
completed, and the best elements in each of its earlier phases are
united. The modem world can more easily appreciate Demos¬
thenes as a great natural orator than as an elaborate artist.
But, in order to apprehend his place in the history of Attic prose,
we must remember that the ancients felt him to be both ; and
that he was even reproached by detractors with excessive study
of effect. Aeschines is the most theatrical of the Greek orators ;
he is vehement, and often brilliant, but seldom persuasive.
Hypereides was, after Demosthenes, probably the most effective;
he had much of the grace of Lysias, but also a wit, a fire and a
pathos which were his own. Portions of six of his speeches,
found in Egypt between 1847 and 1890, are extant. The one
oration of Lycurgus which remains to us is earnest and. stately,
reminding us both of Antiphon and of Isocrates. Dinarchus
was merely a bad imitator of Demosthenes. There seems more
reason to regret that Demades is not represented by larger
fragments. The decline of Attic oratory may be dat&i Tsai*
Demetrius of Phalerum (318 B.C.), the pupil of Aristotle,'£nd the
first to introduce the custom of making speeches on imaginwy
subjects as practised in the rhetorical schools. Cicero na£es!um
as the first who impaired the vigour of the earlier eloquence,
“ preferring his own sweetness to the weight and dignity of his
predecessors.” He forms a connecting link between Athens and
Alexandria, where he found refuge after his downfall and pro¬
moted the foundation of the famous library.
In later times oratory chiefly flourished in the coast and
island settlements of Asia Minor, especially Rhodes. Here a
new, florid style of oration arose, called the “Asiatic,” which
owed its origin to Hegesias of Magnesia (c. a so B.c.).
The place of Plato in the history’ of Greek literature is as
unique as his place in the history of Greek thought. The literary
genius shown in the dialogues is many-sided: it
includes dramatic power, remarkable skill in parody, pttcai
a subtle faculty of satire, and, generally, a command nrata-
over the finer tones of language. In passages of JJJJJ’JJjJJ
continuous exposition, where the argument rises into
the higher regions of discussion, Plato’s prose takes a more
decidedly poetical colouring — never florid or sentimental,
however, but lofty and austere. In Plato’s later works—such,
for instance, as the Laws, Timaeus, Critias —we can perceive
that his style did not remain unaffected by the smooth literary
prose which contemporary writers had developed. Aristotle’s
influence on the form of Attic prose literature would probably
have been considerable if his Rhetoric had been published while
Attic oratory had still a vigorous life before it. But in this,
as in other departments of mental effort, it was Aristotle’s
lot to set in order what the Greek intellect had done in that
creative period which had now come to an end. His own chief
contribution to the original achievements of the race was the
most fitting one that could have been made by him in whose
lifetime they were closed. He bequeathed an instrument by
which analysis could be carried further, he founded a science
of reasoning, and left those who followed him to apply it in all
those provinces of knowledge which he had mapped out. 1
Theophrastus, his pupil and his successor in the Lyceum, opens
the new age of research and scientific classification with his
extant works on lxitany, but is better known to modem readers
by his lively Characters, the prototypes of such sketches in
English literature as those of Ilall, Overbury and Earle.
(C.) The Literature of the Decadence. —The period of decadence
in Greek literature begins with the extinction of free political
life in the Greek cities. So long as the Greek common- chanctsr
wealths were independent and vigorous, Greek life otitw
rested on the identity of the man with the citizen, orsatln
The city state was the highest unit of socia] organiza- ***'
tion ; the whole training and character of the man were viewed
relatively to his membership of the city. The market-place,
the assembly, the theatre were places of frequent meeting, where
the sense of citizenship was quickened, where common standards
of opinion or feeling were formed. Poetry, music, sculpture,
literature, art, in all their forms, were matters of public interest.
Every citizen had some degree of acquaintance with them, and
was in some measure capable of judging them. The poet and the
musician, the historian and the sculptor, did not live a life of
studious seclusion or engrossing professional work. They were,
as a rule, in full sympathy with the practical interests of their
time. Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concen¬
trated and ennobled expression of their political existence.
Aeschylus breathed into tragedy the inspiration of one who had
himself fought the great fight of national liberation. Sophocles
was the colleague of Pericles in a high military command.
Thucydides describes the operations of the Peloponnesian War
with the practical knowledge of one who had been in charge of
a fleet. Ictinus and Pheidias gave shape in stone, not to mere
visions of the studio, but to the more glorious, because more
1 His Constitution 0/ Athens (9.0.), oi which a papyrus MS. «u
found in Egypt and published in 1891, forms part of a larger work
on the constitution of 158 Greek and foreign cities.
XII. 17
SH
reid *nd vivid, perception* which had been quickened in them
bjr 'a living communion with the Athenian spirit, by • daily
contemplation of Athenian greatnes*, in the theatre where
tragic poets idealized the legends of the past, in the ecclesia
where every citizen had his vote on the policy of the state, or in
that free and gracious society, full of beauty, yet exempt from
vexatious constraint, which belonged to the age of Pericles.
The tribunal which judged these works of literature or art was
such as was best fitted to preserve the favourable conditions
under which they arose. Criticism was not in the hands of a
literary clique or of a social caste. The influence of jealousy or
malevolence, and the more fatal influence of affectation, had
little power to affect the verdict The verdict was pronounced
by the whole body of the citizens. The success or failure of a
tragedy was decided, not by the minor circumstance that it
gained the first or second prize, but by the collective opinion of
the citizens assembled in the theatre of Dionysus. A work of
architecture or sculpture was approved or condemned, not by
the sentence of a few whom the multitude blindly followed, but
by the general judgment of some twenty thousand persons, each
of whom was in some degree qualified by education and by habit
to form an independent estimate. The artist worked for all his
fellow-citizens, and knew that he would be judged by all. The
soul of his work was the fresh and living inspiration of nature ;
it was the ennobled expression of his own life; and the public
opinion before which it came was free, intelligent and sincere.
Philip of Maeedon did not take away the municipal inde¬
pendence of the Greek cities, but he dealt a death-blow to the
"Id political life. The Athenian poet, historian, artist
titioa*to ’"‘b’ld s till do good work, but he could never again have
Htlhnhm. that which used to be the very mainspring of all such
activity—the daily experience and consciousness of
participation in the affairs of an independent state. He could
no longer breathe the invigorating air of constitutional freedom,
or of the social intercourse to wltich that freedom lent dignity as
well as grace. Then came Alexander’s conquests ; Greek civiliza¬
tion was diffused over Asia and the East by means of Greek
colonies in which Asiatic and Greek elements wen mingled.
The life of such settlements, under the monarchies into which
Alexander's empire broke tip, could not lie animated by the spirit
of the Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom.
But the externals of Greek life were there—the temples, the
statues, the theatres, the porticos. Ceremonies and festivals
were conducted in the Greek manner. In private life Greek
usages prevailed. Greek was the language most used; Greek
books were in demand. The mixture of races would always in
some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a com¬
munity from that of a pure Greek state ; and the facility with
which Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different
places. Syria, for example, was rapidly and completely Hellcn-
ixed. Judaea resisted the process to the last. In Egypt a Greek
aristocracy of office, birth and intellect existed side by side with
a distinct native life. Hut, viewed in its broadest aspect, this
new civilization may be called Hellenism. Hellenism (<y.n.)
means the adoption of Hellenic ways ; and it is properly applied
to a civilization, generally Hellenic in external tilings, pervading
people not necessarily or exclusively Hellenic by race. Wluit the
Hellenic literature was to Hellas, that the Hellenistic literature
was to Hellenism. The literature of Hellenism has the Hellenic
form without the Hellenic soul. The literature of Hellas was
creative ; the literature of Hellenism is derivative.
Alexandria was the centre of Greek intellectual activity from
Alexander to Augustus. Its “Museum," or college, and its
library, both founded by the first Ptolemy (Soter),
t Jari ta ’ 8 ave such attractions for learned men as no other
fmrlmi. city could rival. The labours of research or arrange¬
ment are those which characterize the Alexandrian
period. Even in its poetry spontaneous motive was replaced by
erudite skill, as in the hymns, epigrams and elegies of Calli-
taeriy. roachus, hi the enigmatic verses of Lycophron, in
the highly finished epic of Apollonius Rhodius, and
m the versified lore, astronomical or medical, of Aratus and j
[ANCIENT
Nieander. The mimes of Herodas (or Herondas) of Coe (c. too
®-c.), written in the Ionic dialect and choliambic verse, represent
scenes from everyday life. The papyrus (published in 1891)
contains seven complete poems and fragments of an eighth.
They are remarkably witty and full of shrewd observations, but
at times coarse. The pastoral poetry of the age—Dorian by
origin—was the most pleasing; for this, if it is to please at all
must have its spring in the contemplation of nature. Theocritus
is not exempt from the artificialism of the Hellenizing literature •
but his true sense of natural beauty entitles him to a place in
the first rank of pastoral poets. Bion of Ionia and Moschus of
Syracuse also charm by the music and often by the pathos of
their bucolic verse. Excavations on the site of the temple of
Asclepius at Epidaurus have brought to light two hexameter
poems and a paean (in Ionic metre) on Apollo and Asclepius by
a local poet named Isyllus, who flourished about 280. Tragedy
was represented by the poets known as the Alexandrian Pltiod.
But it is not for its poetry of any kind that this period of Greek
literature is memorable. Its true work was in erudition
and science. Aristarchus (156 b.c.), the greatest in a BraMI <"
long line of Alexandrian critics, set the example of a “*- r
more thorough method in revising and interpreting the
ancient texts, and may in this sense be said to have become
the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical studies of
Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus, gradually
formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek
grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (bom c. 166), a pupil of
Aristarchus. Translation was another province of work which
employed the learned of Alexandria—where the Septuagint
version of the Old Testament was begun, probably about 300-
250 b.c. Chronology was treated scientifically by Eratosthenes,
and was combined with history by Manetho in his chronicles
of Egypt, and by Bcrossus in his chronicles of Chalduea. Euclid
was at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. Herophilus
and Erasistratus were distinguished physicians and anatomists,
and the authors of several medical works. The general results
of the Alexandrian period might perhaps be stated
thus. Alexandria produced a few eminent men of Samml ^'-
science, some learned poets (in a few eases, of great literary
merit) and many able scholars. The preservation of the best
Greek literature was due chiefly to the unremitting care of the
Alexandrian critics, whose appreciation of it partly compensated
for the decay of the old Greek perceptions in literature and art,
and who did their utmost to hand it down in a form as free as
possible from the errors of copyists. On the whole, the jiatronage
of letters by the Ptolemies had probably as large a measure of
success as was possible under the existing conditions ; and it was
afforded at a time when there was special danger that a true
literary tradition might die out of the world.
The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may
la 1 dated from the Roman subjugation of Greece. “ Greece
made a captive of the rough conqueror," but it did Tbt
not follow from this intellectual conquest that Athens aim o-
became once more the intellectual centre of the world. Roman
Under the empire, indeed, the university of Athens ** r,oA
long enjoyed a pre-eminent reputation. But Rome gradually
became the [wint to which the greatest workers in every kind
were drawn. Greek literature had already made a home there
I afore the dose of the and century B.c, Sulk brought a Greek
library from Athens to Rome. Such men as Cicero and Atticus
were indefatigable collectors and readers of Greek books. The
power of speaking and writing the Greek language became an
indispensable accomplishment for highly educated Romans,
The library planned by Julius Caesar and founded by Augustus
had two principal departments, one for Latin, the other for Greek
works. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and Trajan contributed
to enkrge the collection. Rome became more and more the
rival of Alexandria, not only as possessing great libraries, but
also as a seat of learning at which Greek men of letters found
appreciation and encouragement. Greek poetry, especklly
in its higher forms, rhetoric and literary criticism, history and
philosophy, were all cultivated by Greek writers at Rome.
GREEK LITERATURE
ANCIENT]
GREEK LITERATURE
The first part at the Graeco-Roman period may be defined
as eactending from 146 b.c. to the dose of the Roman republic.
At its commencement stands the name of one who
fJJ^J^’had more real affinity than any of his contemporaries
a.c." with the great writers of old Athens, and who, at the
same time, saw most clearly how the empire of the
world was passing to Rome. The subject of Polybius ( c. 205-120)
was the history of Roman conquest from 264 to 146 b.c. His
style, plain and straightforward, is free from the florid rhetoric
of the time. But the distinction of Polybius is that he is the
last Greek writer who in some measure retains the spirit of the
old citizen-life. He chose his' subject, not because it gave scope
to learning or literary skill, but with a motive akin to that which
prompted the history of Thucydides -namely, because, as a
Greek dtizen, he felt intensely the political importance of those
wars which had given Rome the mastery of the world. The
chief historical work which the following century produced—
the Universal History of Diodorus Siculus (fl. c. 50 n.c.)—
resembled that of Polybius in recognizing Rome as the political
centre of the earth, as the point on which all earlier series of
events converged. In all else Diodorus represents the new
age in which the Greek historian had no longer the practical
knowledge and insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman,
but only the diligence, and usually the dulness, of a laborious
compiler.
The Greek literature of the Roman empire, from Augustus
to Justinian, was enormously prolific. The areu over which
Soooae the Greek language was diffused- either as a medium
parti of intercourse or as an established branch of the higher
MB. C.- education-was co-extensive with the empire itself.
A.D. S29. n immense store of materials had now been
accumulated, on which critics, commentators, compilers,
imitators, were employed with incessant industry. In very
many of its forms, the work of composition or adaptation had
been reduced to a mechanical knack. If there is any one charac¬
teristic which broadly distinguishes the Greek literature of these
five centuries, it is the absence of originality either in form or in
matter. Lucian is, in his way, a rare exception ; and his great
popularity—he is the only Greek writer of this period, except
Plutarch, who has been widely popular—illustrates the flatness
of the arid level above which he stands out. The sustained
abundance of literary production under the empire was partly
due to the fact that there was no open political career. Never,
probably, was literature so important as a resource for educated
men; and the habit of reciting before friendly or obsequious
audiences swelled the number of writers whose taste had been
cultivated to a point just short of perceiving that they ought
not to write.
In the manifold prose work of this period, four principal
departments may be distinguished. (1) History, with Biography,
Dtpart and Geograpky. History is represented bv Dionysius
meats of of Halicarnassus—also memorable for his criticisms on
pirn the orators and his effort to revive a true standard
literature. () j Attic p r0 se-~-by Cassius Dio, Josephus, Arrian,
Appian, Herodian, Eusebius and Zosimus. In biography, the
foremost names are Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius and Philo
stratus; in geography, Hipparchus of Nicaeu, Strabo, Ptolemy
and Pausanias. (2) Erudition and Science. The learned labours
of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their various
fields. Under this head may be mentioned such works
as the lexicons of Julius Pollux, Harpocratkm and Hesychius,
Hephaestion’s treatise on metre, und Herodian’s system of
accentuation; the commentaries of Galen on Plato and on
Hippocrates; the learned miscellanies of Athenaeus, Aelian
and Stobaeus; and the Stratagems of Polyaenus. (3) Rhetoric
and Belles-Lettres. The most popular writers on the theory
of rhetoric were Hermagoras, Hcraaogenes, Aphtbonius and
Cassius Longinus—the last the reputed author of the essay
On Sublimity. Among the most renowned teachers of rhetoric—
now distinctively called “Sophists,” or rhetoricians—were
Die Chrysostom, AeUuaAristides, Themistius, Himerius, Libanius
aad Herodes Atlicus. Akin to the rhetorical exercises were
515
various forms of ornamental or imaginative prole—dialogues,
fetters, essays or novels. Lucian, in his dialogues, exhibits
more of the classical style and of the classical spirit than any
writer of the later age; he has also a remarkable affinity with
the tone of modern satire, as in Swift or Voltaire. His Attic
prose, though necessarily artificial, was at least the best that
had been written for four centuries. The emperor Julian was
the author both of orations and of satirical pieces. The chief
of the Greek novelists (the forerunner of whom was Anstides
of Miletus, c. 100 b.c., in his Milesian Tales) are Xenophisi of
Ephesus and Longus, representing a purely Greek type of
romance, and Heliodorus—with his imitators Achilles Tatius
and Chariton—representing a school influenced by Oriental
fiction. There were also many Christian romances in Greek,
usually of a religious tendency. Alciphron’s fictitiotis Letters —
founded largely on the New Comedy of Athens—represent the
same kind of industry which produced the letters of Phakris,
Aristaenctus and similar collections. (4) Philosophy is repre¬
sented chiefly by Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, in both of
whom the Stoic element is the prevailing one; by the Neo-
platonists, such as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus; und by
Prochis, of that eclectic school which arose at Athens m the
5th century a.d.
The Greek poetry of this period presents no work of high
merit. Habrius versified the Aesopic Fables; Oppian (or two
poets of this name) wrote didactic poems on fishing Vtn ,
und hunting; Nonnus and Quintus Smymaeus made
elaborate essays in epic verse; and the Orphic lore inspired
some poems and hymns of a mystic character. The so-called
Sibylline Oracles, in hexameter verse, range in date from about
170 n.c. to a.I). 700, und are partly the expression of the Jewish
longings for the restoration of Israel, partly predictions of the
triumph of Christianity. By far the most pleasing com- ni
positions in verse which have come to us from this age thotogr.
arc some of the short poems in the Greek Antliology,
which includes some pieces as early as the beginning of
the 5th century b.c. and some as late as the 6th century of the
Christian era.
The 4th century may be said to mark the beginning of the
last stage in the decay of literary Hellenism. From that point
the decline was rapid and nearly continuous. The attitude
of the church towards it was no longer that which had been held
by Clement of Alexandria, by Justin Martyr or by Qrigen.
There was now u Christian Greek literature, and a Christian
Greek eloquence of extraordinary power. The laity became
more and more estranged from the Greek literature—however
intrinsically pure and noble—of the pagan past. At the same
time the Greek language—which had maintained its purity in
Italian seats—was becoming corrupted in the new Greek Rome
of the East. In a.d. 529 Justinian put fofth an edict by which
the schools of heathen philosophy were formally closed. The
act had at least a symbolical meaning. It is necessary to guard
against the supposition that such assumed landmarks in political
or literary history always mark a definite transition from one
order of things to another. But it is practically convenient,
or necessary, to use such landmarks.
Bibliography. —The first attempt at a connected history of
Greek literature was the monumental and still indispensable work
of ]. A. habricius (14 vols., 1705-1728; new ed. in 12 vols. by
G. C. Harless, r700-1 Hoy); this was followed by F. Scholl's Hist,
dc la litUraturc grecque (1813). Beth these works begin with the
earliest times and go down to the latest period of the Byzantine
empire. Of more modem and recent works the following may be
mentioned: G. Bemhardy, Grundiiss Her .grtechtschen Literatim'
(1836-1845; 4th ed., 1876-1880.; Jth ed. of voL i., by H. Volkmann,
iHyz), chiefly confined to the poets; C O. Muller, History of Greet
Literature (unfinished), written for the London Society for the
Diffusion of Usefnl Knowledge, and published in English in 1840,
the translation being by G. Cornewall Lewis and J. W. Donaldson
(the latter completed the work to the end of tke Byzanti ne period
for the edition of 1858; the German, text was published by E.
Muller in 1841; 4th ed. by E. Keitz, 1882-1884]; w. Mure, Critical
History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece (1850-
1857): T. Bergk, Goiechische LiHratmgesdrithtS (1(72-1894, vote.
2, 3, ed. G. Hiariehs, vei. 4 by R. PeppmtUer) OOP tam i n g epos,
[BYZANTINE
GREEK LITERATURE
5 r &
lyric, drama down to Euripides, and the beginnings of prose: R.
Nicolai/ Griechische Literaturgeschichle (2nd cd-, >873-1878), useful
for bibliography, but in other respects unsatisfactory; J ■ !’• Mahaffy,
Hist, of Classical Greek Literature (4th ed,, 1003) ; A. and M. Croiset,
Hist, ie la literature grecque (i887~i8<i</, 2nd cd. 1896) ; W,
Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur his auf die Zeit Justimans
(4th ed., 1905 ; 5th ed., pt. I., by O. Stahlin and W. Schmid, 1908),
jiy lar the most serviceable handbook for the student. F. Susemihl's
Geschichte der griechischen Literatur 111 dec Alcxandrinerzeit (iHt/j-
1802) is especially valuable for its notes Of smaller manuals the
following will la/ found most useful: 1 > ('•■ Murray, History 0/
Ancient Greek Literature (1807); F. H. Jevons, History 0/ Greek
Literature (3rd ed., 1900) down to the time of Demosthenes ; A. and
M. Croiset, Manuel d'hist. de la littcrahire gretque (1900 ; Eng. trails.,
by G. I'\ Heflclbower, NY’.. 1904); also the general sketches by
II. von Wilamowitr.-Mdllendorff in Die Kultur der Gegenwart, i. 8
(loos), by A. Gercke in the Sammlung Gosrhen (I-cipzig, 2nd ed.,
1003I, and by R. C. Jelib 111 Companion to Greek Studies (Cambridge,
lyo'sj. Other works generally connected with the subject are :
1 C. Hiibner, Bibliographic der klassisrhen Altertumswissenschaft
(and ed., j88<i), pp 161-171 ; W. Engclmann, Bibliotheca scriptorum
classicorum (8th ed , by E. Preuss, 1880) ; J. B. Mayor, Guide to
the Choice 0/ Classical Books (1896), p. 86; W. Kroll, Die Alter-
lumswissensc hap im letstcn Viertcljanrhundert /Syjf-ripno (1903),
p. 465 foil.; J E Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (1906-
1908) ; " Bibliotheca plnlologica classica," in C. Bursian's Jahrrs-
bericht ilher dir I'ortschrilte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft ;
articles in I’auly-Wissowa's Realencydopadic der klassischen Alter-
tumswissenschafl (1894 ■■-). (R. C. J.; X.)
]1. Byzantine Literature
By “ Byzantine literature ” is generally meant the literature,
written in Greek, of the so-called Byzantine period. There is no
justification whatever for the inclusion of 1 41 tin works
of the time of the East Roman empire. The close of
the Byzantine period is dearly marked by the year
145,4, at which dale, with the fall of the Eastern empire, the
peculiar culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an
end. it is only as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period
that any doubts exist. There are no sufficient grounds for dating
it from Justinian, as was formerly often done. In surveying the
whole development of the political, ecclesiastical and literary
life and of the general culture of the Roman empire, and particu¬
larly of its eastern portion, we arrive, on the contrary, at the
conclusion that the actual date of the lieginning of this new era—
i.e. the Christian-Byzantine, in contradistinction to the Pagan-
Greek and Pagan-Roman—falls within the reign of Constantine
the Great. By the foundation of the new capital city of Con¬
stantinople (which lay amid Greek surroundings) and by the
establishment of the Christian faith as the state religion, Con¬
stantine finally broke with the Roman-Pagan tradition, and
laid the foundation of the Christian-Bvzantine period of develop¬
ment. Moreover, in the department of language, so closely
allied with that ol literature, the 4th century marks anew epoch.
About this time occurred the final disappearance of a character¬
istic of the ancient Greek language, important alike in poetry
and in rhythmic prose, the difference of “ quantity." Its place
was henceforth taken by the accent, which liecamc a determining
principle in poetry, as well as for the rhythmic conclusion of the
prose sentence. Thus the transition from the old musical
language to a modern conversational idiom was complete.
The reign of Constantine the Great undoubtedly marks the
beginning of a new period in the most important spheres of
national life, but jt is equally certain that in most of
bum*/* them ancient tradition long continued to exercise an
period. influence. Sudden breaches of continuity are less
common in the general culture and literary life of the
world than in its political or ecclesiastical development. This
is true of the transition from pagan antiquity to the Christian
middle ages. Many centuries passed before the final victory of
the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public and private,
intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of
paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The
last great educational establishment which rested upon pagan
foundations - the university of Athens—was not abolished till
a.d. 519. The Hellenizing of the seat of empire and of the state,
which was essential to the independent development of Byzantine
literature, proceeds yet more slowly. The first purely Greek
emperor was Tiberius II. (578-582); but the complete Hellen-
izing of the character of the state had not been accomplished
until the 7th century. We shall, therefore, regard the period
from the 4th to the 7th century as that of the transition between
ancient times and the middle ages. This period coincides with
the rise of a new power in the world’s history—Islam. But
though, in this transitional period, the old and the new elements
are both to a large extent present and are often inextricablv
interwoven, yet it is certain that the new elements are, both as
regards their essential force and their influence upon the succeed¬
ing period, of infinitely greater moment than the decrepit and
mostly artificial survivals of the antique.
In order to estimate rightly the character of Byzantine
literature and its distinctive peculiarities, in contradistinction
to ancient Greek, it is imperative to examine the great Mlled
difference between the civilizations that produced ebanator
them. The Byzantine did not possess the homo- ofBy-
geneous, organically constructed system of the ancient
civilization, but was the outcome of an amalgamation
of which Hellenism formed the basis. For, although the Latin
character of the empire was at first completely retained, even
after its final division in 395, yet the dominant position of Greek
in the Eastern empire gradually led to the Hellenizing of the
state. The last great act of the Latin tradition was the codifica¬
tion, in the Latin language, of the law by Justinian (527-565).
Hut it is significant that the Novels of Justinian were composed
partly in Greek, as were all the laws of the succeeding period.
Of the emperors in the centuries following Justinian, many of
course were foreigners, Isaurians, Armenians and others ; but in
language and education they were all Greeks. In the last five
centuries of the empire, under the Gomneni and the I’alaeologi,
court and state are purely Greek.
In spite of the dominant position of Greek in the Eastern
empire, a linguistic and national uniformity such as formed the
foundation of the old Latin Imperium Romanum never existed
there. Jn the West, with the expansion of Rome's political
supremacy, the Latin language and 1 -atin culture were every¬
where introduced—first into the non-Latin provinces of Italy,
later into Spain, Gaul and North Africu, and at last even into
certain parts of the Eastern empire. This Latinizing was so
thorough that it weathered all storms, and, in the countries
affected by it, was the parent of new and vigorous nationalities,
the French, the Spaniards, the I’ortuguese and the Rumanians.
Only in Africa did “ Latinism ” fail to take root permanently.
F’rom the 6th century that province relapsed into the hands of
the native barbarians and of the immigrant Arabs, and both the
Latin and the Greek influences (which had grown in strength
during the period of the Eastern empire) were, together with
Christianity, swept away without leaving a truce behind. Jt
might have been expected that the Hellenizing of the political
system of the Eastern empire would have likewise entailed the
Hellenizing of the non-Greek portions of the empire. Such,
however, was not the case ; for all the conditions precedent
to such a development were wanting. The non-Greek portions
of the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually
incorporated into the state from a Greek centre, as were the
provinces in the West from a Latin centre. They had lieen
acquired in the old period of the homogeneous l,atin Imperium.
In the centuries immediately following the division of the empire,
the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces could not take
root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least in
principle, as the state language. During the later centuries,
in the non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive
inroads of barbarians began on all sides; and the government
was too much occupied with the all but impossible task of
preserving the political unity of the empire to entertain seriously
the wider aim of an assimilation of language and culture. More¬
over, the Greeks did not possess that enormous political energy
and force which enabled the Romans to assimilate foreign races ;
and, finally, they were confronted by sturdy Oriental, mostly
Semitic, peoples, who were by no means so easy to subjugate as
BYZANTINE]
GREEK LITERATURE 517
were the racially related inhabitants of Gaul and Spain. Their
impotence against the peoples of the East will be still less hardly
judged if we remember the fact already mentioned, that even
the Romans were within a short period driven back and over¬
whelmed by the North African Semites who for centuries had
been subjected to an apparently thorough process of Latin-
ization.
The influence of Greek culture then, was very slight; how
little indeed it penetrated into the oriental mind is shown by the
fact that, after the violent Arab invasion in the south-east
comer of the Mediterranean, the Copts and Syrians were able
to retain their language and their national characteristics,
while Greek culture almost completely disappeared. The one
great instance of assimilation of foreign nationalities by the
Greeks is the Hellenizing of the Slavs, who from the 6th century
had migrated into ccntrul Greece and the Pcloponnese. All
other non-Greek tribes of any importance which came, whether
for longer or for shorter periods, within the sphere of the Eastern
empire and its civilization—such as the Copts, Syrians,
Armenians, Georgians, Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians
—one and all retained their nationality and language. The
complete Latinizing of the West has, accordingly, no counterpart
in a similar Hellenizing of the East. This is clearly shown during
the Byzantine period in the progress of Christianity. Every¬
where in the West, even among the non-Romanized Anglo-
Saxons, Irish and Germans, Latin maintained its position in the
church services and in the other branches of the ecclesiastical
system; down to the Reformation the church remained a
complete organic unity. In the East, at the earliest period of
its conversion to Christianity, several foreign tongues competed
with Greek, i.e. Syrian, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, Gothic,
Old-Bulgarian and others. The sacred books were translated
into these languages and the church services were held in them
and not in Greek. One noticeable effect of this linguistic division
in the church was the formation of various sects and national
churches (cf. the Coptic Nestorians, the Syrian Monophysites,
the Armenian and, in more recent times, the Slavonic national
churches). The Church of the West was characterized by
uniformity in language and in constitution. In the Eastern
Church parallel to the multiplicity of languages developed also
a corresponding variety of doctrine and constitution.
Though the character of Byzantine culture is mainly Greek,
and Byzantine literature is attached by countless threads to
ancient Greek literature, yet the Roman element
Mn». forms a very essential part of it. The whole political
character of the Byzantine empire is, despite its
Greek form and colouring, genuinely Roman. Legislation and
administration, the military and naval traditions, are old Roman
work, and as such, apart from immaterial alterations, they
continued to exist and operate, even when the state in head and
limbs had become Greek. It is strange, indeed, how strong
was the political conception of the Roman state ( Staatsgedanke ),
and with what tenacity it held its own, even under the most
adverse conditions, down to the latter days of the empire. The
Greeks even adopted the name “ Romans,” which gradually
became so closely identified with them as to supersede the name
“ Hellenes ” ; and thus a political was gradually converted into
an ethnographical and linguistic designation. Rhomaioi was
the most common popular term for Greeks during the Turkish
period, and remains so still. The old glorious name “ Hellene ”
was used under the empire and even during the middle ages
in a contemptuous sense — “ Heathen ”—and has only in quite
modern times, on the formation of the kingdom of “ Hellas,”
been artificially revived. The vast organization of the Roman
political system could not but exercise in various ways a profound
influence upon Byzantine civilization; and it often seemed
as if Roman political principles had educated and nerved the
unpolitical Greek people to great political enterprise. The
Roman influence has left distinct traces in the Greek language,
Greek of the Byzantine and modem period is rich in Latin
terms for conceptions connected with the departments of justice,
administration and the imperial court. In literature such
“ barbarisms ” were avoided as far as possible, and were replaced
by Greek periphrases.
But by far the most momentous and radical change wrought
on the old Hellenism was effected by Christianity; and yet
the transition was, in fact, by no means so abrupt as
one might be led to believe by comparing the Pagan- '
Hellenic culture of Plato’s day with the Christian-
Bvzantine of the time of Justinian. For the path had been
most effectually prepared for the new religion by the crumbling
away of the ancient belief in the gods, by the humane doctrine
of the Stoics, and, finally, by the mystic intellectual tendencies
of Neoplatonism, Moreover, in many respects Christianity met
paganism halfway by adapting itself to popular usages and
ideas and by adopting important parts of the pagan literature.
The whole educational system especially, even in Christian times,
was in a very remarkable manner based almost entirely on the
methods and material inherited from paganism. Next to the
influences of Rome and of Christianity, that of the East was of
importance in developing the Byzantine civilization, and in
lending Byzantine literature, its distinctive character.
Much that was oriental in the Eastern empire dates orltmt.
back to ancient times, notably to the period of Alex¬
ander the Great and his successors. Since the Greeks had
at that period Hcllenized the East to the widest extent, and
had already iounded everywhere flourishing cities, they them¬
selves fell under the manifold influences of the soil they occupied.
In Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in Asia Minor as far inland
as Mesopotamia, Greek and oriental characteristics were often
blended. In respect of the wealth and the long duration of
its Greek intellectual life, Egypt stands supreme. It covers
a period of nearly a thousand years from the foundation of
Alexandria down to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (a.h.
643). The real significance of Egyptian Hellenism during
this long period can be properly estimated only if a practical
attempt lie made to eliminate from the history of Greek literature
and science in pagan and in Christian times all that owed its
origin to the land of the Nile. The soil of Egypt proved itself
especially productive of Greek literature under the Cross (Origen,
Athanasius, Arius, Synesius), in the same way as the soil of
North Africa was productive of Latin literature (Tertullian,
Cyprian, Lactantius, Augustine). Monastic life, which is one
of the chief characteristic elements of Christian-Byzantine
civilization, had its birth in Egypt.
Syria and Palestine came under the influence of Greek civiliza¬
tion at a later date than Egypt. In these, Greek literature and
culture attained their highest development between the 3rd and
the 8th centuries of the Christian era. Antioch rose to great
influence, owing at first to its pagan school of rhetoric and
later to its Christian school of exegesis. Gaza was renowned for
its school of rhetoric; Berytus for its academy of law. It is
no mere acrident that sacred poetry, aesthetically the most
valuable class of Byzantine literature, was bom in Syria and
Palestine.
In Asia Minor, the cities of Tarsus, Caesarea, Nicaea, Smyrna,
Ephesus, Nicopolis, &c., were all influential centres of Greek
culture and literature. For instance, the three great fathers
of Cappadocia, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus
all belonged to Asia Minor.
If all the greater Greek authors of the first eight centuries
of the Christian era, i.e. the period of the complete development
of Byzantine culture, be classified according to the countries
of their birth, the significant fact becomes evident that nine-
tenths come from the African and Asiatic districts, which were
for the most part opened up only after Alexander the Great,
and only one-tenth from European Greece. In other words,
the old original European Greece was, under the emperors,
completely outstripped in intellectual productive force by the
newly founded African and Asiatic Greece. This huge tide
of conquest which surged from Greece over African and Syrian
territories occupied largely by foreign races and ancient
civilizations, could not fail to be fraught with serious con¬
sequences for the Greeks themselves. The experience of the
[BYZANTINE
GREEK LITERATURE
5*8
Romans in their conquest of Greece (Graecia capta ftrwm viitarm
cepit) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece,
though to a minor extent and in a different way. The whole
literature of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite
its international and cosmopolitan character, disavow the
influence of the Oriental soil on which it was nourished. Yet the
growth of too strong a local colouring in its literature was
repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek
tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled
all national distinctions. Even more dearly and unmistakably
is Oriental influence shown in the province of Byzantine art,
as Joseph Strzygowski has conclusively proved.
The greater portion of Greek literature from the dose of
ancient times down to the threshold of modem history was
written in a language identical in its principal features
tafutgt- common literary language, the so-called
Koine, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This is the
literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form
that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction
down to one that approaches the language of everyday life
such as we ha>e, for instance, in the New Testament. From
what has been already said, it follows that this stable literary
language cannot always have remained a language of ordinary
life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular Greek continu¬
ally changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in vocabulary
and grammar, and thus the living language surely and gradually
separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf was,
moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there
took place in the written language a retrograde movement,
the so-called “ Atticism." Introduced by Dionysius of Hali¬
carnassus in the ist century before Christ, this linguistic-
literary fashion attained its greutest height in the end century
A.D., but still continued to flourish in succeeding centuries, and,
indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine period. It is true
thut it often seemed as though the living language would be
gradually introduced into literature ; for several writers, such
as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis
(the author of Lives of Saints) in the 7th century, the 1 hroniclcr
Thcophanes at the beginning of the yth century, and the emperor
Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, made in
their writings numerous concessions to the living language.
This progressive tendency might well have led, in the 1 ith and
icth centuries, to the founding in the Greek vernacular of a new
literary language similar to the promising national languages
and literature which, at that period, in the Romance countries,
developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of the
Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change neser took
place. All attempts in the direction of u popular reform of the
literary language, which were occasionally made in the period
from the 6th to the 10th centuries, were in turn extinguished
by the resuscitation of classical studies, a movement which,
begun in the i)th century by Photius and continued in the nth
by Psellus, attained its full development under the Comneni
and the Pklaeologi. This classical renaissance turned back the
literary' language into the old ossified forms, as hnd previously
happened in the case of the Atticism of the early centuries of
the empire.. In the West, humanism (so closely connected
with the Byzantine renaissance under the ( omneni and the
Palaeologi) also artificially reintroduced the “ Ciceronian"
Latin, but was unable seriously to endanger the development
of the national languages, which had already attained to full
vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic movement came
prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had fairly
established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers
of the 1 ith-iyth centuries is almost Old Greek in colour: artifici¬
ally learnt by grammur, lexicon and assiduous reading, it
followed Attic models more and more slavishly; to such un
extent that, in determining the date of works, the paradoxical
principle holds good that the more ancient the language, the
more reccnL the author.
Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast
that had long existed with the vernacular was now for the first
*•
time fully revealed. The gulf between the two forms of language
oouid no longer be bridged ; and this fact found its expression
in literature also. While the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-ioth
centuries, like the Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of
Tours), still attempted a compromise between the language of
the schools and tliat of conversation, we meet after the 12th
century with authors who freely and naturally employed the
vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form the
Greek counterpart of the oldest writers in Italian, French and
other Romance languages. That they could not succeed like
their Roman colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of
Greek literature, is due to the all-powerful philological-anti¬
quarian tendency which existed under the Comneni and the
Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular attempt to assert
its literary rights, is. in Crete and some other islands in the
16th and 17th centuries. But this attempt also was foiled by
the classical reactiomof the rqth century. Hence it comes about
that Greek literature even in the 20th century employs gram¬
matical forms which were obsolete long before the 10th century.
Thus the Greeks, as regards their literary language, came into
a cut de sac similar to that in which certain rigidly conservative
Oriental nations find themselves, e.g. the Arabs and Chinese, who,
not possessing a literary language suited to modern requirements,
have to content themselves with the dead Okl-Arabir or the
ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of the written and
spoken languages is the most prominent and also the most fatal
heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their
Byzantine forefathers.
The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western
medieval period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology
accordingly, in literature too, occupies the chief place, 0tmml
in regard to both quantity and quality. Next to it ehveter
comes the writing of history, which the Byzantines otBy
cultivated with great conscientiousness until after
the fall of the empire. All other kinds of prose writing, t,ratun -
c. g. in geography, philosophy, rhetoric and the technical sciences,
were comparatively neglected, and such works are of value for
the most part only in so far as they preserve anil interpret old
material. In poetry, again, theology takes the lead. The poetry
of the Church produced works of high aesthetic merit and endur¬
ing value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams especially
was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In popular
literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of
notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with.
The great classical period of Greek theological literature is
that of the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this
result- some of them positive, particularly the
establishment of Christianity as the official religion eo atr '
and the protection accorded to it by the state, others negative,
is. the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at this
period arose in the cast of the empire and threatened the unity
of the doctrine and organization of the rhurch. It was chiefly
against these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed
his attacks. The learned Eusebius founded a new department
of literature, church history. In Egypt, Antonins (St Anthony)
founded the Greek monastic system ; Synesius of Cyrenc, like
his greater contemporary Augustine in the West, represents
both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition from
Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great
intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great
Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother
Gregory of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the
Christian faith, and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished
orator and poet, Closely allied to them was St Chrysostom,
the courageous champion of ecclesiastical liberty and of moral
purity. To modem readers the greater part of this literature
appears strange and foreign; but, in order to be appreciated
rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of the period in
which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by religious
emotions. For the times in which they lived and for their
readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable;
though, of course, they produced nothing of such general human
BYZANTINE]
GREEK LITERATURE 519
interest, nothing so deep and true, as the Confessions of St
Augustine, with which the poetical autobiography of Gregory
of Nazianzus cannot for a moment be compared.
The glorious bloom of the 4th century was followed by a
perceptible decay in theological intellertual activity. Inde¬
pendent production was in succeeding centuries almost solely
prompted by divergent dogmatical views and heresies, for the
refutation of which orthodox authors were impelled to take up
the pen. In the 5th and 6th centuries a more copious literature
was called into existence by the Monophysitcs, who maintained
that there was but one nature in Christ; in the 7th century by
the Monothelites, who acknowledged but one will in Christ;
in the 8th century by the Iconoclasts and by the new teaching
of Mahomet. One vert' eminent theologian, whose importance
it has been reserved for modem times to estimate aright—
Leontius of Byzantium (6th century)—was the first to introduce
Aristotelian definitions into theology, and may thus be called
the first scholastic. In his works he attacked the heretics of
his age, particularly the Monophysites, who were also assailed
by his contemporary Anastasius of Antioch. The chief adver¬
saries of the Monotheliteswere Sophronius,patriarch of Jerusalem
(whose main importance, however, is due to his work in other
fields, in hagiography and homiletics), Maximus the Confessor,
and Anastasius SinaiT.es, who also composed an interpretation
of the Hexaemeron in twelve books. Among writers in the
departments of critical interpretation and asceticism in this
period must be enumerated Procopius of Gaza, who devoted
himself principally to the exegesis of the Old Testament;
Johannes Climax (6th century), named after his much-read
ascetic work Klimax (Jacob’s ladder); and Johannes Moschus
(d. 619), whose chief work Leimon (“ spiritual pasture ”) describes
monastic life in the form of statements and narratives of their
experiences by monks themselves. The last great heresy, which
shook the Greek Church to its very foundations, the Iconoclast
movement, summoned to the fray the last great Greek theologian,
John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). Yet his chief merit
lies not so much in his polemical speeches against the Iconoclasts,
and in his much admired but over-refined jxictry, as in his great
dogmatic work. The Fountain of Knowledge, which contains the
first comprehensive exposition of Christian dogma. It has
remained the standard work on Greek theology down to the
present day. Just as the internal development of the Greek
Church in ail essentials reached its limit with the Iconoclasts,
so also its productive intellectual activity ceased with John of
Damascus. Such theological works as were subsequently
produced, consisted mostly in the interpretation and revision
of old materials. An extremely copious, but unfruitful, literature
was produced by the disputes about the reunion of the Greek
and Homan Churches. Of a more independent character is the
literature which in the 14th century centred round the dissensions
of the Hesvchasts.
Among theologians after John of Damascus must be mentioned:
the emperor Leo VI., the Wise (886-011), who wrote numerous
homilies and church hymns, and Theodoras of Studium (759-
826), who in his numerous writings affords us instructive glimpses
of monastic life. Pre-eminent stands the figure of the patriarch
Photius. Yet his importance consists less in his writings, which
often, to a remarkable extent, lack independence of thought
and judgment, than in his activity as a prince of the church.
For he it was who carried the differences which had already
repeatedly arisen between Home and Constantinople to a point
at which reconciliation was impossible, and was mainly instru¬
mental in preparing the way for the separation of the Greek and
Latin Churches accomplished in 1054 under the patriarch
Mi-had Cerularius. In the nth century the polyhistor Michael
Psellus also wrote polemics against the Euchites, among whom
the Syrian Gnosis was reviving. All literature, induding
theology, experienced a considerable revival under the Comneni.
In Hie reign of Alexius I. Comnenus {1081-1118), Euthymius
Zigabenus wrote his great dogmatic work, the Dogmatic Panoply,
which, like The Fountain of Knowledge of John of Damascus in
earlier times, was partly positive, furnishing an armoury of
theology, partly negative and directed against the sects. In
addition to attacking the dead and buried doctrines of the
Monothelites, Iconoclasts, St c., to fight which was at this time
a mere tilting at windmills, Zigabenus also carried on a polemic
against the heretics of his own day, the Armenians, Bogomils
and Saracens. Zigabenus’s Panoply was continued and enlarged
a century later by the historian Nicetas Acominatus, who
published it under the title Treasure of Orthodoxy. To the
writings against ancient heresies were next added a flood of
tracts, of all shapes and sizes, “ against the Latins,” ie. against
the Homan Church, and among their authors must aim be
enumerated an emperor, the gifted Theodore 11 . Lascaris (1254-
1258). The chief champion of the union with the Roman Church
was the learned Johannes Beccus (patriarch of Constantinople
1275-1282). Of his opponents by fur the most eminent was
Gregory’ of Cyprus, who succeeded him on the patriarchal throne.
The fluctuations in the fortunes of the two ecclesiastical parties
are reflected in the occupation of the patriarchal throne. The
battles round the question of the union, which were waged with
southern passion, were for a while checked by the dissensions
aroused by the mystic tendency of the llesychasts. The impetus
to this great literary movement was given by the monk Barlaam,
a native of Calabria, who came forward in Constantinople as an
opponent of the Latins and was in 3 339 entrusted by Andronicus
111 . with a mission to Pope Benedict Xli. at Avignon. He
condemned the doctrine of the llesychasts, and attacked them
both orally and in writing. Among those who shared his views
are conspicuous the. historian NicephoruR Gregoras and Gregorius
Acindynus, the latter of whom closely followed Thomas Aquinas
in his writings. In fact the struggle against the Hesvchasts was
essentially a struggle between sober western scholasticism and
drcamyGraeco-Orientalmysticism. On the side of the Hesvchasts
fought Gregorius J’alamas, who tried to give a dogmatic founda¬
tion to the mysticism of the llesychasts, Cabasilas, and the
emperor John VI. Cantaeuzenus who, after his deposition,
sought, in the peaceful retreat of a monastery, consolation in
theological studies, and in his literary works refuted the jews
and the Mahommedans. For the greatest Byzantine “ apologia "
against lslamism we are indebted to an emperor, Manuel II.
Palaeologus (1391-1425), who by learned discussions tried to
make up for the deficiency in martial prowess shown liy the
Byzantines in their struggle with the Turks. On the whole,
theological literature was in the last century' of the empire
almost completely occupied with the struggles for and against
the union with Home. The reason lay in the political conditions.
The emperors saw more and more cieuriy that without the aid
of the West they would no longer be able to stand their ground
against the Turks, the vanguard of the armies of the Crescent;
while the majority of Byzantine theologians feared that the
assistance of the West would force the Greeks to unite with
Home, and thereby to forfeit their ecclesiastical independence.
Considering the supremacy of the theological party in Byzantium,
it was but natural that religious considerations should gain die
day over political; and this was the view almost universally
held by the Byzantines in the later centuries of the empire”;
in the words of the chronicler Ducas : “ it is better to fall into
the hands of the Turks than into those of the Franks.” The
chief opponent of the union was Marcus Eugenicus, metropolitan
of Kphesus, who, at the Council of Florence in 1439, denounced
the union with Home accomplished by John VIIL Palaeologus.
Conspicuous there among the partisans of the union, by reason
of his erudition and general literary merit, was Bessarion, after¬
wards cardinal, whose chief activity already falls under the
head of Graeco-Italian humanism.
Hagiography, i.e. the literature of the acts of the martyrs
and the lives of the saints, forms an independent group and
one comparatively unaffected by dogmatic struggles.
The mam interest centres here round the objects
described, the personalities of the martyrs and saints
themselves. The authors, on the other band—the Acts of the
Martyrs are mostly anonymous—keep more in the background
than in other branches of literature. The man whose name is
[BYZANTINE
GREEK LITERATURE
5*8
Romans in their conquest of Greece (Graecia capta ftrwm viitarm
cepit) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece,
though to a minor extent and in a different way. The whole
literature of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite
its international and cosmopolitan character, disavow the
influence of the Oriental soil on which it was nourished. Yet the
growth of too strong a local colouring in its literature was
repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek
tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled
all national distinctions. Even more dearly and unmistakably
is Oriental influence shown in the province of Byzantine art,
as Joseph Strzygowski has conclusively proved.
The greater portion of Greek literature from the dose of
ancient times down to the threshold of modem history was
written in a language identical in its principal features
tafutgt- common literary language, the so-called
Koine, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This is the
literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form
that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction
down to one that approaches the language of everyday life
such as we ha>e, for instance, in the New Testament. From
what has been already said, it follows that this stable literary
language cannot always have remained a language of ordinary
life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular Greek continu¬
ally changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in vocabulary
and grammar, and thus the living language surely and gradually
separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf was,
moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there
took place in the written language a retrograde movement,
the so-called “ Atticism." Introduced by Dionysius of Hali¬
carnassus in the ist century before Christ, this linguistic-
literary fashion attained its greutest height in the end century
A.D., but still continued to flourish in succeeding centuries, and,
indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine period. It is true
thut it often seemed as though the living language would be
gradually introduced into literature ; for several writers, such
as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis
(the author of Lives of Saints) in the 7th century, the 1 hroniclcr
Thcophanes at the beginning of the yth century, and the emperor
Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, made in
their writings numerous concessions to the living language.
This progressive tendency might well have led, in the 1 ith and
icth centuries, to the founding in the Greek vernacular of a new
literary language similar to the promising national languages
and literature which, at that period, in the Romance countries,
developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of the
Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change neser took
place. All attempts in the direction of u popular reform of the
literary language, which were occasionally made in the period
from the 6th to the 10th centuries, were in turn extinguished
by the resuscitation of classical studies, a movement which,
begun in the i)th century by Photius and continued in the nth
by Psellus, attained its full development under the Comneni
and the Pklaeologi. This classical renaissance turned back the
literary' language into the old ossified forms, as hnd previously
happened in the case of the Atticism of the early centuries of
the empire.. In the West, humanism (so closely connected
with the Byzantine renaissance under the ( omneni and the
Palaeologi) also artificially reintroduced the “ Ciceronian"
Latin, but was unable seriously to endanger the development
of the national languages, which had already attained to full
vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic movement came
prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had fairly
established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers
of the 1 ith-iyth centuries is almost Old Greek in colour: artifici¬
ally learnt by grammur, lexicon and assiduous reading, it
followed Attic models more and more slavishly; to such un
extent that, in determining the date of works, the paradoxical
principle holds good that the more ancient the language, the
more reccnL the author.
Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast
that had long existed with the vernacular was now for the first
*•
time fully revealed. The gulf between the two forms of language
oouid no longer be bridged ; and this fact found its expression
in literature also. While the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-ioth
centuries, like the Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of
Tours), still attempted a compromise between the language of
the schools and tliat of conversation, we meet after the 12th
century with authors who freely and naturally employed the
vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form the
Greek counterpart of the oldest writers in Italian, French and
other Romance languages. That they could not succeed like
their Roman colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of
Greek literature, is due to the all-powerful philological-anti¬
quarian tendency which existed under the Comneni and the
Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular attempt to assert
its literary rights, is. in Crete and some other islands in the
16th and 17th centuries. But this attempt also was foiled by
the classical reactiomof the rqth century. Hence it comes about
that Greek literature even in the 20th century employs gram¬
matical forms which were obsolete long before the 10th century.
Thus the Greeks, as regards their literary language, came into
a cut de sac similar to that in which certain rigidly conservative
Oriental nations find themselves, e.g. the Arabs and Chinese, who,
not possessing a literary language suited to modern requirements,
have to content themselves with the dead Okl-Arabir or the
ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of the written and
spoken languages is the most prominent and also the most fatal
heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their
Byzantine forefathers.
The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western
medieval period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology
accordingly, in literature too, occupies the chief place, 0tmml
in regard to both quantity and quality. Next to it ehveter
comes the writing of history, which the Byzantines otBy
cultivated with great conscientiousness until after
the fall of the empire. All other kinds of prose writing, t,ratun -
c. g. in geography, philosophy, rhetoric and the technical sciences,
were comparatively neglected, and such works are of value for
the most part only in so far as they preserve anil interpret old
material. In poetry, again, theology takes the lead. The poetry
of the Church produced works of high aesthetic merit and endur¬
ing value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams especially
was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In popular
literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of
notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with.
The great classical period of Greek theological literature is
that of the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this
result- some of them positive, particularly the
establishment of Christianity as the official religion eo atr '
and the protection accorded to it by the state, others negative,
is. the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at this
period arose in the cast of the empire and threatened the unity
of the doctrine and organization of the rhurch. It was chiefly
against these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed
his attacks. The learned Eusebius founded a new department
of literature, church history. In Egypt, Antonins (St Anthony)
founded the Greek monastic system ; Synesius of Cyrenc, like
his greater contemporary Augustine in the West, represents
both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition from
Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great
intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great
Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother
Gregory of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the
Christian faith, and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished
orator and poet, Closely allied to them was St Chrysostom,
the courageous champion of ecclesiastical liberty and of moral
purity. To modem readers the greater part of this literature
appears strange and foreign; but, in order to be appreciated
rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of the period in
which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by religious
emotions. For the times in which they lived and for their
readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable;
though, of course, they produced nothing of such general human
BYZANTINE]
GREEK LITERATURE 5 **
e.g. Eonapius (c. 400), Olympiodoru* (c. 450), Priscus (c. 450),
Malchus (c. 490), and Zosimus, the last pagan historian \c. 500),
all of whom, with the exception of Zosimus, are unfortunately
preserved to us only in fragments. Historiography received a
great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful Procopius and
Agathias (?.».), tinged with poetical rhetoric, described the
stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Thcophanes of
Byzantium, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia and
Theophylactus of Simocatta described the second half of the
6th century. Towards the close of the 6th century also flourished
the last independent ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who
wrote the history of the church from 431 to 503. There now
followed, however, a lamentable falling of! in production.
From the 7th to the 10th century the historical side is
represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the 10th
century that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies,
the art of writing history showed some signs of life. Several
historical works are associated with the name of the emperor
Constantine Vll. Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle be¬
longed also Joseph Genesius, who at the emperor’s instance
compiled the history of tlie period from Xj 3 to 8X6. A little work,
interesting from the point of view of historical and ethnographical
science, is the account of the taking of Thessalonica by the Cretan
Corsairs ( a . d . 904), which a priest, Johannes Cameniata, an
eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity. There
is also contained in the. excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the
period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wurs of
the Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians.
A continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael
Psellus in a work covering the period from 976 to 1077. A
valuable supplement to the latter (describing the period from
1034 to 1079) was supplied by the jurist Michael Attuliata.
The history of the Eastern empire during the Crusades was
written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus Bryennius,
his learned consort Anna Comnena, the “ honest Aetolian,”
Johannes Cinnamus, and finally l>v Nicetas Acominatus in an
exhaustive work which is authoritative for the history of the
4th Crusade. The melancholy conditions and the ever increasing
decay of the empire under the Palaeologi (13th-15th centuries)
are described in the same lofty style, though with a still closer
following ol classical models. The events which took place
between the taking of Constantinople by the Latins and the
restoration of Byzantine rule (1203-1261) are recounted by
Georgius Acropolita, who emphasizes his own share in them.
The succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius
Pachymeres, the erudite and high-principled Nicephorus
Gregorus, and the emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus. Lastly,
the death-struggle between the East Roman empire and the
mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three
historians, all differing in culture and in style, Lannicus Chalco-
condyles, Dueas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be
classed a fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period),
Critobuhis, a high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style
of the age of Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan
Mahommed II. (down to 1467).
The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly
chronicles of the history of the world from the Creation) consists
in the fact that they in part replace older lost works,
and thus fill up many gaps in our historical survey
(e.g. for the period from ubout 600 to 800 of which
very few records remain). They lay no claim to literary merit,
but are often serviceable for the history of language. Many such
chronicles were furnished with illustrations. The remains of
one such illustrated chronicle on papyrus, dating from the
beginning of the 5th century, has been preserved for us by the
soil of Egypt. 1 The authors of the chronicles were mostly monks,
who wished to compile handbooks of universal history for their
brethren and for pious laymen; and this explains the strong
clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it is due to
' See Ad. Bauer and J. Strzygowski, " Eine alexandrinisehe
Weltchronik “ (1905) (Denksckrijt itr haisnheh. Ahadtmu in
Wissensehaften, ii.).
these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a circulation
abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples Christian¬
ized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slavs, and in all of them soared the
seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles,
despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment
of material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far
greater importance than the erudite contemporary histories
designed only for the highly educated circles in Byzantium.
The oldest Byzantine chronicle of universal history preserved
to us is that of Malulas (6th century), which is also the purest
type of this class of literature, in the 7th century was completed
tile famous Easter or Paschal Chronicle,(Chronicon Paschale).
About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the oth century
Georgius Synoellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began
with the Creation und was continued down to the year 284.
At the request of the author, when on his death-bed. the con¬
tinuation of this work was undertaken by Theophanes Confessor,
who brought down the account from a.d. 284 to his own times
(a.d. 813). This exceedingly valuable work of Thcophanes
was again continued (from 813-961) by several anonymous
chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch
Nicephorus, wrote, in addition to a Short History of the period
from 602 to 769, a chronological sketch from Adam down to the
year of his own death in 829. Of great influence on the age that
followed was Georgius Monachus, only second in importance
as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who compiled a
chronicle of the world’s history (trom Adam until the year 843.
the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and
monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among
later chroniclers Johannes Scylitzu stands out conspicuously,
llis work (covering the jieriod from 8n to 1057), as regards the
range of its subject-matter, is something between a universal
and a contemporary history. Georgius Cedrcnus (c. 1100)
embodied the whole of Scylitza’s work, almost unaltered, in
his Universal Chronicle. In the 12th century the general increase
in literary production was evident also in the department of
chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for instance,
the most distinguislied and learned work of this class, the great
universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century
Michael Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, u
work written in the old populai- style and designed for the
widest circles of readers. Lastly, in the 12th century, Con¬
stantine Manasses wrote a universal chronicle in the so-called
“ political ” verse. With this verse-chronicle must be classed
the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine trimeters
at the beginning of the 14th century.
Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected
with history, were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by
their political forerunners, the Romans. , Of purely
practical importance ore a few handbooks of navigation,
itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and catalogues of
provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics. The
geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates
from j ustinian’s time, has been lost. To the same period belongs
the only large geographical work which has been preserved to us,
the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the
topography of Constantinople a work entitled Ancient History
(Patria) of Constantinople, which may be compared to the
medieval Mirabilia urbis Romae, and in late manuscripts has
been wrongly attributed to a certain Codinus, is of great import¬
ance.
Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two
new shoots—Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. It was
the latter with which moribund paganism essayed to
stem the advancing tide of Christianity. The last great
exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens
(d. 48s). The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school
of philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous
system, which had long since outlived the conditions that made it
a living force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity
was of two main kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy,
e.g. that of Aristotle, was employed to systematize Christian
xn. 17a
[BYZANTINE
GREEK LITERATURE
522
doctrine, while, on the other, the old works were furnished with
copious commentaries and paraphrases. Leontius of Byzantium
had already introduced Aristotelian definitions into Christology;
but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical philosophy was
John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early attained
to canonical authority, the independent progress of ecclesiastical
philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in this
respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West.
Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas.
In the nth century philosophical studies experienced a satis¬
factory revival, mainly owing to Michael Psellus, who brought
Plato as well as Aristotle again into fashion.
Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with
greater ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an
Rhetoric '"dispensable aid to instruction. It would be difficult
* orc ' to imagine unything more tedious than the numerous
theoretical writings on the subject and the examples of their
practical application : mechanical school essays, which here
count us “ literature," and innumerable letters, the contents of
which are wholly insignificant. The evil effects of this were
felt beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric. The anxious attention
paid to the laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its
withered flowers were detrimental to a great part of the rest of
Byzantine literature, and greatly hampered the development
of any individuality and simplicity of style. None the less,
among the rhetorical productions of the time are to be found a
few interesting pieces, such as the Philopalris, in the style of
Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of
Nicephorus Phocas (10th century). In two other smaller works
a journey to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the
pattern of Lucian's Nekyomanteia, viz. in Ttmarion (12th century)
and in Mazaris’ Journey to the Underworld ( c. 1414). A very
iharming representative of Byzantine rhetoric is Michael
Acominatus, who, in addition to theological works, wrote
numerous occasional speeches, letters and poems.
In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted
literature in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited
sense, Byzantium was dominated to an extravagant
wtewiM. Iln( l even grotesque extent by the rules of what in
modem times is termed “ classical scholarship."
The numerous works which belong to this category, such as
grammars, dictionaries, commentaries on ancient authors,
extracts from ancient literature, and metrical and musical
treatises, are of little general interest, although of great value
for special branches of philological study, c.g. for tracing the
influences through which the ancient works handed down to
us have passed, as well as for their interpretation und emenda¬
tion ; for information about ancient authors now lost; for the
history of education; and for the underlying principles of in¬
tellectual life in Byzantium. The most important monument of
Byzantine philology is, perhaps, the Library of the patriarch
Photms. The period from about 650 to 850 is marked by a
general decuy of culture. Photius, who in the year 850 was
about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable
energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most
part dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries,
thus contributing to its preservation. He gave an account
of all that he read, and in this way composed 280 essays, which
were collected in what is commonly known as the Lilvary
or Myriobiblon. The character of the individual sketches is
somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or less complete
account of the contents is followed by critical discussion, which
is nearly always confined to the linguistic form. With this
work may be compared in importance the great Lexihon of
Suidas, which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclo¬
paedia, of which the main feature was its articles on the history
of li.erature. A truly sympathetic figure is Eustathius, the
famous archbishop of Thessalonica (12th century). His volumin¬
ous commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the attention less
than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic action
on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquitv,
and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had
nothing in it of the Byzantine. If, on the other hand, acquaint¬
ance with a caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is
afforded by Johannes Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius
a Greek in neither name nor spirit, narrow-minded, angular’
superficial, and withal immeasurably conceited and ridiculously
coarse in his polemics. The transition to Western humanism
was effected by the philologists of the period of the Palaeologi,
such as Maximus Planudcs, whose translations of numerous
works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the
West; Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and
commentaries were, down to the 16th century, used as school
text-books; Demetrius Triclinius, distinguished as a textual
critic ; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, and others.
Originally, as is well known, latin was the exclusive language
of Roman law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his
Corpus juris , the Hellenizing of the legal language
also began. The Institutes and the Digest were trans-
lated into Greek, and the Novels also were issued in
a Greek form. Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after
a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the code of Justinian.
The emperor Basilius I. (867-886) had extracts made from the
existing law, and made preparations for the codifying of all laws.
But the whole work was not completed till the time of Leo VI.
the Wise (886 -912), and Constantine Vll. Porphvrogenitus
(912-959), when it took the form of a grand compilation from
the Digests, the Codex, and the Novels, and is commonly known
as the Basilica (To JituruLiKu). In the East it completely super¬
seded the old la tin Corpus juris of Justinian. More that was
new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law
than in secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of
law, the Canones, were blended with those of civil law, und thus
arose the so-called Notnocanon, the most important edition of
which is that of Theodorus Beslcs in 1090. The alphabetical
handbook of canon law written by Matthaeus Blastares about
the year 1335 also exercised a great influence.
In the province of mathematics and astronomy the remarkable
fact must be recorded that the revival among the Greeks of
these long-forgotten studies was primarily due to Mathe .
Perso-Arabian influence. The Great Syntaxis of mettci
Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the Almagest. «></«»-
The most important direct source of this intellectual "' ooom - v -
loan was not Arabia, however, but Persia. Towards the close
of the 13th century the Greeks became acquainted with Persian
astronomy. At the beginning of the 14th century Georgius
Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical treatises
based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves,
notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at
last had recourse to the original Greek sources.
The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of
military science. The most valuable work of the
period on this subject is one on tactics, which has
come down to posterity associated with the name of
Leo VI., the Wise.
Of profane poetry—in complete contrast to sacred poetry—
the general characteristic was its close imitation of the antique
in point of form. Ail works belonging to this category ProtmB ,
reproduce the ancient style and are framed after poetry.
ancient models. The metre is, for the most part,
either the Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the
“ political ” verse; more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic
measures.
Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with
the vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the
literary works of the period there are several which can
be compared with the epics of the Alexandrine age.
Nonnus (c. 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic epic on the
triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a
Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John.
In the 7th century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy
iambic poems the martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while
the deacon Theodosius (10th century) immortalized in extrava¬
gant language the victories of the brave Nicephorus Phocas.
BYZANTINE]
GREEK LITERATURE 5*3
From the nth century onwards, religious, grammatical,
astrological, medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed
partly in duodecasyllables and partly in “ political ”
DM m!. e verse > made their appearance in large quantities.
po * ' Didactic religious poems were composed, for example,
by Philippus (o MowSt^ojtos, Solitarius, c. noo), grammatico-
philological poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by Johannes
Camaterus (rath century), others on natural science by Manuel
Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic
epic by Georgius Lapithes (14th century).
To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in
style and matter must be regarded as imitations of the ancient
Greek romances. They all date from the 12th century,
Rommacn. & f act ev jdently connected with the general revival of
culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two
of these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre,
viz. the story of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Thcodorus l'rodromus,
and an imitation of this work, the story of Drusilla and Chariclcs
by Nicetas Eugenianus ; one in “ political ” verse, the love story
of Aristander and fallithea by Constantine Manasses, which has
only been preserved in fragments, and lastly one in prose, the
story of Hysminc and Hysminias, by Eustathius (or Eumathius)
Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all.
The objective point of view which dominated the whole
Byzantine period was fatal to the development of a profane
lyrical poetry. At most a few poems by Johannes
■ ;rc *' Geometres and Christophorus of Mytilene and others,
in which personal experiences are recorded with some show of
taste, may be placed in this category. The dominant form
for all subjective poetry was the epigram, which was employed
in all its variations from playful trifles to long elegiac and
narrative poems. Georgius Pisides (7th century) treated the
most diverse themes. In the 9th century Theodorus of Studium
had lighted upon the happy idea of immortalizing
epigram, monastic life in a series of epigrams. The same
century produced the only poetess of the Byzantine
period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic pro¬
ductions and church hymns, all characterized by originality.
Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the
10th and nth centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geo¬
metres, Christophorus of Mytilene and John Mauropus. Less
happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th century) and Manuel
Philes (14th century). From the beginning of the 10th century
also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of Byzantine
epigrammatic poems, the Anthologia Palatina (see Anthology).
Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as
completely lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the
condition precedent to its existence, namely, public
DramM ■ performance. Apart from some moralizing allegorical
dialogues (by Thcodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and others),
we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at
least in external form, resembles a drama: the Sufferings of
Christ (Xpurrfts lldo-x" 1 ')- This work, written probably in the
12th century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, i.e. is in great
measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, e.g.
Aeschylus, Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly
not written with a view to the dramatic production.
The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in
contents. We have here remarkable originality of conception
and probably also entirely new and genuinely medieval
Verntcu- mattcr . while in the artificial literature prose is
Mmltora. pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry,
both in quantity and quality, takes the first place, as
was also the case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar
tongue first invaded the field of poetry and only later that of
prose. Though a few preliminary attempts were made (proverbs,
acclamations addressed by the people to the emperor, &c.), the
Greek vernacular was employed for larger works only from the
12th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the major
portion were cast in “ political ” verse, but some m the trochaic
eight-syllabled line. Towards the close of the 15th century
rhyme came into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular
poetry are exceedingly diverse. In the capital city a mixture
of the learned and the popular language was first used in poems
of admonition, praise and supplication. In this oldest class
of “ vulgar ” works must be reckoned the Spantos, an admoni¬
tory poem in imitation of the letter of Pseudo-Isocrates addressed
to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in prison by the
chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of Theo¬
dorus Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period
erotic poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs
preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (ed. W. Wagner,
Leipzig, 1879), fairy-tale like romances such as the Story 0]
Ptocholean, oracles, prayers, extracts from Holy Writ, lives of
saints, &c. Great epic poems, in which antique subjects are
treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form a
separate group. To these may be added romances in verse after
the manner of the works written in the artificial classical
language, c.g. Callimachus and Chrysorrho'c, Belthandrus and
Chrysantsa, Lybislrus and Rhodamne, also romances in verse
after the Western pattern, such as Phlorius and Plaiziaphlora
(the old French story of Flore et Blanchefieur). Curious are
also sundry legends connected with animals and plants, such
as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables
of the Physiologus, a history of quadrupeds, and a book
of birds, both written with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a
rendering of the story of Reynard the Fox. Of quite peculiar
originality also are several legendary and historical poems, in
which famous heroes and historical events are celebrated.
There are, for instance, poems on the fall of Constantinople, the
taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating campaign of
Timur, the plague in Rhodes in 1498, &c. In respect of import¬
ance and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas
stands pre-eminent.
Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least
in a compromise with it, may Ire mentidned the Greek rendering
of two works from an Indian source, the Book of the
Seven Wise Masters (as Syntipas the Philosopher by
Michael Andreopulus), and the Hitopadera or Mirror V orb.
of Princes (through the Arabic Kalilah and Dimnah
by Simeon Sethus as koX TkitjA.ut>/«), a fish book, a
fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine court and official circles).
To these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of
Cyprus of the 12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &c. In spite
of many individual successes, the literature written in the
vulgar tongue succumbed, in the race for existence, to its elder
sister, the literature written in classical and polished Greek.
This was mainly due to the continuous employment of the
ancient language in the state, the schools and the church.
The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the
history of the world is beyond dispute. TJie Christians of the
East Roman empire guarded for more than a thousand 0tBm ,
years the intellectual heritage of antiquity against the ,i s mW.
violent onslaught of the barbarians. They also called eanet ot
into life a peculiar medieval culture and literature.
They communicated the treasures of the old pagan
as well as of their own Christian literature to neighbouring
nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the Armenians,
the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the Serbs
and the Russians. Through their teaching they created a new
East European culture, embodied above all in the Russian
empire, which, on its religious side, is included in the Orthodox
Eastern Church, and from the point of view of nationality
touches the two extremes of Greek and Slav. Finally the learned
men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing-from the barbarism
of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old Hellenic wisdom
to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples with
rich germs of culture.
Bibliography. — 1. General sources: K. Krumbacher, Geschichte
der byzanhnischen Literatur (and ed., 1897), supplemented in Die
bvsantinische Zeitsckrift (1892 seq,), and the Byzaniimzchet Archie
(1898 seq.). which is intended for the publication of more exhaustive
matter. The Russian works in this department are comprised in
the Vizantitsky Vremennik (2894 seq.).
2. Language: Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannarli), An
[MODERN
GREEK LITERATURE
Historical Greek Grammar (1897); A. Dicterich, " Untennchungen
ztu GCadiichtc da Rficchischen Spraohe von der hclIcmiBtuchon Zeit
bis 111m lot™ Jahrhumlcrt,” in Byzant. Archiv, i. (lHy 8 ). Glossary :
Thrcangr, Glossanum ad seriptores mediae et infimar. Graecitatis j
(«WS), iii which particular attention is paid to the “ vulgar ”
languaRe: E. A. Sophocles, Greek Lexicon 9/ the Homan and Byzantine \
Period'. (trti eil., 1888).
1. Thmlogy : Chief work, A. Ebrharil in Krumbacher s Geschichtc
drr hyz. Lit. pp. 1-218. For the ancient period, cf. the works on
Greek patrology (under article Fathers ok the Church). Collective
edition of the Fathers (down to the 75th century): Palrologta.
series Graeca (cd. by Migne, 1&1 voLs., 1857-18(16). Church poetry:
A colleclion of Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ
and M. I’aranikas, entitled Anthologia Gratia ntrmimtm Christia-
rt'irum (1877). Many unedited texts, particularly the songs of
Romanos, were published by Cardinal J. B. 1 'itra, under the title
Analecta sacra s/ncilegto Solcsmensi parata (1876). A complete
edition of the hymns is edited by K. Krumbacher.
4. Historical literatim-: A collective edition of the Byzantine
historians and chroniclers was begun under !011 is XIV., and con¬
tinued later (1648-1810), called the Paris Corpus. This whole
collection was on II. G. Niebuhr’s advice republished with some
additions (Bonn, 182S 1878), under the title Corpus srnptorum
histonae Uyzantinae. The most important authors have also
appeared in the Bibliotheca Truhnrriana. A few Byzantine and
oriental historical works are also contained in the collection edited
bv J. It. Bury (1808 scip).
s'. Vernacular Greek literature : The most important collective
editions are: V\. Wagner, Medieval Greek Texts (1870), t.armma
i-rticra Mctlii And (1874), ‘Irate Pot'mrs i;rrrs du mnyev the (1881) ;
li. Legraml, Collection dr monuments pour servir 1 1 VHude de la langur
tuo-heUaiiquc (in 26 parts. 18O0-1875). Biblwthdque grecque vulgmrr
tin 8 sols., 1880 1H06). (K. Kk.)
Til. Modern (’.reek Literature (1453 u * oR )
After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek
national life and the almost total efluecment of Greek civilization
naturally involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek
literary production in the regions subjected to the rule of a
barbarous conqueror, learned Greeks found a refuge away
from their native land ; they spoke the languages of foreign
people, and when they wrote books they often used those
languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The
lull of Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating
a break in the continuity of Greek literary history. Nor hod
that event so decisive an influence as has been supposed on the
revival of learning in western Europe. The crusades laid
already brought the Greeks and Westerns together, and the rule
of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant had rendered
the contact closer. Greeks and Latins laid keenly discussed the
dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches ;
some Greeks had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured
to reconcile the two communions, some had attained preferment
in tiie Roman Church. Many had become connected by marriage
or other ties with the Italian nobles who ruled in the Aegean
or the lleptancsos, and cireumstances led them to settle in Italy.
Of the writers who thus found their way to the West before the
taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or
Leontios Pilutos, Georgius Geraistus, or I’letho, Manuel and
John Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes. George of Trcbizond and
Cardinal llessarion.
The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in
the plains to a condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty
continued to breathe in the mountains, where groups
JJ* of des|«:rate men, the Klephts and the Haiduks,
([t ffL c maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The
adventurous and romantic life of these champions
of freedom, spent umkl the noblest solitudes of nature and often
tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally produced a poetry
of its own. fresh, spontaneous and entirely indigenous. The
Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the language
ol the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine
Greek poetry uf this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the
forests and mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity,
which peopled nature with a thousand forms, they lend a voice
to the trees, the rocks, the rivers and to the mountains themselves,
which sing the prowess of the Klepht, bewail his death and
comfort his disconsolate wife or mother, Olympia boasts to
Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never desecrated its
valleys ; the standard of freedom floats over its springs; there
is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests ; an eagle sits on its
summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying
Klepht bids bis companions make him a large and lofty tomb
that he may stand therein and load his musket: “ Make a
window in the side that the swallows may tell me that spring has
come, that the nightingales may sing me the approach of flowery
May.” The wounded Vcrvos is addressed by his horse: “ Rise,
my master, let us go and find our comrades.” “ My bay horse,
1 cannot rise ; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod
hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein. Bear my arms
to my companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that
she may see it and lament me." Another type of the popular
poetry is presented by the folk-songs of the Aegean islanders
and the maritime population of the Asiatic coast. In many of
the former the influence of the Frankish conquest is apparent.
Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be found in the
popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who
struggles with his victim ; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as
a rule he triumphs in the conflict.
In Crete, which for neurly two centuries after the fall of
Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek
poetry arose strongly impressed with Italian influences.
The language employed is the dialect of the Candiotes, poets!
with its large admixture of Venetian words. The
first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was Erotocrilos,
an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story of Arete,
daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotorritos, the son
of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of
Greece under the feudal Frankish princes, though profeasing
to describe an episode of the classical epoch ; notwithstanding
some tedious passages, it possesses considerable merit and
contains some charming scenes. The metre is the rhymed
alexandrine. Of the author, Vicencc 1 ‘ornaro, who lived in the
middle or end of the 16th century, little is known ; he probahly
lielongod to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso
was descended. The second poem is the Erophile of George
Chortakis, a Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is
a tragic drama, the scene of which is laid in Egypt. The dialogue
is poor, but there are some fine choral interludes, which perhaps
are by a different hand. Chortakis, who was brought up at
Rctimo, lived at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th
centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of notice is the
Shepherdess, a charming and graceful idyll written by Nicolas
Drimyticos. a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century.
Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos
(1500), who wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1403). who
endeavoured to write Pindaric odes.
Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a know¬
ledge of Greek in Europe after the fall of Constantinople were
John Argyropulos, Demetrius Chalcondyles, Con- Uttru . y
stantinc and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a tc tlrHy
Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary otter the
language; in general, however, they were rather
employed about literature than engaged in producing
it. They taught Greek: several of them wrote Greek
grammars ; they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers,
and they collected manuscripts. Their stores enriched the
newly founded libraries of St Mark at Venice, of the Escorial,
of the Vatican and of the Nutional Library in Paris. But none
of them accomplished much in literature strictly so called. Hie
question which most deeply interested them was that of the rival
merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, over which
a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards the
close of the 15th century. The dispute was in reality' theological
rather than philosophical: the cause of Plato was championed
by the advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western
Churches, that of Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party,
and all the fury of the old Byzantine dogmatic controversies
was revived. The patriarch, George Kurtesios or Gennadius,
whom Mahommed II.'had appointed after the capture of
MODERN]
Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and ex¬
communicated Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among
the Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who
attacked Pletho with unmeasured virulence, was compelled
to resign his post of secretary to Pope Nicholas V. and was
imprisoned by Pope Paul 1 . Scholarship was not wholly extinct
in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time after the
Turkish conquest. Arseni.is, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of
Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and
Euripides; his father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek
proverbs. Aemilius I’ortos, a Cretan, and I-eo Allatios (1600-
1650) of Chios edited a number of works of the classical and
later periods with commentaries and translations ; Allatios
also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness. Constan¬
tine Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote
verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the
time of the fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers
who wrote poems in the spoken dialect on historical subjects;
among these were Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas
Limenitis (1450-1500) and Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the
16th century); their poems have little merit, but arc interesting
as specimens of the popular language of the day and as illustrating
the manners and ideas of contemporary Greeks.
Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number
of chroniclers. At the end of the tjth, Kritobulos of Imbros,
who liad been private secretary of Mahommed II.,
work *!‘ Ml wrole the history of his master, Emmanuel Melaxos
a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history
of the Palaeoiogi. Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a
history of Constantinople from 1301 to 1578. In the 17th
century Demetrius Cantcmir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a
history of the Ottoman empire, and G. Kontares tales of ancient
Athens. Others composed chronicles of Cyprus and Crete,
narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most of these
works are written in the literary language, the study of which
was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it
maintained at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theo¬
logical and philosophical works, grammars and dictionaries
were written during this period, but elegant literature practically
disappears.'
A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor
of the national uprising which resulted in the independence of
Greece. The efforts of the great Phanariote families
at Constantinople, the educational zeal of the higher
nvivoi. Greek clergy and the munificence of wealthy Greeks
in the provinces, rhiefly merchants who had acquired
fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of
education among a people always eager for instruction. The
Turks, indifferent to educational matters, failed to discern the
significance of the movement. Schools were established in
every important Greek town, and school-books and translations
from Western languages issued from the presses of Venice, Triest,
Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed colonies.
Young men completed their studies in the Western universities
and returned to the East as the missionaries of modem civiliza¬
tion. For the greater part of the 18th century the literature was
mainly theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch
were Elias Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are
written in the popular language, and Meletios of lannina,
metropolitan of Athens, whose principal works were an ecclesi¬
astical history, written in ancient Greek, and a descriptive
geography of Greece in the modem language, composed, like the
work of Pausanias, after a series of tours. The works of two
distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent
partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731 ?-i8oo) and
Eugenios Bulgares (1715-1806), mark the beginning of the
national and literary renaissance. They wrote much m defence
1 The patriarch CyriHos Lucares (1572-163R), who had studied for
a time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made
him many enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constanti¬
nople, from which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning
the faith of Mahomet ; he was denounced to the Turks by the
Jesuits, and his printing-press was suppressed.
525
of Greek orthodoxy against Latin heresy. Thsotokes, famous
as a preacher, wrote, besides theological and controversial works,
treatises on mathematics, geography and physics. Bulgaxes
was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous translations and
works on theology, archaeology, philosophy, mathematics,
physios and astronomy ; he translated the Aeneid and Georgies
of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II. His
writings exercised a considerable influence over his contem¬
poraries.
The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were
Constantino* Rhigas (?.».), the Aleman of the revolutionary
movement, whose, songs fired the spirit of his fellow-
countrymen; Christopoulos (1772-1847), a Phanariote,
who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos rortval.
Rizos Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author
of tragedies, comedies and lyrics, and of a work in French on
modern Greek literature. They are followed in the epoch of
Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes and Alexander
Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803-1863) and Alexander Rhizos
Khangabes (Rhunkaves, i8io~i 892), all three Phanariote*. Both
Soutzos had a rich command of musical language, were highly
ideal in their conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an
ardent love of liberty. Both imitated to some extent Byron,
Lamartine and Beranger ; they tried various forms of poetry,
but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially lyrical, that of
Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek revival,
Alexander Rizos Rhangalie, was a writer with a fine poetic
feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of
thought and sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns,
ballads, narrative poems, tragedies and comedies, he wrote
several prose works, including a history of ancient Greece, a
history of modern Greek literature, several novels and works on
ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous dramatic
works of this time may bo mentioned the Mn/ua AofuraT/nj of
Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is laid in
the Morea at the time of the crusades.
In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was
marked by an abundant output. Among the historians the
greatest is Spiridon Trikoupis, whose History of the rim
Revolution is a monumental work. It is distinguished writm
by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an at the
impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the rev,v * / ‘
author played a leading part in the events which he narrates.
Almost all the chiefs of the revolutionary movement left their
memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who was illiterate, dictated his
recollections. John Philemon, of Constantinople, wrote a history
of the revolution in six volumes. He was an ardent partisan
of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who was
attached to the English party. K. Paj»rrhcgopoulos’a History
of the Greek Nation is especially valuable in regard to the later
periods ; in regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and
Grote. With him may be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu,
who wrote on Greek history and literature; Sakellarios, who
dealt with the topography arid history of Cypnis; N. Dragoumes,
whose historical memoirs treat of the period which followed
the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature
and history'. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied
by Miniates in the 17th century as a great preacher. Kontogones
is well known by his History of Patristic Literature of the First
Three Centuries and his Ecclesiastical History, and Philotheos
Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by his elaborate edition of Clemens
Romanics. Kastorches wrote well on Latin literature. Great
literary activity in the domains of law, political economy, mathe¬
matics, the physical sciences and archaeology displayed itself
in the generation after the establishment of the Greek kingdom.
But the writer who at the time of the national revival not
only exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries
but even to a large extent shaped the future course coroie.
of Greek literature waa Adamantios Corad* (Korais)
of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his Kfe to
philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot,
and in the prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical
GREEK LITERATURE
[MODERN
52 6 GREEK LITERATURE
writer?, written in Greek or French, he strove to awake the
interest of his countrymen in the past glories of their race or
administered to them sage counsels, at the same time addressing
ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their behalf. The great
importance of Coraes, however, lies in the fact that he was
practically the founder of the modern literaiy language.
in contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the
modem language present themselves -the . vernacular (»/
Tbe xatfo/uAnv/un/) and the purified (»/ Kadapeboiva).
modern The former is the oral language, spoken by the whole
literacy Greek world, with local dialectic variations; the
language. ] atter j s hased on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers,
modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the
popular speech. At the time, of the War of Independence the
enthusiasm of the Greeks and the Philhcllcnes was fired by the
memory of an illustrious past, and at its close a classical reaction
followed : the ancient nomenclature was introduced in every
department of the new state, towns and districts received their
former names, and children were christened after Greek heroes
and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In the literary
revival which attended the national movement, two schools
of writers made their appearance—the purists, who, rejecting
the spoken idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the
restoration of the classical language, and the vulgarists, who
regarded the vernacular or “ Romaic ” as the genuine and
legitimate representative of the ancient tongue. A controversy
which had existed in former times was thus revived, with the
result that a state of confusion still prevails in the national
literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted
with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical
or newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language
which he can read with ease side by side with poems or even
prose in the vernacular which he will be altogether unable to
interpret.
The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is univers¬
ally spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by
a natural and regular process, similar to that which
Reform* ^a S produced the Romance languages from the Latin,
Cerate. or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the
old Slavonic. It has developed on parallel lines with
the modem European languages, and in obedience to the same
laws ; like them, it might have grown into a literary language
had any great writers arisen in the middle ages to do for it what
Dante and his successors of the trecento did for Italian. But
the effort to adapt it to the requirements of modern literature
could hardly prove successful. In the first place, the national
sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to imitate the classical
writers, and so far as possible to appropriate their diction.
The l>eauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses such an
attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly to
adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom.
In the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has
already been formed which cannot easily be broken down. For
more than half a century the generally accepted written language,
half modem half ancient, has been in use in the schools, the
university, the parliament, the state departments and the
pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the more educated
classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present form—
though a fixed standard is still lacking—to the influence and
teaching of Coralis. As in the time of the decadence a k<> m)
SidAfieros stood midway between the classical language and the
popular speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there
existed a common literary dialect, largely influenced by the
vernacular, but retaining the characteristics of the old Hellenistic,
from which it was derived by an unbroken literary tradition.
This written language Coraes took as the basis of his reforms,
purging it of foreign elements, preserving its classical remnants
and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from the
ancient lexicon or, in. pase of need, invented in accordance with
a fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discounten¬
ancing alike the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident
nnthrnsm of the vulmmsts who found in the uncouth nnnulnr
speech all the material for a longue savante. The language
which he thus endeavoured to shape and reconstruct is, of
course, conventional and artificial. In course of time it will
probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter
will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The
spoken and written languages, however, will always be separated
by a wide interval.
Many of the best poets of modem Greece have written in the
vernacular, which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous
expression of the feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798- _
1857), the greatest of them all, employed the dialect writm
of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are full of i» tbe
poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his
“ Ode to Liberty.” Other poets, of what may be cu,ar -
described as the Ionic school, such as Andreas Kalvos (1796-
1869), Julius Typaldos (18Z4-1883), John Zampelios (1787-1856),
and Gcrasimos Markoras (It. 1826), followed his example in
using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios
Terzctes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaoritcs (1824-1879) and
Gerasimos Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands,
adopted in their lyrics the language of the Klcphtic ballads—
in other words, the vernacular of the Pindus range and the
mountainous district of Epirus. This dialect had at least the
advantage of being generally current throughout the mainland,
while it derived distinction from the heroic exploits of the
champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites, which are
characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have made
a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely
employed the Epirotic dialed and drew their inspiration from
the Klephtic songs were John Vilaras (1771-1823), George
Zalokostas (1801;-1857) in his lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphcn-
toules, a Cretan (d. 1893). With the poems of this group may
be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835). The popular
language has been generally adopted by the younger generation
of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probclegios
(b. 1850), George Bizycnos (1853-1896), George Drosines, Kostes
Palamas (b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and
Jacob Polylas (d. 1896).
Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there
existed at Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the
accepted literary language, and whose writings serve
as models for the later group which gathered at Athens W riten
after the emancipation of Greece. The literary in tbe
traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes eoavea-
(i8io-i892)and the brothers Alexander and Panagiotis
Soutzos (1803-1863 and 1800-1868), who belonged
to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion
Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Kara-
soutzas (1824-1873), 1 feme trios Paparrhegopoulos (1843-1873),
and Achilles Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling,
has also employed the popular language. In general the practice
of versification in the conventional literary language has declined,
though sedulously encouraged by the university of Athens, and
fostered by annual poetic competitions with prizes provided by
patriotic citizens. Greek lyric poetry during the first half of
the century was mainly inspired by the patriotic sentiment
aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the present
generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic
and contemplative mood under the influence of Western models,
There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature
in recent years. In succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John
Zampelios and the two Soutzos, who lielong to the Drama-
past generation, Klcon Rhangabes, Angelos Vlachos, tiete,
Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes traae-
are the most prominent among modem dramatic
writers. Numerous translations of foreign master- '
pieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of
Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Hamlet, Macbeth and The
Merchant of Venice, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as
examples of artistic excellence. Goethe’s Faust has been
rendered into verse by Probelegios, and Hamlet, Antony and
Clrnbntrn C'nrinl/itnic and lulius Caesar into nmv bv Damimles.
GREEK RELIGION
Among recent satirists, George Source (b. 1853) occupies a unigue
position. He reviews social and political events in the 'Pwppos,
a witty little newspaper written entirely in verse, which is read
with delight by all classes of the population.
Almost all the prose writers have employed the literary
language. In historical research the Greeks continue to display
much activity and erudition, but no great work
comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis’s History of the
wrlun. Revolution has appeared in the present generation.
A history of the Greek nation from the earliest times
to the present day, by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history
of the 19th century by Karolides, have recently been published.
The valuable of Sathas, the yuKirai Bufavruajs urroplas
of Spiridion Zampelios and Mavrogiannes’s History of the
Ionian Islands deserve special mention, as well as the essays
of Bikelas, which treat of the Byzantine and modem epochs of
Greek history. Some of the last-named were translated into
English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the writers on
jurisprudence are Peter I’aparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios
Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and
John Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have
written philosophical works. The Ecclesiastical History of
Diomedes Kyriakos and the Theological Treatises of Archbishop
Latas should be noted. The best-known writers of philological
works are Constantine Kontos, a strong advocate of literary
purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore Papademetrakopoulos
and John l’sichari; in archaeology, Stephen Koumanoudes,
Panagiotes Kawadias and Christos Tsountas have won a
recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a. high
authority on numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes
on mathematics, Anast. Christomanos on chemistry, and
Demetrios Acginctes on astronomy are well known.
The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding
the emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign
influence. Modern Greece has not produced any great
c oa ' novelist. The Kpijrunu ydp.01 of Spiridion Zampelios,
the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the Thanos Blechas
of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of
historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the
mountains cf Greece. Original novel writing has not been much
cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In
later times the short story has come into vogue through the
example of D. Bikelas, whose tales have acquired great popu¬
larity ; one of them, Ijmkis Laras , has been translated into
many languages. The example of Bikelas has been followed by
Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xcnopoulos and many
others.
The most distinguished of the writers who adhere, to the
vernacular in prose is John Psichari, professor of the ficole des
Prott Hautes Etudes in Paris. He is the recognized leader of
vrttm the vulgarists. Among the best known of his works
la the are Tii TafeiSi /wv, a narrative of a journey in Greek
vemm- lands, Tempo tod F Lavvtprj, *H ZovAca, and o May os.
euUf. ,pj je ta ] es 0 j Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in
the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari’s followers
is M. Palli, who has recently published a translation of the Iliad.
Owing to the limited resources of the popular language, the
writers of this school are sometimes compelled to employ strange
and little-known words borrowed from the various dialects.
The vernacular has never been adopted by writers on scientific
subjects, owing to its inherent unsuitability and the incongruity
arising from the introduction of technical terms derived from
the ancient language. Notwithstanding the zeal of its adherents,
it seems unlikely to maintain its place in literature outside the
domain of poetry ; nor can any other result be expected, unless
its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public instruc¬
tion in Greece.
Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which
may be mentioned the Athena, edited by Constantine Kontos,
the Ethniki Agoge, a continuation of the old Heslia, the
Harmonia and the Hudwh/urn tuv iraf&ov, an educational
review. The Pamassos, the Archaeological Society and other
5*7
learned bodies issue annual or quarterly reports. The Greek
journals are both numerous and widely read. They contain
much clever writing, which is often maned by inac-
curacy and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their fr r ,.
tendency to exaggerated patriotic sentiment sometimes jemrmeH.
borders on the ludicrous. For many years the Nea
H emir a of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the Greek
world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor, Anastasios
Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and
judgment.
Authorities.— Constantine Sathas, NeotXXijrurii tpiXekoyla (Athens,
1868) ; D. Bikelas, lltpl rt ot’KKijruirji $1 \o\oytas loictjuar (London, 1871),
reprinted in AuiMftit xal dra/crhoeit (Atheus, 1893) i J■ S. nlackie,
Horae Heltenicae (London, 1874) ; R. Nicolai, Geschichte der neugrte-
chtschen Literatur (Leipzig, 1876); A. R. Rhangabe, hfistoire Utte-
raire ie la Grice modeme (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, Etudes sur Id
literature grecque modeme (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, Bibliothique
grecque vulgaire (vol. i., Paris, 1880) ; J. Lamber, Poites greet con-
temporains (Paris, 1881) ; Kontos, rXunrncal raparyppccts (Athens,
1882) : RhangaM und Sanders, Geschichte der neugriechischen
Literatur von ihren Anfdngen bis auf die neueste Zeit (Leipzig, 1883) ;
J. Psichari, Essais de grammaire htsloriaue nio-grecque (2 vols.,
Paris, 188O and i88y) ; Etudes de philologie neo-grecque (Paris,
r8o2) ; F. Blass, Die Aussprackc des Gricchtschen (3rd cd., Berlin,
1888) ; Panadcmctrakopoulos, KAiravot AXXtimt)* rpofopat (Athens,
1889) ; M. Konstantinides, A eo-hellenua ( Dialogues in Modem Greeh,
with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect) (London, 1892); Rholdes,
TA EBwXa. rWeurr) (Athens, 1893) ; Polites, MeXo-al wtpl rou
filov Ktu r?ji yKdoepi 'EAXiiiuhoP Xdov (2 vols,, Athens, 1890).
For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, Chants
populaires de la Grice modeme (Paris, 1824, 1826) ; Passow, Popu-
lana carmina Graeciae recentions (Leipzig, i860) ; von Hahn,
Griechische und albanesischc Mdrchen (f-oipzig, 1864); Tf^a.urrs,
XiavorpdyovRa (2nd ed., Athens, 1868); K. I.egrand, llecueilde chansons
populaires grecques (Paris, 1874) ; Uecueit de routes populaires greet
(Paris, 1881) ; Paul de Lagarde, Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien
(Gottingen, 1886) ; A. Jannaris, "A ofusra Kported ( Kreta's Volks -
lieder) (Leipzig, 1876) ; A. Sakellariuu, TA KtnrpicucA (Athens,
1891) ; Zuypaptios 'Ayibr, published by the 'EXXijmitAj ^iXoXryurAr
eCWoyot (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, Greek
Folksongs from the Turkish Provinces of Greece (London, 1883) ;
E. M. Geldart, Folklore of Modern Greece (London, 1884). Lexicons :
A. N, Jannaris, A Comisc Dictionary of the English and Modern
Greek Languages (Enghsh-Greek) (London, 1895); Byzantios
(Skarlatos D.), ArjuAv ri)s 'EMuirisrp (Athens, 1895);
A. Sakellario, ArJ«A» rf)i 'EXXijnirijs yXikeem (5th cd., Athens, 1898) ;
S. Koumanoudes, Xnrayitryp rluv \tfeur (Athens, 1900). Grammars:
Mitsotakcs, Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- und
Umgangssprathc (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner, A Practical Modern
Greek Grammar (London, 1892) ; G. N. Hatzidakes, Einleitung in
die neugriechiscke Grammatik (Leipzig, 1892) ; E. Vincunt and T. G.
Dickson, Handbook to Modern Greek (London, 1H93) ; A. Thumb,
Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache (Strassburg, 1895)':
C. Wied, Die Kunsl der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch
Selhstunterricht schnell und leicht su lernen (2nd ed., undated,
Vienna); A. N. Jannaris, Historical Greeh Grammar (London,
1897). (J. D. B.)
GREEK RELIGION. The recent development of anthropo¬
logical science and of the comparative study of religions has
enabled us at last to assign to ancient Greek religion its proper
place in the classification of creeds and to appreciate its import¬
ance for the history of civilization. In spite of all the diversities
of local cults we may find a general definition of the theological
system of the Hellenic communities, and with sufficient accuracy
may describe it as an anthropomorphic polytheism, preserving
many traces of a pre-anthropomorphic period, unchecked by
any exacting dogma or tradition of revelation, and therefore
pliantlv adapting itself to all the changing circumstance of the
social and political history of the race, and easily able to assimilate
alien ideas and forms. Such a religion, continuing in whole or
in part throughout a period of at least 2000 years, was more
capable of progress than others, possibly higher, that have
crystallized at an early period into a fixed dogmatic type ; and
as, owing to its essential character, it could not be convulsed
by any inner revolution that might obliterate the deposits of
its earlier life, it was likely to preserve the imprints of the succes¬
sive ages of culture, and to reveal more clearly than any other
testimony the evolution of the race from savagery to civilization.
Hence it is that Greek religion appears to teem with incongruities,
the highes t forms of religious life being often confronted with the
most primitive. And for this reason the student of savage
GREEK RELIGION
528
anthropology’ and the student of the higher religions of the
world are equally rewarded by its study.
Modern ethnology has arrived at the conviction that the
Hellenic nation, like others that have played great parts in
history, was the product of a blend of populations, the conquering
tribes of Aryan descent coming from the north and settling among
and upon certain pre-Hellenic Mediterranean stocks. The conclu¬
sion that is naturally drawn from this is that Hellenic religion
is also the product of a blend of early Aryan or Indo-Germanic
beliefs with the cult-ideas and practices of the Mediterranean
area that were from of old indigenous in the lands which the
later invaders conquered. But to disentangle these two com¬
ponent parts of the whole, which might seem to be the first
problem for the history of the development of this religion, is
by no means an easy task; we may advance further towards
its solution, when the mysterious pre-Hellenic Mediterranean
language or group of languages, of which traces remain in
Hellenic place-names, and which may be lying uninterpreted
on the brick-tableis of the palace of Cnossus, has found its
interpreter. For the first question is naturally one of language.
Hut the compaiative study of the Indo-European speech-group,
great as its philological triumphs have been, has been meagre
in its contributions to our positive knowledge of the original
belief of the primitive stock. It is not possible to reconstruct
a common Indo-European religion. The greater part of the
separate Aryan cult-systems may have developed after the
diffusion and may have been the result of contact in prehistoric
days with non-Aryun peoples. And many old religious etymo¬
logical equations, such as Oiywwi*- Sanskrit Varuna, 'Ep/xijs-
Sarameyfts, Athena Ahana, were uncritically made and have
been abandoned. The chief fact that philology has revealed
concerning the religious vocabulary of the Aryan peoples is that
many of them are found to have designated a high god by a word
derived from a root meaning “ bright," and which appears iti
Zeus, Jupiter, Sanskrit Dyaus. This is important enough,
hut we should not exaggerate its importance, nor draw the
unwarranted inference that therefore the primitive Indo-
Europeans worshipped one supreme God, the Sk) Father.
Besides the word “ Zeus," the only other names of the Hellenic
pantheon that can be explained wholly or partly as words of
Aryun formation are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Dionysus
(whose name and cult were derived from the Aryan stock of the
Thraco- Phrygians) and probably Pan. But other names, such
a? Athena, Ares, Apollo, Artemis, Heru, Hermes, have no
discovered affinities with other Aryan speech-groups ; and yet
there is nothing suspiciously non-Aryan in the formation of these
words, and they may all have belonged to the earliest Hellenic-
Aryan vocabulary. In regard to others, such as Rhea,
Hephaestus and Aphrodite, it is somewhat more probable that
they belonged to un older pre-Hellenic stock that survived in
Crete and other islands, and here and there on the mainland;
while we know that Zeus derived certain unintelligible titles
in Cretan cult from the indigenous Eteo-cretan speech.
A minute consideration of a large mass of evidence Justifies
the conclusion that the main tribes of the Aryan Hellenes,
pushing down from the north, already possessed certain deities
in common such os Zeus, Poseidon and Apollo with whom thev
associated certain goddesses, and that they maintained the cult
of Hestia or “ Holy Hearth.” Further, u comparison of the
developed religions of the respective Aryan peoples suggests
that they tended to give predominance to the male divinity,
although we have equally good reuson to assert that the cull of
goddesses, and especially of the earth-goddess, is u genuinely
“ Aryan ” product. But when the tribes ui this family poured
into the Greek peninsula, it is probable that they would find
in certain centres of a very ancient civilization, such as Argolis
and Crete, the dominant cult of a female divinity. 1 The recent
' This has often been explained as a result of MuUerrahi, or
reckoning descent through tile female : for reasons against this
hypothecs see 1.. R. Famell m Archiv fur vsrglstclnmde Religions-
nnusnsekaft (1004) ; cf. A. J. Evans, “ Mycenaean Tree and Kltar
Cult," in /own. of HtUtmo SlusUss (lyoi). 1
excavations on the site of the Hera temple at Argos prove that a
powerful goddess was worshipped here many centuries before it
is probable that the Hellenic invader appeared. He may have
even found the name Hera there, or may have brought it with
him and applied it to the indigenous divinity. Again, we are
certain that the great mother-goddess of Crete, discovered by
Dr Arthur Evans, is the ancestress of Rhea and of the Greek
“ Mother of the gods ” : and it is a reasonable conjecture that
she accounts for many of the forms of Artemis and perhaps for
Athena. But the evidence by no means warrants us in assuming
as an axiom that wherever we find a dominant goddess-cult
as that of Demeter at Eleusis, we are confronted with a non-
Hellenic religious phenomenon. The very name “ Demeter ”
and the study of other Aryan religions prove the prominence
of the worship of the earth-goddess in our own family of the
nations. Finally, we must reckon with the possibility that the
other great nations which fringed the Mediterranean, Hittite,
Senutic and Egyptian peoples, left their impress on early Greek
religion, although former scholars may have made rash use of
this hypothesis. 11
Recognizing then the great perplexity of these problems
concerning the ethnic origins of Hellenic religion, we may at
least reduce the tangle of facts to some order by
distinguishing its lower from its higher forms, and
thus provide the material for some theory of evolution. We
may collect and sift the phenomena that remain over from a
pre-anthropomorphic period, the imprints of a savage past,
the beliefs and practices that belong to the animistic or even the
pre-animistic period, fetishism, the worship of animals, human
sacrifice. We shall at once be struck with the contrast between
such civilized cults as those of Zeus, Athena, Apollo, high personal
divinities to whom the attributes of a progressive morality could
be attached, and practices that long survived in backward
communities, such as the Arcadian worship of the thunder and
the winds, the cult of Zeus Kepawds “ the thunder ’’ at Mantinea
and Zeus Kairirwro? in Laconia, who is none other than the
mysterious meteoric stone that falls from heaven. These
arc examples of a religious view in which certain natural pheno¬
mena or objects are regarded as mysteriously divine or sacred
in their own right and a personal divinity has not yet emerged
or been separated from t hem. A noteworthy product of primitive
animistic feeling is the universally prevalent cult of Hestia,
who is originally “ Holy Hearth ” pure and simple, and who
even under the developed polytheism, in which she played no
small part, was never established as a separate anthropomorphic
personage.
The animistic belief that certain material objects can be
charged with a divine potency or spirit gives rise to fetishism,
a term which properly denotes the worshipful or
superstitious use of objects made by art and invested
with mysterious power, so as to be used like amulets for
the purposes of protective magic or for higher purposes of
communion with the divinity. From the earliest discoverable
period down to the present day fetishism has been a powerful
factor in the religion of the Graeco-Roman world. The import¬
ance of the sacred stone and pillar in the “ Mycenaean ” or
“ Minoan ” period which preceded Homer has been impressively
shown by Dr Arthur Evans, and the same fetishistic worship
continued throughout the historic ages of classic paganism, the
rude aniconic emblem of pillar or tree-trunk surviving often
by the side of the iconic masterpiece. It is a reasonable con¬
jecture that the earliest anthropomorphic images of divinities,
which were beginning to make their appearance by the time of
Homer, were themselves evolved by slow transformation from
the upright sacred column. And the altar itself may have
arisen as another form of this ; the simple heap of stones, such
! V. BCrard lias recently revived the discredited theory o£ a
prevalent Phoenician influence in his ingenious but uncritical
work, VOriginc dss mltrs arcadiens. M. P. Foncart believes in
very early borrowing from Egypt, as explaining much in the religion
at Demeter and Dionysos; see Lts Grands MysRres d'lileusts and
Lt Colts ds Dionysos en Attigus.
GREEK RELIGION
as those erected to Hermes by the wayside and called ‘Kgpafct
JuS^o», may have served both as a place of worship and as an
agalma that could attract and absorb a divine potency into
itself. Hence the fetishistic power of the altar was fully
recognized in Greek ritual, and hence also in the cult of
ApoUo Agyieus the god and the altar are called by the same
name.
It has been supposed that the ancestors of the historic Greeks,
before they were habituated to conceive of their divinities as m
human form, may have been accustomed to invest them with
animal attributes and traits. We must not indeed suppose it
to be a general law of religious evolution that “ theriomorphism ”
must always precede anthropomorphism and that the latter
transcends and obliterates the former. The two systems can
exist side by side, and savages of low religious development can
conceive of their deities as assuming at one time human, at
another bestial, shape. Now the developed Greek religion was
devotedly anthropomorphic, and herein lay its strength and its
weakness; nevertheless, the advanced Hellene could imagine
his Dionysus entering temporarily into the body of the sacrificial
bull or goat, and the men of Phigalia in Arcadia were attached to
their horse-headed Dcmctcr, and the primitive lAconians
possibly to a ram-headed Apollo. Thcriolatry in itself, i.e. the
worship of certain animals as of divine power in their own right,
apart from any association with higher divinities, can scarcely
be traced among the Greek communities at any period. They
are not found to have paid reverence to any species, though
individual animals could acquire temporarily a divine character
through communion with the altar or with the god. The wolf
might at one time have been regarded as the incarnation of
Apollo, the wolf-god, and here and there we find faint traces of
a wolf-sacrifice and of offerings laid out for wolves. But the
occasional propitiation of wild beasts may fall short of actual
worship. The Athenian who slew a wolf might give it a sumptu¬
ous funeral, probably to avoid a blood-feud with the wolf’s
relatives, yet the Athenian state offered rewards for a wolf's
head. Nor did any Greek individual or state worship flies as a
class, although a small oblation might be thrown to the flies
before the great sacrifice to Apollo on the Leucadian rock, to
please them and to persuade them not to worry the worshippers
at the great solemnity, where the reek of roast flesh would be
likely to attract them.
Theriolatry suggests totemism ; and though we now know
that the former can arise and exist quite independently of the
latter, recent anthropologists have interpreted the
Lm**" apparent sanctity or prestige of certain animals in
“ m ~ parts of Greek mythology and religion as the deposit
of an earlier totemistic system. But this interpretation,
originated and maintained with great acumen by Andrew Lang
and W. Robertson Smith, appears now somewhat hazardous;
and as a scientific hypothesis there are many flaws in it. The
more observant study of existing totem-tribes has weakened
our impression of the importance of totemism as a primitive
religious phenomenon. It is in reality more important as a
social than as a religious factor. If indeed we choose to regard
totemism as a mere system of nomenclature, by which a tribe
names itself after some animal or plant, then we might quote a
few examples of Hellenic tribes totemistic in this sense. But
totemism is a fact of importance only when it affects the tribal
marriage laws or the tribal religion. And the tribal marriage
laws of ancient Greece, so far as they are known, betray no clear
mark of totemistic arrangements ; nor does the totemism of
contemporary savages appear to affect their religion in any such
way as to suggest a natural explanation for any of the peculiar
phenomena of early Hellenic polytheism. Here and there we
have traces of a snake-tribe in Greece, the in Aetolia,
the ’O^ioycucis in Cyprus and Parium, but we are not told that
these worshipped the snake, though the latter clan were on terms
of intimacy with it. Where the snake was actually worshipped
in Hellenic cult—the cases are few and doubtful—it may have
been regarded as the incarnation of the ancestor or as the Motor
of the under-world divinity.
529
Finally, among the primitive or savage phenomena the
practice of human sacrifice looms laige- Encouraged at one
time by the Delphic oracle, it was becoming rare and
repellent to the conscience by the 6th century u.c.;
but it was not wholly extinct in the Greek world even '
by the time of Porphyry. The facts are very complex
and need critical handling, and a satisfying scientific explanation
of them ail is still to be sought.
We can now observe the higher aspects of the advanced
polytheism. And at the outset we must distinguish between
mythology and religion strictly understood, between the stories
about the divinities and the private or public religious service.
No doubt the former are often a reflection of the latter, in many
cases being suggested by the ritual which they may have been
invented to interpret, and often envisaging important cult-ideas.
Such for example are the myths about the purification and trial
of Orestes, Theseus, lxion. the story of Demeter’s sorrow, of the
sufferings and triumph of Dionysus, and those about the abolition
of human sacrifice. Yet Greek mythology as a whole was irre¬
sponsible, without reserve, and unchecked by dogma or sacerdotal
prohibition ; and frequently it sank below the level of the
current religion, which was almost free from the impurities
which shock the modem reader of Hellenic myths. Nor again
did any one feel himself called upon to believe any particular
myth ; in fact, faith, understood in the sense in which the term
is used in Christian theology, os the will to believe certain
dogmatic statements about the nature and action of divinity,
is a concept which was neither named nor recognized in Hellenic
ethics or religious doctrine ; only, if a man proclaimed his
disbelief in the existence of the goids and refused to join in the
ritual of the community, he would become “ suspect,” and
might at times lte persecuted by his fellows. Greek religion
was not so much an affair of doctrine as of ritual, religious
formulae of which the cult-titles of the divinities were an im¬
portant component, and prayer; and the most illuminative
sources of our knowledge of it are the ritual-inscriptiong and
other state-documents, the private dedications, the monuments
of religious art and certain passages in the literature, philology
and archaeology being equally necessary to the equipment of
the student.
We are tempted to turn to Homer as the earliest authority.
And though Homer is not primitive and does not present even
an approximately complete account of Greek religion,
we can gather from his poems a picture of an advanced
polytheism which in form and structure at least is nomtr.
that which was presented to the world of Aeschylus.
We discern a pantheon already to some extent systematized,
a certain hierarchy and family of divinities in which the
supremacy of Zeus is established as incpntestable. And the
anthropomorphic impulse, the strongest trend in the Greek
religious imagination, which filled the later world with fictitious
personages, generating transparent shams such as as Arapi-
dromus for the ritual of the Ampidromia, Ampliation for the
Amphictiones, a hero KtpafUK for the gild of potters, is already
at its height in the Homeric poems. The deities are already
clear-cut, individual personalities of distinct ethos, plastically
shaped figures such as the later sculpture and painting could
work upon, not vaguely conceived rcumina like the forms of the
old Roman religion. Nor can we call them for the most part
nature-deities like the personages of the Vedie system, thinly
disguised “ personifications ” of natural phenomena. Athena
is not the blue sky nor Apollo the sun ; they are simply Athena
and ApoUo, divine personages with certain powers and character,
as real for their people as Christ and the Virgin for Christendom.
By the side of these, though generally in a subordinate position,
we find that Homer recognized certain divinities that we may
properly call nature-powers, such as Helios, Gaia and the river-
deities, forms descending probably from a remote animistic
period, but maintaining themselves within the popular religion
till the end of Paganism. Again, though Homer may talk and
think at times with levity and banditti about his deities, Ins
deeper utterances impute an advanced morality to the supreme
GREEK RELIGION
God. His Zeus is on the whole a power of righteousness, dealing
with men by a righteous law of nemesis, never being himself the
author of evil—an idea revealed in the opening passage of the
Odyssey —but protecting the good and punishing the wicked.
Vengeance, indeed, was one of the attributes of divinity both
for Homer and the average Greek of the later period, as it is in
Judaic and Christian theology, though Plato and Euripides
protested strongly against such a view. But the Homeric Zeus
is equally a god of pity and mercy, and the man who neglects
the prayers of the sorrowful and afflicted, who violates the
sanctity of the suppliant and guest, or oppresses the poor or
the wanderer, may look for divine punishment. Though not
regarded as the physical author of the universe or the Creator,
he is in a moral sense the father of gods and men. And though
the sense of sin and the need of piacular sacrifice are expressed
in the Homeric poems, the relations between gods and men that
they reveal are on the whole genial and social; the deity sits
unseen ul the good man’s festal sacrifice, and there is a simple
apprehension of the idea of divine communion. There is also
indeed a glimmering of the dark background of the nether
world, and the chthonian powers that might send up the Erinys
to fulfil the curse of the wronged. Yet on the whole the religious
atmosphere is generally cheerful and bright; freer than that of
the later ages from the taint of magic and superstition ; nor is
Homer troubled much about the life after death; he scarcely
recognizes the cult of the dead, 1 and is not oppressed by fear
of the ghost-world.
If we look now broadly over the salient facts of the Greek
public and private worship of the historic period we find much
in it that agrees with Homeric theology. His
HuntWc' " Olympian ” system retains a certain life almost to
ptrtod. the end of Paganism, and it is a serious mistake to
suppose that it had lost its hold upon the people of
the 5th and 4th century B.c. We find it, indeed, enriched in
the post-Homeric period with new figures of prestige and power;
Dionysus, of whom Homer had only faintly heard, becomes a
high god with a worship full of promise for the future. Demeter
and Korc, the mother and the girl, whom Homer knew well
enough but could not use for his epic purposes, attract the ardent
affections and hopes of the people; and Asclepius, whom the
old poet did not recognize as a god, wins a conspicuous place
in the later shrines. But much that has been said of the Homeric
may be suid of the later classical theology. The deities remain
anthropomorphic, and appear as clearly defined individuals.
A certain hierarchy is recognized; Zeus is supreme, even in
the city of Athena, but each of the higher divinities played
many parts, and local enthusiasm could frustrate the depart¬
mental system of divine functions ; certain members of the
pantheon had a preference for the life of the fields, but as the
polls emerged from the village communities, Demeter, Hermes,
Artemis and others, the gods and goddesses of the husbandmen
and shepherds, become [lowers of the council-chamber and the
market-place. The moral ideas that we find in the Homeric
religion are amply attested by cult-records of the later period.
The deities are regarded on the whole as beneficent, though
revengeful if wronged or neglected ; the cult-titles used in prayer,
which more than any other witnesses reveal the thought and
wish of the worshipper, are nearly always euphemistic, the
doubtful title of Demeter Erinvs being possibly an exception.
The important cults of Zeus ‘Ikio-kw and ll/mrrpdiraios, the
suppliant's protecting deity, embody the ideas of pity and mercy
that mark advanced religion; and many momentous steps in
the development of morality and law were either suggested or
assisted by the state-religion. For example, the sanctity of
the oath, the main source of the secular virtue of truthfulness,
was originally a religious sanction, and though the Greek may
have been prone to perjury, yet the Hellenic like the Hebraic
religious ethics regarded it as a heinous sin. The sanctity of
' This became very powerful from the 7th century onward, and
there are reasons for supposing that it existed in the pre-Homeric,
or Mycenaean, period ; vide Rohde's Psychs (new edition), Tsountas
and Manatt, The Mycenaean Age.
family duties, the sacredness of the life of the kinsman, were
ideas fostered by early Hellenic religion before they generated
principles of secular ethics. In the post-Homeric period, the
development of the doctrine of purity, which was associated
with the Apolline religion, combining with a growing dread of
the ghost-world, stimulated and influenced in many important
ways the evolution of the Greek law concerning homicide. 4
And the beginnings of international law and morality were
rooted in religious sanctions and taboo. In fact, Greek state-
life was indebted in manifold ways to Greek religion, and the
study of the Greek oracles would alone supply sufficient testimony
of this. In many cases the very origin of the state was religious,
the earliest polis sometimes having arisen under the shadow
of the temple.
Yet as Greek religion was always in the service of the state,
and the priest a state-official, society was the reverse of theocratic.
Secular advance, moral progress and the march of science,
could never long be thwarted by religious tradition; on the
contrary, speculative thought and artistic creation were con¬
sidered as attributes of divinity. We may say that the religion
of Hellas penetrated the whole life of the people, but rather
as a servant than as a master.
Distinct and apart from these public worships and those of
the clan and family were the mystic cults of Eleusis, Andania
and Samothrace, and the private services of the mystic brother¬
hoods. The latter were scattered broadcast over Hellas, and
the influence of the former was strengthened and their significance
intensified by the wave of mysticism that spread at first from
the north from the beginning of the 7th century onwards, and
derived its strength from the power of Dionysus and the Orphic
brotherhoods. New ideals and hopes began to stir in the
religious consciousness,and we find a strong Salvationist tendency,
the promise of salvation relying on mystic communion with
the deity. Also a new and vital principle is at work ; Orphism
is the only force in Greek religion of a clear apostolic purpose,
for it broke the barriers of the old tribal and civic cults, and
preached its message to bond and free, Hellene and barbarian.
The later history of Greek paganism is mainly concerned
with its gradual penetration by Oriental ideas and worships,
and the results of this fW/xurfa are discerned in an ever increas¬
ing mysticism and a tendency towards monotheism. Obliterated
as the old Hellenic religion appeared to be by Christianity, it
nevertheless retained a certain life, though transformed, under
the new creed to which it icnL much of its hieratic organization
and religious terminology. The indebtedness of Christianity
to Hellenism is one of the most interesting problems of com¬
parative religion ; and for an adequate estimate a minute
knowledge of the ritual and the mystic cults of Hellas is one of
the essential conditions.
BiBUot.BAriiv.—Older Authorities: A. Maury, Histoire des
religions de la Grice- antique (3 vols., 1857-1859) ; Welcker, Griechische
Gollerlehre (3 vols., 1857-1863) ; Prelier, Griechische Mythologie,
2 vols. (4th edition by C. Robert, 1887), all antiquated in regard to
theory, but still of some value for collection of materials. Recent
Literature—(a) General Treatises : 0 . Gruppe, “ Griechische
Mythologie und Retigionsgescliichte " in Iwan von Muller’s Handbuch
der klassichen Alterlumsmssenscha/t, v. 2. 2 (1902-1906) ; L.
R. Parnell's Cults 0/ the Greek States, 4 vols. (1896-1906, voi. 5,
1908) ; Miss Jane Harrison’s Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religion (ed. 1908); ChantepiedelaSaussaye’s/.eAr6«rA der Rcligions-
gcschu ktc (Greek section, 1904); ( b) Special Works or Dissertations :
articles in Roscher’s Aus/uhrlirhes l.exihon der griechischen und
romischen Mythologie, and Pauly-Wissowa Encyklopddic (1894- );
Immrrwahr, Kulte und Mylhen Arhadiens (1891) ; Wide, Lahonische
Kulte (1893) t de Visscr, De Graecorum diis non refrrentibus spcciem
humanam {Leiden, 1900). Greek Ritual and Festivals—A.Mommscn,
Eesle der Stadt Athen (1898 ); P. Stengel, “ Die griechischen Sacral-
alterlumer ” in Iwan von Muller's Handbuch, v. 3 (1898);
W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (1902). Greek Rtdigious
Thought and Speculation—L. Campbell's Religion in Greek Literature
(1898) ; Ducharmr, La Critique des traditions religicuses ches les
Greet des origtnes au temps de Plutarque (Paris, 1904). See also
articles on individual deities, and cf. Rohan Relic,ion ; M ystekd s,
Mithras. (L. R. F.)
* See L. R. Farnell, Evolution of Religion (Hibbert lectures,
1 9<>5)> PP- 139-15*-
GREELEY,
GREELEY, HORACE (1811-1872), American 'Statesman and
man of letters, was bom at Amherst, New Hampshire, on the
3rd of February i8n. His parents were of Scottish-Irish descent,
but the ancestors of both had been in New England for several
generations. He was the third of seven children. His father,
Zacchcus Greeley, owned a farm of 50 acres of stony, sterile
land, from which a bare support was wrung. Horace was a
feeble and precocious lad, taking little interest in the ordinary
sports of childhood, learning to read before he was able to talk
plainly, and the prodigy of the neighbourhood for accurate
spelling. Before Horace was ten years old (1820), his father
became bankrupt, his home was sold by the sheriff, and Zaccheus
Greeley himself fled the state to escape arrest for debt. The
family soon removed to West Haven, Vermont, where, all
working together, they made a scanty living as day labourers.
Horace from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely
eleven years old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office
at Whitehall, New York, but was rejected on account of his
youth. After three years more with the family as a day labourer
at West Haven, he succeeded, with his father’s consent, in being
apprenticed in the office of The Northern Spectator, at East
Poultney, Vermont. Here he soon became u good workman,
developed a passion for politics and especially for political
statistics, came to be depended upon for more or less of the
editing of the paper, and was a figure in the village debating
society. He received only $40 a year, but he sent most of his
money to his father. In June 1830 The Northern Spectator was
suspended. Meantime his father had removed to a small tract
of wild land in the dense forests of Western Pennsylvania,
30 m. from Erie. The released apprentice now visited his parents,
and worked for a little time with them on the farm, meanwhile
seeking employment in various printing offices, and, when he
got it, giving nearly all his earnings to his father. At last, with
no further prospect of work nearer home, he started for New
York. He travelled on foot and by canal-boat, entering New
York in August 1831, with all his clothes in a bundle carried
over his back with a stick, and with but $10 in his pocket.
More than half of this sum was exhausted while he made vain
efforts to find employment. Many refused to employ him, in
the belief that he was a runaway apprentice, and his poor,
ill-fitting apparel and rustic look were everywhere greatly against
him. At last he found work on a 32010 New Testament, set
in agate, double columns, with a middle column of notes in
pearl. It was so difficult and so poorly paid that other printers
had all abandoned it. He barely succeeded in making enough
to pay his board bill, but he finished the task, and thus found
subsequent employment easier to get.
In January 1833 Greeley formed a partnership with Francis
V. Story, a fellow-workman. Their combined capital amounted
to about $150. Procuring their type on credit, they opened a
small office, und undertook the printing of the Morning Post, the
first cheap paper published in New York. Its projector, Dr
Horatio D. Shepard, meant to sell it for one cent, but under the
arguments of Greeley he was persuaded to fix the price at two
cents. The paper failed in less than three weeks, the printers
losing only $50 or $60 by the experiment. They still had a Bank
Note Reporter to print, and soon got the printing of a tri-weekly
paper, the Constitutionalist, the organ of some lottery dealers.
Within six months Story was drowned, but his brother-in-law,
Jonas Winchester, took his place in the firm. Greeley was now
asked by James Gordon Bennett to go into partnership with him
in starting The Herald. He declined the venture,butrecommended
the partner whom Bennett subsequently took. On the 2nd of
March 1834, Greeley and Winchester issued the first number of
The New Yorker, a weekly literary and news paper, the firm then
supposing itself to be worth about $3000. Of the first number
they sold about too copies; of the second, nearly 200. There
was an average increase for the next month of about too copies
per week. The second volume began with a circulation of about
4550 copies, and with a loss on the first year’s publication of
$3000. The second year ended with 7000 subscribers and a
further loss of $2000. By the end of the third year The New
HORACE S3 1
Yorker had reached a circulation of 9500 copies, and had sustained
a total loss of $7000. It was published seven years (until the
20th of September 1841), and was never profitable, but it was
widely popular, and it gave Greeley, who was its sole editor,
much prominence. On the 5th of July 1836 Greeley married
Miss Mary Y. Cheney, a Connecticut school teacher, whom he had
met in a Grahamite (vegetarian) boarding-house in New’York.
During the publication of The New Yorker he added to the
scanty income which the job printing brought him by supplying
editorials to the short-lived Gaily Whig and various other publica¬
tions. In 1838 he had gained such standing as a writer that he
was selected by Thurlow Weed, William H. Seward, and other
leaders of the Whig Party, for the editorship of a campaign paper
entitled The Jeffersonian, published at Albany. Hk continued
The New Yorker, and travelled between Albany and New York
each week to edit the two papers. The Jeffersonian was a quiet and
instructive rather than a vehement campaign sheet, and the
Whigs believed that it had a great effect upon the elections of
the next year. When, on the 2nd of May 1840, some time after
the nomination by the Whig Party of William Henry Harrison
for the Presidency, Greeley began the publication of a new
weekly campaign paper, The Log Cabin, it sprang at once into a
great circulation ; 40,000 copies of the first number were sold,
and it finally rose to 80,000. It was considered a brilliant
political success, but it was not profitable, and in September
1841 was merged in The Weekly Tribune. On the 3rd of April
1841, Greeley announced that on the following Saturday (April
10th) he would begin the publication of a daily newspaper of the
same general principles, to be called The Tribune. He was now
entirely without money. From a personal friend, James Cogges-
hall, he borrowed $1000, on which capital and the editor’s reputa¬
tion The Tribune was founded. It began with 500 subscribers.
The first week’s expenses were $325 and the receipts I92. By
the end of the fourth week it had run up a circulation of 6000, and
by the seventh reached 11,000, which was then the full capacity
of its press. It was alert, cheerful and aggressive, was greatly
helped by the attacks of rival papers, and promised success
almost from the start.
From this time Greeley was popularly identified with The
Tribune, and its share in the public discussion of the time is his
history. It soon became moderately prosperous, and his assured
income should have placed him beyond pecuniary worry. His
income was long above $15,000 per year, frequently as much as
$35,000 or more. But he lacked business thrift, inherited a
disposition to endorse for his friends, and was often unable to
distinguish between deserving applicants for aid and adventurers.
He was thus frequently straitened, and, as his necessities pressed,
he sold successive interests in his newspaper. At the outset he
owned the whole of it. When it was already firmly established
(in July 1841), he took in Thomas McElrath as an equal partner,
upon the contribution of $2000 to the common fhnd. By the
1st of January 1849 he had reduced his interest to 31J shares out
of 100; by July 2nd, i860, to 15 shares; in 1868 he owned only
9 ; and in 1872, only 6. In 1867 the stock sold for $6500 per
share, and his last sale was for $9600. He bought wild lands,
took stock in mining companies, desiccated egg companies,
patent looms, photo-lithographic companies, gave away pro¬
fusely, lent to plausible rascals, and was the ready prey of every
new inventor who chanced to find him with money or with
property that he could readily convert into money.
In September 1841 Greeley merged his weekly papers, The
Log Cabin and The New Yorker, into The Weekly Tribune, which
soon attained as wide circulation as its predecessors, and was
much more profitable. It rose in a time of great political excite¬
ment to a total circulation of a quarter of a million, and it some¬
times had for successive years 140,000 to 150,000. For several
years it was rarely much below 100,000. Its subscribers were
found throughout all quarters of the northern half of the Union
from Maine to Oregon, large packages going to remote districts
beyond the Mississippi or Missouri, whose only connexion with
the outside world was through a weekly or semi-weekly mail.
The readers of this weekly paper acquired a personal affection for
532 GREELEY, HORACE
its editor, and he was thus for many years the American writer
most widely known and most popular among the rural classes.
The circulation of The Daily tribune was never proportionately
great—its advocacy of a protective tariff, prohibitory liquor
legiglation and other peculiarities, repelling a large support
which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It
rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation of
20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and
thereafter ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a
semi-weekly edition was also printed, which ultimately reached
a steady circulation of from 15,000 to 25,000.
From the outset it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to
hear nil sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas.
In March 1842 The Tribune began to give one column daily to a
discussion of the doctrines of Charles Fourier, contributed bv
Albert Brisbane. Gradually Greeley came to advocate some of
these doctrines editorially. In 1846 he had a sharp discussion
upon them with a former subordinate, Henry J. Raymond, then
employed upon a rival journal. It continued through twelve
articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book
form. Greeley Ixicamc personally interested in one of the
Fourierite associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red
Bank, N.J. (1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions
doubtless led to or gave encouragement to other socialistic
experiments, such as that at Brook Farm. When this was
abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one or two other
members, sought employment from Greeley upon The Tribune.
Greeley dissented from many of Fourier’s propositions, and in
Inter years was careful to explain that the principle of association
for the common good of working men and the elevation of labour
was the chief feature which attracted him. Co-operation among
working men he continued to urge throughout his life. In 1850
the Fox Sisters, on his wife’s invitation, spent several weeks in his
house. His attitude towards their “ rappings ” and “ spiritual
manifestations ” was one of observation and inquiry; and in his
Recollections he wrote concerning these manifestatioas: “ That
some of them are the result of juggle, collusion or trick I am
confident ; that others are not, 1 decidedly believe.”
From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and
throughout his active life he was its most trenchant advocate
and propagandist. Besides constantly urging it in the columns
of The Tribune, he nppenred as early as 1843 in a public debate
on ‘‘The Grounds of Protection,” with Samuel J. Tilden and
Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular essays
on the subject were published over his own signature in The
Tribune in i86t>, and subsequently republished in book form,
with a title-page describing protection to home industry as a
system of national co-operation for the elevation of labour.
He opposed woman suffrage on the ground that the majority
of women did not want it and never would, and declared that
until woman* should “ emancipate herself from the thraldom
to etiquette,” he “could not see how the ‘woman’s rights
theory ’ is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible
abstraction." He aided practical efforts, however, for extend¬
ing the sphere of woman’s employments. He opposed the
theatres, and for a time refused to publish their advertisements.
He held the most rigid views on the sanctity of marriage and
against easy divorre, and vehemently defended them in con¬
troversies with Robert Dal* Owen and others. He practised
and pertinaciously advocated total abstinence from spirituous
liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always wise.
Hr denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to
pay interest on them. He was zealous for Irish repeal, once
held a place in the “ Directory of the Friends of Ireland,” and
contributed liberally to its support. He used the occasion of
Charles Dickens’s first visit to America to urge international
copyright, and was one of the few editors to avoid alike the
flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and the
ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his
American Notes. On the occasion of Dickens's second visit to
America, Greeley presided at the great banquet given him
by the press of the country. He made the first ewborate reports
of popular scientific lectures by Louis Agassiz and uther authori¬
ties. He gave ample hearing to the advocate of phonography
and of phonographic spelling. He was one of the most conspicu¬
ous advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many other internal
improvements.
But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief
agency in educating the mass of the Northern people to that
opposition through legal forms to the extension of slavery
which culminated in the election of Abraham Lincoln and the
Civil War, that Greeley's main work was done. Incidents in
it were his vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a scheme
for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in Washing¬
ton by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indict¬
ment in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary
documents, perpetual denunciation of him in Southern news¬
papers and speeches, and the hostility of the Abolitionists,
who regarded his course as too conservative. His anti-slavery
work culminated in his appeal to President Lincoln, entitled
“ The Prayer of Twenty Millions,” in which he urged “ that all
attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time uphold
its inciting cause ” were preposterous and futile, and that
“ every hour of deference to slavery ” was " an hour of added
and deepened peril to the Union.” President Lincoln in his
reply said : “ My paramount object is to save the Union,
and not either to save or destroy slavery. . . . What I do
about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it
helps to save this Union ; and what I forbear, 1 forbear because
I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... I have here
stated my purpose according to my views of official duty ; and
I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish
that all men everywhere could be free.” Precisely one month
after the date of this reply the Emancipation Proclamation was
issued.
Greeley’s political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one
of the founders of the Republican party, was incessant; but he
held few offices. In 1848-1840 he served a three months’ term
in Congress, filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for
giving small tracts of government land free to actual settlers,
and published an exposure of abuses in the allowance of mileage
to members, which corrected the evil, but brought him much
personal obloquy. In the National Republican Convention in
i860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state on
account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate,
he was made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to
Seward did much to prevent the success of that statesman,
and to bring about instead the nomination of Abraham Lincoln.
This was attributed by his opponents to personal motives, and
a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication of which he
challenged, was produced, to show that in his struggling days
he had been wounded at Sewurd's failure to offer him office, in
1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal
opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that
Evarts could not be elected, his supporters threw their votes
for a third candidate, Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over
Grcelcv by a small majority. At the outbreak of the war he
favoured allowing the Southern states to secede, provided a
majority of their people nt a fair election should so decide,
declaring “ that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof
one section was pinned to the other by bayonets.” When the
war began he urged the most vigorous prosecution of it. The
“ On to Richmond ” appeal, which appeared day after day in
The Tribune, was incorrectly attributed to him, and it did not
wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in the first battle
of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he urged
negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern
Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to
confer with them. They were found to have no sufficient
authority. In 1864 he was one of the Lincoln Presidential
electors for New York. At the close of the war, contrary to
the general feeling of his party, he urged universal amnesty and
impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction. In 1867 his
friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the United
GREELEY
States, and the indications were all in his favour. But he refused
to be elected under any misapprehension of his attitude, and
with what his friends thought unnecessary candour re-stated
his obnoxious views on universal amnesty at length, just before
the time for the election, with the certainty that this would pre¬
vent his success. Some months later he signed the bail bond of
Jefferson Davis, and this provoked a torrent of public indigna¬
tion. He had written a popular history of the late war, the first
volume having an immense sale and bringing him unusually
large profits. The second was just issued, and the subscribers,
in their anger, refused by thousands to receive it. An un¬
successful attempt was also made to expel him from the Union
League Club of New York.
In 1867 he was a delegate-at-large to the Convention for the
revision of the state constitution, and in 1869 and 1870 he was
the Republican candidate for controller of the state and member
of Congress respectively, but in each case was defeated.
He was dissatisfied with General Grant’s administration, and
became its sharp critic. The discontent which he did much to
develop ended in the organization of the Liberal Republican
party, which held its National Convention at Cincinnati in
1872, and nominated Greeley for the presidency. For a time
the tide of feeling ran strongly in his favour, it was first checked
by the action of his life-long opponents, the Democrats, who
also nominated him at their National Convention. He expected
their support, on account of his attitude toward the South
and hostility to Grant, but he thought it a mistake to give him
their formal nomination. The event proved his wisdom. Many
Republicans who had sympathized with his criticisms .of the
administration, and with the declaration of principles adopted
at the first convention, were repelled by the coalition. I his
feeling grew stronger until the election. His old party associates
regarded him as a renegade, the Democrats gave him a half¬
hearted support. The tone of the canvass was one of unusual
bitterness, amounting sometimes to actual ferocity. In August,
on representations of the alarming state of the contest, he took
the field in person, and made a series of campaign speeches,
beginning in New England and extending throughout Pennsyl¬
vania, Ohio and Indiana, which aroused great enthusiasm,
and were regarded at the time by both friends and opponents
as the most brilliant continuous exhibition of varied intellectual
power ever made by a candidate in a presidential canvass.
General Grant received in the election 3 , 597 ..° 7 ° votes, Greeley
2,834,079. The only states Greeley carried were Georgia,
Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas.
He had resigned his editorship of The Tribune immediately
after the nomination ; he now resumed it cheerfully ; but it
was soon apparent that his powers had been overstrained.
For years he had suffered greatly from sleeplessness. During
the intense excitement of the campaign the difficulty was
increased. Returning from his campaign tour, he went immedi¬
ately to the bedside of his dying wife, and for some weeks had
practically no sleep at all. This resulted in an inflammation
of the upper membrane of the brain, delirium and death. He
expired on the 29th of November 1872. His funeral was a
simple but impressive public pageant. The lxidy lay in state
in the City Hall, whore it was surrounded by crowds of many
thousands. The ceremonies were attended by the President
and Vice-President of the United States, the. Chief-Justice of
the Supreme Court, and a large number of eminent public men
of both parties, who followed the hearse in a solemn procession,
preceded by the mayor and other civic authorities, down
Broadway. He had been the target of constant attack during
his life, and his personal foibles, careless dress and mental
eccentricities were the theme of endless ridicule. But his
death revealed the high regard in which he was generally held
as a leader of opinion and faithful public servant. “ Our later
Franklin ” Whittier called him, and it is in some such light his
countrymen remember him.
In 185* Greeley visited F.urope for the first time, serving
as a juryman at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, appearing before
a committee of the House of Commons on newspaper taxes,
533
and urging the repeal of the stamp duty on advertisements.
In 185s he made a second trip to Europe. In Paris hs was
arrested on the suit of a sculptor, whose statue had been injured
in the New York World’s Fair (of which ho had been a director),
and spent two days in Qichy, of which he gave an amusing
account. In 1859 he visited California by the overland route,
and had numerous public receptions. ■ In 1871 he visited Texas,
and his trip through the southern country, where he had once
been so hated, was an ovation. About 185a he purchased a
farm at Chappaqua, New York, where he afterwards habitually
spent his Saturdays, and experimented in agriculture. He
was in constant demand as a lecturer from 1843, when he made
his first appearance on the platform, always drew large audiences,
and, in spite of his had management in money matters, received
coasiderable sums, sometimes 86000 or $7009 for a single
winter's lecturing. He was also much sought for as a con¬
tributor, over his own signature, to the weekly newspapers,
and wits sometimes largely paid for these articles. In religious
faith he was from boyhood a Universalist, and for many years
was a conspicuous member of the leading Universalist church
in New York.
His published works are: Hints Toward ’Reforms (1850);
Glances al Europe (1851); History of the Struggle for Slavery
Extension (1856); Overland Journey to San Francisco (x86o);
The American Conflict (2 vols., 1864-1866); Recollections of a
Busy Life (1868 ; new edition, with appendix containing an
account of his later years, his argument with Robert Dale Owen
on Marriage and Divorce, and Miscellanies, 1873); Essays
on Political Economy (1870); and What I know of Farming
(1871). He also assisted his brother-in-law, John F. Cleveland,
in editing A Political Text-book (i860), and supervised for many
years the annual issues of The Whig Almanac and The Tribune
Almanac, comprising extensive political statistics.
The best Lives of Greeley are those by James Parton (New York.
1855; new ed., Boston, 1872) and W. A. Linn (N.Y. 1003). lives
have also been written bv I— U. Keavis (New York, 1872), Rnd L.
D. JngersoU (Chicago, 1S73); and there is a Memorial of Horace
Greeley (New York, 1873). (™* *•)
GREELEY, a city and the county-seat of Weld county,
Colorado, U.S.A., alxiut 50 m. N. by E. of Denver. Pop. (1890)
2395; (1000) 3023 (286 foreign-born); (1010) 8r7q. It is served
by the Union Pacific, and the Colorado & Southern railways.
In 1908 a franchise was granted to the Denver & Greeley Electric
railway. The city is the seat of the State Normal School of
Colorado (1889). There are rich coal-fields near the city. The
county is naturally arid and unproductive, and its agricultural
importance is due to an elaliorate system of irrigation. In
1899 Weld county had under irrigation 2*6,613 acres, repre¬
senting an increase of 102-2 % since 1889, and a much larger
irrigated area than in any other county of the state. Irrigation
ditches are supplied with water chiefly from the Cache la Poudre,
Big Thompson and South Platte rivers, near the foothills.
The principal crops are potatoes, sugar beets, onions, cabbages
and peas; in 1899 Weld county raised 2,8*1,285 bushels of
potatoes on 23,195 acres (53 % of the potato acreage for the
entire state). The manufacture of beet sugar is a growing
industry, a large factory having been established at Greeley
in 1902. Beets are also grown as food for live stock, especially
sheep. Peas, tomatoes, cabbages and onions are canned here.
Greeley was founded in 1870 by Nathan Code Meeker (1817-
1879), agricultural editor of the New York Tribune. With the
support of Horace Greeley (in whose honour the town was named),
he began in 1869 to advocate in The Tribune the founding of an
agricultural colony in Colorado. Subsequently President Hayes
appointed him Indian agent at White River, Colorado, and he
was killed at what is now Meeker, Colorado, in an uprising of the
Ute Indians. Under Meeker’s scheme, which attracted mainly
people from New England *nd New York state, most of whom
were able to contribute at least a little capital, the Unkm Colony
of Colorado was organized and chartered, and bought originally
it,000 acres of land, each member being entitled to buy from it
one residence lot, one business lot, and a tract of farm land.
532 GREELEY, HORACE
its editor, and he was thus for many years the American writer
most widely known and most popular among the rural classes.
The circulation of The Daily tribune was never proportionately
great—its advocacy of a protective tariff, prohibitory liquor
legiglation and other peculiarities, repelling a large support
which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It
rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation of
20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and
thereafter ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a
semi-weekly edition was also printed, which ultimately reached
a steady circulation of from 15,000 to 25,000.
From the outset it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to
hear nil sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas.
In March 1842 The Tribune began to give one column daily to a
discussion of the doctrines of Charles Fourier, contributed bv
Albert Brisbane. Gradually Greeley came to advocate some of
these doctrines editorially. In 1846 he had a sharp discussion
upon them with a former subordinate, Henry J. Raymond, then
employed upon a rival journal. It continued through twelve
articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book
form. Greeley Ixicamc personally interested in one of the
Fourierite associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red
Bank, N.J. (1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions
doubtless led to or gave encouragement to other socialistic
experiments, such as that at Brook Farm. When this was
abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one or two other
members, sought employment from Greeley upon The Tribune.
Greeley dissented from many of Fourier’s propositions, and in
Inter years was careful to explain that the principle of association
for the common good of working men and the elevation of labour
was the chief feature which attracted him. Co-operation among
working men he continued to urge throughout his life. In 1850
the Fox Sisters, on his wife’s invitation, spent several weeks in his
house. His attitude towards their “ rappings ” and “ spiritual
manifestations ” was one of observation and inquiry; and in his
Recollections he wrote concerning these manifestatioas: “ That
some of them are the result of juggle, collusion or trick I am
confident ; that others are not, 1 decidedly believe.”
From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and
throughout his active life he was its most trenchant advocate
and propagandist. Besides constantly urging it in the columns
of The Tribune, he nppenred as early as 1843 in a public debate
on ‘‘The Grounds of Protection,” with Samuel J. Tilden and
Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular essays
on the subject were published over his own signature in The
Tribune in i86t>, and subsequently republished in book form,
with a title-page describing protection to home industry as a
system of national co-operation for the elevation of labour.
He opposed woman suffrage on the ground that the majority
of women did not want it and never would, and declared that
until woman* should “ emancipate herself from the thraldom
to etiquette,” he “could not see how the ‘woman’s rights
theory ’ is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible
abstraction." He aided practical efforts, however, for extend¬
ing the sphere of woman’s employments. He opposed the
theatres, and for a time refused to publish their advertisements.
He held the most rigid views on the sanctity of marriage and
against easy divorre, and vehemently defended them in con¬
troversies with Robert Dal* Owen and others. He practised
and pertinaciously advocated total abstinence from spirituous
liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always wise.
Hr denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to
pay interest on them. He was zealous for Irish repeal, once
held a place in the “ Directory of the Friends of Ireland,” and
contributed liberally to its support. He used the occasion of
Charles Dickens’s first visit to America to urge international
copyright, and was one of the few editors to avoid alike the
flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and the
ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his
American Notes. On the occasion of Dickens's second visit to
America, Greeley presided at the great banquet given him
by the press of the country. He made the first ewborate reports
of popular scientific lectures by Louis Agassiz and uther authori¬
ties. He gave ample hearing to the advocate of phonography
and of phonographic spelling. He was one of the most conspicu¬
ous advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many other internal
improvements.
But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief
agency in educating the mass of the Northern people to that
opposition through legal forms to the extension of slavery
which culminated in the election of Abraham Lincoln and the
Civil War, that Greeley's main work was done. Incidents in
it were his vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a scheme
for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in Washing¬
ton by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indict¬
ment in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary
documents, perpetual denunciation of him in Southern news¬
papers and speeches, and the hostility of the Abolitionists,
who regarded his course as too conservative. His anti-slavery
work culminated in his appeal to President Lincoln, entitled
“ The Prayer of Twenty Millions,” in which he urged “ that all
attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time uphold
its inciting cause ” were preposterous and futile, and that
“ every hour of deference to slavery ” was " an hour of added
and deepened peril to the Union.” President Lincoln in his
reply said : “ My paramount object is to save the Union,
and not either to save or destroy slavery. . . . What I do
about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it
helps to save this Union ; and what I forbear, 1 forbear because
I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... I have here
stated my purpose according to my views of official duty ; and
I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish
that all men everywhere could be free.” Precisely one month
after the date of this reply the Emancipation Proclamation was
issued.
Greeley’s political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one
of the founders of the Republican party, was incessant; but he
held few offices. In 1848-1840 he served a three months’ term
in Congress, filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for
giving small tracts of government land free to actual settlers,
and published an exposure of abuses in the allowance of mileage
to members, which corrected the evil, but brought him much
personal obloquy. In the National Republican Convention in
i860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state on
account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate,
he was made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to
Seward did much to prevent the success of that statesman,
and to bring about instead the nomination of Abraham Lincoln.
This was attributed by his opponents to personal motives, and
a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication of which he
challenged, was produced, to show that in his struggling days
he had been wounded at Sewurd's failure to offer him office, in
1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal
opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that
Evarts could not be elected, his supporters threw their votes
for a third candidate, Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over
Grcelcv by a small majority. At the outbreak of the war he
favoured allowing the Southern states to secede, provided a
majority of their people nt a fair election should so decide,
declaring “ that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof
one section was pinned to the other by bayonets.” When the
war began he urged the most vigorous prosecution of it. The
“ On to Richmond ” appeal, which appeared day after day in
The Tribune, was incorrectly attributed to him, and it did not
wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in the first battle
of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he urged
negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern
Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to
confer with them. They were found to have no sufficient
authority. In 1864 he was one of the Lincoln Presidential
electors for New York. At the close of the war, contrary to
the general feeling of his party, he urged universal amnesty and
impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction. In 1867 his
friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the United
GREEN, T. H.
advocating cheerfulness, exercise and a quiet content u remedies.
It is full of witty sayings. Thomas Gray said of it: “ There
is a profusion of wit everywhere; reading would have formed
his judgment, and harmonized his verse, for even his wood-notes
often break out into strains of real poetry and music.”
GRBBN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882), English philosopher,
the most typical English representative of the school of thought
called Neo-Kaniian, or Neo-Hegelian, was bom on the 7th of
April 1836 at Birkin, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire,
of which his father was rector. On the paternal side he was de¬
scended from Oliver Cromwell, whose honest, sturdy independence
of character he seemed to have inherited. His education was
conducted entirely at home until, at the age of fourteen, he
entered Rugby, where he remained five years. In 1855 he
became an undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxford,
of which society he was, in i860, elected fellow. His life, hence¬
forth, was devoted to teaching (mainly philosophical) in the
university—first as college tutor, afterwards, from 1878 until his
death (at Oxford on the 26th of March 1882) as Whyte’s Professor
of Moral Philosophy. The lectures he delivered as professor form
the substance of his two most important works, viz. the Pro¬
legomena to Ethics and the Lectures on the Principles 0/ Political
Obligation, which contain the whole of his positive constructive
teaching. These works were not published until ufter his death,
but Green's views were previously known indirectly through the
Introduction to the standard edition of Hume's works by Green
and T. H. Grose (d. 1906), fellow of Queen’s College, in which
the doctrine of the “ English ” or “ empirical ” philosophy
was exhaustively examined.
Hume’s empiricism, combined with a belief in biological
evolution (derived from Herbert Spencer), was the chief feature
in English thought during the third quarter of the 19th century.
Green represents primarily the reaction against doctrines which,
when carried out to their logical conclusion, not only “ rendered
all philosophy futile,” but were fatal to practical life. By
reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated atomic sensa¬
tions, this teaching destroyed the possibility of knowledge, and,
further, by representing man as a ” being who is simply the result
of natural forces,” it made conduct, or any theory of conduct,
unmeaning; for life in any human, intelligible sense implies a
personal self which (1) knows what to do, (2) has power to do it.
Green was thus driven, not theoretically, but as a practical
necessity, to raise again the whole question of man in relation
to nature. When (he held) we have discovered what man in him¬
self is, and what his relation to his environment, we shall then
know his function—what he is fitted to do. In the light of this
knowledge we shall be able to formulate the moral code, which,
in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and social institu¬
tions. These form, naturally and necessarily, the objective
expression of moral ideas, and it is in some civic or social whole
that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape.
To ask “ What is man ? ” is to ask “ What is experience ? ”
for experience means that of which I am conscious. The facts
of consciousness are the only facts which, to begin with, we are
justified in asserting to exist. On the other hand, they are valid
evidence for whatever is necessary to their own explanation,
t.e. for whatever is logically involved in them. Now the
most striking characteristic of man, that in fact which marks him
specially, as contrasted with other animals, is sel /-consciousness.
The simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations
of the human mind—the act of sense-perception—is never
merely a change, physical or psychical, but is the consciousness of
a change. Human experience consists, not of processes in un
animal organism, but of these processes recognized as such.
That which we perceive is from the outset an apprehended fact—
that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated elements (so-
called sensations) which, as such, arc not constituents of con¬
sciousness at all, but exists from the first as a synthesis of relations
in a consciousness which keeps distinct the" self ’’and the various
elements of the “ object," though holding all together in the
unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental
structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with
535
its most complex constituents, of the “ work of the mind." Locke
and Hume held that the work of the mind sms eo ipso unreal
because it was “made by ” man and not “given to” man.
It thus represented a subjective creation, not an objective fact.
But this consequence follows only upon the assumption that the
work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to be un¬
justified by the results of exact science, with the distinction,
universally recognized, which such science draws between truth
and falsehood, between the real and “mere ideas.” This
(obviously valid) distinction logically involves the consequence
that the object, or content, of knowledge, viz. reality, is an
intelligible ideal reality, a system of thought relations, a spiritual
cosmos. How is the existence of this ideal whole to be accounted
for ? Only by the existence of some “ principle which renders all
relations possible and is itself determined by none pf them ” ; an
eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what we know
in part. To God the world is, to man the world becomes. Human
experience is God gradually made manifest.
Carrying on the same analytical method into the special
department of moral philosophy, Green held that ethics applies
to the peculiar conditions of social life that investigation into
man's nature which metaphysics began. The faculty employed
in this fu-ther investigation is no “ separate moral faculty,”
but that same reason which is the source of all our knowledge—
ethical and other. Self-reflection gradually reveals to us human
capacity, human function, with, consequently, human responsi¬
bility. It brings out into cleur consciousness certain potentialities
in the realization of which man's true good must consist. As
the result of this analysis, combined with an investigation into
the surroundings man lives in, a “ content a moral code—
becomes gradually evolved. Personal good is perceived to be
realizable only by making actual the conceptions thus arrived at.
So long as these remain potential or ideal, they form the motive
of action; motive consisting always in the idea of some “ end ”
or “ good ” which man presents to himself os an end in the attain¬
ment of which he would be satisfied, that is, in the realization of
which he would find his true self. The determination to realize
the self in some definite way constitutes an “actof will,"which,as
thus constituted, is neither arbitrary nor externally determined.
For the motive which may tie said to be its cause lies in the man
himself, and the identification of the self with such a motive
is a rd/-determination, which is at once both rational and free.
The “ freedom of man ” is constituted, not by a supposed ability
to do anything he may choose, but in the power to identify him¬
self with that true good which reason reveals to him as his true
good. This good consists in the realization of personal character;
hence the final good, i.e. the moral ideal, as a whole, can be
realized only in some society of persons who, while remaining ends
to themselves in the sense that their individuality is not lost but
rendered more perfect, find this perfection attainable only when
the separate individualities arc integrated as part of a social
whole. Society is as necessary to form persons as persons are
to constitute society. Social union is the indispensable condition
of the development of the special capacities of the individual
members. Human self-perfection cannot be gained in isola¬
tion ; it is attainable only in inter-relation with fellow-citizens
in the social community.
The law of our being, so revealed, involves in its turn civic or
political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited to, still less
constituted by, the cultivation of self-regarding virtues, but con¬
sists in the attempt to realize in practice that moral ideal which
self-analysis has revealed to us as our ideal. From this fact
arises the ground of political obligation, for die institutions of
political or civic life are the concrete embodiment of moral
ideas in terms of our day and generation. But, as society exist*
only for the proper development of persons, we have a criterion
by which to test these institutions, viz. do they, or do they not,
contribute to the development of moral character in the individual
citizens ? It is obvious that the final moral ideal is not realized
in any body of civic institutions actually existing, but the same
analysis which demonstrates this deficiency points out the
direction which a true development will take. Hence arises the
53 6 GREEN, V.—GREENAWAY
conception of rights and duties which should be m ai n ta ine d by
law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the further
aoMequence that it may became occasionally a moral duty to
rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself, that is,
in order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes
the raison d’etre ai the state. The state does not consist in any
definite concrete organization formed once for all. It represents
a “ general will ” which is u desire for a common good. Its
basis is not a coercive authority imposed upon the citizens from
without, but consists in the spiritual recognition, on the part of
the citizens, of that which constitutes their true nature. “ Will,
not force, is the basis of the state.”
Green's teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent
philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the
ii,th century, while lus enthusiasm lor a common citizenship, and
his personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of
the effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the
universities more into touch with tin- people, and to break down
the rigour of t lass distinctions.
Of his philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking char¬
acteristic is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both m
thought and in reality. " That winch is " is a whole, not an aggregate ;
an organic complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a " whole "
too not material but spiritual, a " world of thought-relations."
On the critical side this teaching is now admittedly valid against
the older empiricism, and the cogency of the reasoning by which
his constructive theory is supported is generally recognizod. Never¬
theless, Green’s statement of his conclusions presents important
dilhcidUcb. Even apart from the impossibility of conceiving a
whole of relations which are relations and nothing else (this ob¬
jection is perhaps largely verbal), no explanation is given of the
fact (obvious in experience) that the spiritual entitles of which the
Universe is loniposeil appear material. Certain elements present
themselves in feeling which seem stubbornly to resist any attempt
to explain them m terms ol thought. While, again, legitimately
insisting upon personality as a fundamental constituent in any
true theory ol reality, the relation between human individualities
and the divine Person is left vague anil obscure; nor is it easv to
see how the existence of several individualities—human or divine —
in one cosmos is theoretically possible, it is at the solution of these
two questions that philosophy in the immediate future may be
expected to work.
Green’s moat important treatise—the Prolegomena to Ethics —
practically complete in manuscript at his death—was published
in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley 4th cd.,
1 Rc,(,) Shortly afterwards K Netllesbip’s standard edition of
his Works (exclusive of the TNolegomena) appeared in three volumes :
vol. i. containing rcprintB of Green's criticism of Hume, Spencer,
Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on Ixigic, on the Principles of
Political Obligation ; vol. iii. Miscellanies, preceded by a full Memoir
by the Editor. The Principles of Political Obligation was afterwards
published in separate form. A criticism of Neo-Hegelianism will be
found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison), Hegelianism and Person¬
ality- See also articles in Mind (January and April 1884) by A. J.
Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the Academy (xsviu. 242 and xxv.
297) by S. Alexander, and in the Philosophical Review (vi., 181,7)
by S. S. Laurie ; W. H. Pairbrotber, Philosophy of T. H. Green
(London and New York, 1896) ; I). G. Ritchie, The Principles of
Slate Interference (London, 1891) ; H. Sidgwick, l.etlures on the
Philosophy of Kanl (London, 1903) ; ]. H. Muirhead, The Service of
the Slate : l our Lectures on the Political Teaching of T. H. Green
1908) ; A. W. Benn, English Rationalism in the XlXlh Century
1906), vol. ii., pp. 401 foil. (W. H. F.,* X.)
GREEN, VALENTINE (17,49-1813), British engraver, was
bom at Halesowen. He was placed by his father in a solicitor's
office at F.veshum, where he remained for two years ; but ulti¬
mately he decided, on his own responsibility, to abandon the
legal profession and became a pupil of a line engraver at Worcester.
In 1765 he migrated to London and began work as a mezzotint
engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of this art, and
quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of British
engravers. He becume a member of the Incorporated Society of
Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy
in 1775, and for some forty years he followed his profession with
the greatest success. The exclusive right of engraving and
publishing plates from the pictures in the Dusseldorf gallery was
granted him by the duke of Bavaria in 1780, but, after he had
issued more than twenty of these plates, the siege of that city by
the French put on end to this undertaking and caused him
serious financial loss. From this cause, and through the failure
of certain other speculations, he was reduced to poverty ; and in
consequence he t6ok the post of keeper of the British Institution
in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of his
life. During his career as an engraver he produced some
four hundred plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney,
and other British artists, after the compositions of Benjamin
West, and after pictures by Van Dyck, Rubens, Murillo, and
other old masters. It is claimed for him that he was one of the
first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be applied
to the translation of pictorial compositions as well us portraits,
but at the present time it is to his portraits that most attention
is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by
exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious
management of relations of light and shade; and they have,
almost without exception. notable freshness and grace of handling.
Sue Valentine. Green, by Allred Whitman (Loudon, 1902).
GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (1825-1900), American Hebrew
scholar, was bom in Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey,
on the 27th of January 1825. He was descended in the sixth
generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first president of the
College of New jersey (now Princeton University), and his
ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian
church. He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he
was tutor in mathematics (1840-1842) and adjunct professor
(1843-1844). In 184b he graduated from Princeton Theological
Seminary, and was instructor in Hebrew there in 1846-1849. He
was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the Central Presbyterian
church of Philadelphia in 1849-1851. From August 1851 until
his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the 10th of February
1900, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental l.iterature in
Princeton Theological Seminary. Prom 1859 the title of his chair
was Oriental and Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused
the presidency of Princeton College ; as senior professor he was
long acting head of the Theological Seminary. He wus a great
Hebrew teacher: his Grammar of the Hebrew Language (1861,
revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on Gesenius,
Roedigcr, Ewald and Nordheimcr. All his knowledge of Semitic
languages he used in a “ conservative Higher Criticism,’’ which is
maintained in the following works : The Pentateuch Vindicated
from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso (1863), Moses and the
Prophets (1883), The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent
Critical Hypotheses Concerning the Pentateuch (1885), The Unity of
the Book of Genesis (1895), TAe Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch
(1895), and A General Introduction to the Old Testament, vol. i.
Camrn (18q8), vol. ii. Text (1899). He was the scholarly leader of
the orthodox wing of the Presbyterian church in America, and was
moderator of the General Assembly of 1891. Green was chair¬
man of the Old Testament committee of the Anglo-American
Bible revision committee.
See the articles by John D. Davis in The Biblical World, new
series, vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, jqoo), and The Presbyterian
and Reformed Review, vol. xi. jip. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900).
GREENAWAY, KATE (1846-1901). English artist and book
illustrator, was the daughter of John Greenaway, a well-known
draughtsman and engraver on wood, and was bom in London on
the 17th of March 1846. After a course ol study at South
Kensington, at “ Hcatherley’s ” life classes, and at the Slade
School, Kate Greenaway begun, in 18(18, to exhibit water-colour
drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable
early work, however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by
reason of their quaint beauty of design and charm of draughts¬
manship, enjoyed an extraordinary vogue. Her subjects were,
in the main, young girls, children, flowers, and landscape ; and
the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and purity of
these little works so appealed to public and artists alike that the
enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be attri¬
buted to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had
struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks,
R.A., and she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to
return to a more conventional manner. Thenceforward her
illustrations for children (such as for Little Folks, 1873, el seq.)
attracted much attention. In 1877 her drawings at the Dudley
Gallery were sold for £54, and her Royal Academy picture for
eighteen guineas ; and in the same year she begun to draw for the
GREENBACKS—GREENCASTLE
Illustrated London News. In the year 1879 she produced Under
the Window, of which 150,000 copies are said to have been sold,
and of which French and German editions were also issued.
Then followed The Birthday Book, Mother Goose, Little Ann, and
other books for children which were appreciated not less by
adults, and were to be found on sale in the bookshops of every
capital in Europe and in the cities of America. The extraordinary
success achieved by the young girl may be estimated by the
amounts paid to her as her share of the profits: for Under the
Window she received £1130; for The Birthday Book, £1250;
for Mother Goose, £905 ; and for Little Ann, £567. These four
books alone produced a clear return of £8000. “ Toy-books ”
though they were, these little works created a revolution in
illustration, and so were of real importance; they were loudly
applauded by John Ruskin ( Art of England anil Ears Clavigera),
by Ernest Chesncau and Arsine Alexandre in France, by Dr
Muthcr in Germany, and by leading art-critics throughout the
world. In 1890 Kate Greenaway was elected a member of the
Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, and in 1891,1894 and
1898 she exhibited water-colour drawings, including illustrations
for her books, at the gallery of the Fine Art Society (by which a re¬
presentative selection was exhibited in 1902), where they surprised
the world bythe infinite delicacy, tenderness, and gracewhich they
displayed. A leading feature in Miss Greenaway’s work was her
revival of the delightfully quaint costume of the beginning of the
19th century ; this lent humour to her fancy, and so captivated
the public taste that it has been said, with poetic exaggeration,
that “ Kate Greenaway dressed the children of two continents."
Her drawings of children have been compared with Stothard’s
for grace and with Reynolds’s for naturalness, and those of flowers
with the work of van Huysum and Botticelli. From 1883 to
1897, with a break only in 1896, she issued a scries of Kale
Greenaway’s Almanacs. Although she illustrated The Pied
Piper of Hamelin and other works, the artist preferred to pro¬
vide her own text; the numerous verses which were found among
her papers after her death prove that she might have added to her
reputation with her pen. She had great charm of character, but
was extremely shy of public notice, and not less modest in private
life. She died at Hampstead on the Oth of November 1901.
See the Life, by M. H. Spielmann and (1. S. Layard (1905).
(M. H. S.)
GREENBACKS, a form of paper currency in the United
States, so named from the green colour used on the backs of
the notes. They are treasury notes, and were first issued by
the government in 1862, “ as a question of hard necessity,’’
to provide for the expenses of the Civil War. The government,
following the example of the banks, had suspended specie pay¬
ment. The new notes were therefore for the time being an
inconvertible paper currency, and, since they were made legal
tender, were really a form of fiat money. The first act, providing
for the issue of notes to the amount of $150,000,000, was that
of the 25th February 1862 ; the acts of nth July 1862 and
3rd March 1863 each authorized further issues of $150,000,000.
The notes soon depreciated in value, and at the lowest were
worth only 35 cents on the dollar. The act of 12th April 1866
authorized the retirement of $10,000,000 of notes within six
months and of $4,000,000 per month thereafter ; this was dis¬
continued by act of 4th February 1868. On rst January 1879
specie payment was resumed, and the nominal amount of notes
then stood at $346,681,000.
The so-called Greenback parly (also called the Independent , and the
Motional party) first appeared in a presidential campaign in 1876,
when its candidate, Peter Cooper, received 81,740 votes. It advo¬
cated increasing the volume 01 greenbacks, forbidding bank issues,
and the paying in greenbacks of the principal of all government
bonds not expressly payable in coin. In 1878 the party, by various
fusions, cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected 14 Congressmen ; and
in 1880, enlarged by fusion with labour reformers, it cast 308,578
votes for its presidential candidate, J. B. Weaver and elected 8
Congressmen. In 1884 their candidate Benjamin F. Butler (also the
candidate of the Anti-Monopoly party) received 175,370 votes.
Subsequently the party went out of existence.
GREEN BAT, a city and the county-seat of Brown county,
Wisconsin, at the S. extremity of Green Bay, at the
537
mouth of the Fox river, 114 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)
9069; (1900) 18,684, of whom 4023 were foreign-bom and 33
were negroes; (1910, U.S. census) 25,336. The city is served
by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St. Paul, the Kewaunee, Green Bay & Western, and the
Green Bay & Western railways, by an inter-urban electric
railway connecting with other Fox River Valley cities, and
by lake and river steamboat lines. Green Bay lies on high
level ground on both sides of the river, which is here crossed
by several bridges. The city has the Kellogg Public Library,
the Brown County Court House, two high schools, a business
college, several academies, two hospitals, an orphan asylum
and the State Odd Fellows’ Home. It is the seat of a Roman
Catholic cathedral, the bishopric being the earliest established
in the North-west. The so-called “ Tank Cottage,” now in
Washington Park, is said to be the oldest house in Wisconsin ;
it was built on the W. bank of the river near its mouth by Joseph
Roy, a French-Canadian voyageur, in 1766, was subsequently
somewhat modified, and in 1908 was bought and removed to
its present site by the Green Bay Historical Society. Midway
between Green Bay and De Pare (5 m. S.W. of Green Bay)
is the state reformatory, opened in 1899-1901. Green Bay’s
fine harfxmr accommodates a considerable lake commerce, and
the city is the most important railway and wholesale distributing
centre in N.E. Wisconsin. Its manufactures include lumber
and lumber products, furniture, wagons, woodenware, farm
implements and machinery, flour, beer, canned goods, brick
and tile and dairy products ; and it has lumber yards, grain
elevators, fish warehouses and railway repair shops. The
total value of the factory’ product in 1905 was $4,873,037, an
increase of 79-9 % since 1900. The first recorded visit of a
European to the vicinity of what is now Green Bay is that of
Jean Nicolet, who was sent west by Champlain in 1634, and
found, probably at the Red Banks, some 10 m. below the present
city, a village of Winnebago Indians, who he thought at first
were Chinese. Between 1654 and 1658 Radisson and Groseilliers
and other coureurs des hois were at Green Bay. Claude Jean
Allouez, the Jesuit missionary, established a mission on the W.
shore of the hay, about 20 m. from the present city. Later
ho removed his mission to the Red Banks, and in the winter
of 1671-1672 established it permanently 5 m. above the present
city, at Rapides des Pi'res, on the E. shore of the Fox river.
In 1673 Joliet and Marquette visited the spot. In 1683-1685
Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot traded with the Indians here.
In 1718-1720 Fort St Francis was erected at the mouth of the
river on the W. bank, and after being several times deserted
was permanently re-established in 1732. About 1745 Augustin
de Langlade established a trading post at La Baye and later
brought his family there from Mackinac. This was the first
permanent settlement at Green Bay and in Wisconsin. The
British garrison which occupied the fort from 1761 to 1763,
during which time the fort received the name of Fort Edward
Augustus, was removed at the time of Pontiac's rising, and the
fort was never re-garrisoned by the English, except for a short
time during the War of 1812. The inhabitants of La Baye
were, however, acknowledged subjects of Great Britain, the
jurisdiction of the United States being practically a dead letter
until the American fort (Fort Howard) was garrisoned in 1816.
As early as 1810 fur traders, employed by John Jacob Astor,
were stationed here; about 1820 Astor erected a warehouse
and other buildings ; and for many years Green Bay consisted
of two distinct settlements, Astor and Navarino, which were
finally united in 1839 as Green Bay. The city was chartered
in 1854. In 1893 Fort Howard was consolidated with it. The
Green Bay Intelligencer, the first newspaper in Wisconsin,
began publication here in 1833.
See Neville and Martin, Historic Green Bay (Green Bay, 1893) S
and Martin and Beaumont, Old Green Bay (Green Bay, 1900).
GREENCABTLE, a city and the county-seat of Putnam
county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 38 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis
and on the Big Walnut river. Pop. (1890) 4390; (1900) 3661.
It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
538 GREENE, G. W.—GREENE, N.
the Ghicago, Indianapolis &.Louisville, the Vandalia, and the
Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric) railways. It has
manufactures of some importance, including lumber, pumps,
kitchen-cabinets, drag-saws, lightning-rods and tin-plate, is in
the midst of a blue grass region, and is a shipping point for beef
cattle. The city has a Carnegie library and is the seat of the
de 1 'auw University (co-educational), a Methodist Episcopal
institution, founded as Indiana Asbury University in 1837,
and renamed in 1884 in honour of Washington Charles de Pauw
(18*2-1887), a successful capitalist, banker and glass manu¬
facturer. The total gifts of Mr de Pauw and his family to the
institution amount to about $600,000. Among the presidents
of the university have tern Bishop Matthew Simpson, Bishop
Thomas Bowman (b. 1817), and Bishop Edwin Holt Hughes
(b. 1866), all of the Methodist Episcopal church. The university
comprises the Asbury College ol Literal Arts, a School of Music,
a School of Art and an Academy, and had in 1909-1910
43 instructors, a library of 37,000 volumes, and 1017 students.
Greencastle was first settled about 1820, and was chartered
as a city in 1861.
GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1811-1883), American
historian, was bom at East Greenwich, Rhode Island, on the
8th of April i8u, the grandson of Major-General Nathanael
Greene. He entered Brown University in 1824, left in his junior
year on account of ill-health, was in Europe during the next
twenty years, except in 1833-1834, when he was principal
of Kent Academy at East Greenwich, and was the United States
consul at Rome from 1837 to 1845. He was instructor in
modem languages in Brown University from 1848 to 1852 ;
and in 1871-1875 was non-resident lecturer in American history
in Cornell University. He died at East Greenwich, Rhode
Island, on the 2nd of February 1883. llis published works
include French and Italian text-books ; Historical Studies
(1850); Biographical Studies (i860); Historiial View of the
American Revolution (1865); Life of Nathanael Greene (3 vols.,
1867-1871); The German Element in the War of American
Independence (1876); and a Short History' of Rhode Island (1877).
GREENE, MAURICE (1695-1755) English musical composer,
was born in tendon. He was the son of a clergyman in the
city, and soon became a chorister ol St Paul's cathedral, where
he studied under Charles King, and subsequently under Richard
llrind, organist of the cathedral from 1707 to 1718, whom, on
his death in the last-named vear, he succeeded. Nine years
later he became organist and composer to the cliupel royal,
on the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he wits elected to the chair
of music in the university of Cambridge, and had the degree
of doctor of music conferred on him. Dr Greene was a
voluminous composer of church music, and his collection of
Forty Select Anthems became a standard work of its kind. He
wrote a “ Te Deum,” several oratorios, a masque, The Judgment
of Hercules, and a pastoral opera, Phoebe (1748); also glees and
catches ; and a collection of Catches and Canons for Three and
Four Voices is amongst his compositions. In addition he com¬
posed many occasional pieces for the king’s birthday, having
been appointed master of the king's band in 1735. But it is
as a composer of church music that Greene is chiefly remembered.
It is here that his contrapuntal skill and his sound musical
scholarship are chiefly shown. With Handel, Greene was
originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for
Buononcini, Handel's rival, estranged the German master’s
feetirtgs from him, and all personal intercourse between them
erased. Greene, in conjunction with the violinist Michael
Christian Fasting (17*7-1752) and others, originated the Society
of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and their families.
He died on the 1st of December 1755.
GREENE, NATHANAEL (1742-1786), American general, son
of a Quaker farmer and smith, was bom at Potowomut, in
the township of Warwick, Rhode Island, on the 7th of August
(not, as has been stated, 6th of ]une) 1742. Though his father’s
sect discouraged “literary acromplisliments,’’ he acquired a
large amount of-general information, and made a special study
of mathematics, History and law. At Coventry, R.I., whither
he removed in 1770 to take charge of a forge built by his father
and his uncles, he was the first to urge the establishment of a
public school; and in the same year he was chosen a member
of the legislature of Rhode Island, to which he was re-elected
in 1771, 1772 and 1775. He sympathised strongly with the
Whig, or Patriot, element among the colonists, and in 1774
joined the local militia. At this time he began to study the art
of war. In December 1774 he was on a committee appointed
by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in attending
to military duty led to his expulsion from the Society of Friends!
In 1775, in command of the contingent raised by Rhode Island^
he joined the .American forces at Cambridge, and on the 22nd
of June was appointed a brigadier by Congress. To him
Washington assigned the command of the city of Boston after
it was evacuated by Howe in March 1776. Greene’s letters of
October 1775 and January 1776 to Samuel Ward, then a delegate
from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress, favoured a
declaration of independence. On the 9th of August 1776 he
was promoted to be one of the four new major-generals and was
put in command of the Continental troops on Long Island ;
he chose the place for fortifications (practically the same as that
picked by General diaries Lee) and built the redoubts and
entrenchments of Fort Greene on Brooklyn Heights. Severe
illness prevented his taking part in the battle of Long Island.
He was prominent among those who advised a retreat from New
York and the burning of the city, so that the British might not
use it. Greene was placed in command of Fort Lee, and on the
25th of October succeeded General Israel Putnam in command
ol Fort Washington. He received orders from Washington to
defend Fort Washington to the last extremity, and on the nth of
October Congress had passed a resolution to the same effect; but
later Washington wrote to him to use his own discretion. Greene
ordered Colonel Magaw, who was in immediate command, to defend
the place until he should hear from him again, and reinforced
it to meet General Howe’s attack. Nevertheless, the blame for
the losses of Forts Washington and Lee was put upon Greene,
hut apparently without his losing the confidence of Washington,
who indeed himself assumed the responsibility. At Trenton
Greene commanded one of the two American columns, his own,
accompanied by Washington, arriving first; and after the
victory here he urged Washington to push on immediately to
Princeton, but was over-ruled by a council of war. At the
Brandywine Greene commanded the reserve. At Germantown
Greene's command, having a greater distance to march than the
right wing under Sullivan, failed to arrive in good time—a failure
which Greene himself thought (without cause) would cost him
Washington’s regard; on this, with the affair of Fort Washington,
Bancroft based his unfavourable estimate of Greene’s ability.
But on their arri\ al, Greene and his troops distinguished them¬
selves greatly.
At the urgent request of Washington, on the 2nd of March
1778, at Valley Forge, he accepted the office of quartermaster-
general (succeeding Thomas Mifflin), and of his conduct in this
difficult work, which Washington heartily approved, a modern
critic, Colonel H. B. Carrington, has said that it was “ as good
as was possible under the circumstances of that fluctuating
uncertain force." He had become quartermaster-general on
the understanding, however, that te should retain the right to
command troops in the field ; thus we find him at the head of
the right wing al Monmouth on the 28th of June. In August
Greene and Lafayette commanded the land forces sent to Rhode
Island to co-operate with the French admiral d’Estaing, in an
expedition which proved abortive. In June 1780 Greene com¬
manded in a skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey. In August
he resigned the office of quartermaster-general, after a long and
bitter struggle with Congress over the interference in army
administration by the Treasury Board and by commissions
appointed by Congress. Before liis resignation became effective
it fell to his lot to preside over the court which, on the 29th of
September, condemned Major John Andre to death.
On the 14th of October he succeeded Gates as oommander-in-
chief of the Southern army, and took command at Charlotte, N.C.,
GREENE,
on the 2nd of December. Tire army was weak and badly
equipped and was opposed by a superior force under Cornwallis.
Greene decided to divide his own troops, thus forcing the division
of the British as well, and creating the possibility of a strategic
interplay of forces. This strategy led to General Daniel Morgan’s
victory of Cowpens (just over the South Carolina line) on the
17th of January 1781, and to the battle at Guilford Court
House, N.C. (March 15), in which after having weakened the
British troops by continual movements, and drawn in reinforce¬
ments for his own army, Greene was defeated indeed, but only
at such cost to the victor that Tarleton called it “ the pledge of
ultimate defeat." Three days after this battle Cornwallis
withdrew toward Wilmington. Greene’s generalship and judg¬
ment were again conspicuously illustrated in the next few weeks,
in which he allowed Cornwallis to march north to Virginia and
himself turned swiftly to the reconquest of the inner country
of South Carolina. This, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord
Rawdon’s hands at Hobkirk's Hill (2 m. N. of Camden) on the
25th of April, he achieved by the end of June, the British retiring
to the coast. Greene then gave his forces a six weeks’ rest on
the High Hills of the Santee, and on the 8th of September, with
2600 men, engaged the British under Lieut.-Colonel James
Stuart (who had succeeded Lord Rawdon) at Eutaw Springs ;
the battle, although tactically drawn, so weakened the British
that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene penned them
during the remaining months of the war. Greene’s Southern
campaign showed remarkable strategic features thut remind one
of those of Turenne, the commander whom he had taken as his
model in his studies before the war. He excelled in dividing,
eluding and tiring his opponent by long marches, and in actual
conflict forcing him to pay for a temporary advantage a price
that he could not afford. He was greatly assisted by able
subordinates, including the Polish engineer, Tadeusz Kosciusko,
the brilliant cavalry captains, Henry (“ Light-Horse Harry ”)
Lee and William Washington, and the partisan leaders, Thomas
Sumter and Francis Marion.
South Carolina and Georgia voted Greene liberal grants of
lands and money. The South Carolina estate, Boone's Barony,
S. of Edisto in Bamberg County, he sold to meet bills for the
rations of his Southern army. On the Georgia estate, Mulberry
Grove, 14 m. above Savannah, on the river, he settled in 1785,
ufter twice refusing (1781 and 1784) the post of secretary of war,
and there he died of sunstroke on the 19th of June 1786. Greene
was a singularly able, and - like other prominent generals on
the American side—a self-trained soldier, and was second
only to Washington among the officers of the American army
in military ability. Like Washington he had the great gift of
using small means to the utmost advantage. His attitude
towards the Tories was humane and even kindly, and he
generously defended Gates, who had repeatedly intrigued
against him, when Gates's conduct of the campaign in the South
was criticized. There is a monument to Greene in Savannah
(1829). His statue, with that of Roger Williams, represents the
state of Rhode Island in the National Hall of Statuary in the
Capitol at Washington ; in the same city there is a bronze
equestrian statue of him by H. K. Brown.
See the Life of Nathanael Greene (3 vols., 1867-1871), by his grand¬
son, George W. Gruene, and the biography (New York, 1893), by
Brig.-Gen. F. V. Greene, in Ur* " Great Commanders Series.”
GREENE, ROBERT (c. 1560-1592), English dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Norwich about 1560. The
identity of his father has been disputed, but there is every
reason to believe that he belonged to the tradesmen’s class and
had small means. It is doubtful whether Robert Greene attended
Norwich grammar school; but, as an eastern counties man
(to one of whose plays, Friar Bacon, the Norfolk and Suffolk
borderland owes a taking poetic commemoration) he naturally
found his way to Cambridge, where he entered St John’s College
as a sizar in 1575 and took his B.A. thence in 1579, proceeding
M.A. in 1583 from Clare Hall. His life at the university was,
according to his own account, spent “ among wags as lewd as
himself, with whom he consumed the flower of his youth.” In
ROBERT 539
1588 he was incorporated at Oxford, so that on some of his title-
pages he styles himself “ utriusque Acadetniae in Artibui
Magister "; and Nashe humorously refers to him as “ utriusque
Academia* Robertas Greene.” Between the yean 1578 and
1583 he had travelled abroad, according to his own account
very extensively, visiting France, Germany,Poland and Denmark,
besides learning at first-hand to “ hate the pride of Itahe ”
and to know the taste of that poet’s fruit, "Spanish mirabolones.”
The grounds upon which it has been suggested that he took holy
orders are quite insufficient; according to the title-page of a
pamphlet published by him in 1585 he was then a “ student in
phisicke.” Already, however, after taking his M.A. degree, he
had according to his own account begun his London life, and his
earliest extant literary production was in hand as early as 1580.
He now become “ an author of playes and a penner of love-
pamphlets, so that I soone grew famous in that quaiitie, that
who for that trade growne so ordinary about London at Robin
Greene ? ” “ Glad was that printer,” says Nashe, “ that might
bee so blest to pay him dearc for the very dregs of his wit."
By his own account he rapidly sank into the worst debaucheries
of the town, though Nashe declares that he never knew him
guilty of notorious crime. He was not without passing impulses
towards a more righteous and sober life, and was derided in
consequence by his associates as a “ Puritane and Presisian.”
It is possible that he, as well as his bitter enemy, Gabriel Harvey,
exaggerated the looseness of his conduct. His marriage, which
took place in 1585 or 1586, failed to steady him ; if F rancesco,
in Greene’s pamphlet Never loo late to mend (1590), is intended
for the author himself, it had been a runaway match ; but the
Action and the autobiographical sketch in the Repentance agree
in their account of the unfaithfulness which followed on the part
of the husband. He lived with his wife, whose name seems to
have been Dorothy (“ Doll ” ; and cf. Dorothea in James IV.),
for a while ; “ but forasmuch as she would perswade me from my
wilful wickedncs, after 1 had a child by her, I cast her off, having
spent up the marriage-money which 1 obtained by her. Then
left 1 her at six or seven, who went into Lincolnshire, and I to
London,” where his reputation as a playwright and writer of
pamphlets of “ lo\ e and vaine fantasyes ” continued to increase,
and where his life was a feverish alternation of lahour and
debauchery. In his last years he took it upon himself to make
war on the cutpurscs and “ conny catchers ” with whom he came
into contact in the slums, and whose doings he fearlessly exposed
in his writings. He tells us how at last he was friendless “ except
it were in a fewe alehouses,” where he was respected on account
of the seore he had run up. When the end came he was a
dependant on the charity of the poor and the pitying love of the
unfortunate. Henri Murger has drawn no picture more sickening
and more pitiful than the story of Greene’s»death, as told by his
Puritan adversary, Gabriel Harvey—a veracious though a far
from unprejudiced narrator. Greene had taken up the cudgels
provided by the Harvey brothers on their intervention in the
Marprelate controversy, and made an attack (immediately
suppressed) upon Gabriel’s father and family in the prose-tract
A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, or a Quaint Dispute between
Velvet Breeches and Cloth Breeches (1592). Afterbanquet
where the chief guest had been Thomas Nashe—an old associate
and perhaps a college friend of Greene’s, any groat intimacy with
whom, however, he seems to have been anxious to disclaim—
Greene had fallen sick “ of a surfeit of pickle herringe and
Rennish wine.’ ’ At the house of a poor shoemaker near Dowgate,
deserted by all except Iris compassionate hostess (Mrs Isam) and
two women—-one of them the Bister of a notorious thief named
“Cutting Ball,’’ and the mother of his illegitimate son, Fortunatus
Greene—he died on the 3rd of September 1592. Shortly before
his death he wrote under a bond for £to which he had given to
the good shoemaker, the following words addressed to his long-
forsaken wife: “ Doll, I charge thee, by the loue of our youth
and by my soules rest, that thou wilte see this man paide j for
if hee and his wife had not succoured me, I hod died in the
streetes.—Robert Greene.”
Four Letters and Certain Sonnets. Harvey’s attack on Greene,
GREENE,
appeared almost immediately after his death, as to the circum¬
stances of which his relentless adversary had taken care to inform
himself personally. Nashe took up the defence of his dead friend
and ridiculed Harvey in Strange News (1593); and the dispute
continued for some years. But, before this, the dramatist Henry
Chettle published a pamphlet from the hand of the unhappy
man, entitled Greene's Groat's-worth of Wit bought with a Million
oj Repentance (139*). containing the story of Roberto, who may
be regarded, for practical purposes, as representing Greene
himself. This ill-starred production may almost be said to have
done more to excite the resentment of posterity against Greene’s
name than all the errors for which he professed his repentance.
For in it he exhorted to repentance three of his quondam acquaint¬
ance. Of these three Marlowe was one—to whom and to whose
creation of “ that Atheist Tamberlaine ” he had repeatedly
alluded. The second was Peele, the third probably Nashe.
But the passage addressed to Peek contained a transparent
allusion to a fourth dramatist, who was an actor likewise, as
“ an vpstarl crow beautified with our feathers, that with his
Tygres heart wrapt in a player’s hyde supposes hec is as well able
to bombast out a blanke-verse as the best of you; and being an
absolute lohannes-fac-totum, is in his owne conceyt the onely
shake-scene in a countrey.” The phrase italicized parodies
a passage occurring in The True Tragedie of Richard, Duke of
York, he., and retained in Part III. of Henry VI. If Greene
(as many eminent critics have thought) had a hand in The True
Tragedie, he must here huve intended a charge of plagiarism
against Shakespeare. But while it seems more probable that
(as the late R. Simpson suggested) the upstart crow beautified
with the feathers of the three dramatists is a sneering description
of the actor who declaimed their verse, the animus of the whole
attack (as explained by Dr Ingkby) is revealed in its concluding
phrases. This “ shake-scene,” i.e. this aelnr had ventured to
intrude upon the domain of the regular staff of playwrights —
their monopoly wus in danger !
Two other prose pamphlets of an autobiographical nature were
issued posthumously. Of these, The Repentance of Robert
Greene, Master of Arts (1592), must originally have been written
by him on his death lied, under the influence, as he says, of
Father Parsons’s Hooke of Resolution (The Christian Directorie,
appertayning to Resolution, 1582, republished in an enlarged
form, which became very popular, in 1585); but it bears traces
of having been improved from the original ; while Greene's
Vision was certainly not, as the title-page avers, written during
his last illness.
Altogether not less than thirty-five prose-tracts are ascribed
to Greene’s prolific pen. Nearly all of them arc interspersed
with verses ; in their themes they range from the “ misticall ”
wonders of the heavens to the familiar but “ pemitious sleights "
of the sharpers of London. But the most widely attractive of
his prose publications were his “ love-pamphlets,” which brought
upon him the outcry of Puritan censors. The earliest of his
novels, as they may be called, Mamillia, was licensed in 1583.
This interesting story may be said to have accompanied Greene
through life; for even part ii., of which, though probably com¬
pleted scvmd years earlier, the earliest extant edition hears the
date 1593, had a sequel, The Anatomic of Love's Flatteries, which
contains a review of suitors recalling Portia’s in The Merchant
of Venice. The Myrrour of Modestie (the story of Susanna)
(1584); The Historic of Arhaslo, King of Denmarke (1584);
Morando, the Tritameron of Love (a rather tedious imitation of the
Decameron (1584); Planetomaehia (1585) (a contention in story¬
telling between Venus and Saturn); Penelope's Web (1587)
(another string of stories); Alcida , Greene's Metamorphosis
(1588), and others, followed. In these popular productions he
appears very distinctly as a follower of John Lvly ; indeed, the
first part of MamiUia was entered in the Stationers’ Registers
in the year of the appearance of Euphues, and two of Greene’s
novels are by their titles announced as a kind of sequel to the
imrcnt romance: Euphues his Censure to Philautus (1587),
Menaphon. Camilla’s Alarum to Slumbering Euphues (>589),
named in some later editions Greene’s Arcadia. This pastoral
ROBERT
romance, written in direct emulation of Sidney’s, with a heroine
called Sami la, contains St Sephestia’s charming lullaby, with
its refrain “ Father’s sorowe, father’s joy,” But, though Greene’s
style copies the balanced oscillation, and his diction the omate-
ness (including the proverbial philosophy) of Lyly, he contrives
to interest by the matter as well as to attract attention by the
manner of his narratives. Of his highly moral intentions he
leaves the reader in no doubt, since they are exposed on the
title-pages. The full title of the Myrrour of Modestie for instance
continues : “ wherein appeareth as in a perfect glasse how the
Lord delivereth the innocent from all imminent perils, and
plagueth the blood-thirsty hypocrites with deserved punish¬
ments,” &c. On his Pandosto, The Triumph of Time (1588)
Shakespeare founded A Winter’s Tale ; in fact, the novel contains
the entire plot of the comedy, except the device of the living
statue ; though some of the subordinate characters in the plav,
including Autolycus, were added by Shakespeare, together with
the pastoral fragrance of one of its episodes.
In Greene’s Never too Late (1590), announced as a “ Powder
of Experience: sent to all youthful! gentlemen ” for their
benefit, the hero, Francesco, is in all probability intended for
Greene himself, the sequel or second part is, however, pure fiction.
This episodical narrative has a vivacity and truthfulness of
manner which savour of an 18th century novel rather than of
an Elizabethan tale concerning the days of “ Palmerin, King
of Great Britain." I’hilador, the prodigal of The Mourning
Garment (1590), is obviously also in some respects a portrait of
the writer. The experiences of the Roberto of Greene’s Groat’s-
mrtli of Wit (1592) are even more palpably the experiences of
the author himself, though they are possibly overdrawn—for a
born rhetorician exaggerates everything, even his own sins.
Besides these and the posthumous pamphlets on his repentance,
Greene left realistic pictures of the very disreputable society
to which he finally descended, in his pamphlets on “ conny-
rntelling ” : A Notable Discovery oj Coosnage ( 1591), The Blacke
Hookes Messenger. Laying open the Life and Death of Ned
Browne, one of the most Notable Cutpurses, Crossbiters, and
Conny-catchers that ever lived in England (1392). Much in
Greene’s manner, both in his romances and in his pictures of
low life, anticipated what proved the slow course of Ihe actual
development of the English novel; and it is probable that his
true metier, and that which best suited the bright fancy, ingenuity
and wit of which his genius was compounded, was pamphlet-
spinning and storv-telling rather than dramatic composition.
It should be added that, euphuist as Greene was, few of his
contemporaries in their lyrics warbled wood-notes which like
his resemble Shakespeare’s in their native freshness.
Curiously enough, as Mr Churton Collins has pointed out,
Greene, except in the two pamphlets written just before his
death, never refers to his having written plays; and before 1392
his contemporaries are equally silent as to his labours as a
playwright. Only four plays remain to us of which he was
indisputably the sole author. The earliest of these seems to
have been the Comicall History of Alphonsus, King oj Arragon,
of which Henslowe’s Diary contains no trace. But it can hardly
have been first acted long after the production of Marlowe’s
Tamburlaine, which had, in all probability, been brought on the
stage in 1387. For this play, “ comical ” only in the negative
sense of having a happy ending, was manifestly written in
emulation as well as in direct imitation of Marlowe’s tragedy.
While Greene cannot have thought himself capable of surpassing
Marlowe as a tragic poet, he very probably wished to outdo him
in “ business,” and to equal him in the rant which was sure to
bring down at least part of the house. Alphonsus is a history
proper—a dramatized chronicle or narrative of warlike events.
Its fame could never equal that of Marlowe’s tragedy ; but its
composition showed that Greene could seek to rival the most
popular drama of the day, without falling very far short of his
model.
In the Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay
(not known to have been acted before February 1392, but
! probably written in 1389) Greene once more attempted to emulate
GREENFIELD-
Marlowe; and he succeeded in producing a masterpiece of his
own. Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus, which doubtless suggested the
composition of Greene’s comedy, reveals the mighty tragic
genius of its author; but Greene resolved on an altogether
distinct treatment of a cognate theme. Interweaving with the
popular tale of Friar Bacon and his wondrous doings a charming
idyl (so far as we know, of his own invention), the story of Prince
Edward’s love for the Fair Maid of Fressingfield, he produced a
comedy brimful of amusing action and genial fun. Friar Bacon
remains a dramatic picture of English Elizabethan life with
which The Merry Wives alone can vie; and not even the ultra¬
classicism in the similes of its diction can destroy the naturalness
which constitutes its perennial charm. The History oj Orlando
Furioso, one of the Twelve Peeres of France has on unsatisfactory
evidence been dated as before 1586, and is known to have been
acted on the 21st of February 1592. It is a free dramatic
adaptation of Ariosto, Harington’s translation of whom appeared
in 1591, and who in one passage is textually quoted ; and it
contains a large variety of characters and a superabundance of
action. Fairly lucid in arrangement and fluent in style, the
treatment of the madness of Orlando lacks tragic power. Very
few dramatists from Sophocles to Shakespeare have succeeded
in subordinating the grotesque effect of madness to the tragic;
and Greene is not to be included in the list.
In The Scottish Historic of James IV. (acted 1592, licensed
for publication 1594) Greene seems to have reached the climax
of his dramatic powers. The “ historical " character of this play
is pure pretence. The story is taken from one of Giraldi
Cinthio’s tales. Its theme is the illicit passion of King Jarqes for
the chaste lady Ida, to obtain whose hand he endeavours, at the
suggestion of a villain called Aleukin, to make away with his own
wife. She escapes in doublet and hose, attended by her faithful
dwarf; but, on her father’s making war upon her husband to
avenge her wrongs, she brings about a reconciliation between
them. Not only is this well-constructed story effectively worked
out, but the characters are vigorously drawn, and in Atetikin
there is a touch of Iago. The fooling by Slipper, the clown of the
piece, is unexceptionable ; and, lest even so the play should hang
heavy on the audience, its action is carried off by a “ pleasant
comedie ”— i.e. a prelude and some dances between the acts—
“ presented by Oboram, King of Fuyeries,” who is, however, a
very different person from the Oberon of A Midsummer Night’s
Dream.
Georgc-a-Grcene the Pinner of Wakefield (acted 1593, printed
1599), a delightful picture of English life fully worthy of the
author of Friar Bungay, has been attributed to him ; but the
external evidence is very slight, and the internal unconvincing.
Of the comedy of Fair Em, which resembles Friar Bacon in more
than one point, Greene cannot have been the author; the
question as to the priority between the two plays is not so easily
solved. The conjecture as to his supposed share in the plays on
which the second and third parts of Henry V 1 . are founded has
been already referred to. He was certainly joint author with
Thomas Lodge of the curious drama called A Looking Glasse for
London and England (acted in 1592 and printed in 1594)—a
dramatic apologue conveying to the living generation of English¬
men the warning of Nineveh’s corruption and prophesied doom.
The lesson was frequently repeated in the streets of London by
the “ Ninevitical motions ” of the puppets; but there are both
fire and wealth of language in Greene and lodge’s oratory. The
comic element is not absent, being supplied in abundance by
Adam, the clown of the piece, who belongs to the family of
Slipper, and of Friar Bacon’s servant. Miles.
Greene’s dramatic genius has nothing in it of the intensity of
Marlowe’s tragic muse; nor perhaps does he ever equal Peele at
his best. On the other hand, his dramatic poetry is occasionally
animated with the bteezy freshness which no artifice can simulate,
lie had considerable constructive skill, but he has created no
character of commanding power—unless Ateukin be excepted;
but his personages are living men and women, and marked out
from one another with a vigorous but far from rude hand. His
comic humour is undeniable, and he had the gift of light and
-GREENHEART 541
graceful dialogue. His diction is overloaded with classical
ornament, but his versification is easy and fluent, and its cadence
is at times singularly sweet. He creates his best effects by the
simplest means ; and he is indisputably one of the most attractive
of early English dramatic authors.
Greene's dramatic works and poems were edited by Alexander
Dyce in 1831 with a life of the author. This edition was reissued
in one volume in 1858. His complete works were edited for the
Huth Library by A. B. Grosart. This issue (1881-1886) contains a
translation of Nicholas Storojhenko's monograph on Greene (Moscow,
1878). Greene's plays and poems were edited with introductions
and notes by J. Churton Collins in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1905) ; the
general introduction to this edition has superseded previous accounts
of Greene and his dramatic and lyrical writings. An account of
his pamphlets is to he found in J. J. Jusserand's English Novel »'»
the lime of Shakespeare (Eng. trans., 1890). See also W. Bemhardi,
Robert Greenes Leben und Schriften (1874); F. M. Bodenstedt, in
Shakespeare's Zeilgrnossen und ihre Werke (1858);' and an intro¬
duction by A. W. Ward to Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (Oxford,
1886, 4th cd., 1901). (A. W. W.)
GREENFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Franklin
county, in N.E. Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of
20 sq. m. of meadow and hill country, watered by the Green
and Deerfield rivers and various small tributaries. Pop. (1890)
5252, (1000) 7927, of whom 1431 were foreign-bom; (1910,
U.S. census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same name as
the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river,
and on the Boston & Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley
street railway (electric). Among Greenfield’s manufactures are
cutlery, machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally
part of Deerfield, was settled about 1682, was established as a
“ district ” in 1753, and on the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a
general Act, separated from Deerfield and incorporated as a
separate township, although it had assumed full township rights
in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress. In
1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838
part of it was annexed to Bemardston; and in 1896 it annexed
a part of Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of
Shays's Rebellion.
See F. M. Thompson, History of Greenfield (2 vols., Greenfield,
1904).
GREENFINCH (Ger. Grunfink), or Green Linnet, as it is very
often called, a common European bird, the Fringilla chloris of
Linnaeus, ranked by many systematists with one section of haw¬
finches, Coccothraustes, but apparently more nearly allied to the
other section Hesperiphona, and perhaps justifiably deemed the
type of a distinct genus, to which the name Chloris or Ligurians
has been applied. The cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green
and yellow is one of the most finely coloured of common English
birds, but he is rather heavily built, and his song is hardly com¬
mended. The hen is much less brightly tinted. Throughout
Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful birds,
and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the
whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits
Palestine, but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant
in Mauritania, whence specimens are so brightly coloured that
they have been deemed to form a distinct species, the Ligurinus
aurantiiventris of Dr Cabanis, but that view is now generally
abandoned. In the north-east of Asia and its adjacent islands
occur two allied species- the Fringilla sinica of Linnaeus and the
F. kawarahiba of Temminck. (A. N.)
GREENHEART, one of the most valuable of timbers, the
produce of Nectandra Rodiaei, natural order Lauraceae, a large
tree, native of tropical South America and the West Indies. The
Indian name of the tree is sipiri or bibiru, and from its bark and
fruits is obtained the febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart
wood is of a dark-green colour, sap wood and heart wood being so
much alike that they can with difficulty be distinguished from
each other. The heart wood is one of the most durable of all
timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is
proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly
destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other
kinds of wood available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove
Museum, Glasgow, there are two pieces of planking from a wreck
submerged during eighteen years on the west coast of Scotland,
GREENLAND
The one specimen—greenheart—is merely slightly pitted on the
surface,'the body of the wood being perfectly soundand untouched,
while the other—teak—is almost entirely eaten away. Green-
heart, tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is one of
the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly dense, its
specific gravity being about 1150. It is included m the second
line of Lloyd’s Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is exten¬
sively used for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers and planking, &c.,
as well us in the general engineering arts, but its excessive weight
unfits it for many purposes for which its other properties would
render it eminently suitable.
GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Grunland), a large continental
island, the greater portion of which lies within the Arctic Circle,
while the whole is arctic in character. It is not connected with
any portion of Europe or America except by suboceanic ridges ;
hut in the extreme north it is separated only by a narrow strait
from Ellesmere land in the archipelago of the American continent.
It is bounded on the east by the North Atlantic, the Norwegian
and Greenland Seas Jan Mayen, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands
and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and Norway.
Denmark Strait is the sea between it and Iceland, and the
northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from
Spitsbergen. On the west Davis Strait and Baffin Bay separate
it from Baffin Land. The so-called bay narrows northward into
the strait successively known as Smith Sound, Kane Busin,
Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel. A submarine ridge,
about 300 fathoms deep at its deepest, unites Greenland with
Iceland (across Denmark Strait), the Faeroes and Scotland. A
similar submarine ridge unites it with the Cumberland Peninsula
of Baffin Land, across Davis Strait. Two large islands (with
others smaller) lie probably off the north coast, licing apparently
divided from it by very narrow channels which arc not yet ex¬
plored. If they lie reckoned as integral parts of Greenland, then
the north coast, fronting the polar sea, culminutes aliout 83° 40' N.
Cape Farewell, the most southerly point (also on a small island),
is in 50° 45' N. The extreme length of Greenland may therefore
be set down at aliout 1650 m., while its extreme breadth, which
occurs about 77“ 30' N., is approximately 800 m. The area
is estimated at 827.275 sq. m. Greenland is a Danish colony,
inasmuch as the west coast and also the southern east coast
belong to the Danish crown. The scattered settlements of
Europeans on the southern parts of the coasts are Danish, and the
trade is a monopoly of the Danish government.
The southern and south-western coasts have been known,
as will be mentioned later, since the 10th century, when Norse
settlers appeared there, and the names of many famous arctic
explorers have been associated with the exploration of Greenland.
The communication between the Norse settlements in Greenland
and the motherland Norway was broken off at the end of the 14th
and the beginning of the 15th century, and the Norsemen’s
knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more or
less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then
re-discovered bv John Davis in July 1585, though previous ex¬
plorers, as Cortereal, Frobisher and others, had seen it, and at the
end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century the work
of Davis (1386-1588), Hudson (1610) and Baffin (1616) in the
western seas ufiorded some knowledge of the west coast. This
was added to by later explorers and bv whalers and sealers.
Among explorers who in the 19th century were specially con-
■ected with the north-west cousl may he mentioned K. A.
inglcfield (1852) who sailed into Smith’s Sound, 1 Elisha Kent Kane
( l ®53—1855) 2 who worked northward through Smith Sound into
Kane Basin, and Charles Francis Hall (1871) who explored the
strait (Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel) to the north of
this.’
The northern east cosst was sighted bv Hudson (1607) in about
71 * 30’ N. (C. Hold with Hope), and during the 17th century and
1 Inglcfield, Summtt Starch for Franklin (London. 1S53).
* Second Grinnrll Fef edition (2 vols., Philadelphia, iSjfi).
a Davis, Polar is ( Halt’s) North Polar Expedition (Washington,
1876). See also Bowels, Did amerihanische Nordpol-Expedition
(Leipng, 1870). .
later this northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch
whalers. The first who gave more accurate information was the
Scottish whaler, Captain William Scoresby, jun. (i&as), who,
with his father, explored the coast between 69° and 75® N., and
gave the first fairly trustworthy map of it. 4 Captains Edward
Sabine and Clavering (1823) visited the coast between 72° 5' and
75° 12' N. and met the only Eskimo ever seen in this part of
Greenland. The second German polar expedition in 1870,
under Carl Christian Koldewey 6 (1837-1908), reached 77° N.
(Cape Bismarck); and the duke of Orleans, in 1905, ascertained
that this point was on an island (the Dove Bay of the German
expedition being in reality a strait) and penetrated farther north,
to about 78“ 16'. From this point the north-east coast remained
unexplored, though a sight was reported in 1670 by a whaler
named Lambert, and again in 1775 us far north as 79“ by Daines
Barrington, until a Danish expedition under Mylius Erichsen in
1906-1908 explored it, discovering North-East Foreland, the
easternmost point (see Polar Regions and map). The
southern part of the east coast was first explored hy the Dane
Wilhelm August Graah (1829-1830) between Cape Farewell and
65° 16' N.* In 1883-1885 the Danes G. Holm and T. V. Garde
carefully explored and mapped the coast from Cape Farewell
to Angmagssalik. in 66° N. 7 F. Nansen and his companions
also travelled along a part of this coast in 1888." A. E. Nordens-
kiold, in the “ Sophia," landed near Angmagssalik, in 65° 36’ N
in 1883.“ Captain C. Ryder, in 1891-1892, explored and mapped
the large Scoresby Sound, or, more correctly, Scoresby Fjord. 111
Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 1899, explored the coast from Ang-
magssalik north to 67° 22' N. 11 Apart of this coast, about
67°N.,had alsobeen seen hy Nansen in 1882.'- In iBgyProfessor
A. G. Nathorst explored the land between Franz Josef Fjord
and Scoresby Fjord, where the large King Oscar Fjord, connecting
Davy's Sound with Franz Joseph Fjord, was discovered. 15 In
1900 Lieutenant Amdrup explored the still unknown east coast
from 69" 10' N. south to 67" N. 14
From the work of explorers in the north-west it had lieen
possible to infer the approximate latitude of the northward
termination of Greenland long before it was definitely known.
Towards the close of the 19th century several explorers gave
attention to this question. Lieutenant (afterwards Admiral)
L. A. Beaumont (1876), of the Nares Expedition, explored the
coast north-east of Robeson Channel to 82° 20' N. 1( ‘ In 1882
Lieut. J. B. Lockwood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain)
I). L. Brainard, of the U.S, expedition to Lady Franklin
Bay," 1 explored the north-west coast lieyond Beaumont’s farthest
to a promontory in 83° 24' N. and 40° 46' E. and they saw
to the north-east Cape Washington, in about 83° 38' N. and
39” 30' E., the most northerly point of land till then observed.
In J uly 1892 R. E. Peary and lL Astrup, crossing by land from
Inglefiekl Gulf, Smith Sound, discovered Independence Bay on
the north-east coast in 81“ 37' N.and 34“ 5' W. 17 In May 1895 it
4 Journal of a Vovagc to the Northern Whale Fishery (1823).
ri hie- iweitc dents:he Nordpolarfahrt (1873-1875).
t Jietse til Ostkysten af Gtunland (1832 ; tarns, by G. Gordon
Macdougall, 1837).
~ Meadelrlscr om Grunland , parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888).
* The First Crossing of Greenland, vol. 1. (London, 1800), II. Mohn
and 1\ Nansen; “ Wishcnschaftbche Ereebnis.se von Dr F. Nansen
Durchqucrvmg von Cronland " (1888), Ivrganzungsheft No. 105 zu
Petermanns Mittcilungen (Gotha, 1892).
“ A. F. Nordensliidld, Den andra Diiksonsha Expcditionen til
Grunland (Stockholm, 1885).
10 Meddelelser om Grbnland, pta.xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen,1895-1896).
11 Geugrafisk 7 idskrift, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899).
la /Mb. vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1883).
1:1 Ike Geographical Journal, xiv. 534 (1899); xvii. 48 (1901),;
Tvi Somrar 1 Nona Ishafvet (Stockholm, 1901).
44 Meddelelser om Grunland, parts xxvi.-xxvii,
Nares. Voyage to the Volar Sea (2 vols. London, 1877). See
also Blue Book, journals, &c., (Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London,
^ A. W. Greely, Report on the Proceedings of the United States
Expedition to Lady Franklin Hay, Grinnell Land, vols. i. and ii.
(Washington, 1885) ; Three Years of Arctic Service (a vois, London,
1886).
17 R. E. Peary, Northward over the “ Great Ice " (2 vols. New York,
1898); E, Astrup, BUnuU Nordpolen ‘s Naboer (Christiania, 1895).
GREENLAND
543
was revisited by Peary, who supposed this bay to be a sound com¬
municating with Victoria Inlet on the north-west coast. To the
north Hetlprin Land and Melville Land were seen stretching j
northwards, but the probability seemed to be that the coast soon |
trended north-west. In 1901 Peary founded the north point, and !
penetrated as far north as 83° 50' N. The scanty exploration of j
the great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be asserted to cover the
whole of the interior of Greenland, has been prosecuted chiefly
from the west coast. In 1751 Lars Dalagcr, a Danish trader,
took some steps in this direction from Frederikshaab. In 1870
Nordenskiold and Berggren walked 35 m. inland from the head
of Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an elevation of 2200 ft.
The Danish captain Jens Arnold Dietrich Jensen reached, in
1878, the Jensen Nunataks (5400 ft. above the sea), about 45 m.
from the western margin, in 6a° 50' N.’ Nordenskiold penetrated
in 1883 about 70 m. inland in 68° so' N., and two Lapps of his
expedition went still farther on skis, to a point nearly under 45°
IV. at an elevation of 6600 ft. Peary and Maigaarj reached in
1886 about 100 m. inland, a height of 7500 ft. in 69® 30' N.
Nansen with five companions in 1888 made the first complete
crossing of the inland ice, working from the east
coast to the west, about 64° 25' N., and reached
a height of 8922 ft Peary and Astrup, as
already indicated, crossed in 1892 the northern
part of the inland ice between 78“ and 82° N.,
reaching a height of about 8000 ft., and deter¬
mined Sie northern termination of the re¬
covering. Peary made very nearly the same
journey again in 189J. Captain T. V, Garde
explored in 1893 the interior of the inland ice
between 6t° and 62° N. near its southern
termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft.
about 60 m. from the margin.*
(oasts .—The coasts of Greenland are for the
most part deeply indented with fjords, being in-
tensely glaciated. The coast-linc of Melville Bay
(the northern part of the west coast) is to some
degree an exception, though the fjords may here
be somewhat filled with glaciers, and, for another
example, it may he noted that Peary observed
a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward
as fnr as Cape Morris Jesnp there are precipitous
headlands and islands, as elsewhere, with deep
water close inshore. East of the same cape there
is an abrupt change : the coast is unbroken, the
mountains recede inland, and there if shoal-water
for a considerable distance from the coast.
Numerous islands hr off the coasts where they
are indented ; but these are in no case large,
excepting those off the north coast, and that of
Disco off the west, which is crossed by the parallel
of 70° N. This island, which is separated by
Waigat Strait from the Nugsuak peninsula, is
loftv, and has an area of 3005 sq. m. Strenatrnp
hi 1 Hi|K discovered in it the warmest spring known
iu Greenland, having a temperature of 06* F.
The unusual glaciation of the east coast is
evidently owing to the north jiolar current carry¬
ing the ice masses from the north polar basin
south-westward along the land, and giving it
an entirely arctic climate down to Cape Farewell,
In some parts thr interior ice-covering extends
down to the outer coast, while in other parts
its margin is situated more inland, and the iee-bare
coast-land is deeply intersected by fjords extend¬
ing far into the interior, where they are blocked
by enormous glaciers or " ice-currents ” from the
interior ice-covering which discharge masses of
icebergs into them. The east coast of Greenland
is in this respect highly interesting. All coasts
in tBe world which arc much intersected by deep
fjords have, with very few exceptions, a western
exposure, r.g. Norway, Scotland, British Columbia
and Alaska, Patagonia and Chile, and even
Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, whose west
coasts are far more indented than their east ones.
Greenland forms the most prominent exception,
its eastern coast being quite as much indented as
its western. The reason is to be found in its geo¬
graphical position, a cold ice-covered polar current
running south along the land, while not far out¬
side there is an open warmer sea, a circumstance
which, while producing a cold climate, must also
give rise to much precipitation, the land being
thus exposed to the alternate erosion of a rough
atmosphere and large glaciers. On the east
coast of Baffin Land and Labrador there are
similar conditions. The result is that the east
roast of Greenland has the largest system of typical fjords known
on the earth’s surface. Scoresby Fjord has a length of about
180 m. from the outer coast to the point where it is blocked by the
glaciers, and with its numerous branches covers an enormous
area. Fran* Josef Fjord, with its branch King Oscar Fjord, com¬
municating with Davy’s Sound, forms a system of fjords on a
similar stale. These fjords are very deep; the greatest depth
1 Mcddtlalser 0m Gronland, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879).
2 Ibid, part xvi (Cojienhagcn, 1896).
GREENLAND
544
found by Ryder in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are
certainly still greater depths; like the Norwegian fjords they have,
however, probably all of them, a threshold or sill, with shallow
water, near their mouths. A few soundings made outside this
coast seem to indicate that the fjords continue as deep submarine
valleys far out into the sea. On the west coast there arc also
many great fjords. One of the best known from earlier days is
the great Godtliaab Fjord (or Baals Rcvicr) north of 64° N. Along
the cast coast there arc many high mountains, exceeding 6000 and
7000 ft. in height. One of the highest peaks hitherto measured is at
Timngnertok, on the Lindenov Fjord, in 6o° 35' N., which is 7340 ft.
high. At the bottom of Mogens Hcinesen Fjord, 62° 30' N., the
peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of Emanak, 63° N., they even
exceed 6600 ft. At Umivik, where Nansen began his journey
across the inland ice, the highest peak projecting through the ice-
covering was Camel's Nunatak, 6440 ft., in 64° 34' N. In the
region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the mountains
rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf’s Fjeld, in
66° 20' N., about Gooo ft., which is seen from far out at sea, and forms
an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk (i.e. Blue
Sark or blue shirt) of the old Norsemen, their first landmark on
their way from Iceland to the Aster Bygd, the present Julianehaab
district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little farther
north the coast is much lower, rising only to heights of 2000 ft.,
and just north of 67“ 10' N. only to 500 ft. or less. 1 The highest
mountains near the inner branches ol Scoresby Fjord are about
7000 ft. The Fetermann Spitze, near the shore of Franz Josef
Fjord, measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto
been considered to be the highest mountain in Greenland, but
according to Nathorst it “ is probably only two-thirds as high as
Payer supposed,” perhaps between 8000 and 9000 ft.
Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally
not quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. arc not
uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and
Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there
is no other known land of sucli a size so filled along its coasts on all
sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys.
The inland Ice .—The whole interior of Greenland is completely
covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous glacier forming a
regular shield-shajM il expanse of snow and glacier ice, and burying
all valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about
715,400 sc), m., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern
hemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge* lofty rocks, isolated but
not completely covered by the ice-cap; such rocks arc known as
nunatahs (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to
a level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 It. or more, and descends
gradually by extremely gentle slopes towards the coast*-, or the
bottom of the fjords 011 all sides, discharging a great part of its
yearly drainage or surjdus of precipitation m the form of icebergs
in the fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on
the west and on the east coast. These icebergs float away, and are
gradually melted in the sea, the temperature of which is thus lowered
by cold stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of
these icc lMTgs are met with in the Atlantic south of {Jewfoundland.
The surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse section from the
west to the east coast an extremely regular curve, almost approach¬
ing an arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen's route has its highest
ridge somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also
seems to 1 m; the case farther south. The curve shows, however,
slight irregularities in the shape of undulations. The angle of the
slope decreases gradually from the margin of the inland ice, where
it may be i° or more, towards the interior,Inhere it is o\ In the
interior the surface of the inland ice is composed of drv snow which
never melts, and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the
winds. It extends as a completely even plain of snow, with long,
almost imperceptible, undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to
10,000 ft., obliterating the features of the underlying land, the
mountains and valleys of which are completely interred. Over the
deepest valleys of the land in the interior this ice-cap must be at
least Oooo or 7000 ft. thick or more. Approaching the coasts from
the interior, the snow of the surface gradually changes its structure.
At first it becomes more coarse-grained, like the Tim Si knee of the
Alps, und is moist by melting during the summer. Nearer the coast,
where the melting on the surface is more considerable, the wet
snow freezes hard during the winter and is more or less transformed
into ice, on the surface of which rivers and lakes are formed, the
water of which, however, soon finds its way through crevasses and
holes in the ice down to its under surface, and reaches the sea as a
sub-glacial river. Near its margin the surface of the inland ice is
broken up by numerous large crevasses, formed by the outward
motion of the glacier covering the underlying land. The steep ice-
walls at the margin of the inland ice show, especially where the
motion of the ice is slow, a distinct striation, which indicates the
strata of annual precipitation with the intervening thin seams of
dust (Nordcnskiflld’s kryokonite). This is partly dust blown on
* See C. Kruuse in - Geografsk ~Tidskrift, xv. 64 (Copenhagen,
i8qq). See also F. Nansen, Die Ostkiiste Grfinlands,” Erg&nzungs-
heft No. 105 *u Pelermanns Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and
pi. iv., sketch No. .11.
to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare coast-land and partly the
dust of the atmosphere brought down by the falling snow and
accumulated on the surface of the glacier's covering by the melting
during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of the ice-
fjords this striation is not distinctly visible, being evidently
obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses.
The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a
viscous mass, which, by the vertical pressure in its interior, is pressed
outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass of
pitch placed on a table and left to itself will in the course of time
flow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the outwards-
creeping inland ice will naturally be more independent of the con¬
figurations of the underlying land in the interior, where its tliickness
is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner. Here the
ice converges into the valleys and movc9 with increasing velocity
in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off as ice¬
bergs. The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly
given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the
snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its western
margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced on
its under side by the interior heat of the earth. After Professor
Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great
velocity, up to 64$ ft. in twenty-four hours, with which the glaciers
of Greenland move into the sea, the. margin of the inland ico and its
glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V. Steenstrup
during several years, Captain Hammer in 1879-1880, Captain Ryder
in 1886-1887, Dr Drygalski in 1H91-1893, 9 and several American
expeditions m later years, all examined the question closely. The
highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by Ryder in the
Ujiernivik glacier (in 73 0 N.), where, between the 13th and 14th of
August of 1886, he found a velocity of 125 ft. in twenty-four hours,
and an average velocity during several days of 101 ft. (Danish).*
It was, however, ascertained that there is a great difference between
the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in summer. For instance,
Ryder found that the IJpernivik glacier had an average velocity
of only 33 ft. in April 1887. There seem to be periodical oscillations
in the extension of the glaciers and the inland ice similar to those
that have been observed on the glaciers of the Alps and elsewhere.
But these interesting phenomena have not hitherto l>een subject to
systematic observation, and our knowledge of them is therefore
uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as polished
striated rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &c., prove that the whole
of Greenland, even the small islands and 9kerries outside the coast,
has once been covered by the inland ice.
Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine
mollusca, &c., occur along the wholp coast of Greenland, and indicate
that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has
sunk, in post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now ice-
bare outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these
traces of the gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, arc
very marked ; but they arc also very distinct in the south, although
not found so high above sea-level, winch seems to show that the
upheaval lias been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord
(72° 20' N.) the highest terrace is a8o ft. above the sea. 4 On Manitsok
(65* 3°' N.) the highest raised lwacli was 360 ft. above the sea 9
In the Isortok Fjord (67° 11' N.) the highest raised beach is 380 ft.
above sea-level.® In the Ameraiik Fjord (64° 14' N.) the highest
marine terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level, and at llivertalik
(63° l4 v N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest terrace is about 325 ft.
above the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the Bjdrnesund (62° 50' N.),
a terrace is found at 615 ft. above the sea, hut it is doubtful whether
this is of marine origin. 7 In the Julianehaab district, between 6o°
and 61 0 N., the highest marine terraces are found at about 160 ft.
above the sea." The highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby
Fjord, on the east coast, was 240 ft. above sea-level. 9 There is a
common belief that during cjuite recent times the west and south¬
west coast, within the Danish possessions, lias been sinking. Al¬
though there arc many indications which mav make this probable,
none of them can be said to be quite decisive. 10
[Geo/ogr.—So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland
is as follows:
1. Laurrntian gneiss forms the greatest mass of the exposed
rocks of the country bare of icc. They arc found on both sides of
Smith Sound, rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the Miocene
and Cretaceous rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the
7 E. v. Drygalski, Gronland-Expeditwn der Gesallschaft /ur Erd-
hunde zu Berlin , iSqi-iSqj (2 vols., Berlin, 1897).
3 Meddelclser om Gronland, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen,
1889).
4 Ibid ., part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv. pp.
317 et seq., 323.
6 Ibid, part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898).
* Ibid, part ii. pp. x 81-188 (Copenhagen, 1881).
7 Ibid, part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879).
• Ibid, part 11. p. 3Q (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp.
I5°“ I 54 (1896).
9 Ibid., part xix. p. 175 (1896).
10 Ibid, part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347;
part iv. p. 237 ; part viiL p. 26.
GREENLAND
US
Oolites of Pendulum Island in cast Greenland. Ancient schftts
occur on the east coast south of Angtnagssalik, and basalts and
schists are fbund in Scoresby Fjord. It is possible that some of
these rocks are also of Huroman age, but it is doubtful whether the
rocks so designated by the geologists of the “ Alert" and " Dis¬
covery " expedition are really the rocks so known in Canada, or
are a continuous portion of the fundamental or oldest gneiss of the
north-west of Scotland and the western isles.
2. Silurian. —Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the
Wenlock group of Britain, but with an American facies, and Lower
Silurian, with a succession much the same as in British North
America, arc found on the shores of Smith Sound, and N at Horst has
discovered them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south
as the Danish possessions.
3. Devonian rocks are believed to occur in Igaliko and Tunnu-
diorbik Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous
sandstone, rapidly disintegrating, this mnnot be known. It is,
however, likely that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in
Dana Bay, Captain Feilden found a species of Spirifera and Pro¬
duces mcsolobiis or costatus, though it is possible that these fossils
represent the “ Ursa stage " (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous,
A few Devonian forms have also been recorded from the Parry
Archipelago, and Nathorst has shown the existence of Old Red
Sandstone facies of Devonian in Traill Island, Geographical Society
Island, Ymer Island and Gauss Peninsula.
4. Carboniferous. —In erratic blocks of sandstone, louud on the
Disco shore of the Waigat, have been detected a Sigtllana and a
species of either l'ecopteris or Gleichema, perhaps of this age: and
probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land,
and therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore,
contains a dearly developed Carboniferous Ijmestone fauna,
identical with that so widely distributed over the North American
continent, and referable also to British and Spitsbergen species.
Of the Coal Measures above these, if they occur, we know nothing
at present. Capt. l'Vilden notes as suggestive that, though the
explorers have not met with this formation on the northern shores
of Greenland, yet it was observed that a continuation of the direction
of the known strike of the limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried
over the polar area, passes through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen,
where the formation occurs, and contains certain species identical
with those of the Grinnell Land rocks of this horizon. The facies of
the fossils is, according to Mr Etheridge, North American and
Canadian, though many of the species are British. The corals are
few in number, blit the Molluscoida [Pnlyeoa) are more numerous
in species and individuals. No Secondary rocks have lieen dis¬
covered in tile extreme northern parts of West Greenland, hut they
are present 011 the east and west coasts in more southerly latitudes
than Smith Sound.
5. Jurassic.— These do not occur on the west coast, but on the
east coast the German expedition discoveri-d marls and sandstones
on Kuhn Island, resembling those of the Russian Jurassic, charac¬
terized by the presence of the genus /tucella, Olcostephanus Payeri,
0 . striolans, llelrniuitcs Pandernmus, B. volgensis, II. ahsolutus ,
and a C.yprina near to ('. syssolac. On the south coast of the same
island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and light-coloured
calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render
it probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic
rocks ol Brora (Scotland) and the Middle Dogger of Yorkshire.
There is also coal on Kuhn Island.
The Danish expeditin':- of 1899-1900 have added considerably to
our knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. Rhaetic-
Lias plants have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape Steam I
and Vardeklbft. Dr Madsen has recognized fossils that correspond
with those from the Inferior oolite, Cornbrash and Callovian of
England. Upper Kimmeridge and Portlandian beds also occur.
6. Cretaceous. —Beds of this age, consisting 0/ sandstones and
coal, arc found on the northern coast of Disco Island and tin-
southern side of the Nour-oak Peninsula, the beds in the former
locality, “ the Koine strata " of Nordenskibld, being the oldest.
They reach 1000 ft. in thickness, occupying undulating hollows in
the underlying gneiss, and dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at
20 0 , when the overlying Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these
series contain numerous plant remains, evergreen oaks, magnolias,
aralias, Ac., and seams of lignite (coal), which is burnt; but in
neither occur the marine beds of the United States. Still, the
presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as Magnolia alter nans, in the
Atanakerdluk strata, proves their close alliance with the Dakota
series of the United Slates. The underlying Home beds are not
present in the American series. They are characterized by fine
cycads ( Zamites arcticus and Glossoiamitr.s Hoheneggeri), which also
occur in the Urgonian strata of Wemsdorfi.
;. Miocene .—This formation, one of the most widely spread in
polar lands, though the most local in Greenland, is also the best
known feature in its geology. It Is limited to Disco Island, and
perhaps to a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neigh¬
bouring country, and consists of numerous tbin beds of sandstone,
shale and coal—thB sideritie shale containing immense quantities
of leaves, stems, fruit, &c., as well as some insects, and the coal
pieces of retinitc. The study of there plant and insect remains
shows that forests containing a vegetation very similar to that of
California and the southern United State*, in some instance* even
the species of trees being all but identical, flpuridjed in 7p° N.
during geological periods comparatively recent. These bods, as
well as the Cretaceous series, from which they are as yet only im¬
perfectly distinguished, are associated with sheets of basalt, which
penetrate them in great dikes, and in some places, owing to the
wearing away of the softer sedimentary rocks, stand out .in long
walls running across the beds. These Miocene strata have not,been
found farther north on the Greenland shore than the region
mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay, on the Grinnell Land side
of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that the chances are they
will be found on the opposite coast, though doubtless the great
disintegration Greenland has undergone and is undergoing has
destroyed many of the softer beds of foasiliferous rocks. On the
east coast, more particularly in Hochstetter Foreland, the Miocene
beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of them
even on the west coast, between Soantsg Bay and Foulke Fjord, at
the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears tfiat since early
Tertiary times there has been a great change in the climate of
Greenland.
Nathorst has suggested that the whole of Greenland is a " horst,"
in the subordinate folds of which, us well as in the deeper ,r gTaben,"
the younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary
or later lava flows. 1 — J. A. H.] -
Minerals .—Native iron was found by Nordenskifild at Ovifak,
on Disco Isiaiul, in 1870, and brought to Sweden (18 7 1) us meteorites.
The heaviest nodule weighed over ao tons. Similar native iron, has
later been found by K. J. V. Steonstrup in several places on the
west coast enclosed as smaller or larger nodules in the basalt. This
iron has very often beautiful Widmaonstiitten figures like those ol
iron meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin.” In iky3
Peary found native iron at Cape York; since John Ross's voyage
in 1818 it has been known to exist there, end from it the Eskimo got
iron for their weapons, tn 1897 Peary lirought the largest nodule
to New York; it was estimated to weigh nearly 100 tons. This
iron is considered by several of the first authorities on the subject
to be of meteoric origin, 3 but no evidence hitherto given seems to
prove decisively that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found
were lying on gneissic rock, with no lxualtic rocks in the neighbour¬
hood, does not prove that the iron may not originate torn basalt,
for the nodules may have been transported by the glaciers, like
other erratic blocks, and will stand erosion much longer , than the
basalt, which may long ago have disappeared. This iron seems,
however, in several respects to be unlike the celebrated large nodules
of iron found by Normuiskiold at Ovilak, but appears to resemble
much more closely the softer kind of iron nodules found by Steens trap
in the basalt; 1 it stands exposure to the air equally well, aud ha-
similar Widmannstatton figures very sharp, as is to be expected in
such a large mass. It contains, however, more nickel and also
phosphorus. A few other minerals may be noticed, and some have
been worked to a small extent—graphite is abundant, particularly
near Upernivik; cryolite is found almost exclusively at Ivigtut;
copper has beimobserved at s-vcral places, but only in nodules and
laminae of limAil extent; and coal of poor quality is found in the
districts aboutWsco Bay and Umanak Fjord. Steatite or soapstone
has long been used by the natives for the manufacture of lamps and
vessels.
Cttmatc .—The climate is very uncertain, the weather changing
suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitos often swarm) to
dense tog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Juiianehaab
in the extreme south-^iat the winter is not anucli colder than that
of Norway and Swedemn the same locality ; but its mean tempera¬
ture for the whole year probably approximates to that pn the
Norwegian coast 600 m. farther north. The climate of the interior
lias been found to be of a continental character, with large ranges
ol temperature, and with an almost permanent anti-cyclonic region
over the interior oi tile inland ice, iron] which the prevailing winds
radiate towards the coasts. On the bytli parallel the mean annual
temperature at an elevation of b$bu It. is supposed to be -13 0 F.,
or reduced to sea-level 5 0 F. The mean annual temperature in the
interior farther north is supposed to lie - io° F. reduced to sea-level.
T he mean temperature of the warmest month, J uly, in the interior
should be, reduced to sea-level, on the 64th parallel 31° F., and
that of the coldest month, January, about -22“ F., while in North
Greenland it is probably -40“ reduced to sea-level. Here we may
probably find the lowest temperatures of the northern hemisphere.
The interior of Greenland contains both summer and winter a pole
of cold, situated in the opposite longitude to that of Siberia, with
which it is well able to compete in extreme severity. On Ninsert’s
expedition temperatures of about -417° F. were experienced during
1 See A. G. Nathorst, “ Bidrag till nordfistra Granitoids geologi,”
with map Geologisha Foreningens i Stockholm Fdrhaniiiugar,
No. 257, Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, Flora foitilit Arctica
(7 vols., 1868-1883), and especially Mtddeletser on Grdnland for
numerous papers on the geology and palaeontology.
’ Meid. cm Grdnl., part iv. pp, 1:5-131 (Copenhagen, 1883).
‘ See Peary, Northward over the " Gnat Ice," u, 604 et sea.
(New York, 1898)-
4 See ter. cit. pp. 127-128.
XII. 18
, 54^ GREENLAND
the night* In the beginning of September, end the minimum during
the winter may probably *mk to-9c F. in the interior of the inland
toe. These low temperatures are evidently caused by the radiation
of heat from the snow-surface in the rarefied air in the interior.
The dafly range of temperature is therefore very considerable,
sometimes amounting to 40°. Such a range is elsewhere found only
in deserts, but the surface of the inland ice may be considered to lw
an elevated desert of snow. 1 The climate of the east coast is on the
whole considerably more Arctic than that of the west coast on
Corresponding latitudes; the land is much more completely snow-
covered, and the snow-line goes considerably lower. The probability
also is that there is. more precipitation, and that the mean tempera¬
tures are lower. 3 The well-known strangely warm and dry fokn-
winds of Greenland occur both on the west and the east coast;
they are more local than was formerly believed, and are formed by
cyclonic winds passing cither over mountains or down the outer
slope of the inland ice.* Mirage and similar phenomena and the
aurora are common.
Fauna and Fima.— It was long a common belief that the fauna
and flora of Greenland were essentially European, a circumstance
which would make it probable that Greenland has been separated
by sea from America during a longer period of time than from
Europe. The correctness of this hypothesis may, however, be
doubted. The land mammals of Greenland arc decidedly more
American than European ; the musk-ox, the banded lemming
(Cunirulus tor quid ns) , the white polar wolf, of which there seems to
have been a new invasion recently round the northern part of the
country to the east coast, the F.skimo and the clog—probably also
the reindeer—have all come from America, while the other land
mammals, the polar bear, the polar fox, the Arctic hare, the stoat
( Mustela erminea), are perfectly circumpolar forms. The speciea of
seals and whales axe, if anything, more American than European,
and' so to some extent are the fishes. The bladder-nose seal
(Cyatophora criatata) , for instance, inav be said to be a Greenland-
American species, while a' Scandinavian species, such as the grey
sea! (Halichoerus my pus), appears to he very rare both in Greenland
and America. Of the sixty-one species of birds breeding in Green¬
land, eight are European-Asiatic, four are American, and the rest
ciremnpolar or North Atlantic and North Pacific in their distribu¬
tion.* About 310 species of vascular plants are fonml, of which
about forty species are American, forty-four European-Asiatic,
fifteen endemic, and the rest common both to America and Europe
or Asia. We thus see that the American and the European-Asiatic
elements of the flora arc nearly eipiivalmt; and if the flora of
Arctic North America were better known, the number of plants
common to America might be still more enlarged."
In the south, a few goats, sheep, oxen and pigs have l«-n intro¬
duced. The whaling industry was formerly prolific off the west
coast but decayed when the right whale nearly disappeared. The
white whale fishery of the Eskimo, however, continued, and sealing
ia important; walruses arc also caught and sometimes narwhal.
There arc also important fisheries for cod, caplin, halibut, red fish
{Sehastes) and nrjnsak (Cycloptrrus lumpns) ; a ^urk [Somniostts
mirrorrpkalus) is taken for the oil irom its liver; sea-trout are
found in the streams and small lakes of the south. Wn land reindeer
were formerly hunted, to their practical extinction in the south,
hill in the districts of Godthaab, Sukkrrtoppen and Holstensborg
there are still many reindeer. The eider-duck, guillemot and other
sea-birds are in some parts valuable lor food in winter, and so is
the ptarmigan. Eggs of sea-birds are collected and eider-down.
Valuable fur is obtained from the white aad blue fox, the skin of
the eider-duck and the polur bear. “
At Tasiusak (73° 22' N.), the most northern civilised settlement
in the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but
several plants do well in forcing frames. At l 1 niaiuik (70° 40' N.)
is the most northern garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes
grow well, turnips (but not every year), lettuce and chervil suc¬
ceed sometimes, but parsley cannot lie reared. At Jacobshavn
1 H. Mohn, " The Climate ot the Interior oi GroeuUuid," list
SetM. G top. IWapwiHfl, vol ix. (Edinburgh, 1803), PP- 142-145, 199 ;
H. Mohu and F. Nansen, “ Wiaseiiscliaftliche Ergebnisae, dec.
Ergltniungsheft No. 105 au Pitermanm MiUeitungen (1802), p. 51.
n On the climate of tiie east coast of Greenland see V. Willaume-
Jaatoen, Meddeltisar am (irtmland, pari ix. (1889), pp. 385-310,
part xvii. 11893), pp. 171-180.
» See A. Paulsen, Meteorotoq. Ziitsrkri/t (1889), p. 241 ; F. Nansen,
Tkt Fursi Crossing of (Itraniand ( 1 -ondon, 1890), vol. ii. pp. 496-497 ;
H. Mohn and F. Nansen, " Wisnenachaftliche Ergebnisse," dec.
Erg&niongsheft No. 105 «u PeUrmanns MitUilunpu (1892), p. 51,
* H. Winge, " Grfiulunds Fugle," Meddelelser on Gronland.
part xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899).
“ See |. Lange, “ Conspectus florae Groeulandicae,” Meddelelser
am tironlaml, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming,
“On Gritalands Vegetation," Meddelelse r om GrdnUmd, part xii.
(Copenhagen, 1888) ; .and in llotanimke JokrbikJier, vol. x. (18S8-
1889). See also A. Biytt, Sutlers JokrbUcket, ii. U883), pp. 1-50;
A, G. Nathorst. Olverstfl at K. VtUnskap. AktuL JorkandJ. (Stock¬
holm. 1884); " fCritische Bemerkungcn liber die Geaohichte der
Vegetation Griinlands," Botantsche JahrMtelur, vol xiv. (1891).
( 69 ° 12' N.), only some 15 m. irom the inland ice, gardening succnwh
very well; broccoli and lettuce grow willingly; the spinach pro-
duces large leaves; chervil, pepper-grass, leelcs, parsley and turnips
grow very well; the radishes are sown and gathered twice during
the summer (June to August). In the Booth, in the Julianehaab
district, even flowering plants, such as aster, Hemophilia and
mignonette, are cultivated, and broccoli, spinach, sorrel, chervil
parsley, rhubarb, turnips, lettuce, radishes grow well. Potatoes'
give fair results when they are taken good care of. carrots grow to
a thickness of 14 in., while cabbage does poorly. Strawberries
and cucumbers have been ripened in a forcing frame. In the
" Komgespeil " (King’s mirror) of the 13th century it ia stated
that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley.
Tiie wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable
situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species.
The plants arc of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied
to those found in Laplaqg or on the summits of the highest British
hill*. Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where
the lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do noi protrude, the ground
is covered with a carpet of mosses, creeping dwarf willow,, crow-
berries and similar plants, while the flowers most common are the
andromeda, the yellow poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, dec. besides the
flowering mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in
the shape of bush, the dwarf lurches even rising a few feet in very
sheltered places, tiie willows may grow higher than a man, and the
vegetation is less arctic and more abundant.
Government and Trade— The trade of Greenland Ls a monopoly
of tlte Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in
■Copenhagen by a government board ( Kangelige Gronlandske
Handel ) and in the country by various government officials.
In order to meet the double purposes of government and trade,
the west coast, up to nearly 74° N., is divided into two inspec¬
torates, the southern extending to 67° 40' N., the northern com¬
prising the rest of the country; the respective scats of govern¬
ment being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates
are ruled by two superior officials or governors responsible to
the director of the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspec¬
torates is divided into districts, each district having, in addition
to the chief settlement or eoloni, several outlying posts and
Eskimo hunting stations, each presided over by an udliggcr,
who is responsible to the eolmibestyrer, or superintendent of the
district. These trading settlements, which dot the coast for
a distance of 1000 m., are about sixty in numlier. From the
Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is the chief article
received, and is forwarded in casks to the euloni, where it is boiled
into oil, and prepared for being despatched to Copenhagen by
means of the government ships which arrive and leave between
May and November For the rest of the year navigation is
stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing
season. The principle upon which the government acts is to
give the natives low prices for their produce, but to sell them
European articles of necessity at prime cost, and other stores,
such as bread, at prices which will scarcely pay for the purchase
and freight, while no merchandise is charged, on an average,
more than 20 % over the cost price in Denmark. In addition
the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from privaterflealers
on paying freight for them at the rate of ajd. per 10 lb. or is. 6d.
per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and native
articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and
Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government.
Out of the payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one-
Bixth devoted to the Greenlanders’ public fund, spent in “ public
works,” in charity, and on other unforeseen contingencies.
The object of the monopoly is solely for the good of the Green¬
landers—to prevent spirits being sold to them, and the vice,
disease and misery which usually attend the collision between
natives and civilization of the trader’s type being introduced
into tiie primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition
to being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious
crime is very rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local
councils or parsismet were organized in 1857 in even 1 district.
To these parish parliaments delegates are sent from every station.
These parsiisoks, elected at the rate of about one representative
to 120 voters, wear a cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid
the European members of the council in distributing the surplus
profit apportioned to each district, and generally in advising as
to the welfare of that part of Greenland under their partial
GREENLAND
control. The municipal council has the disposal of 20 % of the
annual profits made on produce purchased within the confines
of each district. It hoMs two sessions every year, and the
discussions are entirely in the Eskimo language. In addition
to their functions as guardians of the poor, the parish members
have to investigate crimes and punish misdemeanours, settle
litigations and divide inheritances. They can impose fines for
small offences not worth sending before the inspector, and, in
cases of high misdemeanour, have the power of indicting corporal
punishment.
A Danish cnloni in Greenland might seem to many not to be
a cheerful place at best; though in the long summer days they
would certainly find some of those on the southern fjords com¬
paratively pleasant. The fact is, however, that most people
who ever lived some time in Greenland always long to go back.
There are generally in a cnloni three or four Danish houses,
built of wood and pitched over, in addition to storehouses and
a blubber-boiling establishment. The Danish residents may
include, besides a coloni-bestyrer and his assistant, a missimtair
or clergyman, at a few places also a doctor, and perhaps a
carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally
from twenty to several hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built
of stone and turf, each entered by a short tunnel. Lately their
houses in the colottis have also to some extent been built of
imported wood. Following the west coast northward, the
trading centres are these: in the south inspectorate, Juliane-
haab, near which are remains of the early Norse settlements of
Eric the Red and his companions (the Osior-Bygd ); Frederiks-
haab, in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut; Godt-
haab, the principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of
which are also early Norse remains (the Vester-Bygd); Sukker-
toppen, a most picturesque locality ; andHolstenborg. In the
north inspectorate the centres are : Egedesminde, on an islet
at the mouth of Disco Bay ; Christianshaab, one of the
pleasantest settlements in the north, and Jacobshavn, on the
inner shores of the same bay ; Godhavn (or Lievely) on the
south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of
the whaling industry ; RitenLenk, Umanak, and, most northerly
of all, Upemivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni,
Angniagssalik, in 65° 30' N., only established in 1894. For
ecclesiastical purposes Danish Greenland is reckoned in the
province of the bishop of Zeeland. The Danish mission in
Greenland has a yearly grant of £2000 from the trading revenue
of the colony, besides a contribution of £880 from the state.
The Moravian mission, which had worked in Greenland for a
century and a half, retired from the country in 1900. The
trade of Greenland has on the whole much decreased in modern
times, and trading and missions cost the Danish state a com¬
paratively large sum (about £11,000 every year), although this
is partly covered by the income from the royalty of the cryolite
mines at Ivigtut. There is, however, a yearly deficiency of more
than £6000. The decline in the value of the trade, which was
formerly very profitable, has to a great extent been brought
about by the fall m the price of seal-oil. It might be expected
that there should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries,
caused by the European and American sealers catching larger
quantities every year, especially along the coasts of Newfoundland
and Labrador, and so actually diminishing the number of the
animals in the Greenland seas. The statistics of South Greenland,
however, do not seem to demonstrate any such decrease. The
average numlier of seals killed annually is about 33,000.* The
1 Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874
as to the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Green¬
land, and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of Starvation,
the Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for
the establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas In
question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to
pot its provisions in fence, when any foreign state, whose ships
or subjects were engaged in the seal fishery m the area mentioned
in the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar pro¬
visions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in council
under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of April in
each year, was issued February K, 1876. Rescinded February 13,
1876, it was re-enacted on November z8,1876, and is still operative.
$47
annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured goods,
foodstuffs, fkc., may be taken somewhat to exceed £40,000.
The chief artides of export (together with those that have
lapsed) have been already indicated ; but they may be sum¬
marised as including seal-oil, seal, fox, bird and bear skins,
fish products and eiderdown, with some 'quantity of worked
skins. Walrus tusks and walrus hides, whidh in the days of the
old Norse settlements were the chief articles of export, are now
of little importance.
Population.-—The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated
at 45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 11,893. The
Europeans numlier about 300. The Eskimo population of
Danish Greenland (west coast) seems to have decreased since
the middle of the 18th century. Hans Egede estimated the
population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large over¬
estimate. Hie decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious
diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. .During
the last half of the 19th century there wns on the whole a slight
increase of the native population. The population fluctuates
a good deal, owing, to some extent, to an immigration of natives
from the cast to the west coast. The population of the east
coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in number, several
hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north part of
the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef
Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in
1823 Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either
completely died out or have wandered south. A little tribe of
Eskimo living in the region of Cape York near Smith Sound—
the so-called “ Arctic Highlanders ’’ or Smith Sound Eskimo—
number about 240.
History .—In the beginning of the joth oentury the Norwegian
Gunnbjhrn, son of Ulf Krika, is reported to have found some
islands to the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without
landing upon it, the southern part of the east coast of Greenland.
In 982 the Norwegian Eric the Red sailed from Iceland to find
the land which Gunnbjom had seen, and he spent three years
on its south-western coasts exploring the country. On his return
to Iceland in 985 he called die land Greenland in order to make
pople more willing to go there, and reported so favourably on
its possibilities that he hud no difficulty in obtaining followers.
In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only
14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on
the south-west coast, in the present Tulianehaab district. Eric
built his house at Brattaliil, near the inner end of the fjord
Tunugdliarfik, just north of the present Julianehaab. Other
settlers followed and in a few years two colonies had been formed,
one called Osterbygd in the present district of Tulianehaab
comprising later about 190 farms, and another called Vester-
bygd farther north on tiie west coast in the present district
of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins
in the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where
these colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped
in coarse hairy cloth, and both pagan and Christian tombstones
with runic inscriptions have been found. On a voyage from
Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son of Eric the Red) dis¬
covered America in the year 1000, and a few years later Torfina
Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from Green¬
land to Nova Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years
later (see Vinland).
When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various
remains indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been
people of a similar kind as those they met with in Vinland, in
America, whom they called Skratling (the meaning of the word
is uncertain, it means possibly weak people); but the sagas
do not report that they actually met the natives then. But
somewhat later they have probably met with the Eskimo
farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco
Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, See.
The Norse colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at
least to 73° N., where a small runic stone from the 14th century
has been found. On a voyage in 1267 they penetrated even still
farther north into the Melville Bay.
54« GREENLAW-
Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance
of Olaf Trygvasson, king of Norway, in 1000 and following years.
In the beginning of the 12th century Greenland got its own
bishop, who resided at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station
Igoliko, on an isthmus between two fjords, Igaliksfjord (the old
Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarfik (the old Eriksfjord), inside the
present colony Julianehaah. The Norse colonies had twelve
churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the Osterbygd,
and four churches in the Vesterlivgd. Greenland, like Iceland,
had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261,
when the Greenlanders were induced to swear allegiance to the
king of Norway. Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown
till 1814, when, at the dissolution of the union between Denmark
and Norway, neither il nor Iceland and the Faeroes were men¬
tioned, and they, therefore, were kept by the Danish king and
thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called respectively
Osier Bygd (or eastern settlement) and Veslrr (western) Bvgd,
both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the
districts of Jnlianehuab and Godthaab respectively), though
for long thr'vicw was persistently held that the first was on the
oust coast, amt numerous expeditions have been sent in search
of these “ lost colonies ” and their imaginary survivors. These
settlements at the height of their prosperity are estimated to have
had 10,000 inhabitants, which, however, is an over-estimate, the
number having probably been nearer one-half or one-third of
that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in
1540, but long before that date those appointed had never
readied their sees ; the last bishop who resided in Greenland
died there in 1477. After the middle of the 14th century very
little is heard of the settlements, and their communication with
the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually ceased. This
may have been due in great part to the fact that the shipping
ami trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of
Norway, who kept only one ship sailing at long intervals (of
years) to Greenland ; at the same time the shipping and trade
of Norway came more and more in the hands of the Hanseatic
League, which took no interest in Greenland. The lust ship that
is known to have visited the Norse colony in Greenland returned
to Norway in 1410. With no support from home the settlements
seem to have decayed vapidly. It has been supposed tliat. they
were destroyed by attacks of the F.skimo, who about this period
seem to have become more numerous and to have extended
southwards along the coast from the north. This seems a less
leasible explanation ; it is more probable that the Norse settlers
intermarried with the Eskimo and were gradually absorlied.
About the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century
11 would appear that all Norse colonization had practically
disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no
sign i>f any people save the Eskimo, nmong whose traditions are a
few dircrtlv relating to the old Norsemen, and several truces of
Norse influence. 1 For more than two hundred years Greenland
seems to have been neglected,almost forgotten. It was visited
by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing in the form of permanent
European settlements was established until the year 1721, when
the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans Egede,
landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid
many hardships and discouragements lie persevered ; and at
the present day the native race is civilized and Christianized.
Many of the colonists of the 18th century were convicts and
other offenders: and in 1750 the trade became a monopoly in
the hands ot 11 private company. In 1733-1734 there was a
dreadful epidemic ol smallpox, which destroyed a great number
of the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to lie profitable as a
private monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the
government took it over, julianehaah was founded in the
following year. In 1807 1814, owing to the war, communication
was rut off with Norway and Denmark ; lmt subsequently the
coionv prospered in a languid fashion.
Authorities,— to the discovery of Greenland bv the Norsemen
and its early historv see Konrad Maurer's excellent paper, " Ge-
achichte der Enttleckung Ostgronlands " in the rqxirt of Du rweite
1 Cl. t. Nansen, Eskimo Lift (London, 1893).
-GREENOCK
deuttche Noripolarfahrt iS6o~tSjo (Leipzig, 1874), vt *l. Storm,
Studies on the " Vineland " Voyages (Copenhagen, 1889! • Entrails
des Mimoires de la Sociiii Royale des Antiauaires du Nord {1888);
K. J. V. Steenstrup, " Om Osterbygden Meddelelser om GrSnland,
part ix. (1882), pp. r-51; Finnur Jonsson, " Grflnlanda gamle
Topoerafi efter Kildeme " in Meddelelser om GrSnland, part xx.
(1899), pp. 265-329; Joseph Fischer, The Discoveries of the Norsemen
ib America, translated irom German by B. H. Soulsby (London,
1903). As to the general literature on Greenland, a number of the
more important modern works have been noticed in footnotes.
The often-quoted Meddelelser om Grdnland is of especial value; it
is published in parts (Copenhagen) since 1879, and is chiefly written
in Danish, but each part has a summary in French. In part xiii
there is a most valuable list of literature about Greenland up to
1880. See also Geographical Journal, passim.
Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned :
Hauls Egede, Description of Greenland (Loudon, 1745) ; Crantz,
History of Greenland (2 vols., London, 1820) ; GrSnlands historiske
Mindesmerker (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1838 1845) ; H. Rink, Danish
Greenland (London, 1877) ; H. Kink, Tales of the F.skimo (London,
1875) ; (see also same, " Eskimo Tnbcs " in Meddelelser om GrSn¬
land, part xi.); Johnstrup, Gieseche's Mineralogiske Reise i GrSnland
(Copenhagen, 1878). (F. N.)
GREENLAW (a “ grassy hill ”), a town of Berwickshire, Scot¬
land. Pop. (1901) 6xi, It is situated on the Blackadder, 62! m.
S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway company’s branch
line from Heston Junction to St Boswells. The town was built
towards the end of the 17th century, to take the place of an older
one, which stood about a mile to the S.E. It was the county town
from 1696 to 1853, when for several years it shared this dignity
with Duns, which, however, is now the sole capital. The chief
manufactures are woollens and agricultural implements. About
3 m. to the S. the min of Hume Castle, founded in the 13th
century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English
in 1547, in spile of Eadv Home’s gallant defence, it was retaken
two years afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its
surrender to Cromwell in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards
the close of the 18th century the 3rd earl of Marchmonl had the
walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and the castle, though a mere
shell of the original structure, is now a picturesque ruin.
GREENLEAF, SIMON (1783-1853), American jurist, was
born at Newburvport, Massachusetts, on the 5th of December
1783. When u child he was taken by his father to Maine, where
he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise at Standish. Hr
soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve yours, and
in 1818 removed to Portland. He wus reporter of the supreme
court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of
Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Matue (1822-1835).
In 1833 he became Koyall professor, and in 1846 succeeded
Judge. Joseph Story as Dane professor of law in Harvard I'nivcr-
sity*; in 1848 he retired from his active duties, and became
professor emeritus. After lieing for many years president of the
Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge, Mass., on
the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf’s principal work is a Treatise
on the Law of Evidence (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also published
A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or Limited
in their Application, taken from Anieriean and English Reports
(1821), and Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists
by the Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice,
■with an account of the Trial of Jesus (1846 ; London, 1847). He
revised for the American courts William Cruise's Digest of Laws
respecting Real Property (3 vols., 1849-1850).
GREEN MONKEY, a west African representative of the typical
group of the guenon monkeys technically known as Cercopithecus
callitriehus, taking its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur
of the hack, which forms a marked contrast to the white whiskers
and belly.
GREENOCK, a municipal and polity burgh and seaport of
Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of
Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of Glasgow by the Caledonian and the
Glasgow & South-Western railways, 21 m. by the river and
firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water frontage of
nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town in
which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch Thom and Loch
Gryfe,from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic
use, and for driving several mills and factories, The streets are
GREENOCKITE—GREENORE
laid out on the comparatively level tract behind the firth, the
older thoroughfares and buildings lying in the centre. The west
end contains numerous handsome villas and a fine esplanade, 1£ m.
long, running from Prince’s Pier to Fort Matilda, which is supplied
with submarine mines for the defence of the river. The capacious
bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence from a religious
house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank that ends
here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway
between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and
the southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper
firth. There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting
with Port Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total
distance of 7l m. The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and
Greenock thus has the reputation of being the wettest town in
Scotland.
Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The muni¬
cipal buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with
a tower 244 ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on
the old steamboat quay, in classic style with a Doric portico,
dates from 1818. The county buildings (1867) have a tower and
spire 1x2 ft. high. The Watt Institution, founded in 1837 by a
son of the famous engineer, James Watt, contains the public
library (established in 1783), the Watt scientific library (pre¬
sented in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble statue of James
Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the museum and
lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other
buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library,
founded by the widow of William Spence the mathematician.
In addition to numerous board schools there are the Greenock
academy for secondary education, the technical college (1900),
the school of art, and a school of navigation and engineering.
The charitable institutions include the infirmaiy ; the cholera
hospital; the eye infirmary ; the fever reception house ; Sir
Gabriel Wood’s mariners’ asylum, an Elizabethan building
erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant sea¬
men ; and the Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built
beyond the southern boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour
stands the old west now the north parish church (a Gothic
edifice dating from 1591) containing some stained-glass windows
by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns's “ Highland Mary ”
was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson Street
(1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile.
The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the
Classic style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the
infirmury and attached to a few of the older churches, a beauti¬
ful cemetery, 90 acres in extent, has been laid out in the south¬
western district. The parks and open spaces include Wellington
Park, Well Park in the heart of the town (these were the gift of
Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle Road—a broad drive
winding over the heights towards Gourock, constructed as a
“ relief work ” in the severe winter of 1879-1880.
Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with
provost and bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by
one member. The corporation owns the supplies of water (the
equipment of works and reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas,
electric light and power, and the tramways (leased to a company).
The staple industries are shipbuilding (established in 1760) and
sugar refining (1765). Greenock-built vessels have always been
esteemed, and many Cunard, P. & O. and Allan liners have been
constructed in the yards. The town has been one of the chief
centres of the sugar industry. Other important industries
include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives,
anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and
worsted goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium
factory, a flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The
seal and whale fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct,
but the fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland
unds are considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first
hour (finished in »7>o) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but
acquired it in that and the following year, and a graving dock
was opened in 1786. Since then additions and improvements
have been periodically in progress, and there are now several
549
tidal harbours—among them Victoria harbour Albert harbour,
the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour,
the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and Tames Watt
dock (completed in 1886 at a cost of £650,000 with an area of
2000 ft. by 400 ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garni
graving dock and other dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100
acres in area and the quay walla are over 3 m. in length. Both
the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways
(in Prince’s Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage
nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last
the outlay on the harbour has exceeded £1,500,000.
In the earlier part of the 17th century Greenock was a fishing
village, consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century
later there were only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it
was erected by Charles I. into a burgh of barony under a charter
granted to John Shaw, the government being administered by a
baron-bailie, or magistrate, appointed by the superior. Its
commercial prosperity received an enormous impetus from the
Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with America and the
West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of Independ¬
ence suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in
in 1783, and within die following seven years shipping trebled in
amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw—to whom and to whose
descendants, the Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been
indebted—by charter (dated 1741 and 1751) had empowered the
householders to elect a council of nine members, which proved to
be the most liberal constitution of any Scots burgh prior to the
Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the status of
a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to
parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt,
William Spence (1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898),
principal of Glasgow University, who died in the town and was
buried in Greenock cemetery. John Galt, the novelist, was
educated in Greenock, where he also server! some time in the
custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided the
town in 1715.
GREENOCKITE, a rare mineral composed of cadmium
sulphide, CdS, occurring as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals
or as a canary-yellow powder. Crystals are hexagonal with
hemimorphic development, being differently terminated at the
two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the numerous
hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The crys¬
tals are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine
to resinous lustre ; hardness 3-34 ; specific gravity 4-9. Crystals
have been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the
neighbourhood of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite
in the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic igneous rocks—a rather
unusual mode of occurrence for a metallic sulphide. The first,
and largest crystal (about $ in. across) was found, about the
year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at Bowling in Dumbartonshire,
hut this was thought to be blende. A larger number of crystals,
but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the cutting of the
Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow 8r Greenock railway; they
were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of
Cathcart, softer whom the mineral was named. A third locality
is the Boyleston quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities—
Przibram in Bohemia, Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c.
—the mineral is represented only as a powder dusted over the
surface of zinc minerals, especially blende and calamine, which
contain a small amount of cadmium replacing zinc.
Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide
(ZnS) known as wurtzite. -Both minerals have been prepared
artificially, and are not uncommon as furnace products. Previous
to the recent discovery in Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small
octahedral crystals, greenockite was the only known mineral
containing cadmium as an essential constituent. (L. J. S.).
GREENORE, a seaport 'and watering-place of county Louth,
Ireland, beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on
its western shore. It was brought to importance by the action
of the London & North-Western railway company of England,
which owns the pier and railways joining the Great Northern
system at Dundalk (12) m.) and Newry (14 m.). A regular
GREENOUGH, a R.—GREEN RIBBON CLUB
550
service of passenger steamers controlled by the company runs
to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses the Laugh
to Creencostle, for Kilked, and the southern watering-places of
county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out
the golf links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach,
some 10 ft. above present sea-level, is to be seen.
GHEENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855), English geo¬
logist, was born in London on the J8th of January 1778. He
was educated at Eton, and afterwards (170s) entered Pem¬
broke College, Oxford, but never graduated. In 1798 he pro¬
ceeded to Gottingen to prosecute legal studies, but having
attended the lectures of Blumenliach he was attracted to the
study of natural history, and, coming into the possession of a
fortune, he abandoned law and devoted his attention to science.
He studied mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in
various parts of Europe and the British Isles, and worked at
chemistry at the Koval Institution. A visit Pi Ireland aroused
deep interest in political questions, and he was in 1807 elected
member of parliament for the borough of Gatton, continuing to
hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his interest in geology
increased, be was elected T'.k.S. in 1807, and he was the chief
founder with others of the Geological Society of London in 1807.
He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it
was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and
in this capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and
did much to promote tlie advancement of geology. In 1819
he published A Critical Examination of the Eirst Principles of
Geology, a work which was useful mainly in refuting erroneous
theories. In the same year was published his famous Geological
Map of England and Wales, in six sheets; of which a second
edition was issued in j.839. This map was to a large extent based
on the original map of William Smith ; but much new informa¬
tion was embodied. In 184,1 he commenced to prepare a geo¬
logical map of India, which was published in 1854. He died at
Naples on the 2nd of April 1855.
GHEENOUGH, HORATIO (1805 185c). American sculptor,
son of a merchant, was Ivim at Boston, on the 6th of Sept*mber
1805. At the age of sixteen lie entered llurvard, but he devoted
his principal attention to art, and in the autumn of 1825 he went
to Rome, where he studied under Thorwaldsen. After a short
visit in 183(1 to Boston, where he executed busts of John Quincy
Adams and other people of distinction, he returned to Italy and
took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first com¬
missions was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Clmnt-
' ing Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government
to execute the colossal statue of Washington for the national
capital. It was unveiled in 184,1, and was really a fine piece of
work for its day ; hut in modem times it has been sharply
criticized as unworthy and incongruous. Shortly afterwards
lie received a second government commission for a colossal
group, the “ Rescue,” intended to represent the conflict lietween
the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races, in 1851 he returned to
Washington to superintend its erection, and in the autumn of
1852 lie was attacked by brain fever, of which he died in Somer¬
ville neur Boston on the i8tli of December. Among other works
of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of lufayotte, the Medora
and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston Athenaeum.
Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in
prose and verse.
Sec H. T. Tackermnn, Memoir of Horatio Greenough (New York,
1833).
GHEENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTBEET (18.13-1901), American
classical scholar, was bom in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May
1833. He graduated at Harvard in 1836, studied one year at
the Harvard low .School. was admitted to the Michigan bar,
and practised in MarstiuU. Michigan, until 1865, when he was
appointed tutor in Laliu at Harvard. In 1873 t»' became
assistant professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which
he resigned hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge,
Massachusetts, on th<f uth of October root. Following the
lead of Goodwin’s Moods arid Tensas (i860), he, set himself to
study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870 published Analysis
of the Latin Subjunctive, a brief treatise, privately -printed, of
much originality and value, and in many ways coinciding with
Berthold Delbriick’s Gebrmuh its Conftmetivs und' Optative in
Sanskrit uni Griechischen (1871), which, however, quite over¬
shadowed the Analysis. In 1872 appeared A Latin Grammar
for Schools and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar,
by Joseph A. Allen and James B. Greenough, a work of great
critical carefulness. His theory of rum-constructions is that
adopted and developed by William Gardner Hale. In 1872-1880
Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and comparative
philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced
scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen
and Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occa¬
sionally contributed to Harvard Studies in Classical Philology
(founded in 1889 and endowed at his instance by his own class)
papers on I ait in syntax, prosody and etymology—a subject
011 which he planned a long work—on Roman archaeology and
on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy. He assisted
largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able English
scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with
Professor George I.. Kittredge on Words and their Ways in
English Speech (1901), one of the best books on the subject in
the language. He wrote clever light verse, including The Black¬
birds, a comedietta, first published in The Atlantic Monthly
(vol. xxxix. 2S77); The Rose and the Ring (1880), a pantomime
adapted from Thackeray ; The Queen of Hearts (1885), a dramatic
fantasia: and Old King Cole (1889), an operetta.
Sre the sketch by George L Kittmlge in Harvard Studies in
Classiial Philology, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 1-17 (also printed m Harvard
Graduates' Magazine, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201).
GHEEN RIBBON CLUB, one of the earliest of the loosely
combined associations which met from time to time in London
taverns or coffee-houses for political purposes in the 17th century.
Tt had its meeting-place at the King’s Head tavern at Chancery
Lane End, and was therefore known as the “ King's Head Club.”
It seems to have been founded about the year 1675 as a resort
for members of the political party hostile to the court, and as
these associates were in the habit of wearing in their hats a bow,
or “ hob,” of green ribbon, as a distinguishing badge useful
for the purpose of mutual recognition in street brawls, the name
of the dub became changed, about 1679, to the Green Ribbon
Club. The frequenters of the dub were the extreme faction of the
country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who
were concerned in the R ve House Plot and Monmouth's rebellion.
Roger North tells us that “ they admitted all strangers that were
confidingly introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions
to make proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly
come to town.” According to Dryden (Absalom and Achitophd)
drinking was the chief attraction, and the members talked and
organized sedition over their cups. Thomas Dangerfidd supplied
the court with a list of forty-eight members of the Green Ribbon
Club in 1(179 : and although Dangcrfield's numerous perjuries
make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives confirma¬
tion as regards several names from a list given to James II. by
Nathan Wade in 1885 (Harleian MSS. 6843), while a number
of more eminent personages are mentioned in The Cabal, a satire
published in 1680, as also frequenting the dub. From these
sources it would appear that the duke of Monmouth himself,
and statesmen like Halifax, Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Maccles¬
field, Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of Warke, Herbert of Cherburv,
were among those who fraternized at the King's Head Tavern
with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgravc and Shadwell,
with remnants of the Cromwellian regime like Falconbridgc,
Henrv Ireton and Clavpole, with such profligates as Lord Howard
of Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the
type of Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield,
notorious among his other crimes and treacheries for a seditious
paper found in a meal-tub, is found in connexion with the dub
in The Loyal Subjects’ Litany, one of the innumerable satires
of the period, in which occur the lines :
" From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club
From brewing sedition m a sanctified Tub,
Libera nos, Domtne."
GREENSAND
The dub was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the
court, and its members were active promoters of conspiracy and
sedition. "Die president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir
Robert Peyton, M.P. for Middlesex, who afterwards turned
informer. The Green Ribbon Club served both as a debating
society and an intelligence department for the Whig faction.
Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed
out by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news
from Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, “ for
some or others were continually coming and going,” says Roger
North, “ to import or export news and stories.” Slander of the
court or the Tories was invented in the club and sedulously
spread over the town, and measures were there concerted for
pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting the pretensions
of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to Catholic
outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the
scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk
armour, supposed to be bullet proof, “ in which any man dressed
up was as safe as a> house,” says North, “ for it was impossible
to strike him for laughing " ; while in their pockets, “ for street
and crowd-work,” they carried the weapon of offence invented
by Stephen College and known as the “ Protestant Flail.”
The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club
the means of constructing the first systematized political organiza¬
tion in England. North relates that “ evert' post conveyed
the news and tales legitimated there, as also the malign construc¬
tions of all the good actions of the government, especially to
places where elections were depending, to shape men’s characters
into fit qualifications to be chosen or rejected.” In the general
election of January and February 1670 the Whig interest
throughout the country was managed and controlled by a
committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club’s
organizing activity was also notably effective in the agitation
of the Petitioners in 1679. ’litis celebrated movement was
engineered from the Green Riblion Club with all the skill and
energy of a modem caucus. The petitions wpre prepared in
London and sent down to every part of the country, where paid
canvassers took them from house to 1 house collecting signatures
with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The great
“ pope-burning ” processions in 1680 and 1081 , on the anniversary
of Queen Elizabeth’s accession, were also organized by the dub.
They ended by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club
windows ; and as they proved an effective means of inflaming
the religious passions of the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon
Club that the mobile vulgus first received the nickname of “ the
mob.” The activity of the club was, however, short-lived.
The failure to curry the Exclusion Bill, one of the favourite
projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence, which declined
rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation of the
city of London's charter, and the discovery of the Rye House
Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685
John Ayloffe, who was found to have been “ a clubber at the
Ring’s Head Tavern and a green-ribon man,” was executed
in front of the premises on the spot where the “ pope-burning ”
bon-fires had been kindled ; and although the tavern was still
in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green Ribbon Club
which made it famous did not survive the accession of James II.
The precise situation of the King’s Head Tavern, described by
North as “ over against the Inner Temple Gate,” was at the
comer of Fleet Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the
latter thoroughfare.
See Sir George Sitwell, The hirst Whig (Scarborough, 1894),
containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope¬
burning procession; Roger North, Examen (London, 1740);
Anchitell Grey, Debates of the House of Commons, ibtrp-r(>8g, voL
vili. (to vols., London, 1769) ; Sir John Bramston, Autobiography
(Camden Sac., London, 184}). (R. J. M.)
GREENSAND, in geology, the name that has been applied to
no fewer than three distinct members of the Cretaceous System,
viz. the Upper Greensand (see Gault), the Lower Greensand
and the so-called Cambridge Greensand, a local phase of the base
of the Chalk (9.0.). The term was introduced by the early
English geologists for certain sandy rocks which frequently
55*
exhibited a greenish colour aft account of the presence of minute
grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossiteof dime
rocks came 1 to be carefully studied there was much confusion
between what Is now known as the Upper Greensand' (Selbomian)
and Hie Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine otrr attention
to the latter.
Hie Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H.
Fitton ( Q.J.GS . iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the nstme
“ Vectine ” for the formation. The name was revived under the
form “ Vectian" in 1885 by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because,
although sands and sandstones prevail, the green colour has
often dunged by oxidation of the iron to various shades of red
and brown, and Other lithological types, clays and limestones
represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand
is typically developed in the Wealden district, iri the Isle of
Wight, in Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again
beneath the northern outcrop of die Chalk in Berkshire, Oxford¬
shire and Bedfordshire, and thence it is traceable through
Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east Yorkshire. It rests conform¬
ably upon the Wealden formation in the south of England, but
it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the occurrence
of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked overlap
of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived
pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft
thick at Atherficld in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly
westward. It is usually dearly marked off from the overlying
Gault.
In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been sub¬
divided as follows, although the several members are not every¬
where recognizable:—
Isle of Wight.
Folkestone Htxlt. (70-100 ft.) . Carstone and Sand rock series.
Saiulgate Beds (75-100 It.) . Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands),
ITvthc Beds (80-500 ft.) . . Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands).
Atherficld Clay (20-00 ft.) . . Atherneld Clay.
The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The
basal portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the “ Perna bed ” from the
abundanceof Perna Mullcli ; other fossils are Hoplites Deshayesii,
Kxogyra sinuata, Ancyloceras Mathesnnianum. The Hvthe beds
are interstratified thin limestones and sandstones ; the former
arc bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain
amount of quartz and glauconite. The limestone is known
locally as “ rag ” ; the Kentish R^kus been largely employed
as a building stone and roadstone ;^rfrequently contains layers
of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that town). The sandy
portions are very variable ; the stone is often clayey and calcare¬
ous and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone ;
locally it is called “ hassock ” (or Calkstone). The two stones
arc well exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so
called from the discovery of the bones of that reptile). South¬
west of Dorking sandstone and grit become more prevalent, and
it is known there as “ Bargate stone,” much used around Godai¬
ming. Pulborough stone is another local sandstone of the Hythe
beds. Fuller's earth occurs in parts of this formation in
Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand and
clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst,
Pulborough and Pctworth. At Nutficld the celebrated fuller’s
earth deposits occur on this horizon ; it is also found near
Maidstone, at Bletchingley and Red Hill; The Folkestone beds
are light-coloured, rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous
limestone (Folkestone stone) and chert; a pbosphatic bed is found
near the top. These beds arc well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone
and near Reigate. At Ightham there is a fine, hard, white sand¬
stone along with a green, quartzitic variety (Ightham stone).. Ip
Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking, but a fer¬
ruginous grit. “ carstone,” occurs in lenticular masses find layers,
which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &q,„
The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy
country, as about Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midharst, Petworth, at
Woburn, or at Shanklin and Sandown in the Isle Of Wigh£
Outside the southern area the tower Greensand is represented bjr
the Fanngdon sponge-bearing beds in Berkshire, the Sandgpstnd
552 GREENSBORO-
Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron sands of Oxford¬
shire, the sands and fuller's earth of Woburn, the Leighton
Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the
'Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county
and Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the
Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along
with the upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands
of the Lower Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture
of glass, for which purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone,
near Reigate, Hartshill, near Aylesbury and other places ; the
ferruginous sand is worked as an iron ore at Seend.
This formation is continuous across the channel into France,
where it is well developed in Boulonnais. According to the
continental classification the Atherfield ('lav is equivalent to the
Urgonian or Barremian ; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to
the Aptian (t/.v.); while the upper part of the Folkestone beds
would fall within the lower Albian (q.v.).
See the Memoirs ol the Geological Survey, " Geology of the Weald "
(1875), " Geology of the Isle of Wight " (2nd ed., 1889), “ Geology
of the Me of Parbeck ’’ (1898); and the Record 0/ Recursions,
Geologists’ Association (London, 1891). (J, A. H.)
GREENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Guilford county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop.
(1890) 3317, (1900) 10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes;
(1906, estimate), 14,067. Greensboro is served by several lines
of the Southern Railway. It is situated in the Piedmont region
of the state and has an excellent climate. . The city is the seat of
the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of the
Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South;
chartered in 1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles
F. Deems was president in 1850 1854, and which, owing to the
burning of its buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874 ; and of
two institutions for negroes—a State Agricultural and Mechanical
College, and Bennett College (Methodist Episcopal,co-educutional,
1873). Another school for negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College
(Evangelical Lutheran, co-cducational), was opened at Concord,
N.C., in 1903, was removed to Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907
was established at Lutherville, E. of Greensboro. About 6 m. W.
of Greensboro is Guilford College (co-edueational ; Friends),
founded as “ New Garden Boarding School ” in 1837 and re-
chartered under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a
Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is
the shipping-point fur aMgricultural, lumbering and trucking
region, among whose prompts Indian corn, tobacco und cotton
are especially important; is an important insurance centre ; has
a large wholesale trade ; and has various manufactures, including
cotton goods 1 (especially blue denim), tobacco and cigars,
lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds, machinery, foundry
products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory products
increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or 97-6%.
The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro
was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the
15th of March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford
Court House, about C m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a
Battle-Ground Park of 100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this
park contains a Revolutionary museum, and twenty-nine monu¬
ments, including a Colonial Column, an arch (1906) in memory
of Brig.-Gcneral Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North Carolina,
who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and
Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-
,1781), a brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed
at Catawba and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson,
N.C., was named. Greensboro was founded and became the
county-seat in 1808, was organized as a town in 1829, and was
first chartered as a city in 1870,
1 Oae of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the
first in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed
about 20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three
vwy huge mitts were built in the decade after 189s, and three mill
villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these
three mitts, lie immediately N. of the city ; m 1908 their population
was estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools
for the children of operatives and carry on " welfare work " in these
villages.
-GREENVILLE
GREENSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Westmore¬
land county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 4202; (1900) 6508, of whom 484 were fdreign-bom.
It is served by two lines of the Pennsylvania Railway. It is an
important coal centre, and manufactures engines, iron and brass
goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In addition to its public school
system, it has several private schools, including St Mary’s
Academy and St Joseph’s Academy, both Roman Catholic. About
3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of Hanna’s
Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed
by the Indians on the 13th of July 1782 ; here what is said to
have been the first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on
the 6th of April 1773, and the county courts continued to be held
here until 1787. Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, imme¬
diately after the opening of the state road, not far from the trail
followed by General John Forbes on his march to Fort Duquesne
in 1758 ; it was made the county-seat in 1787, and was incor¬
porated in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick (pop. in 1900,
901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg (620)
were merged with Greensburg.
See John N. Boucher's History of Westmoreland County, l‘a.
(3 vols., New York, 1906).
GRHENSHANK, one of the largest of the birds commonly
known as sandpipers, the Tetanus glottis of most ornithological
writers. Some exercise of the imagination is however needed to
see in the dingy olive-coloured legs of this species a justification
of the English name by which it goes, and the application of that
name, which seems to be due to Pennant, was probably by way
of distinguishing it from two allied but perfectly distinct species
of Tetanus (T. calidris and T. fuscus) having red legs and usually
called redshanks. The greenshank is a native of the northern
parts of the Old World, but in winter it wanders far to the south,
and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope, in India and
thence throughout the lndo-Malay Archipelago to Australia.
It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance
there must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a
woodcock, it is of a much more slender build, and its long legs
and neck give it a graceful appearance, which is enhanced by
the activity of its actions. Disturbed from the moor or marsh,
where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the air, conspicuous
by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries flies round
the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree,
if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits
all the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many
other Limicolae indulge during the breeding-season— with
certain variations, however, that are peculiarly its own. It
breeds in no small numbers in the Hebrides, and parts of the
Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to Sutherland, as well as
in the more elevated or more northern districts of Norway,
Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kam¬
chatka. In North America it is represented by two species,
Totanus scmipalmatus and T. melamilrucus , there called willets,
telltales or tattlers, which in general habits resemble the green-
shank of the Old World. (A. N.)
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington
county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi
river, about 75 m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900)
7642 (4987 negroes); (1910) 9610. Greenville is served by the
Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and by
various passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Mississippi
river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta, a rich
cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost exclusively
connected with that staple. There are large warehouses, com¬
presses and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills.
Old Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county
seat of Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it),
and later became the county-seat of Washington county. Much
of the old town caved into the river, and during the Civil War it
was burned by the Federal forces soon after the capture of
Memphis. The present site was then adopted. The town of
Greenville was incorporated in 1870 ; in 1886 it was chartered
as a city.
GREENVILLE—GREENWICH
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Darke county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton.
Pop. (1900) 5501; (iqio) 6237. It is served by the Pittsbuig,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Cincinnati Northern
railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is situated
about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a large
and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco.
It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and
creamery products and has grain elevators and tobacco ware¬
houses. In the city is a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there
is a county Children's Home and Infirmary. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works. Greenville occupies the site
of un Indian village and of Fort Greenville (built by General
Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on the
3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory
over the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the
treaty of Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of
hostilities and ceding to the United States a considerable portion
of Ohio and a number of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and
Michigan (including the sites of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance,
Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and Chicago), and the
United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000 worth of
goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500,
for ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Dela¬
wares, the Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawa-
tomies, the Miamis, the Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas,
the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river tribe. Tecumsch lived at
Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second Indian treaty was
negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H. Harrison and
Lewis Cass,by which the Wyandots, the Delawares,the Shawrtees,
the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United
States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white
settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town
was laid out in the same year, it was made the county-seat of
the newly erected county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in
1838 and chartered as a city in 1887.
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-scat of Greenville
county, South Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m.
N.W. of Columbia, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890)
8607; (1900) 1 r,8(10, of whom 5414 were negroes; (U.S. census,
1910) 15,741. It is served by the Southern, the Greenville &
Knoxville and the Charleston & Western Carolina railways.
It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue Ridge
Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors.
It is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing
district. Greenville’s chief interest is in cotton, but it has
various other manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron
and fertilizers. The total value of the factory products of the
city in 1905 was $1,076,774, an increase of 73-5 % since 1900.
The city is the seat of Furman University, Chicora College for
girls (1893 ; Presbyterian), and Greenville Female College (1854 ;
Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379 students, and which,
besides the usual departments, has a conservatory of music,
a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture and
a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University
(Baptist; opened in 1852) grew out of the “ Furman Academy
and Theological Institution,” opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827,
and named in honour of Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-
known Baptist clergyman of South Carolina, whose son, James
C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of the University.
In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250 students,
of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville
was laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and
was first chartered as a city in 1868.
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hunt county,
Texas, U.S.A., near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m.
N.E. of Dallas. Pop. (.1800) 4330; (1900) 6860(114 being foreign-
bom and 1751 negroes); (1910) 8850. It is served by the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis South-Western and the
Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton market,
has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed ail refinery,
and other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agri¬
5S3
cultural district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting
plant. It is the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in
1893, and r m. from the city limits, in the village of Peniel
(pop. 1908, about 500), a community of “ Holiness ’’ people, are
the Texas Holiness University (1898), a Holiness orphan asylum
and a Holiness press. Greenville was settled in 1844, and was
chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas legislature
granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission
government similar to that of Galveston.
GREENWICH, a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the
state, about 28 m. N .E. of New York City, It contains a borough
of the same name- and the villages of Cos Cob, Riverside and
Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New Haven & Hart¬
ford Railway ; the township has steamboat and electric railway
connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900)
12,172 (3271 foreign-born); (1910) 16,463; of the borough
(1900) 2420; (1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort,
principally for New Yorkers. Among the residents have been
Edwin Thomas Booth, Jolrn Henry Twachtman, the landscape
painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder
of the American Sugar Company. There arc several fine churches
in the township ; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H
Murray (1840-11)04), called “Adirondack Murray,’’ from his
Camp Life in the Adirondack Mountains (1868), was once paster.
In tile borough are a public library', Greenwich Academy (1827 ;
co-educational), the Brunswick School for boys (1901), with
which Betts Academy of Stamford was united in 1908, and a
hospital. The principal manufactures arc belting, woollens,
tinners’ hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are shipped
from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Huven
Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the explora¬
tion of Long Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid
claim to Greenwich, and os New' Haven did nothing to assist
the settlers, they consented to union with New*Netherland in
1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty
of 1650, which fixed the boundary hetween New Netherlanri and
the New Huven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to
Greenwich, but the inhabitants of the town refused to submit
to the New Haven Colony until October 1656. Six years later
Greenwich was one of the first towns of the New Haven Colony
to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered severely
during the War of Independence on account of the frequent
quartering of American troops within its borders, the depreda¬
tions of hands of lawless men after the occupation of New York
by the British in 1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779
(February 25) and 1781 (December 5). There was also a strong
loyalist sentiment. On the old post-road in Greenwich is the
inn, built about 17:9, at which Israel Putnam was surprised in
February 1779 by u lon e under General Tryon ; according to
tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone steps.
The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American
Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial.
The township government of Greenwich was instituted in the
colonial period. The borough of Greenwich was incorporated in
* 85 *.
SeeD, M. Mead, History of the '1 own of Greenwich (New York, 1857).
GREENWICH, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by
Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Deptford. Pop. (1901)
95,770. Area, 38517 acres. It hasra rivor-frontage of 4) m.,
the Thames making two deep bends^nclosing the Isle of Dogs
on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich side.
Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the
Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs
(Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street
traffic, crossing to a point between the East and West Iwjja
Docks (see Poplar). The main thoroughfares from W. t 4 P 1 .
are Woolwich and Shooter’s Hill Roads, the second representing
the old high road through Kent, the Roman Watling Street.
Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred, when it was
a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014).
xn. 18a
554 . UKJifclNWUUli, t.
The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the
observatory. Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became
in 1873 a Royal Naval College.' Upon it or its site centre nearly
all the historical associations of the place. The noble buildings,
contrasting strangely with the wharves adjacent and opposite
to it, make a striking picture, standing on the low river-bank with
a background formed by the wooded elevation of Greenwich
Hark, 'nicy occupy the site of an ancient royal palace called
Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as
early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort,
duke of Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of
Gloucester, who largely improved the property and named it
Placentia. It did not revert to the crown till his death in 1447.
It was the birthplace of Henry VIII., Queen Mary and Queen
Elizabeth, and here Edward VI-. died. The building was enlarged
by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief
residences, by James 1 . and by Charles I., who erected the
“Queen's House” for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land
from the crown “ as of the manor of East Greenwich ” became at
this lime a rec ognized formula, and occurs in a succession of
American colonial charters from those of Virginia in ifiofi, 1609
and 1012 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along with other royal
palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by the
Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of
Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of
the present hospitul was erected as purl of an extensive design
which was not further carried out. In its unfinished state it
was assigned by the patent of William and Mary to certain of
the great oilmens of state, as commissioners for its conversion
into a hospital for seamen; and it was opened as such in 1705.
The building consists of four blocks. Behind a terrace 860 ft.
in length, stretching along the river side, are the buildings
erected in the lime of Charles 11 . from Inigo Jones’s designs, and
in that of Queen Anne from designs hy Sir Christopher Wren ;
and behind tliAe buildings are on the west those of King William
and on the cast those of Queen Mary, both from Wren's designs.
In the King William range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the
remains of Nelson lay in state before their burial in St Paul s
Cathedral, its walls and ceiling were painted by Sir James
Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and it is hung with
portraits of the most distinguished admirals and paintings of
the chiel naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range is
the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson
and of Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal
quadrangle of the hospital there is a statue of George 11 . by
Rysbrack, sculptured out of a single block of marble taken from
the French by Admiral Sir George Rookc. In the upper quad¬
ruple is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey, and there are various
other memorials and relies. The oldest part of the building was
in some measure rebuilt in iKn, and the present chapel was
erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1770. The endow¬
ments of the hospital were increased at various periods from
bequests and forfeited estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen
were boarded within it, and 5000 or 6000 others, called out-
pensioners, received stipends ut various rates out of its funds;
but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the Admiralty to
grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such of the
inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another
act was jaissed muking their leaving on these conditions com¬
pulsory. It was then devoted to the accommodation of the
students of the Royal Naval College, the Infirmary being granted
to the Seamen's iluspitaftociety. Behind the College is the
Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons of petty officers
and seamen, are boarded.
To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres),
lying high, and commanding extensive views over London, the
Thwnes and the plain of Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey,
dv of Gloucester, and laid out by Charles II., and contains
a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in his time. In it is
situated the Roval Observatory, built in 1675 for the advance¬
ment of navigation and nautical astronomv. From it the exact
time is conveyed .each dav at one o’clock by electric signal to
the chief towns throughout the country ; British and the majority
of foreign geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A
standard clock and measures are seen at the entrance. A new
building was completed in 1899, the magnetic pavilion lying
some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to avoid the disturbance
of instruments which would be occasioned by the iron used in
the principal building. South of the park lies the open common
of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in
the east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich
Common.
At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known
as the whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony
arose out of a dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex
shore of the Thames, by the commissioners for engineering
works carried out there in 1715-1720—a remarkable achievement
for this period to save the lowlands from flooding. To one of
these dinners Pitt was invited, and was subsequently accom¬
panied by some of his colleagues. Early in the 19th century the
venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial function,
was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always
held here, was later celebrated regularly at the “ Ship,” an
hotel of ancient foundation, closed in 1008. The banquet
continued till 1868, was revived in 1874-1880, and was held for
the last time in 1894.
The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated
to St Alphegc, archbishop, who was martyred here by the
Danes in 1012. In the church Wolfe, who died at Quebec
(>759)1 and Tallis, the musician, are buried. A modern stained-
glass window commemorates Wolfe.
The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member.
Two burgesses were returned in 1577, but it was not again repre¬
sented till the same privilege was conferred on it in 1832.
The borough council consists of a mayor, five aldermen and
thirty councillors.
GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-1909), English journalist
and man of letters, was born in April 1830. He was one of three
brothers—the others being James and Charles -who all gained
reputation as journalists. Frederick started life in a printing
house, but at an early age begun to write in periodicals. In
1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon Ill. to a volume
called The Napoleon Dynasty (2nd ed., 1855). lie also wrote
several novels: The Loves of an Apothecary (1854), The Path
oj Roses (1859) and (with his brother James) Under a Cloud
(i860). To the second number of the Cornhill Magazine he
contributed “ An Essay without End,” and this led to an intro¬
duction to Thackeray. In 1862, when Thackeray resigned the
editorship of the Cornhill, Greenwood became joint editor with
G. H'. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole editor, a post
which he held until 1868. While at the CornhiU. he wrote an
article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray
might have intended to conclude his unfinished work Denis
Duval, and in its pages appeared Margaret Denzil's History,
Greenwood's most ambitious work of fiction, published in
volume form in 1864. At that time Greenwood had conceived
the idea of an evening newspaper, which, while containing “ all
the news proper to an evening journal,” should, for the most
part, he made up “ of original articles upon the many things
which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or an.use
the leisure of mankind.” Public affairs, literature and art,
“ and all the influences which strengthen or dissipate society ”
were to be discussed by men whose independence and authority
were equally unquestionable, (inning's Anti-Jacobin and the
Saturday Review of 1864 were the joint models Greenwood had
before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and
the Pall Mall Gazette (so named after Thackeray’s imaginary
paper in Pcndennis) was launched in February 1865, with
Greenwood as editor. Within a few years he had come to
exercise a great influence on public affairs. His views somewhat
rapidly ripened from what was descrilied as philosophic Liberal¬
ism into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain, Mr
Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a
more effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield
GREENWOOD, J
had in Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood
that Beaconsfield purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the
Khedive Ismail; the British government being ignorant, until
informed by Greenwood, that the shares were for sole and likely
to be bought by France. It was characteristic of Greenwood
that he declined to publish the news of the purchase of the shares
in the Pall Mall b 'fore the official announcement was made.
Early in 1880 the Pall Mall changed owners, and the new
proprietor required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood
at once resigned his editorship, but in May a new paper, the
St ]amts’s Gazette, was started for him by Mr Henry Hucks
Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldcnham), and Greenwood proceeded
to carry on in it the tradition which he had established in the
Pall MaU.. At the St James’s Greenwood remained for over
eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon
political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone
administration (1880-1885) and an independent supporter of
Lord Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August
1888, owing to disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E.
Stcinkopff, who had bought the St James's at Greenwood’s
own suggestion. In January 1891 Greenwood brought out a
weekly review which he named the Anti-Jacobin. It failed,
however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in
January 1892. In 1893 he published The Lover’s Lexicon and
in 1894 Imagination in Dreams, lie continued to express his
views on political and social questions in contributions to
newspapers and magazines, writing frequently in the Westminster
Gazette, the Pall Mali, Blackwood, the Cornhill, &c. Towards
the end of his life his political views reverted in some respects
to the Liberalism of his early days.
In the words of George Meredith “ Greenwood was not only a
great journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national
interests were always urgent at his heart.’’ He was remarkable
for securing for his papers the services of the ablest writers of
the dav, and for the gift of recognizing merit in new writers,
such, for instance, as Richard Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His
instinct for capacity in others was as sure as was his journalistic
judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his 75th birthday, a
dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen, journalists,
and men of letters (with John Morley—who had succeeded him
as editor of the Pall Mail -in the chair). In May 1907 he
contributed to Blackwood an article on “ The New Journalism,”
in which he drew a sharp contrast between the old and the new
conditions under which the work of a newspaper writer is con¬
duced. He died at Sydenham on the 14th of December 1909.
Sis' Honouring hredcniti Greenwood, being a report of the speeches
at the dinner on tin- Hth of April 1005 (London, privately printed,
11,05) 1 "Birth ami Infancy of the Ball Mall Gazette," an article
contributed by Greenwood to the Ball Mall of the 14th of April
1807 ; " The Blowing of the Trumpet " in the introduction to the
St James’s (May 31, 1880); obituary notices m the Athenaeum
(Dec. 25, n,oy) and The Times (Dec. 17, lyoo).
GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593), English Puritan and
Separatist (the date and place of his birth are unknown), entered
as a sizar at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, on the 181I1 of
March 1577 1578, and commenced li.A. 1581. Whether he was
directly influenced by the teaching of Robert Browne (i/.;i.),
a graduate of the same college, is uncertain ; in any case he held
strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism
of the most rigid type. In 1581 be was chaplain to Lord Rich,
at Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been
made deacon by John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest
bv Thomas Cooper, bishop of Lincoln; but ere long he re¬
nounced this ordination as " wholly unlawful.” Details of the
next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the recognized
leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable number
had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood
was arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was
committed to the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default
of bail for conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some
controversial tracts in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner
Henry Barrowe (i/.v.). He is understood to have been at liberty
in the autumn of 1588 ; but this may have been merely " the
GREGARINES 555
liberty of the prison.” However, he was certainly at large in
September 1592, when he was elected “teacher” of the
Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) “An
Answer to George Gifford’s pretended Defence of Read Prayers.”
On the 5th of December he was again arrested; and the following
March was tried, together with Barrowe, and condemned to
death on a charge of “ devising and circulating seditious books.”
After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he was hanged
on the 6th of April 1593.
Authorities. — H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism during the last
three hundred years ; The England and Holland of the Pilgrims;
F. J. I’owicke, Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam ;
B. Brook, Lives of the Puritans; C. H. Cooper, Athenae Conte-
brigienses, vol. ii.
GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881), English’essayist,
the son of a merchant, was bom at Manchester in 1869. He was
educated at the university of Edinburgh and for a time managed
a mill of his father's at Bury, and in 1832 began business on his
own account. He entered with ardour into the struggle for
free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize offered by the Anti-
Corn Law League for the best, essay on “ Agriculture and the
Com Laws.” He was too much occupied with political, economi¬
cal and theological speculations to give undivided attention to
his business, which lie gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing.
His Creed of Christendom was published in 1851, and in 1852 he
contributed no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies.
Disraeli praised him ; Sir George Comewall Lewis bestowed
a Commissionership of Customs upon him in 1856 ; and in 1864
he was made Comptroller of the Stationery Office. Besides
contributions to periodicals he produced several volumes of
essays on political and social philosophy. The general spirit
of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best known,
The Enigmas of Life (1872) and Kochs Ahead (1874). They
represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth,
when wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every
public ill. Greg was a man of deep moral earnestness of character
and was interested in many philanthropic works. He died at
Wimbledon on the 15th of November 1881. His brother,
Robert Hyde Greg (>795-1875), was an economist and
antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, Samuei, Greg
(1804-1876), became well known in Lancashire by his philan¬
thropic efforts on behalf of the working-people. Percy Greg
(1836-1889), son of William Rathbone Greg, also wrote, like his
father, on polities, but his views were violently reartionary.
His History of the. United States to the Keeonslruction of the Union
(1887) is a polemic rather than a history.
GREGARINES (mod, Lai. Gregarina, from gregarius, rollecting
in a flork or herd, grex) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa
Ectospora, in which a very high degree of morphological special¬
ization and cytological differentiation of the fell-body is frequently
found. On the other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly
simple. Other principal characters which distinguish Gregarines
from allied Sporozoan parasites are as follows: —The fully-
grown adult (trophozoite) is always “ free ” in some internal
cavity, i.e. it is extracellular ; in nearly all cases prior to sporula-
tion two Gregarines (associates) become attached to one another,
forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a common
cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes
segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes,
primary sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the
resulting copula (zygote, definitive sporobkst) becomes usually
a spore by the secretion of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its
protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up to form the germs (sporo¬
zoites).
F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a
Gregarine parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no
means certain. Much later (1787) Cavolini described ;
and figured an indubitable Gregarine (probably the * , **'
form now known as Aggregala conformis) from a Crustacean
(Pachygrapsus), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm.
Leon Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came
across several species of these parasites, also cohsidered them as
allied to the worms and proposed the generic name of Gregarina.
556
GREGARINES
The unicellular nature of Gregarines was first realized by A. von
KAUiker, who from 1845-1841! added considerably to our know¬
ledge of the frequent occurrence and wide distribution of these
organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein who demon¬
strated about this
a. st time the relation
of the “ pseudo-
navicellae ”
(spores) to the re¬
production of the
parasites.
Apart from the
continually in¬
creasing number
of known species,
matters remained
at about tiiis
stage for many
years. It is, in
fact, only since
the closing years
of the loth
century that the
complete life-
history has been
fully worked out;
this has now Urn
done in many
cases, thanks to
the researches of
M. Siedlecki, L.
Cuc'not, J.. Lcger,
O. Duboscq, A.
Lavcran, M.
C a u 11 e r y, F.
M e s n i 1 and
others, to whom
also we owe most
of our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the
cells of their host during their early development.
Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates ; they are
not known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in
Octmr- Ascidians. By far the greatest number of hosts is
nan; furnished bv the Arthropods. Many members of the
moat or various groups of worms (especially the Annelids)
lattction. a i 3() harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting
forms arc found in Krhinoderms ; in the other elusses, they
either occur only sporadically or else are absent. Infection
is invariably of the accidental (casual) type, by way of the ali¬
mentary canal, the s|>orcs being usually swallowed by the host
when feeding ; a novel variation of this method has been
described by Woodcock ( 31 ) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic
in Cucunutrta. where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca
into llie respiratory trees, by the inhalant current.
The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its
diverticula (eg. the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity.
From WWielowrki * SfioronMttMutuU, after Pfoifici.
Imu. x.— a, Transverse Section of Intestine of
Mealworm, infected with Cregarinu ( Clepsydrtna)
palvmorpha ; 1 0 , Part of a highly magnified.
ing, however, extracellular), grow considerably in that situation,
and ultimately fall into the body-cavity (eg. Diplocystis); or
they may pass straightway into the body-cavity and
there come into relation with some organ or tissue (eg. Hadettlct
Monocystis of the earthworm, which is for a time intru- „ hom~
cellular in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, c). In the case
of intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite
with respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatlv.
The parasite may remain only attached to the host-cell, never
becoming actually intracellular (e.g. Fteroccphalus ); more
usually it penetrates partially into it, the extracellular portion
of the Gregarine, however, giving rise subsequently to most of
the adult (e.g. Grcgarina); or lastly, in a few forms, the early
development is entirely intracellular (e.g. Lankesteria, Stenophora).
The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells.
These generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and altera¬
tion in character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophv,
when the substance of the cell becomes in one way or another
practically absorbed by the
growing parasite (cf. also MtSig
Coccihia). Since, however,
the Gregarines never over¬
run their hosts in the way ’ 'S
that many other Sporo/.oa
do (because of their lack, in
general,of the power of endo¬
genous multiplication), the
number of cells of any tissue
attacked, even in the case of
a strong infection, is only a
From W&stelew»Wi, after 1
J'lii. i .—Cyst* ol a Coelomic (tregarine, in the* body-cavity of a
larva ol Tipula,
In the latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated
gCfms at once traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may
come to rest in the connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remain-
1 Figures x. j, (>, 7, jo, n, 1 2 and if» are redrawn from
WasielewsKi's ^porosoenknnde, by permission of the author and of
the publisher, Gusjav Fischer, Jena.
a
From Uuiki-sti'i. aim various author*.
Fig. I
a-/, Trophozoites of Mmiocvstis agtlis.
a and h, Young individuals showing
changes of body-form,
r, OUlei individual, still enveloped
in a coat of spermatozoa.
d, e, Trophozoites of Af. titagna at-
„ , , tached to seminal funnel of
!'.<*» Laukcter. LumbricuS.
Fig. 3. —Porospara gigantea /, Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in
(E. van Ben ), from the intes- which the extremity of the
tine of the lobster, a, Nucleus. parasite is inserted.
very small percentage of the whole. In short the hosts do not,
as a rule, suffer any appreciable inconvenience from the presence
of the parasites.
The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval
GREGARINES
557
or elongated ; in one or two instances (e.g. Diplodina) it is spherical,
anc *> 011 the ot ^ er hand, in Porospora (fig. 3) it is greatly
drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines,
^ 7 * the body is divided into two distinct but unequal regions
or halves, the anterior part being known as the protomerite, the
hinder, generally the larger, as the deutomerite. This feature is
closely associated with another important morphological character,
one which is observable, however, only during the earlier stages of
growth and development,
^ namely, the presence of
a definite organ, the epi¬
merite, which serves for
parasite to the host-cell
which become attached to
followed by the first ^art
After Siedlecki, from LankcstcA Treatite on Zoolo^. portion of the body ill -
Kir.. 5.—Tart of a section through the creases in size m 11 ch
apparatus of fixation of a Ptcrncephalus , quicker at first than the
showing root-like processes extending ros ^ extracellular
from the Greganne betwei n the epithelial P aI *t)< more or less fills up
cells, g, Head of Greganne; r, Koot-like the host-cell, and forms
processes ; r/>, Epithelial 1 ells. the well - developed epi-
merite or secondary
attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Grcgarine next
grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short
distance away from (outside) the point where the body pene¬
trates into the cell (fig. (>); this marks off the large deutomerite
posteriorly (distally). L£gcr thinks that this partition most likely
owes its origin to trophic considerations, i.e. to the slightly different
manner in which the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal,
largely intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be
supposed to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half, the
host-cell supjdies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal
liquid ; and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting
limit between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer
does not think that mechanic .d considerations should be altogether
left out of account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an
adaption for strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against
~ lateral thrusts or strains, due to
iHl the impact of foreign bodies (food,
rB &c.) the intestine.
He] the point where the hotly
becomes actually intracellular, it is
/SibsLiix constricted, and this constriction
" marks off the epimerite (internally)
> W ' * ' from the middle portion (lietween
a a — this point and the septum), w'hich
/fmgffi'*' \ iak * s the protomerite. Further
mb},] AkUHw growth Ls restricted, practically,
7 to the extracellular regions, and tho
-7 yjHP/'"iS/ cpimerite often comes to appear
WBBpJ ’JHpfijSj!/ c ultimately as a small appendage
iSFW m at ar >terior end of the proto-
(PsuSil meritc. A Grcgarine at this stage
Wjmml ^ nmvn as a cephalont. Later
\M/ vpjgJHW on, the parasite breaks loose from
r’w VSfcy the host-cell and becomes free in
V / the lumen, the separation taking
\y place at the constriction between
From Wn-.ielc-w%kl, alter Ugct. the protomerite and the epimerite;
Fig. 0. — Corvrdla armala, the latter is loft behind in the
l.e K or. a, Cephuiont; b, Kpi- remainsof thehost-cel!,theformer
meritc 111 host-cell; r, SporoiU. becomes the anterior part of the
free trophozoite.
I11 other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards,
ultimately becoming " coelomic,” as well as those which become
entirely intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further,
the body remain*, single or nnseptate. These forms, which include,
for instance, Mmotysti. (fig. 4I, l.anhestena, Diphcystis, are dis¬
tinguished, as Acephulina or Aseptata ( Haplocyta , Monocystiia), ac¬
cording to which character is referred to, from the others, termed
Cephalina or Septate ( Pplyrystida).
The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or
interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite,
but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and
are hence known as Puuiomonocystida ; this condition may be
primitive (Daliocystis) or (possibly) secondary the partition having
in coarse of time disappeared. Again, Stenofmora is a septate form
which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the
young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of
an epimerite.
With regard to the epimerite* themselves, they are at all variety
of form and sliajie and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In
one or two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is
mot with. Thus in Pttroccpkalvs, only the rostrum of toe spororoite
From Waslclewnki, after I.iger.
Fig. 7.—Forms of F.pimorites.
7, Gregarina longa. 6‘, Comctoides crinitus.
V, Syria inopinata. 7 , Gcnciorhynchus tnonnirri.
Pilcocephalus heerii. ' ft, Echinomera hispida.
4 , Stvhrkynchus longtrollis . U, Pterouphalus nob ill
.•*, Ur hides firntus.
penetratrs into the host-cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a
number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the
anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus
anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious Schtzogregan nae,
the anterior end of the (nnseptate) body forms a number o£ stiff,
irregular processes, which perform the same function (fig. 8). It is
to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and notin any way
comparable to pseudopodia, to which thej were formerly likened.
A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has
been recently described by L6ger ( 18 ) in the case of a new Grcgarine,
7 arniocvstis. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically
segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozo¬
ites possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding
to the septum between the proto- and deuto-mente in an ordinary
Polycystic!), which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal
compartments. L6ger thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus
segmented, the protomerite remaining small and undivided. The
nucleus remains single, so that there Is no question as to tho uni¬
cellular or individual nature of the entire animal.
The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and
endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte),
secreted by the former. The cuticle varies considerably
in thickness, being well developed in active, intestinal m aute
forms, but very thin and delicate in non-motile coelomic * ure '
forms (e.g. Diplodtna). In the former case it may show longi¬
tudinal striations. The cuticle also lorms the hooks or spines
of many epimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. <>a) a differ¬
entiation into two layers,
an outer, firmer layer, clear
and hyaline, tho sarcocytc,
and an inner layer, the
myocyte, which is formed
of a network of muscle-
fibrillac (mainly longitu¬
dinal and transverse, fig.
911). The sarcocyte alone
constitutes the septum,
traversing the endoplasm,
in septate G t egarinos. The
myonemes are undoubtedly
the agents rusjxmsiblc for
the active “ gregarinoid "
movements (of flexion and
contraction) to be observed After L 4 g«r *nd HagenmQller, from Lunkestcr'ii
in many forms. The 7 teattse on/.oology.
peculiar gliding movements Fig. 8.---Three Individuals (G) of
were iormerly thought to Ophryocystis schncideri, attached to
l>e produced by the exlru- wall of Malpighian tubule of Maps sp.
sion of a gelatinous thread p, Syncytial protoplasm of the tubule ;
posteriorly, but Crawley (8) c, Cuia lining the lumen,
has recently ascribed them
to a complicated succession of wave-like contractions of the
myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact that certain
coelomic forms, like Diplodina and others, which cither lack
muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at all,
are non-motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a
semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains
and spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an
accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to
reproduction. The largest and roost abundant grains are of a «ht b-
stance termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate ; in addition, flattened
55«
GREGARINES
Sf. f
lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid cltaracter, and highly-refringent
granule* often occur. , .
"Hie nucleus is always lodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate
forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical
and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often
contains chromatin. The most char¬
acteristic feature of the nucleus is
the deeply-staining, more or less
vacuolated spherical karyosome
(consisting of chromatin intimately
lfound up villi a plastinoid basis)
r which is invariably present. In one
* $ or two instances (e.g. Diploi ystis
Schneideri) the nucleus has more
than one karyosome. All the chro¬
matin of the nucleus is not, how¬
ever, confined to the karyosome,
some being in Ihe form of grains
in the nuclear j.ap; and i.i some
cases at any rate (e.g. Diplodina.
Lankcsteria) there is a well-marked
Ik—
Alifr Schewiukofl. Iru'n Lunkettcr'ii
Ttrutne oh /.oology.
Fit? oa.- Longitudinal
section of a Greparine in the
region of the septum between
protomerite and deutomerite.
V’i, 1 ‘rotomerite.
lh‘ t Deutomerite.
s, Septum.
en t Endoplasm.
sc, Sarcocyte.
c. Cuticle,
in,/, Myocyte fibills
across).
y, Gelatinous layer.
(cut
Lit f-
blutory.
Fig. on.— Grcyariva ntunirri, show¬
ing the*network ol myocyte fibrillae.
nuclear reticulum which is impregnated w'fh granules and clots of
chromatin.
A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to
occur in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species ot
Gonospora, which is for a long time, intracellular (Caullery
and Mesnil |4|), the rest among the Schizogrcgarinae , ro
named for this reason, in which schizogonoim fission takes
place regularly during the free, trophic condition. Usually, the body
divides up, by a process ol multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to
eight) daughter - indi-
viduals ; but in a new
gen ur (HI euther fi¬
sc hi zon), ltrasil (3) finds
that a great number
of little merozoites are
formed, and a large
amount of vacuolated
cytoplasm is left over
unused.
In the vast majority
of Gregarines, however,
the life-cycle is limited
to gametogemy and
sporogony. A very
general, if not indeed
universal, prelude to
gametogony is the
characteristic and im¬
portant feature of the
order, known as associa¬
tion, the biological sig¬
nificance of which has
only lately been fully
brought out (see H. M.
Woodcock (31]). In
normal association,two
individuals which are
Fig. 10.—Schizogony in Ophryocvstis to lx* regarded as of
from isa. a, Rosette ol small individuals, opposite sex, come into
produced from a schizoid which has just close contact with each
divided, b, A later stage, the daughter- other and remain thus
individuals about to separate and assuming attached. The manner
the characters of the adult. in which the parasites
ioin varies-in different
forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by
like or bv unlike polqs, or it may be side-to-aide (lateral)
(fig. 12). The couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith
to encyatment ana sporoblast-formation (Lankesteria . Monocystis),
or mav continue in tye trophic phase for some time longer (Gtegarnta).
In one or two instances (Zygocystis), association occurs as soon as the
From Watifalewikl, aft*r A. Schnmdtr.
From Wasidew ski, after I^gei
Fig. 11.— F.irmoi ystis st'p. a t b. Associa¬
tions of two and three Gregarines; c ,
Chain of five parasites; />, Fnmite;
Satellites.
trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the intereating pheno¬
menon of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motQe,
coclomic Gregarines (e.g. Cystobia, Diplodina and Dipiocystis) , in
which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock ( loc . cit.) has de¬
scribed and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a
permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these
forms. Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition
(seen, for instance, in Diplodina minchtnii) the union takes place very
earlyin the life-history, between individual which are little more than
sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm
of the two associates join¬
ing. In such cases, there
is absolutely nothing to
indicate the " double **
nature of the growing tro¬
phozoite, but the presence
of the two nuclei which
icmain quite distinct
There can be little doubt
that, in the great majority,
if not in all Gregarines,
association is necessary
for subsequent sporula-
tion to take place; i.c.
that the cytotactic attrac¬
tion imparts a develop¬
mental stimulus to both
partners, which is requisite
for the formation of prim¬
ary sporoblasts (gametes).
This association is usually
permanent; but in one or
two cases (perhaps Gonv-
spora sp.) temporary as¬
sociation may suffice.
While association lias
fundamentally a repro¬
ductive (sexual) signifi¬
cance, in some cases, this
function may be delayed
or, as it were, temporarily
suspended, the cytotactic
attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life.
Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple association.**
and long chains of Gregarines (fig. it) sometimes met with ( r.g .
IZirmcx ystis , Clepsvdrinit ).
Lncystment is nearly always double, i.c. of an associated couple.
Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful
independent sporulalion results, is uncertain; if it does, the encyst¬
ment in such cases is, iu all probability, only after prior (temporary)
association. In the case of free parasites, a well-developed cyst is
secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and gradually becomes
spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer cyst-membrane
(atoevst) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm internal one (endo-
cyst). The cyst once formed, further development is quite inde¬
pendent of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside it. In
certain coelomic Gregaiines, on the other hand, wliich remain in very
close relation with the host’s tissues, little
or nothing of ati cncystment-proccss 011
the part of the parasites is recognizable,
the cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing
layer of the host ( Diplodina).
The nuclear changes and multiplication
which precede sporoblast-fonnation vary
greatly in different Giegarines and can
only be outlined here. In the formation of
both sets of sexual elements (gametes) there
is always a comprehensive nuclear purifica¬
tion or maturation. This elimination of a
part of the nuclear material (to be distin¬
guished as trophic or somatic, from the
functional or germinal portion, which forms
the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely-
different periods. In some cases ( Lankcs¬
teria , Monocystis), a large part of the
original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate
is at once got rid of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus,
which is highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other
cases, again, the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and
the distinction between somatic and germinal portions does not
become manifest until after nuclear multiplication has continued
for some little time, when certain of the daughter-nuclei become
altered in character, and ultimately degenerate, the remainder
giving rise to the sporoblast-nuclei ( Diplodina , Stylorhynchus)
Even after the actual sporoblasts (scx-cells) themselves are con
From Wariclewzki, after
I^Rer.
Fig. 12.—Associations
of Gonospora sparsa.
conjugation ana formation of the zygote (definitive sporoblast).
Nuclear multiplication is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a
GREGARINES
rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The
attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes
consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without centro-
somic granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a few
astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and
the sporont-nncleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest
nuclear divisions are direct; the daughter-nuclei being formed either
by a process of simple constriction (e.g. Diphdtna) , or by a kind of
multiple fission or fragmentation (Gregarina and Selentdium spp.).
Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in Diplodtna , are in¬
direct.
By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed,
the bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually
become very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes
and processes. While in some forms (e.g. Monocystis, Urospora ,
Stylorhynchus) the two individuals remain fairly separate and inde¬
pendent of each other, in others (Lankestefta) they become inter¬
twined and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent ( Diplodtna ).
The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the processes and
segments, where they take up a position of uniform distribution.
Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes segregated, the
whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from the general
surface. These uninuclear protul>erances are at length cut off as the
S}>oroblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the general
protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused, constituting
two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse ; in Diplodtna,
however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in the formation
of the gametes.
The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition
of marked differentiation into male and female (anisogamy), to one
of complete equality (isogainy). Anisogamy is most highly developed
in Pterocepkalu s. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are
minute, elongated and spindle-like in shape, with a minute rostrum
After Ldgcr, from Lankrster’s Treatise on Zoology.
Fir,. 13.—Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in
Stylorhynchus longicollis.
Undifferentiated gamete, /,g, Stages in conjugation and
attached to body of parent-
individual.
fc-J, Stages in development of h,
motile male gamete. i,
e, Mature female gamete.
difference whatever betwoen the conjugating element*. Neverthe¬
less, these forms are also to be regarded as instance* of binary
sexuality and not merely of exogamy ; for it i» practically certain
that this condition of isogamy is derived from one of typical aniso¬
gamy, through a stage such as is seen in Gonospora, &c. And,
similarly, just as in all instances where the formation of differentiated
gametes has been observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from
different associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising
from the same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case
here.
The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known
phenomenon termed the danse des sporoblastes , which is due to various
nuclear union of the two
elements.
Zygote (copula).
Spore, still with single
nucleus and undivided
sporoplasm.
and quite passive. In Stylorhynchus the difference betweeh the
conjugating gametes is not quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male
' ' ‘ ' .it pyriform
instead of round , and possessing a distinct flagellum; a moat inter¬
esting point about this parasite is that certain highly motile and
spermatozoon-like male gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are,
however, quite sterile' and have acquired a subsidiary function. In
otiler cases, again, the two kinds of element exhibit either very slight
differences (Monocystis) or none ( Urospora , Gonospora), in «ze and
appearance, the chief distinction being in the nuclei those of the nude
elements being smaller and chromatically denser than those of the
*L*s 2 y in LanhssUria, Gregarina, CUpsydrina, Diplocyitii and
Diplodtna complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent
Fig. 14.—Cyst of Monocystis agilis, the common Gregarint 1 of the
Earthworm, showing ripe spores and absence of any residual proto¬
plasm in the cyst. (From Lankester.)
causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes ( Pterocephalus),
the actively motile microgametes rush about here and there, and seek
out the female elements. In Stylorhynchus. Liger has shown that
the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring about, by their
vigorous movements, the melee sexuclle. In the forms where the
gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and (probably)
not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing the necessary
commingling. Thus in Gregarina sp. from the mealworm, the
unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out
processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in the
cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied
(Urospora) (lie movements of the host are considered to be sufficient;
and lastly, in Diplodtna , owing to the extent to which the inter¬
twining process is earned, if each gamete is not actually contiguous
to a suitable fcllow-conjugant, a very slight,movement or mutual
attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact.
An unusual modification of the proceas of sporoblast-formation
and conjugation, which occurs ill Ophrvocystis, must be mentioned.
I lere encystmenl of two associates takes place as usual; the sporont-
nucleus of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter-
nuclei resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one
sporoblast-nucleus, representing a quarter of the original nuclear-
material, persists in each half. Around this some of the cytoplasm
condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or gamete
thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates with
the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote results
which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in fie ordinary
manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves
of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis
occurs, each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore.
The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with
cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast
or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that
of an ovoid or bairel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the ectospore.
Greganne spore. Internal to the ectocyst, anotner, winner mem¬
brane, the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes form
the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the sport have
been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually mitotic,
the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each of which
becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm becomes
split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight sickls-
ahaped (falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a
560
GREGARINES
certain amount of unused aporoplasm left over in the centre of the
•pore, constituting the *poraJ residuum. It is important to note that
in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporo¬
zoites In the spore is eight ; the exception is Selenidium, in many
ways far from tyjrical, where the number is half, viz. four.
Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation
has been considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the
Aggregatidae and the Poro-
sporidae. The spores of
these forms have been
regarded as gymnosporcs
(naked), lacking the en¬
veloping membranes
(sporocyst) of the ordinary
spores, and the sporo¬
zoites, consequently, as
developed freely in the
cyst. In the case of tl»e
first-named parasites,
however, what was taken
for sporogony has been
proved to be really scluzo-
gony, and on other
grounds these forms are,
in the present writer's
hit;. 15.—Ripe Cyst of Greganna blal- opinion, preferably asso-
tarutn, partially emptied. (From Lan- dated with the Coccidia
keste.r.) a , Channels lending to the (0.,,.). With regard to the
sporoducts ; b. Mass of spores still left in Porosporulac , also, it is
the cyst; 1, Endocyst; d, The everted quite likely that the
sporoducts ; c , Gelatinous ectocyst. gymnosporous cysts con¬
sidered to belong to the
Gregarine Porospora (as known in the trophic condition) have really
no connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of
some other form, similar to Aggrcgata ; in which case the true spores
of Porospora have yet to be identified.
In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are
liberated. Phis is usually largely brought about by the swelling of
the residual protoplasm. Sometimes (e.g. Grcgarina) long tubular
outgrowth4, known as sporoducts (lig. 15), are developed from the
residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior.
The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several
.. ... families, characterized, for the most part, by the form
iion * of the spores (fig. if>). The specialized Schixogrrgarinae are
0 ' usually separated oil from the rest as a distinct sub-order.
Sufi-onriKR I.— Schizogregarinae.
Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence
during the extra-cellulaT, trophic phase. 'Hirer genera, Ophryo-
cystis, Schizorystis and Klenthrrosenison, different peculiarities of
which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic in the intestine
From Wnielrwski, after
Fit;. it*.—Spores of various Gregarines.
а, Eirmocystis, Spharrocvstis , Ac. /, Stylorhync/udue (type of).
б , Echtnontera , Pterocephalus . Ac. g t Menosporulae.
c, Grcgarina, Ac. k, Gonospora terebellae.
d , tieloules. 1, Ceratospora.
e , Ancvvophota. A, Vrospora synaptat .
or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of parasite, as ex¬
emplified by Opkryocystm , the body was formerly wrongly considered
as amoeboid, and heuce this genus was placed in a special order, the
Amoebosporidiu.)
Sub-orpkk II,— Eugrcgarinar.
Schizogony very exceptional.only occurring during the intracellular
phase, if at all. Gregarines fall nuturuily into two tribes, described
as cophalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic),
resiHxtively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these
two sets of terras do not ugree absolutely, and whichever set is
adopted, the other must be taken int© account in estimating the
proper portion of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or accphal-
oat condition is regarded an the more primary and fundamental.
Tribe \.~~Cephalina (practically equivalent to iiap/ota).
Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate
during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly
Intestinal parasites of Arthjppods.
The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows;
Porosporidae, with Porospora gtgantea, at present thought to be
gymnosporous; Gregarimdae {Ctepsydrinidae), with* Greganna
Clepsydrina , Eirmocystis, Hyalospora , Cmenidospora, Stenobhora*
Didymophyidas, with Didymophyes ; Dactylophoridae , with Dactylo-
phorus, Pterocephalus , Echinomera , Rhopalonia; Actinocephalidae
with Actinocephalus, Pyxwia , Coleorhynchus , Stepkanophora, Legerta
Stictospora, Pileocepkalus, Sciadophora \ Acanthospondae with Acan*
thospora, Corycella , Cometoides ; Menosporidae with Menospora ,
Hoplorhynchus ; Stylorhynchidae, with Stylorhynchus, Lophocepkalus \
Doliocystidae with Doliorydis ; and Taeniocysttdae , with Taenxo-
eystis. The curious genus Selenidium is somewhat apart.
Tribe B .—Acephalina (practically equivalent to Aseptata , Haplnryta).
The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly
coeloraic parasites of " worms," Holothurians and insects.
The Aseptata have not been so completely arranged in families
as the Septata. Leger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but
the remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam.
Gonosporidae , with Gonospora, Diplodina ; and Urosporidae, with
Urosopora, Cystobia, Lithocysiis, Ceratospora ; the genera Monocystis ,
Diplocystis Lankesleria and Zygocystxs probably constitute another ;
Pterospora and, again, Syncystis arc distinct; lastly, certain forms,
e.g. Zygosoma , Anchor a ( Anchorina ), are incompletely known.
There remauis for mention the remarkable parasite, recently
described by J. Nusbaum (24) under the appropriate name of
Schaudxnnella henleae, which inhabits the intestine of Henlealeptodera.
Briefly enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as
follows. The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the in¬
testinal cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is
very primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place
indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of
the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary ; at oilier times
it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a
gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encyst-
ment occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The
female gametes are large and egg-like; the males, 'minute and
sickle-like, but with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While
many of the zygotes (" amphionts ”) resulting from copulation pass
out to the exterior, to infect a new host, others, possessing a more
delicate investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal
cells, producing a further infection (auto-infection). Numerous
sporozoites are formed iu each zygote. It will be seen that Schau-
dinticlla is a practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it
recalls the Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs
widely from them in several characteristic features, being primitive
in some respects, but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot
be properly included in the order. S/.haudinnella rather represents
a primitive Eetosporan parasite, which has proceeded upon a line
of its own, intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia.
BinuoGRAriTY.—Among the important papers relating to Grega¬
rines are the following : 1. A. Eemdt, " Beitrag zur Kenntnis
der . . . Gregarinon,” Arch. 1 'mtistenk. 1, p. 375, 3 pis. (1002) ;
2. E. Brasil, “ Reeherches sur la reproduction des Gregarines
monocystidees," Arch. zool. exp. (4) 3, p. 17, pi. 2 (1905), and op. at.
4, p. 69, 2 pis. ( r905); 3. L. Brazil, " Eleutheroschizon duboscai,
parasite nouveau, Ac ."op. cit. (X. et R.) (4), p. xvii., 5 figs. (1906) ;
4. M, Caullcry and F. Mesnil, ** Sur une Gregarine . . . pr6sentant
. . . une phase de multiplication asporulee," C.R. Ac. Sci. 126,
p. 262 (1898) ; 5. M. Caullcry and F. Mesnil, “ Le Parasitismc intra-
cellulaire des Gregarines,” op. cit. T32, p. 220 (1901) ; 6. M. Caullcry
and F. Mesnil, “ Sur une mode particulnVe de division nucl6aire
chez les Gregarines," Arch. anal, mirrosc. 3, p. 146, 1 pi. (1900) ; 7.
M. Caullcry and F. Mesnil, " Sur quelques parasites internes des
An 1161 ules," Misc. biol. ( Trav. Slat. Wimeren.x), 9, p. 80, 1 pi. (1899) ;
7a. J. Cecconi, " Sur VAnchorina sagittata , &c.” Arch. Protistenk.
6, p. 230, 2 pis. (1905) ; 8. H. Crawley, “ Progressive Movement of
Gregarines," J 3 . Ar. Philad. 52, p. 4, 2 pis. (1902), also op. tit. 57,
p. 89 (1905) ; 9. H. Crawley, * List of the Polycystid Gregarines of
the XT.S./* &p. cit. 55, pp. 4T, 632, 4 pis. (1903) ; 10. L. Cucnot,
“ Reeherches sur l‘6volution et la conjugaison des Gr6garines," Anh.
biol. 17, p. 581, a pis. (tqoi) ; ll. A. I.averan and F. Mesnil, " Sur
ouelques particularit6s de 1'evolution d’une Gregarine et la r6action
de la cellule-hote," C.R. Sue. Biol. 52, p. 554, 9 figs. (1900); 12. L.
L6ger, " Reeherches sur leg Gregarines, Tahl. zool. 3, p. i., 22 pis.
(1892) ; 13. L. L6ger, " Contribution ;i la connaissance des Sporo-
zoairrs, A:c.," Bull. Sri. France , 30, p. 240, 3 pis. (1897) : 14. L. L6ger,
“ Sur un nouveau Sporozoaire {Schism vstis), Ac.," C.R. At. Set. 131,
p. 722 (hkjo) ; 15. L. I.6ger, " La Reproduction sexuee chez les
Ophryocystls," t. c. p. 7G1 (1900) : 16. L. L6ger, " Sur une nouvelle
Grtgarine {Aggregata coelomica,), A'C.,” op. cit. 132, p. 1343 (1901) ;
IT. L. L6ger, " La Reproduction sexu6e chez lea Stylorhynchus,"
Arch. Protistenk. 3, p. 304, 2 pR (1004); li. L, L6ger. " litude sur
Taeniocvstis mird (L6ger), ftc., M op. cit. 7, p. 307, 2 pis. (190b); 19.
L. I-6ger and O. Puboscq, 0 La Reproduction sexufe chez Ptero-
c$ffhalus,*’ Arch. nod. exp. (N. et R.) (4) 1, p. 141, 11 figs. (1903) ;
90. L. Wger and O. Dubo*cq, "Aggregata vagans , n. sp., Ac.," t. c.
p. 147,6 figs. (1903); 21. L. L6ger and O. Duboscq, " Les GrOg&rines
et l'6pith61itim intestinal, Ac.,'* Arch, parasitol. 6, p. 377, 4 pk.
(1909); 22. L. L6ger and O. Duboscq, " Nouvelles Reeherches sur
GREGOIRE 561
les Grfigarines, Ac.," Arch. Protistouh. 4, p. 335, * pis. (1904); as.
M. Luhc, Bau und Entwickolung der Gregarinen," t. c. p. 88,
several figs. ( 1904 ) J- Nusbaum," tlberdic . . . FortpfUnxung
einer . . . Gregarine, Schaudinnella henleacZcit wiss. Zool. 73,
p. 281, pi. 22 (1903); 28 . F. Paehler, ” tlber die Morphologic,
Fortpflanzung . . . von Grcgarina mata." Arch. Protistmk. 4,
p. 64. * P 1 *- (1904) : **• S. Prowaiek, ’’ Zur Entwickeluog der Grega-
rinen,’ 1 op. cit. i, p. 297, pi. 9 (1902); 87 . A. Schneider (Various
memoirs on Gregarines), Tab!, cool. 1 and 2 (1886-1892); 28.
H. Schnitzler, " tlber die Fortpflanzung von Clepsydrina ovata,"
Arch. Prottslenh. 6,p. 309, 2 pis. (1903); 28. M. Siedlreki, *' t'ber
die geschlechtlicho Vermchrung der Monocvstis asddiac," Bull. Ac.
Cracovie. p. 315, 2 pis. (1900); 10. M. Siadlecki, ’’ Contribution A
l’fitude dcs cliangements ccllulaires provoqufies par les Grigarines,"
Arch. anal. 1 nicrosc. 4, p. 87, 9 figs. (1901) ; 81. H. M. Woodcock,
“ The Ufe-Cvcle of Cvslobia irregularis, ftc.,” Q.J.M. Set. 30, p. 1.
6 pis. (1906). (H. M. Wo.)
GREGOIRE, HENRI (1750-1831), French revolutionist and
constitutional bishop of Blois, was bom at V6ho near Luneville,
on the 4th of December 1750, the son of a peasant. F,ducated
at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he became curA of Kmhermdnil
and a teacher at the Jesuit school at Pont-A-Mousson. In 1783
he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his filoge de fa
poesie, and in 1788 by that of Metz for an Essai sur la regeneration
physique cl morale des Juifs. He was elected in 17K9 by the
clergy of the bailliage of Nancy to the states-general, where he
soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies
of J ansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolu¬
tion. He was among the first of the clergy to join the third
estate, and contributed largely to the union of the three orders;
he presided at the permanent sitting of sixty-two hours while
the Bastille was being attacked by the people, and make a
vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He sub¬
sequently took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges
of the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution
of the clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath
(December 27, 1790), he was elected bishop by two departments.
He selected that of I.oire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop
of Blois, and for ten years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with
exemplary zeal. An ardent republican, it was he who in the
first session of the National Convention (September as, 1702)
proposed the motion for the abolition of the kingship, in a speech
in which occurred the memorable phrase that “ kings are in the
moral order what mockers are in the natural.” On the 15th of
November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the
king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards
was elected president of the Convention, over which he presided
in his episcopal dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being
absent with other three colleagues on a mission for the union of
Savoy to France, he along with them wrote a letter urging the
condemnation of the king, but omitting the words a mart; and
he endeavoured to save the life of the king by proposing in the
Convention that the penalty of death should be suspended.
When on the 7th of November 1793 Gobel, bishop of Paris,
was intimidated into resigning his episcopal office at the bar of
the Convention, Gregoire, who was temporarily absent from the
sitting, hearing what had happened, hurried to the hall, and in
the face of a howling mob of deputies refused to abjure either his
religion or his office. He was prepared to face the death which
he expected; but his courage, a rare quality at that time, won
the day, and the hubbub subsided in cries of “ Ixt Gregoire
have his way I ” Throughout the Terror, in spite of attacks
in the Convention, in the press, and on placards posted at the
street comers, he appeared in the streets in his episcopal dress
and daily read mass in his house, After Robespierre’s fall he
was the first to advocate the reopening of the churches (speech
of December 21,1794). He also exerted himself to get measures
put in execution for restraining the vandalistic fury against the
monuments of art, .extended his protection to artists and men
of letters, and devotlsd much of his attention to the reorganiza¬
tion of the public libraries, the establishment of botanic gardens,
and the improvement of technical education. He had taken
during the Constituent Assembly a great interest in Negro
emancipation, and it was on his motion that men of colour in
the French colonies were admitted to the same rights as whites.
On the establishment of the new constitution, Gregoire was
elected to the Council of 500, and after the 18th Brumaire he
became a member of the Corps LAgisiatif, then of the Senate
(1801). He took the lead in the national church councils of
1707 and i8ot; but he was strenuously opposed to Napoleon's
policy of reconciliation with the Holy See, and after the signature
of the concordat he resigned his bishopric (October 8, 1801).
He was one of the minority of five in the Senate who voted
against the proclamation of the empire, and he opposed the
creation of the new nobility and the divorce of Napoleon from
Josephine; but notwithstanding this he was subsequently
created a count of the empire and officer of the Legion of Honour.
During the later years of Napoleon’s reign he travelled in England
and Germany, but in 1814 he had returned to France and was
one of the chief instigators of the action that was. taken against
the empire.
To the clerical and ultra-royalist faction which was supreme
in the Tziwer Chamber and in the circles of the court after the
second Restoration, Gregoire, as a revolutionist and a schismatic
bishop, was an object of double loathing. He was expelled from
the Institute and forced into retirement. But even in this period
of headlong reaction his influence was felt and feared. In 1814
he had published a work, De la constitution jrancaise de Van 1S14,
in which he commented on the Charter from a Liberal point of
view, and this reached its fourth edition in 1819. In this latter
year he was elected to the Lower Chamber by the department
of Isdre. By the powers of the Quadruple Alliance this event
was regarded as of the most sinister omen, and the question was
even raised of a fresh armed intervention in France under the
terms of the secret treaty of Aix-la-Chapclle. To prevent such
a catastrophe Louis XVIII. decided on a modification of the
franchise; the Dessolle ministry resigned ; and the first act of
Decazes, the new premier, was to carry a vote in the chamber
annulling the election of Gregoire. From this time onward the
ex-bishop lived in retirement, occupying himself in literary pur¬
suits and in correspondence with most of the eminent savants of
Europe; but as he had been deprived of his pension as a senator
he was compelled to sell his library to obtain means of support.
He died on the 20U1 of May 1831.
To the last Gregoire remained a devout Catholic, exactly
fulfilling all his obligations as a Christian and a'priest; but he
refused to budge an inch from his revolutionary principles.
During his last illness he confessed to his parish cure, a priest
of Jansenist sympathies, and expressed his desire for the last
sacraments of the Church. These the archbishop of Paris would
only concede on condition that he would retract his oath to the
civil constitution of the clergy, which he peremptorily refused
to do. Thereupon, in defiance of the archbishop, the abbi
BaradArc gave him the viaticum, while the rite of extreme unction
was administered by the ubbt Guillon, an opponent of the civil
constitution, without consulting the archbishop or the parish
curA. The attitude of the archbishop roused great excitement
in Paris, and the government had to take precautions to avoid
a repetition of the riots which in the preceding February had
led to the sacking of the church of St Germain 1 'Auxerrois and
the archicpiscopal palace. On the day after his death Grfigoire’s
funeral was celebrated at the church of the Abbaye-aux-Bois;
the clergy of the church had absented themselves in obedience
to the archbishop’s orders, but mass was sung by the abbd
Grieu assisted by two clergy, the catafalque being decorated
with the episcopal insignia. After the hearse set out from the
church the horses were unyoked, and it was dragged by students
to the cemetery of Montparnasse, the cortege being followed by a
sympathetic crowd of some 20,000 people.
whatever his merits as a writer or as a philanthropist,
Gregoire's name lives in history mainly by reason of his whole¬
hearted effort to prove that Catholic Christianity is not irre¬
concilable with modem conceptions of political liberty. In this
effort he was defeated, mainly because the Revolution, for lack
of experience in the rigjht use of liberty, changed into a military
despotism which allied itself with the spiritual despotism of
Rome ; partly because, when the Revolution was overthrown,
562 GREGORAS—GREGORY, ST
the parties of reaction sought salvation in the “ union of altar
and throne.” Possibly Gregoirp's Gallicanism was fundamentally
irreconcilable with the Catholic idea of authority. At least it
made their traditional religion possible for those many French
Catholics who clung passionately to the benefits the Revolution
had brought them ; and had it prevailed, it might have spared
France and the world that fatal gulf between Liberalism and
Catholicism which Pius IX.’s Syllabus of 1864 sought to make
impassable.
Desides several political pamphlets, GrCgoire was the author o l
Hi stum lies secies rehgteuses, deputs le commencement du sihle dernier
jusqu'd I'ipoque actuellc (2 vols., 1B10) ; Essai historique sur les
liberUs de I'ighse gatlicane (1818) ; lie Vinfluence du Christianisme sur
la condition des femmes (1821) ; Histoire des confesseurs des empereurs,
dec rots, el d'autres princes (1824) ; Histoire du manage des pritres en
prance (1826). Gregoircana, ou resume gtniral de la conduite, des
utlions, et des Icrits de M. le comte Henri Grfgoire, preceded by a
biographical notice by Cousin if Avalon, was published in 1821 ; and
the Mtmoire 4 . . . de Grtgoire, with a biographical notice by H.
Carnot, appeared in 1847 (2 vols.). See also A. Debidour, L'Ablii
Grfgoire (1881) ; A. Gazier, Etudes sur I'liistoire rehgieuse de la
Revolution Francaise (1SS3) ; L. Maggiolo, La Vie et les ten- res de
1 ‘abbi Grigoire (> ancy, 1884), and numerous articles in La Revolution
Franeaisr : 1 '.. Meaume, (etude hist, et biog. sur les Lorraine rfvolution-
uaires (Nancy, 1882); and A. (lazier, Etudes sur 1 ‘histoire religieuse
de la Involution Francaise (1887).
GREGORAS, NICEPHOROS (c . 1295-1360), Byzantine
historian, man of learning and religious controversialist, was
bom at lleraclea in Pontus. At an early age he settled at
Constantinople, where his reputation for learning brought him
under the notice of Andronieus II., by whom he was appointed
Chartophylax (keeper of the archives). In 152(1 Grcgoras pro¬
posed (in a still extant treatise) certain reforms in the calendar,
which tfic emperor refused to carry out for fear of disturbances ;
nearly two hundred years later they were introduced by Gregory
XIII. on almost the same lines. When Andronieus was de¬
throned (1328) by his grandson Andronieus III., Grcgoras
shared his downfall and retired into private life. Attacked bv
Barlaam, the famous monk of Calabria, he was with difficulty
persuaded to come forward and meet him in a war of words, in
which Barlaam was worsted. This greatly enhanced his reputa¬
tion and brought him a large number of pupils. Gregorns
remained loyal to the elder Andronieus to the last, but after
his death he succeeded in gaining the favour of his grandson, by
whom he was appointed to conduct the unsuccessful negotiations
(for a union of the Greek and Latin churches) with the ambas¬
sadors of Pope John XXI 1 . (1333). Grcgoras subsequently took
an important part in the Hesychnst controversy, in which
he violently opposed Gregorius Palnmas, the chief supporter
of the sect. After the doctrines of Palamas had been recognized
at the synod of 135J, Grcgoras, who refused to acquiesce, was j
practically imprisoned in a monastery for two years. Nothing
is known of the end of his life. His chief work is his Roman
Htslory, in 37 hooks, of the years 1204 to 1359. It thus partly
supplements and partly continues the work of George Pachy¬
meres. Grcgoras shows considerable industry, but his style is
pompous and affected. Far too much space is devoted to
religious matters and dogmatic quarrels. This work and that
of John Cantacuzene supplement and correct each other, and
should be read together. The other writings of Gregoras, which
(with a few exceptions) still remain unpublished, attest his great
versatility. Amongst them may be mentioned a history of
the dispute with Palamas; biographies of his uncle and early
instructor John, metropolitan of Hcraclea, and of the martyr
Codratus of Antioch ; funeral orations for Theodore Metochita,
and the two emperors Andronieus ; commentaries on the wan¬
derings of Odysseus and on Synesius’s treatise on dreams;
tracts on orthography and on words of doubtful meaning; a
philosophical dialogue called Florentius or Concerning Wisdom ;
astronomical treatises on the date of Easter and the preparation
of the astrululie ; and an extensive correspondence.
Editions : in Bonn Corpses scriptorum hist. By by L. Schopen
and 1 . Bekker, with life and Uat of works by J. Boivin (1829-1855) ;
]. P. Migne, Patrolqgia grasca,cx\vm, cxlix.; see also C. Krumbacher,
l ieschiekie der byeantiniseken Littsratur (1897).
I GREGOHOVIUS, FERMNAND(i82i-i89i), German historian,
was bom at Neidenburg on the 19th of January ^821, and
studied at the university of Konigsberg. After spending some
years in teaching he took up his residence in Italy in 1852,
remaining in that country for over twenty years. He was made
a citizen of Rome, and he died at Munich on the 1st of May 1891.
Gregorovius’s interest in and acquaintance with Italy and
Italian history is mainly responsible for his great book, Gcschiehte
der Stadt Rom im Millelalter (Stuttgart, 1859-1872, and other
editions), a work of much erudition and interest, which has been
translated into English by A. Hamilton (13 vols., 1894-1900),
and also into Italian at the expense of the Romans (Venice,
1874-1876). It deals with the history of Rome from about
/,.d. 400 to the death of Pope Clement VII. in 1534, and in the
words of its author it describes “ how, from the time of Charles
the Great to that of Charles V., the historic system of the papacy
remained inseparable from that of the Empire.” The other
works of Gregorovius include: Geschichle des Kaisers Hadrian
und seiner Zeit (Konigsberg, 1851), English translation by M. E.
Robinson (1898); Corsica (Stuttgart, 1854), English translation
by R. Martineau (1855); Lucrezia Borgia (Stuttgart, 1874),
English translation by J. L. Garner (1904); Die Grabdenkmdier
der l’dpste (Leipzig, 1881), English translation by R. W. Seton-
Watson (1903); Wanderjahre in Italien (5 vols., Leipzig, 1888-
1892); Geschichle der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter (1889); Kleine
Schriften zur Gcschiehte der Kultur (Leipzig, 1887-1892); and
Urban VI 11 . im Widerspruch zu Spanien und dem Kaiser
(Stuttgart, 1879). This last work was translated into Italian
by the author himself (Rome, 1879). Gregorovius was also
something of a poet; he wrote u drama, Der Tod des Tiberius
(1851), and some Grdichte (Leipzig, 1891).
His Rumische Tagebilcher were edited by F, Altliaus (Stuttgart,
1892), and were translated into English as the Roman Journals of
1-. Gregorovius, by A. Hamilton (1907).
GREGORY, ST (c. 213 -c. 270), sumamed in later ecclesiastical
tradition Thaumaturgus (the miracle - worker), was bom of
noble and wealthy pagan parents at Neocaesarea in Pontus,
about a.d. 213. His original name was Theodoras. He took
up the study of civil law, and, with his brother Athenodorus,
was on his way to Berytus to complete his training when at
Caesarea he met Origen, and became hk pupil and then his
convert (a.d. 233). In returning to Cappadocia some five years
after his conversion, it had been his original intention to live
a retired ascetic life (Eus. H.E. vi. 30), hut, urged by Origen,
and at last almost compelled by Phaedimus of Amasia, his
metropolitan, neither of whom was willing to see so much
learning, piety and masculine energy practically lost to the
church, he, after many attempts to evade the dignity,
was consecrated bishop of his native town (about 240). His
episcopate, which lasted some thirty years, was characterized by
great missionary zeal, and by so much success that, according
to the (doubtless somewhat rhetorical) statement of Gregory
of Nyssa, whereas at the outset of his labours there were only
seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only
seventeen persons in all who had not embraced Christianity.
This result he achieved in spite of the Dccian persecution (250-
251), during which he had felt it to be his duty to absent himself
from his diocese, and notwithstanding the demoralizing effects
of an irruption of barbarians (Goths and Boranians) who laid
waste the diocese in a.d. 253-254. Gregory', although he has
not always escaped the charge of Sabellianism, now holds an
undisputed place among the fathers of the church ; and although
the turn of his mind was practical rather than speculative, he
is known to have taken an energetic part in most of the doctrinal
controversies of his time. He was active at the first synod of
Antioch (a.d. 264-265), which investigated and condemned the
: heresies of Paul of Samosata; and the rapid spread in Pontus of
■ a Trinitarianism approaching the N icene type is attributed in large
I measure to the weight of his influence, Gregory is believed to have
I died in the reign of Aurelias, about the year 270, though perhaps
an earlier date is more probable. His festival (semiduplex) is ob¬
served by the Roman Catholic Church on the 17th of November.
GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS 563
For the facts of his biography we have an outline of hia early
years in his eulogy on Origeu, and incidental notices in the writings
of EusebitA, of Basil of Caesarea and Jerome. Gregory of Nyssa's
untrustworthy panegyric represents him as having wrought miracles
of a very startling description; but nothing related by him comes
near the astounding narratives given in the Martyrologies, or even in
the Breviarium Romanum, in connexion with his name.
The principal works of Gregory Thaumaturgus are the Panegyricus
in Ongenem (Kis ’Upiytm/r naytiyvpncdt hirym), which he wrote when
on the point of leaving the school of that great master (it contains
4 valuable minute description of Origen's mode of instruction), a
Metapkrasis is Ecclesiasten, characterised by Jerome as " short but
useful ”; and an Epistola canonica, which treats of the discipline
to be undergone by those Christians who under pressure of persecu¬
tion had relapsed into paganism, but desired to be restored to the
privileges of the Church. It gives a good picture of the conditions of
the time, and shows Gregory to be a true shepherd (cf. art Penance).
The ’Enli'tit irlirrewt (Expo'sitio fidei), a short creed usually attri¬
buted to Gregory, and traditionally alleged to have been received by
him immediately in vision from the apostle John himself, is probably
authentic. A sort of Platonic dialogue of doubtful authenticity " on
the impassivity and the passivity of God ” in Syriac is in the British
Museum.
Editions : Gerhard Voss (Mainz, 1O04), Pronto Ducuus (Paris,
1022), Migne, Pair. Crane, x. 963.
Translations: S. D. F. Salmond in Anir. Nicene Fathers , vi.; Lives,
by Pallavicini (Rome, 1644); J. L. Boye (Jena, 1709); H. K.
Reynolds (Dirt. Chr. Bxog. ii.); G. Kruger, Early Chr. Lit.
226; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk, vii. (wlierc full bibliographies are
given).
GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329-389), sumamed
Theologus. one of the four great fathers of the Eastern Church,
was bom about the year a.i>. 329, at or near Nazianzus,
Cappadocia. His father, also named Gregory, had lately be¬
come bishop of the diocese; his mother, Nonna, exercised a
powerful influence over the religious convictions of both father
and son. Gregory visited successively the two Caesareas,
Alexandria and Athens, as a student of grammar, mathematics,
rhetoric and philosophy ; at Athens he had for fellow-students
Basil (r/.v.), who afterwards liecame bishop of Caesarea, and
Julian, afterwards emperor. Shortly after his return to his
father's house at Nazianzus (about the year 360) Gregory
received baptism. He resolved to give himself to the service of
religion ; but for some time, and indeed more or less thoughout
his whole life, was in a state of hesitation as to the form which
that service ought to take. Strongly inclined by nature and
education to a contemplative life spent among books and in the
society of congenial friends, he was continually urged by outward
circumstances, as well as by an inward call, to active pastoral
labour. The spirit of refined intellectual monastieism, which
dung to him through life and never ceased to struggle for the
ascendancy, was about this time strongly encouraged by his
intercourse with Basil, who induced him to share the exalted
pleasures of his retirement in I’ontus. To this period belongs
the preparation of the ■biAoitaAia, a sort of chrestomathy com¬
piled by the two friends from the writings of Origen. But the
events which were stirring the political and ecclesiastical life of
Cappadocia, and indeed of the whole Roman world, made a career
of learned leisure difficult if not impossible to a man of Gregory’s
position and temperament. The emperor Constantius, having
by intrigue and intimidation succeeded in thrusting b semi-
Arian formula upon the Western bishops assembled at Ariminum
in Italy, had next attempted to follow the same course with the
Eastern episcopate. The aged bishop of Nazianzus having
yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose among the
monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence
of the younger Gregory, who shortly afterwards (about 361) was
ordained to the priesthood. After a vain attempt to evade his
new duties and responsibilities by flight, he appears to have
continued to act as a presbyter in his father’s diocese without in¬
terruption for some considerable time ; and it is probable that
his two Invectives against Julian are to be assigned to this period.
Subsequently (about 372), under a pressure which he somewhat
resented, he allowed himself to be nominated by Basil as bishop
of Sasima, a miserable little village some 32 m. from Tyana;
but he seems hardly, if at all, to have assumed the duties of this
diocese, for after another interval of “ flight ” we find him once
more (about 373-373) at Nazianzus, assisting his aged father,
on whose death (374) he retired to Seleuda in Isauria'for a period
of some years. Meanwhile a more important field for his activities
was opening up. Towards 378-379 the small and depressed
remnant of the orthodox party in Constantinople sent him
an urgent summons to undertake the task of resuscitating their
cause, so long persecuted and borne down by the Arians of the
capital. With the accession of Theodosius 
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